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Exploration of Teachers'Metaphorical Images of Anger:Helping Teachers Support StudentsJohanna Leseho a & Gwen Hartick aa University of Victoria , P.O. Box 3010, P.O. Box 3010, MS7799, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8W 3N4 E-mail:Published online: 07 Jul 2006.

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Exploration of Teachers' MetaphoricalImages of Anger: Helping TeachersSupport Students

JOHANNA LESEHO and GWEN HARTICK

University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3010, MS 7799, Victoria, BritishColumbia, Canada V8W 3N4E-mail: lesehoj@uvic.ca

(Received 1 February 1999)

Anger has become a serious problem in today's schools. As children and youth carrytheir anger into the classrooms and onto the playing fields, educators experienceincreasing levels of stress, tension, helplessness, frustration and, at times, fear. At-tempts to address this problem generally require introducing anger managementprograms into schools. This paper describes a study that explored the use of metaphoras a strategy for enhancing teachers' capacity to work with students as they expressand learn to manage their anger. The participants reported that they found the processhighly effective for themselves and, very frequently, for their students. Metaphors wereused as an avenue for detachment which provided a clarity and lead to alternativespreviously thought not to exist. Metaphors were also utilized by the educators as ameans of reflecting on themselves as well as on their students, and in one case, asa communicative device. This process helped to transform the educators' relationshipsto anger and to their angry students.

Key words: Anger, images, teachers

Anger has become a serious problem in today's schools. A 1993 study found anestimated 400,000 students were victims of violence at schools in the United Statesand that violence had become the second leading cause of death for America'sstudents (Prothrow-Stith, 1994). Data provided by Statistics Canada (CanadianCentre for Justice Statistics, 1995) show that from 1986 to 1993 the number offemale youth charged with assault increased by 190% while the number of maleyouth charged increased by 117%.

Whether called upon to help a particular student to manage his or her angeror to support a group of students who have experienced a classmates' angryoutburst, proficiency in anger management has become an integral part of ateacher's ability to support learning. However, few resources are available to helpteachers develop such proficiency. For example, most anger management

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programs focus on teaching cognitive-behavioural techniques to manage one's ownanger as opposed to providing direction with regard to helping others with anger.Furthermore, although these techniques have appeared helpful, whether they areactually responsible for the positive results has been questioned (Cormier & Cormier,1991).

This paper considers an approach to anger management that focuses on helpingteachers. Specifically, the paper describes a study that explored the use of metaphoras a strategy for enhancing teachers' capacity to work with students as they expressand learn to manage their anger. It is suggested that metaphorical analysis may bea useful tool to help teachers proactively guide students through the anger man-agement process. Prior to describing the study, a background description of the useof metaphor in the human change process and the use of metaphors in teachereducation is provided.

METAPHOR AND THE HUMAN CHANGE PROCESS

The human conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in nature (Brown,1991; Carlsen, 1995; Gibbs, 1992; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980, 1981; Leary, 1990). Thederivation of the word metaphor from the Greek 'meta' meaning 'beyond' or 'over'and 'pherin' meaning 'to bring to bear' suggests how metaphor carries meaningfrom the unconscious to the conscious mind. Metaphors initiate unconscious searchesand processes to evoke multiple levels of meaning (Erikson & Rossi, 1979; Jaynes,1976). In particular:

1. Metaphors allow us to experience something formerly unknown. They offer usa way of thinking about the relationships between events as well as givingmeaning to events that otherwise may not have inherent meaning (Belth, 1993;Fantz, 1983). They are used by people to comprehend 'mental' phenomenain terms of 'sensory' phenomena which they more readily understand (Cooper,1986).

2. Metaphors can be used to identify critical features within a complex situation.Metaphors can bring information and solutions from a wide variety of sourcesthat do not directly pertain to the present incident and that might otherwisebe ignored (Brown, 1991). They offer "a perspective or way of looking at things[and a process] by which new perspectives on the world come into existence"(Schon, 1979, p.254).

3. Metaphors highlight some aspects of our experience while keeping other as-pects hidden from our awareness (Dickmeyer, 1989; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980,1981). 'Metaphors can be seductively reductionistic' (Taylor, 1984, p.ll) andmay limit our ability to see or adopt new perspectives of the world around us.For example, according to Reddy (1979), the dominant metaphor for theprocess of teaching and learning is that of a conduit where information istransmitted from teacher to student. While influenced by this metaphor, those

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who attempt to improve teaching are restricted to finding new and better meansof transferring information (Tiberius, 1986).

Metaphors not only influence people's thoughts, actions and emotions but actto define everyday realities. In addition, they can serve to experientially motivatetransformation of meaning (Johnson, 1981). Since 'all knowledge is ultimatelyrooted in metaphorical (or analogical) modes of perception and thought' (Leary,1990, p.2), metaphors have the power to transform meaning within our cognition(Johnson, 1981). This transformative aspect of metaphors has allowed metaphorsto lead to 'changes in human self-reference and hence to human self-consciousness'(Leary, 1990, p.14).

METAPHORS AND TEACHER EDUCATION

Research has demonstrated that teachers' language is rich with metaphor (Carter,1990; Connelly & Clandinin, 1988a; Marshall, 1990). Connelly and Clandinin (1988a)argue that metaphorical images illuminate the connection between teachers' pastexperiences and their present action. Metaphorical thinking lies at the base of thestories teachers tell about the classroom, how those stories are framed, what prob-lems are illuminated, and what direction is taken to solve the problems observed(Collins & Green, 1990; Grant, 1992). Consequently, metaphorical image plays avital role in determining teachers' actions, both within the classroom and withinthe wider school context (Johnston, 1990).

Recently metaphors have been successfully employed to support teachers andstudent teachers in establishing more competent behaviours and ways of interactingwith students in the classroom (Bullough, 1991, 1992; Carter, 1990; Connelly &Clandinin, 1988b; Knowles & Holt-Reynolds, 1991). Specifically, metaphors havebeen used in a number of teacher training programs to increase reflection bystudent teachers through uncovering and then exploring assumptions about teach-ing and learning (Bullough, 1992; Connelly & Clandinin, 1988b; Knowles &Hold-Reynolds, 1991). Metaphors can provide clues about how teachers constructtheir worlds (Bullough & Stokes, 1994; Collins-Eaglin, 1994; Munby & Russell, 1990)and allow teachers to see how their students' behaviours are congruent with theworld they, as teachers, have constructed. Consequently, metaphor enables teachersto move beyond their current understanding by providing a view of the situationthat highlights aspects previously less salient. As new dimensions of a situationbecome evident, new understandings and approaches for resolution arise (Munby,1986; Stanton, 1992).

Munby and Russell (1990) contend that rather than training teachers in specificskills to be practiced and implemented in critical situations, educators need to beencouraged to discover, examine, and adapt their own metaphorical imaging aboutteaching or classroom management. These researchers argue that changes inmetaphor result in reconstruction of teacher behaviours, students-teacher interac-tions, and the classroom environment.

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TRANSFORMING EDUCATORS' METAPHORICAL IMAGES OF ANGER

The present study sought to explore the significance of metaphor in teachers'experience of student anger and anger management. The research question guid-ing this study was: 'What are educators' experiences of using metaphorical explorationas a means of supporting angry students?' A second, and related, goal for thisresearch was to explore educators' perceptions of whether their use of metaphorscould be a viable-method of anger management in the schools.

Participants

Educators who were experiencing difficulty in dealing with students' anger and whowished to discover a more effective means of coping were sought to participate inthis research. Prospective participants were screened to determine their willingnessand ability to commit to the research process. Eleven volunteers met the screeningcriteria and began the study. Three participants dropped out of the study beforeconclusion of data collection. The 8 remaining participants included 5 teachers ofkindergarten through grade seven, one resource room teacher, one behaviouralsupport teacher-counsellor, and a youth and family school counsellor. The partici-pants' ages ranged from approximately 30 to 55 years. Their experience in theschool system ranged from 3 to 25 years.

Data Collection

Narrative inquiry guided data collection (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990; Toolan,1988). A series of three individual audiotaped interviews were conducted with eachparticipant. Prior to beginning the interview process, a pilot study with four elemen-tary school teachers was undertaken to determine the appropriateness and adequacyof the interview approach.

Personal Interviews

Discovering and Explicating Metaphors

The first interview included: (a) establishment of rapport, (b) review of researchpurpose/process, (c) description and examination of a recent critical incident withan angry student, and (d) the use of guided visualization to discover the metaphorthat best captured the anger experience. Together the participant and researcherlooked for the meanings that the metaphor held for the participant and relatedthis to the interaction between herself and the angry student.

During the two to three week period between the first and second interviews,participants were asked to consider their beliefs about education, classroom man-agement, and children's development and whether their metaphorical images orbehaviours during incidents involving anger were in line with these beliefs.

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Processing Metaphorical Images of Anger

In the second interview, participants discussed their insights into the relationshipsbetween their metaphorical images and their behaviours and between their meta-phors and their personal beliefs about teaching, classroom management, andchildren's development. In the 6 cases where participants' images spontaneouslyaltered, a discussion of the new image and how to utilize it in working with angertook place. At the end of this interview participants were asked to continue reflect-ing on the role that the metaphorical image played in their interactions, to noteif the image changed in any way, to be aware of any difficulties in incorporatingtheir metaphor into their interactions with students and to document this expe-rience.

Describing Their Experiences

In the final interview, approximately one month after the second, participants wereinvited to recount their experiences of working with their metaphorical images ofanger. They were specifically asked to describe the usefulness of metaphor duringanger situations, what helped and hindered the use of metaphors, changes inattitude, approach, and/or level of comfort with anger or angry students as a resultof this process, and changes in their behaviours or the behaviours of their studentsthat they could attribute directly to the use of metaphor.

DATA ANALYSIS

The data for this study were primarily transcripts of interviews with individualparticipants. Both narrative and thematic analyses were applied to the transcriptsto discover the events that occurred and the meaning given to those events.

Narrative Analysis

Two separate methods of narrative analysis were used. Following Tappan's methodof analysis, each of the narratives were read five separate times: the first readingoffered an overview, including the setting, the plot and the characters involved. Thesecond, third, and fourth readings involved looking specifically for manifestationsof cognition (perceptions, ideas and knowledge), affect (emotional response, in-stincts or drives) and conation (what individual wants to do and what actually doesin response to the event). The final reading again focused on the narrative as awhole, this time with particular emphasis on the interrelationships and connectionsbetween thought, feeling and action (Tappan, 1990). Tappan's procedure provideddeeper insight into the participants' lived experiences and provided the foundationto begin writing the individual stories of the participants.

The second approach to narrative analysis followed Labov's (1972) method oftranscription. Within this model, a fully formed narrative is made up of six commonelements. These include: (1) the abstract at the beginning which summarizes and

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states what the story is about, (2) the orientation which includes time, place,characters and the situation, (3) the complicating action which is made up of clausesin a temporal sequence of the specific event (i.e., what happened in the order ofits occurrence), (4) the evaluation which refers to the meaning and value thespeaker has placed on the events being described, (5) the resolution whichdescribes the result of the action and, (6) the coda which returns the speaker topresent time (Labov & Waletzky, 1967; Langellier, 1989; Mishler, 1986b; Riessman,1993).

This evaluative model was used to examine the narrative structure of episodesand to reveal the psychological organization of the participants by witnessing whatparts of the narrative (e.g., action and evaluation) were emphasized and what partswere omitted. 'Narrativization tells not only of about past actions but how individualsunderstand those actions' (Riessman, 1993, p. 19).

Thematic Analysis

Following the, narrative analyses a thematic analysis was conducted to illuminateconsistent experiences of the participants. In this approach statements that wereparticularly revealing about the experience being described were highlighted.Statements that directly pertained to the research question were examined for theirunderlying meanings. These statements were then placed into data stacks accordingto their descriptors. Similar descriptors were organized into theme clusters whichwere referred back to the transcripts for validation (Colaizzi, 1978).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

During the initial interview, participants described feelings of frustration, dissatis-faction, annoyance and despair over the behaviours of their students and their ownreactions to these behaviours. There was a general sense of helplessness, withcomments including, 'There is nothing I can do' and ' / don't know what to do.' Theparticipants were, for the most part, highly experienced educators who had ' triedeverything but were unable to manage the anger displayed by their students orrespond to it in the manner they believed to be most appropriate. Instead, their'buttons were pushed1 and they would react without thought. They found it difficultto remain detached from the angry students or to bring forth the knowledge andskills they did possess to support student learning and efficiently deal with thesituation.

Every participant described anger as a natural part of development and life, anemotion like any other which should be allowed its expression. Anger was said tohave 'received bad press,' to be necessary and not necessarily destructive. Anger wasalso described as 'a symptom' and 'a survival toot to be viewed by adults as a signthat something is not going well in the life of the child. From these initial commentsone might think these educators were, for the most part, comfortable with anger— their own and others' — and willing to allow its expression in their presence.

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Despite the stated opinions that anger deserves expression, in the majority ofcases these educators' actions proved incongruent with their reported beliefsas they would quickly interrupt and redirect the angry child or 'turn off the volume'and walk away. The message seemed to be saying, *Your anger is not acceptable tome.'

Further inconsistencies between stated beliefs and actions were illuminated forparticipants as they used their metaphors as a means of reflection on themselvesand their students. Many also discovered their personal styles of anger expression(for example, a smoldering fire), acknowledged their dissatisfaction with the rolesthey were playing at school (such as, the helpful nurse wanting to 'fix' everything),and recognized how they were thinking of their students and what the consequencesmight be (such as, the dehumanizing effect of seeing a child as a mechanicalwindmill).

Through exploration of their metaphors, participants began to recognize theparts they were playing in the dynamics between themselves and their students. Oneteacher saw her angry student as a brush fire that would blaze and spread with eachnew gust of wind. As she described it:

The wind is my wind, generated by all this talking, talking. If I can just pull away,stop the wind and then just find some soothing way of being. Maybe a facialexpression, or gentle touch, or an offer, 'Would you like to go and sit here fora while until you feel calm?' Maybe a more gentle intervention.

Not only did she see how she was reinforcing the unwanted behaviours of thestudent, she now had new ideas for intervention that hadn't occurred to herpreviously.

By our third interview, participants were reporting many changes in themselveswhich they attributed to using their metaphorical images of anger. A primary benefitof using metaphors was in achieving detachment in the sense of, 'exhibiting an aloofobjectivity usually free from prejudice or self-interest' (Webster's New CollegiateDictionary, p.309). As one participant described it,

When I say that I've detached, I think of railway cars; they're coupled to eachother. I see that those projections of my student and me that allow him to hookonto me aren't working anymore. But I also see that I've gotten off that railroadtrack and I've sort of sidled in beside him. Emotionally I haven't left him.

Previously she felt like she 'was abandoning him ...It was like a big ship and he wasthe man overboard.' She now felt she could offer the emotional support she believedhe was needing.

Beholding a child as a leaf or a pool ball supported the educator in understandingthat the child's anger was not directed at her. It was not that the student was tryingto be malicious or even disrespectful by not listening, it was just that he was easilydistracted or filled with rage over the events in his life that were beyond his control.Detachment allowed the participant to begin to see the child's anger more for whatit was than for what she was projecting onto it.

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It was like taking bandages off something, like something that's wrapped incloth. Like this didn't come to me, but I did see a stripping of layers, and youfound something else underneath. Like the anger is really something else, butit's human. It's warm and it's not metal like the blades of a windmill. And it'sgot a mystery.

Through focusing on their metaphors, these participants were able to separatethemselves from their students and see the children's needs more clearly. Forexample, the tightrope walker was working overtime to keep himself in balance inhis unsettled life. He needed to 'be loaded before going onto the rope (i.e. at thestart of the day). He needed applause and encouragement, not direction, while onthe high wire. By remaining aware of her metaphorical image, his teacher becamea support to him rather than concentrating on how to protect herself and the otherchildren from him.

This was one example of the reduction in the sense of helplessness the partici-pants had reported feeling in the first interview. One teacher described a new senseof empowerment, of feeling more in control of herself. Another experienced arelease of tension and a recommitment to her philosophy of education which wouldrequire altering her approach to teaching. One counsellor's transformation froma nurselike to a coachlike style altered every aspect of her interactions with studentsand brought her more in line with the role she wished to be enacting. There wasa general, newly formulated belief that, ' / need to change before I can effect change inothers.'

This appears to be what occurred as a number of changes in student behaviourwere also reported by the participants. Classrooms became quieter, calmer and lessdisruptive, with other students now willing to interact with the angry child fromwhom they had previously veered away. They ' don't get up and move when he sits bythem. They don't go and change their name tags out of the [learning] centre because he's beingso loud.' Individual students were generally described as less defensive and betterable to speak about, and handle, their own anger. One teacher said her studentwas, 'able to calm down much faster, getting himself back under control, more able to processwhat has been said and to deal with it appropriately.' Another commented that herstudent 'doesn't seem so explosive. He doesn't react to things as loudly as he used to, notas stubborn.'

RELEVANCE FOR TEACHERS

'Verum ipsum factum' (Vico, cited in von Glaserfeld, 1984, p.27) means 'the truthis the same as the made', with the word 'fact' coming from the Latin 'facere'meaning 'to make'. In a constructivist perspective, it is assumed we create realitiesby the meaning we give to events. The stories we create about our lives are instru-mental in the direction our lives take. The stories we create about our students maydetermine how those students manifest themselves in our presence. Metaphoricalimages may be used to create new conversations about students and open newpossibilities of ways to approach those students.

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Metaphors may also be used as instruments to expand one's view of anger. Forexample, imagining anger as water produced one counsellor's first awareness thatit has many forms, just like the variety of forms that water may take. This newawareness became extremely useful in her future interactions with students and inhelping them to come to terms with their own emotions.

There are certainly times when our students' anger is really a response to theirfrustration over work that is either too easy or too difficult for them. In these casesteachers may be alerted to the child's problems by his or her anger displays. At thesetimes, the use of metaphorical images allows the teachers the detachment to viewthe situation without reacting emotionally.

Generally, however, anger is a relational experience with each person in theinteraction adding fuel to the fire and creating unseen distortions. Educators oftenfeel powerless to alter the course of the child's rage. The use of metaphors offersa bridge between teacher and student; a means of discovering a connection anda variety of interventions. It also creates an opportunity for educators to witnesstheir role in the dynamic and to alter their contribution to the negative situation.

While the participants in this study said they believed anger expression wasnecessary and acceptable, their actions denied this. Our personal metaphors emergefrom a deep place with us, illuminating truths about ourselves that were previouslyhidden from our consciousness. Self-reflection on personal metaphors shows edu-cators the incongruities between their stated beliefs and actions. This awareness isnecessary for change to occur.

The process of discovering and exploring one's personal metaphors of anger maybe engaged in by individual educators or may be adapted to delivery in a workshopformat. Three or four meetings, one and one-half to two hours each, would beeffective in creating significant changes. If adopted as a school wide activity, allteachers, counsellors, administrators and staff could act as supports for each other,reminding and encouraging each other to stay in the process and offering insightsinto various situations.

Summary

The examination and transformation of metaphors has previously been shown bya number of researchers to be effective in the training of teachers (Bullough &Stokes, 1994; Connelly & Clandinin, 1988a, 1988b; Knowles & Holt-Reynolds, 1991;Marshall, 1988a, 1988b; Munby & Russell, 1990). Through this process, preserviceteachers have gained insights into their thoughts and expectations about teachingand how students learn, their role(s) as teacher, and classroom organization andmanagement.

The experience of the participants in this study suggests that exploration ofmetaphorical images may also offer a tool to support both students and educatorsin managing anger. As indicated by this research, metaphors provide an avenue forself-reflection as well as a means of transformation. The participants in this studywere able to discover new options for intervention as well as regain a healthy senseof separation from, and compassion for, their students. As educators transformed

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their experiences of angry students, they reported that their students also demon-strated alterations in their behaviours.

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