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EXPLORING THE CONCH AND ITS ABILITY TO SURVIVE EXTREME CONDITIONS
12/9/2016 Harnessing Nature to Enhance Survival
Rebecca Verveda
ENG G 105
Professor M. Eggermont
Schulich School of Engineering
Date of Submission: December 12, 2016
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Exploring the Conch and its ability to survive extreme conditions H A R N E S S I N G N A T U R E T O E N H A N C E S U R V I VA L
Challenge 1:
Sustainable Energy
Conversion for
Habitation on Mars
For any location to be
habitable to humans, energy is
necessary and essential. It is
required for heating, lighting,
refrigeration, cooking and
other essential basic functions
of society but it is also required
for machinery and electronics,
transportation, communications
and computing. The most basic
energy producer is the Sun
which provides a huge amount
of energy to Earth to sustain
living organisms.
In space, on Mars specifically,
the energy requirements per
person will be greater than on
Earth due to the need for
Environment Control and Life
Support Systems (ECLSS) (Mars
Settlement, 2013). One crucial
factor affecting the survival
Figure 1: Utilizing wind as a sustainable energy source
Mars has immense wind storms despite its thin atmosphere. These “Wind Trees” have tiny blades are housed within the leaf units of each tree. The blades turn inwards, letting the leaves turn in the wind (regardless of wind direction). They respond to wind as low as 2 meters per second and are silent. This is beneficial because sound is wasted energy and can be disruptive in urban environments. These structures could be used in places where people frequent, unlike traditional wind turbines which are very noisy and obtrusive (Byrne, 2014). (Image from Byrne, James (2014), Figure 1)
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rate of living organisms is access to water. The only known water on Mars is at its poles in the form
of massive ice deposits with an estimated volume of 1.2-1.7 x 10^6 km^3 and buried ice (Cockell,
C. S., 2014). To extract buried ice and to melt it and the ice at the poles to have water for survival
would take enormous amounts of energy.
In 2010, energy on Earth was attained from (in decreasing order) oil, coal, natural gas, biomass,
nuclear fission, hydroelectric and other renewables. 80% of energy used on Earth is sourced from
fossil fuels and less than 1% is obtained from other renewables such as solar, wind, wave, tidal,
geothermal and ocean thermal sources (Mars Settlement, 2013). Most of these conventional energy
sources are unavailable or undevelopable on Mars. What has potential for development is nuclear
fission, solar, wind or aerothermal. With increasing carbon dioxide levels in Earth’s atmosphere,
prompting climate change, more investments are being made into non-fossil fuel related energy
sources making the development of these technologies more economically viable.
While solar power is a potential option for an energy source, Mars has high velocity dust storms
that can block out the sun for months. Energy could be harnessed from the wind of these storms to
provide energy for the requirements of sustainable life. Wind turbines (Bluck, 2001) have the
potential to be the gateway into this solution as well as ‘hairy’ suits to harness the wind on Mars.
The development of sustainable energy conversion is an essential solution to make normally
inhabitable environments habitable for humans in space
Figure 2: Solar energy as a sustainable energy source
An example of sustainable energy conversion for barren environments are these “FERN”s
(Future, Energy, Renewable, Nature).They are semi-transparent solar panels that are designed to follow the movement of the Sun. The stalk is of a flexible material that imitates the stalk of a plant (Onishi, 2010). They are designed for the deserts in Dubai. They provide shelter from the Sun during the day while collecting energy for electricity generation. (Images from Onishi, Takuya (2010) Figures 5 and 1, respectively)
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Challenge 2: Habitable Structures in Extreme Environments
The Martian environment is completely uninhabitable by humans as known today.
Substantial alterations would have to be made for life to continue to survive once it has arrived.
When comparing environmental condition on Mars to those on Earth it is seen that there are many
differences that would be a factor in the survival rate of humans on Mars. Mars’ average
atmospheric pressure is 7.5 millibars while Earth’s is 1,013 millibars (Smith, 2016) meaning Mars’ is
only 0.75% the pressure of Earth’s. This influences human’s in the way we perceive sound, breathe,
as well as the states the fluids within our bodies are in. At low pressures the boiling temperatures
of certain substances decrease meaning they can convert from liquid to gas at lower temperatures
than on Earth.
The atmospheric components on
Earth are 77% Nitrogen, 21%
Oxygen, 1% Argon and 0.038%
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) (Smith,
2016). Mars’ atmospheric
components are 95.32% Carbon
Dioxide, 2.7% Nitrogen, 1.6%
Argon, 0.13% Oxygen, 0.03%
Water Vapor and 0.01% Nitric
Oxide (Smith, 2016). The most
obvious issue with the proportions
of molecules on Mars is the
difference in percent of oxygen.
Mars has significantly less oxygen
than Earth especially considering
the reduced atmospheric pressure
which means there is less matter in
the atmosphere. Another less
obvious issue is the amount of
CO2. At Earth’s proportion of
0.038% CO2 we see a severe
threat to life on Earth with
increases in global temperatures,
destruction of ecosystems and loss
of species. There have been no
methods to combat this CO2
production or ways to store it.
Mars has 95% CO2 which could
Figure 3: Habitable Structures in Extreme Environments
A challenge is structurally sound and material/energy sufficient buildings for habitation. Particularly on Mars some major issues for these structures are: temperature regulation, oxygen supply, and structural integrity to withstand severe storms. This image is taken from Star Wars’ Mos Espa as a very primitive dwelling. As primitive as it may be, the domed structure is proved as one of the strongest shapes. It can therefore withstand major wind storms, like those on Mars. (Image from headbugz, 2012, Figure 1).
Exploring the Conch and its ability to survive extreme conditions
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cause an issue in sustaining life. It has also been modeled that Mars has been impacted by significant
acid rains which may have been produced when iron from surrounding rocks was picked up by
groundwater and underwent a chemical reaction to produce hydrogen atoms, increasing the acidity
of the water it was evaporated with (Thompson, 2010).
The average distance of Earth from the Sun is 150 million kilometers while Mars is, on average,
288 million kilometers away from the Sun (Thompson, 2010). Mars will receive less sunlight and this
causes lower surface temperatures. Earth’s average surface temperature is 14 degrees Celsius
while Mars’ average surface temperature is -63 degrees Celsius (Thompson, 2010). Where people
live must be energy efficient and insulating to protect its inhabitants. These extreme conditions on
Mars make it a challenging place for long-term relocation.
Figure 4: Habitable Structures in Extreme Environments
This image shows a “Hurricane-Proof” house in Florida. This home is a shell-like concrete structure sitting on the ground like half a sphere. More importantly, it has withstood four catastrophic hurricanes thanks to its one-piece concrete construction embedded with five miles of steel. This $7 million design was built after a previous home was destroyed by hurricanes Erin and Opal, and it can withstand 300mph winds (Rogers, 2011). Structures like these are typically made of extremely durable materials like concrete, steel and stone, and many have been engineered to respond and adapt to the punishing effects of a disaster. (Image from Rogers, 2011, Figure 1).
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Challenge 3: Navigation in Space
Initial navigation methods on Earth included using recognizable land formations as location
markers (as they do not change significantly with time), compasses (utilizing the Earth’s magnetic
field), and celestial body identification (using stars and constellations to pinpoint locations). In the
20th century, radio and sonar was developed and used as a navigation method when used with
beacons. The gyroscopic compass involves holding its position relative to the rotation of the Earth.
Once shipboard electricity was introduced, the gyroscopic compass could point to true north. This
was important because a traditional metal compass was less reliable on steel vessels. Today, Global
Position System’s (GPS’s) are used by utilizing the Doppler effect of radio signals sent from two or
more satellites (Penobscot Marine Museum, 2012). When contemplating navigation and Mars, there
are two major issues: Navigation through space (from Earth to Mars) and navigation on Mars (not
becoming disorientated when traversing the planet).
Unlike Earth, space does not have
predictable magnetic field lines, nor
discernable topographical features
that may be used to reference location.
When thinking about utilizing a
reference point, the fact that
everything is moving relative to each
other must be taken into consideration.
The Earth is rotating around the Sun,
the Sun around a galaxy, satellites
around their object of orbit and final
destinations are always moving.
The size of each object is vastly small
relative to the distances separating
them. When taking this into account
along with the fact that they are also
moving, calculating accurate path
trajectories becomes very difficult. On
Earth, the gravitational field of the
Earth and the Sun are the main
gravitational forces experienced.
However, in space the gravitational
fields of various other bodies (other
planets, stars, asteroids etc.) must be
considered as well. They each will
affect the object travelling through
space (like the Sun dictates the orbital
path of the Earth).
Figure 5: Navigation in Space This image shows a contour map that illustrates detailed information including water depths, rocks and shoal locations, structures (abandoned lighthouse), buoys, the area that dries out at low tide (intertidal zone), made in 1993 by the NOAA Coast and Geodetic Survey (Penobscot Marine Museum, 2012). The spacing between the lines shows how quickly the gradient of the surface changes. To draw this would have taken large amounts of time to physically review the features of the area to get accurate distances and depths. (Image from Penobscot Marine Museum, NOAA
Chart 13309 (1993), Figure 1)
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Utilizing methods like topographical features, celestial body identification, and GPS may be
effective way of navigating on Mars, however they require trial and error as well as “set up time”
for satellites to be positioned and topographical features to be mapped before they can be used.
A method that could be used upon arrival on Mars is crucial to initializing the habitualization of the
area.
Figure 6: Navigation in Space The Aerospace Robotics Laboratory (ARL) at Stanford University has developed a GPS pseudolite-based local-area navigation system for Mars rovers. They use bi-directional ranging GPS transceivers scattered over a local area which allows the rover to be located with respect to the local array (Stanford University, 2010). A pseudolite (“pseudo-satellite”) is a ground based radio transmitter that transmits a signal of a satellite navigation system. They act as a navigation satellite but operate from the ground. This technology expands existing navigation technology (satellites) to difficult environments, like indoors or areas where coverage of a satellite navigation system is poor (Stanford University, 2010).
(Image from Stanford University, 2010, Figure 1).
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CONCH
FUNCTION Withstands strong compressional forces
ORGANISM Queen conch Strombus gigas
BIOLOGIC STRATEGY
Conches, such as the Queen conch, are models of structural strength due to the way their shells form. Conch shells have a cross-lamellar structure consisting of lath-like aragonite crystals and an organic matrix. The lath-like aragonite crystals form plywood-like structures composed of three macro-layers. Each macro layer is composed of first-order lamellae which form second-order lamella, which then form third-order lamellae (Kamat, S., et al. 2000).. The organization of these crystals allows for the shell to have a hardness of 10-100 times that of it’s individual constituents (aragonite, organic layer) (Lin Y. M., et al. 2006). One lamella rotates is lamellar plane about an angle of 70-90 degrees with respect to that of its neighbouring layer (Kamat, S., et al. 2000). Damage zones develop around indentations which reflect the mechanical response of the crossed-lamellar microstructure. The crack deflection, crack bridging, crack branching and the fiber pullout are the main toughening mechanisms of the shell (Lin Y. M., et al. 2006).
MECHANISM
The organization of lath-like aragonite crystals in layers of lamellae rotated 70-90 degrees with respect to their neighbouring layers reduces brittleness, creating a strong, flexible structure.
Figure 7 SEM IMAGES OF THE FRACTURE SURFACE OF A SPECIMEN. A) FIRST AND SECOND ORDER LAMELLA INDICATED BY BLACK AND WHITE ARROWHEADS, RESPECCTIVELY. B) THIRD ORDER LAMELLA (after Hou, D. F. et al., 2004, Fig. 4)
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DESIGN PRINCIPLE
A material of first, second and third order lamellae that are organized in layers with orientations offset by 90 degrees that can withstand compressional forces,
is insulating and corrosion-resistant.
REFERENCES
Hou, D. F., et al., (2004): Conch shell structure
and its effect on mechanical behaviors.
Elsevier 25 (4), 751-756.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0142-
9612(03)00555-6
Kamat, S. et al., (2000): Structural basis for
the fracture toughness of the shell of the
conch Strombus gigas, in Nature 405, 1036-
1040. doi: 10.1038/35016535
Lin, Y. M., et al., (2006): Mechanical
properties and structure of Strombus gigas,
Tridacna gigas, and Haliotis rufescens sea
shells: A comparative study. Elsevier 26 (8),
1380-1389.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2005.08.
016
APPLICATION IDEAS Build habitable structures that are heat-resistant (insulative), corrosion-resistant, and load-bearing from this material
KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Protects organism within shell from predators and extreme environmental conditions Protects organism from strong external compressional forces
Figure 8
STRUCTURE OF MATERIAL WITH ROTATING LAYERS OF LATH-LIKE CONSTITUENTS
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HONEYBEE
FUNCTION Detect magnetic fields and uses them in navigation
ORGANISM Western honeybee Apis mellifera
BIOLOGIC STRATEGY
Honey bees, such as the Western honeybee, are models of a system for positioning and orientation due to the presence of superparamagnetic magnetite found in iron granules formed in their abdominal (Shuker, K., 2001). These are used in the mechanism of magnetoreception. The relative direction of flight of the honeybee to the external magnetic field affects the modules in their abdominal. Allowing them to orient themselves (Hsu, C-Y, et al., 2007). The magnetic fields of flowers also orient themselves relative to that of the Earth’s allowing honeybees to locate flowers for pollination (Hsu, C-Y, et al., 2007).
MECHANISM
Natural forming iron modules composted of superparamagnetic magnetite orient themselves
with respect to external magnetic fields.
Figure 9 MAGNETIC MAP HYPOTHESIS OF MAGNETRORECEPTION FOR ORIENTATION AND POSITIONING DURING FORAGING AND HOMING (after Hsu, Chin-Yuan et al., 2007, Fig. 7)
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REFERENCES
Hsu C-Y, Ko F-Y, Li C-W, Fann K, Lue J-T
(2007) Magnetoreception System in
Honeybees (Apis mellifera). PLoS ONE 2(4):
e395. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000395
Shuker, K., The Hidden Powers of Animals:
Uncovering the Secrets of Nature, Marshall
Editions, 1st ed. (2001), 45.
DESIGN PRINCIPLE
A device that utilizes superparamagnetic material to detect magnetic fields and can determine position and orientation with respect to the external magnetic
field.
APPLICATION IDEAS Determine location (position and orientation) relative to external magnetic fields in space or on Mars.
KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Detects food sources to be converted into energy for basic biological functions Allows orientation and positioning to navigate and communicate with hive
Figure 10 METHOD OF DEVICE TO DETECT EXTERNAL MEGNETIC FIELDS AND DETERMINE
ORIENTATION AND POSITION
Orientation of magnetic field at
various positions:
A
B
C
D Magnetic field is perpendicular to the direction travelled at point D
A
B
C
D
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TERMITES
FUNCTION Withstands strong compressional forces
ORGANISM Mound-building termite Macrotermes jeanneli
BIOLOGIC STRATEGY
Termite mounds, such as those made by the African mound-building termite, are extensive systems of tunnels and conduits that are built above a subterranean nest. These tunnels are connected to the nest via shafts, that serve as a ventilation system for the underground nest. The mound has many storage chambers that require precise temperature control. The architecture of the mounds keeps the temperature almost constant (Heimbuch, 2012). They are so well built that the mounds tend to outlast the colony of termites that built it (Gould and Gould, 2012). The basic building step involves making arches and domes, supporting a network of other arches and domes which provide most of the structural strength needed to support specialized chambers, ventilation shafts and insulating caves. They are self regulating structures that maintain oxygen levels, temperature and humidity (Termites, 2007).
MECHANISM
The arches and domes within the mounds provide structural strength by resolving forces into compressive stresses and eliminating tensile stresses to support extensive networks
of chambers, walkways and shafts.
Figure 11 CROSS SECTION OF TERMITE MOUND SHOWING TEMPERATURE CONTROLS AND ARCH/DOME STRUCTURES (after Termites, (2007), Fig. 4)
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REFERENCES
Gould, J. L., and Gould, C. G., Animal
Architects: Building and the Evolution of
Intelligence, Basic Books, First Trade Paper
Edition (2012), 142-144.
Heimbuch, Jaymi (2012) Nature Blows My
Mind! Miraculous Termite Mounds [Online]
Available:http://www.treehugger.com/natur
al-sciences/nature-blows-my-mind-miracles-
termite-mounds.html
Termites. (2007). In L. Mound, DK eyewitness
books: Insect. London, UK: Dorling Kindersley
Publishing, Inc.. [Online] Available:
https://search.credoreference.com/content/e
ntry/dkewinsect/termites/0
DESIGN PRINCIPLE
A structure that can withstand strong forces, regulate oxygen levels,
temperature and humidity.
APPLICATION IDEAS A habitable structure that will offer protection from the elements and keep its occupants comfortable.
KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Provides shelter from the elements and storage spaces (can withstand large external forces) Regulates temperature and humidity of living environment
Figure 12
DOME STRUCTURE TO WITHSTAND COMPRESSIONAL AND TENSILE FORCES
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KNIFEFISH
FUNCTION Produce and detect electrical impulses
ORGANISM Black ghost knifefish Apteronotus albifrons
BIOLOGIC STRATEGY
The knifefish, like the Black ghost knifefish, is
a model for use of electricity to navigate. It
can both produce and sense electrical
impulses. Electrogenesis occurs when a
specialized electric organ in the tail of the
fish generates electrical signals (Shuker,
2001). Electroreception occurs when sensory
cells in the fish’s skin detect the electrical
charge. Their electric organs create an
electric force field that surrounds the fish as it
swims. It is modified by the relative
conductivity of objects close to the fish. These
electrical fluctuations are detected and
interpreted by the fish through
electroreceptors embedded in its body. This
provides an electrical image that changes in
real time. This is effective when navigating in
low visibility environments or in the dark
(MacIver et al. 2010).
Knifefish emit their own continuous electrical
impulses. This allows the fish to determine the
presence of nearby objects by sensing
perturbations in timing and amplitude of its
electric field. The electric fields generated
by external sources are detected by
ampullary organs. This is called passive
electrolocation (MacIver, et al., 2010).
MECHANISM
The detection and production of electrical fields allows for an electrical image of objects
in near surroundings in low visibility areas.
Figure 13 KNIFEFISH ELECTRIC FIELD MECHANISM. IT DETECTS ANYTHING THAT COME WITHIN THE FIELD (from University of South Dakota, accessed Dec, 2016).
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REFERENCES
MacIver, M., Patankar, N., & Shirgaonkar, A.
(2010). Energy-Information Trade-Offs
between Movement and Sensing PLoS
Computational Biology, 6 (5) DOI:
10.1371/journal.pcbi.1000769
Shuker, K., The Hidden Powers of Animals:
Uncovering the Secrets of Nature, Marshall
Editions, 1st ed. (2001), 53-54.
University of South Dakota: Jamming,
Behavioral Neuroscience Summers [Online]
Available:
http://usdbiology.com/cliff/Courses/Behavio
ral%20Neuroscience/JAR/JARfigs/JARjarfig
s.html (Accessed on December 11, 2016).
DESIGN PRINCIPLE
A device that actively emits and electric field and detects perturbations within
it to determine the presence of objects in its immediate surroundings.
APPLICATION IDEAS A device to act as eyes at night or in low visibility conditions such as a windstorm
KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Navigation in the dark or low visibility areas Defense mechanism to detect when an external object nears
Figure 14 OPPOSITE CHARGES ATTRACT (LEFT) AND LIKE CHARGES REPEL (RIGHT). THE PRESENCE OF
A EXTERNAL CHARGE WILL PERTURB THE ELECTRICAL FIELD EMIITTED BY DEVICE.
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ORIENTAL HORNET
FUNCTION Absorption of sunlight
ORGANISM Oriental hornet Vespa orientalis
BIOLOGIC STRATEGY
The oriental hornet is a model for sustainable
energy conversion. They have an outer layer
(cuticle) that absorbs sunlight. The bands of
brown and yellow pigments harvest solar
energy. Each banded section has multiple
layers with the brown having about 30 and
the yellow have about 15 (Plotkin et al.
2010). The brown layer is covered in
grooves that act like pathways which help
direct light inward for better absorption. The
yellow layer is covered in oval-shaped
bumps that increase surface area for
absorption. Both sections exhibit
antireflection and light-trapping properties
which enhances the absorption of light in the
cuticle (Plotkin, 2009).
The sunlight that the hornets capture is
converted into electrical energy. There is a
voltage between the inner and outer layers
of the yellow stripe that increases in
response to illumination (Plotkin, 2009). This
energy is then used in physical activity and
temperature regulation as well as metabolic
functions.
MECHANISM
Ridge-like grooves direct sunlight to bumpy surfaces to collect sunlight to be converted into electrical energy to be used for digging or
metabolic processes.
Figure 15 BROWN AND YELLOW CUTICLES OF THE ORIENTAL HORNET THAT SHOWS RIDGES (BROWN) DIRECTING SUNLIGHT TO LARGER SURFACE AREA (YELLOW)
(from Plotkin et al., 2010, Figure 2-9).
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REFERENCES
Plotkin, M., et al., (2009): Some liver
functions in the Oriental hornet (Vespa
orientalis) are performed in its cuticle:
Exposure to UV light influences these
activities, in Comparative Biochemistry and
Physiology Part A (2009), 153 (2): 131-
135. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.01.016
Plotkin, M., I. Hod, A. Zaban, S. A. Boden,
D. M. Bagnall, D. Galushko, and D. J.
Bergman. (2010): Solar energy harvesting
in the epicuticle of the oriental hornet
(Vespa orientalis). Naturwissenschaften
97(12):1067-1076.
DESIGN PRINCIPLE
A material with a mixture of ridges to direct sunlight to be absorbed and bumps to increase surface area for sunlight to be absorbed to act as an efficient
solar panel for collecting energy.
APPLICATION IDEAS Solar panel that is efficient in absorbing sunlight and converting it to electrical energy for temperature regulation or mechanical tasks.
KEY LIFE’S PRINCIPLES Enzymatic activity decreases when the hornet is exposed to light, conserving energy Provide energy for basic functions Moderate internal temperatures
Figure 16 RIDGE-LIKE LAYER (TOP) TO DIRECT SUNLIGHT TO BUMPY YELLOW AREA (BOTTOM) WITH LARGER SURFACE AREA TO ABSORB MAXIMUM SUNLIGHT
(from Plotkin, M., et al. (2009) Figure 2)
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Must be insulating
Grow a habitable environment
CONCH
challenge
strategy
strategy
challenge
Building material that is
arranged in plastic layers
Dome shaped
structure to protect
from external
pressures
Arrangement of macroscopic and microscopic structures
to produce strong structures
Strong shape
Must withstand compressional
and tensile forces
Flexible material that
can bend with pressures
design
design
Exterior surface
coating
Material with low thermal conductivity
(insulating)
strategy
design
Multi-layered
Elongate microstructures
to provide strength in
one direction
Layers alternate
orientation
Arches/curved ceiling to
provide internal structure
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Cracks penetrate every other first-order lamella, propagating between the favourably and unfavourably oriented lamellae (Non-catastrophic failure)
(from Kamat et al., 2000, Figure 3)
Elongate aragonite crystals allowing flexibility and producing lamellar layers. Oriented longitudinally. (from Zhang et al., (2014), Figure 6)
Rounded shape of the organism allows for greater resistance to compressional stresses.
The dome is one of the strongest structures.
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Dome structure for
maximum strength to
withstand storms
Unit cells consist of layers made up of
elongate constituents that are arranged
parallel to one another
Each layer is oriented 90 degrees to the
layers above and below it
Each elongate constituent is made up of
smaller, elongate particles that are parallel to
one another.
Each of these is oriented 90 degrees with
respect to the layers beside it.
Surface coating to prevent
corrosion
Building material is made up
of multiple layers of a ‘unit’ 3-
layer cell
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REFERENCES
Bluck, John (2001): Antarctic/Alaska-like wind turbines could be used on Mars. NASA Ames
Research Center [Online] Available:
https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/news/releases/2001/01_72AR.html
Byrne, James (2014) New silent Wind Tree Turbines Make Energy Production Beautiful [Online]
Available: http://inhabitat.com/wind-energy-made-beautiful-with-these-silent-wind-tree-
turbines/
Cockell, C. S., (2014): Trajectories of Martian Habitability. Astrobiology, 14(2), 182-203.
http://doi.org/10.1089/ast.2013.1106
headbugz (2012): “Star Wars” Tatooine sets still stand in Tunesian desert, lived in [Online]
Available: https://headbugz.wordpress.com/tag/list-of-star-wars-cities-and-towns/
Mars Settlement (2013): Energy on Mars [Online] Available:
https://marssettlement.org/2013/05/27/energy-on-mars/
Onishi, Takuya (2010): FERN (Future/Energy/Renewable/Nature) [Online] Available:
http://landartgenerator.org/blagi/archives/tag/biomimicry
Penobscot Marine Museum (2012): Navigation: the 20th Century to the Present [Online] Available:
http://penobscotmarinemuseum.org/pbho-1/history-of-navigation/navigation-20th-century-
present
Penobscot Marine Museum (2012): Chart Detail of Castine, NOAA Chart 13309 (1993) [Online]
Available: http://penobscotmarinemuseum.org/pbho-1/collection/chart-detail-castine
Plotkin, M., et al., (2009): Some liver functions in the Oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis) are
performed in its cuticle: Exposure to UV light influences these activities, in Comparative
Biochemistry and Physiology Part A (2009), 153 (2): 131-135. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.01.016
Plotkin, M., I. Hod, A. Zaban, S. A. Boden, D. M. Bagnall, D. Galushko, and D. J. Bergman. (2010):
Solar energy harvesting in the epicuticle of the oriental hornet (Vespa orientalis).
Naturwissenschaften 97(12):1067-1076.
Rogers, Stephanie (2011): 5 of the world’s most indestructible homes, Mother Nature Network
[Online] Available: http://www.mnn.com/family/protection-safety/stories/5-of-the-worlds-most-
indestructible-homes
Smith, Peter H.: Mars/Earth Comparison Table, University of Arizona [Online] Available:
http://phoenix.lpl.arizona.edu/mars111.php (Accessed on December 9, 2016).
Standford University (2010): 3-D Mars Navigation using GPS Transceiver Arrays, Aerospace
Robotics Lab [Online] Available: https://web.stanford.edu/group/arl/projects/3-d-mars-
navigation-using-gps-transceiver-arrays
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REFERENCES CONTINUED
University of South Dakota: Jamming, Behavioral Neuroscience Summers [Online] Available:
http://usdbiology.com/cliff/Courses/Behavioral%20Neuroscience/JAR/JARfigs/JARjarfigs.html
(Accessed on December 11, 2016).
Zhang, H., et al., (2014): Stable isotope composition alteration produced by aragonite-to-calcite
transformation in speleothems and implications for paleoclimate reconstructions, in Sedimentary
Geology, 309: 1-14. doi: 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2014.05.2007