Exploring PsychologyEighth Edition

Chapter 7Learning

Copyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

David G. Myers

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Definition

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.

What behaviors are learned?What behaviors are not learned?

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How Do We Learn?

We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. 2000

years ago, Aristotle suggested this law of association.

Examples: ABC Song, music on a movie, smell of baked goods, sight of belt or wooden spoon

Figure 7.1 Classical conditioningMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Figure 7.2 Operant conditioningMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

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Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov

Behaviorists John Watson.

Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

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foto

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Pavlov’s Experiments

Before conditioning:

Unconditioned Stimulus, US - food Unconditioned Response, UR - salivation . Neutral stimulus - does nothing

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Pavlov’s ExperimentsDuring conditioning:

Neutral stimulus (tone) and the US (food) are paired, resulting in salivation (UR).

After conditioning:

Neutral stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)

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Pavlov’s Experiments

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Neutral Stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Response (CR)

Examples: 1, 2, 3

We have all been classically conditioned.

• Punishment Tools• Food triggers illness• Training coyotes to

not eat sheep• Teacher getting

attention of class• Language learning• Bells at school

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

• Unconditioned Response (UR)

• Neutral Stimulus

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

• Conditioned Response (CR)

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Terms associated with classical conditioning

• Acquisition

• Higher Order Conditioning (Secondary Conditioning) – Fear of dogs, fear of barking

• Extinction

• Spontaneous Recovery

• Generalization – sound of a different tone, fear of cars and all moving objects

• Discrimination – ability to distinguish

Figure 7.5 Idealized curve of acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recoveryMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Figure 7.6 Child abuse leaves tracks in the brainMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

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1. Former crack cocaine users should avoid cues (people, places) associated with previous drug use.

2. Through classical conditioning, a drug (plus its taste) that affects the immune response may cause the taste of the drug to invoke the immune response.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

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Watson used classical conditioning procedures to develop advertising

campaigns for a number of organizations,

including Maxwell House, making the “coffee break”

an American custom.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

John B. Watson

Brow

n Brothers

Operant Condition

• Make a dog salivate is on thing, what about this…?

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Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Which is Which?

Classical conditioning forms associations between stimuli (CS and US).

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events, i.e. punishments and rewards

The Law of Effect – Rewarded behavior is likely to recur.

• Edward L. Thorndike

Figure 7.10 A Skinner boxMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

B.F. Skinner

• Shaping – providing reinforces that lead to desired behaviors.

Table 7.1 Ways to Increase BehaviorMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Reinforcer – any event that strengthens the preceding response.

• Positive reinforcement – strengthens a response by presenting a pleasant stimulus after a response.

• Negative reinforcement – strengthens a response by removing or reducing something undesirable or unpleasant. Negative reinforcement is not punishment.

Figure 7.11 Intermittent reinforcement schedulesMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Table 7.2 Schedules of ReinforcementMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Table 7.3 Ways to Decrease BehaviorMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Punishment – any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior.

• What is better reinforcement or punishment?

Table 7.4 Comparison of Classical and Operant ConditioningMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Examples of Operant Conditioning

• 1, 2, 3

More About Learning

• Cognitive Maps

• Intrinsic Motivation

• Extrinsic Motivation

• Biological Predisposition

Applications of Operant Condition

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Learning by Observation

Higher animals, especially humans,

learn through observing and

imitating others.

What have you learned by watching

others?

Imitating others is called modeling.

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Mirror Neurons

Neuroscientists discovered mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans that are active during observational learning.

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Imitation Onset

Learning by observation begins early in life. This

14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV

in pulling a toy apart.

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Bandura's Experiments

Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961)

indicated that individuals

(children) learn through imitating

others who receive rewards and punishments.

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Applications of Observational Learning

Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies

show that antisocial models (family,

neighborhood or TV) may have

antisocial effects.

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Positive Observational Learning

Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models may have prosocial effects.

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Television and Observational Learning

Gentile et al., (2004) shows that children

in elementary school who are

exposed to violent television, videos, and video games express increased

aggression.

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Modeling Violence

Research shows that viewing media violence leads to an increased expression of aggression.

Children modeling after pro wrestlers

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Figure 7.15 The famous Bobo doll experimentMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers

Figure 7.16 Media violence viewing predicts future aggressive behaviorMyers: Exploring Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2011 by Worth Publishers