Exploration, Colonialism, and

Independence

Later African Art

European ContactExplorers and missionaries

late 1400s to early 1800s

mostly forts on coastal regions

The slave trade began by the late 1400s and continued

through the 1800s even as wars and unrest in Europe lessened exploration and contact as the slave trade began to decline explorers went more inland, largely for missionary work.

Colonists and CollectorsBecause of European interest in Africa’s natural resources, many of the more powerful European nations took control of different sections of Africa until it was almost entirely settled by colonists. African countries were ruled this way for centuries, many not receiving independence until the 1960s.

Style and Artistic Production

Context and MeaningSome herding peoples wore complex costumes and jewelry that distinguished between genders and age groups as well as giving information such as marital status. Artifacts such as masks change in significance as they are used in elaborate ceremonies and become older and more powerful.

Conventionalization of Styles

There is astounding diversity in African art that is a product of the varying individuals and ethnic groups that create the art as well as when and where it was created. Many representational forms of art (showing human or animal forms) are based on a conceptual model that has been recreated and evolved many times rather than a real objective observation of a subject. Therefore there are many varying conventions used for the various genres of African art. For instance, figures created in Ghana for funeral rites or shrines tend to have heads that are round, flattened discs with stylized and abstracted faces and geometric bodies.

Gender RolesCreation of artistic, spiritual, and functional objects (often indistinguishable) is strictly governed by gender roles. Women weave and bead cloth, paint walls and bodies, and create sculptures and vessels from clay. Men do the metalworking (including gold, iron, and copper), construct houses and other structures, carve, and do some kinds of weaving/beading in long strips whereas women weave wider cloth pieces. These roles are arranged in such a way, however, that nearly every task is collaborative.

Leadership Arts

Royal Ancestral Shrines

Altarpieces were created to honor ancestors and spirits and to bring favor to the king during ceremonies and sacrifices to his ancestors. The shrine shown in the book (32-4) consists of a base sculpted of “sacred riverain clay” on top of which cast copper heads with large tusks protruding from them sit along with a sculpture picturing a king and his attendants and a group of “rattle-staffs” and pyramid-shaped bells.

The staffs represent generations of ancestors that have ruled previously and can be used to make music, while the bells are used to call ancestral spirits. The durable copper figures represent the everlasting influence of kings and the white tusks on top of them represent purity. Carvings in the tusks tell stories of events and people important in the life of a king. The tusks also represent the elephant’s physical power, an animal that, like the leopard, is used to metaphorically represent the kingship.

Emblems of Royal Power

Elaborate costumes and carved chairs and platforms serve to elevate and emphasize the status of the king. In 1912 King Njoya of Bamum, Cameroon was photographed sitting on his elaborately beaded throne in front of his palace (32-5). The prowess and mysterious power of kings is projected by intricately beaded clothing that covers most of the body along with large headdresses and symbolic objects placed around him.

“Aesthetic Overload”

Scholars have come to call this method of representation of the ruler “aesthetic overload” or “intentional design redundancy”, that is, it purposely barrages the onlooker with an image of excess. Some colorful cloth is made by weaving raffia palms. The men weave the plain cloth and the women go in afterward to embroider, “cut-pile”, and die the fabric in intricate patterns. The cut-pile method is similar to rug-making; the raffia is pushed through the woven cloth, cut, and brushed so that the surface is kind of furry.

Spiritual Arts

Primordial Dogon AncestorsThis sculpture of unknown origin probably represents a married ancestral couple that was honored in a shrine. The figures are very stylized; the torsos and heads are exaggerated and body parts are geometric. Both have body markings covering them and the man has one of his hands touching the breast of the woman and the other covering his genitals, probably in order to indicate fertility.

Shrines for Baule DivinersThe two figures shown in the book (32-8) are probably personal sculptures representing bush spirits that were kept in a shrine within the owner’s house. They were probably used by a “trance diviner” to provide inspiration and to ensure protection and wealth for a family as the figures were given offerings to honor the spirits they represent. Bush spirits are supposed to be ugly but are represented as beautiful and youthful.

Igbo Houses for the Gods

In Southeastern Nigeria the Igbo people build adobe houses to honor nature gods such as Ala, goddess of the Earth. These houses are filled with colorful paintings and sculptures. This sculpture pictures the thunder god Amadioha and his wife. The god is in modern garb while his wife is in traditional costume.

Kongo Images of Women and Men

In the Democratic Republic of Congo, Kongo peoples create male and female figures used for social regulation, divination, commemoration, and healing. This female nursing may represent a royal ancestor or founding clan mother. The male image represents a Kongo king. This figure was kept with his wife as a surrogate when he was elsewhere and probably placed next to his deathbed in order to absorb his spirit.

The male figure full of nails is a Kongo power figure. These were used by priests who “activated” the figures in some way (such as rubbing them or inserting a nail), asking them to heal or inflict harm on others. The figures have particular powers and wear certain medicines – here the cowrie shell is significant.

Masquerades

Both men and women participate in mask dances that serve to provide social regulation and spiritual ceremonies that may teach youth about the workings of the clan, deal with judicial disputes (often handled by masked “ancestors” or “gods”, and honor gods or ancestors for the benefit of the society. Men are the predominate mask dancers, even wearing masks that represent women. However, women have special roles in certain ceremonies, such as mask dances in which a woman is chased by a man (she may even have a totally different understanding of the significance of the ritual than the men). Masks themselves can be very powerful, and their power may increase over time.

This mask, to be worn by a man, represents women in general. In the Dogon masquerades, this character, called Satimbe, escorts souls to the land of the dead.

This mask from Guinea represents the ideal African woman. It is also worn by a man, especially those who wish to work in the fields. It represents the child-bearingqualities of the ideal woman.

Masks such as this one represent supernatural spirits that are composites of many different kinds of animals and humans.

This mask, worn by a woman in Liberia or Sierra Leone, represents an ancestral spirit that has emerged from under water. (This is a similar mask)

Masks such as these are also composites of animalsRepresenting nature spirits. They are sacred and were used for policing functions.

These masks represent a legendary ancestor and his wife. They are used in dances that tell stories upholding the societal values. The intricate beading shows the status of the king.