experiments in teaching children computer
TRANSCRIPT
EXPERIMENTS IN TEACHING
CHILDREN COMPUTER PROGRAMMING
by
A. B. Cannara
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 271May, 1976
PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION SERIES
Reproduction in Wbole or in Part Is Permitted
for Any Purpose of the United States Government
INSTITUTE FOR MATHEMATICAL STUDIES IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
STANFORD UNIVERSITY
STANFORD, CALIFORNIA 94305
Foreword
This dissertation is actually an extension and continuation of an earlier
technical report (Weyer & Cannara, 1975), which herein is called "report-I".
Report-l should (but need not) be read in conjunction with this document.
As a matter of notation, all phrases in the text that are not in English,
but in the computer languages being discussed, are surrounded by single quotes
('), unless their context is otherwise obvious. As a matter of taste, which
rejects the "arrogance of the acronym", names of programming languages and
other proper nouns, excepting trade or institutional names, receive their due
. quota of capitals--one.
Several references are made to articles in a few common periodicals, not
necessarily because the articles are uniquely relevant, but because the
periodicals are easily found and their editors traditionally strive for clarity as
well as accuracy.
III
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by National Science Foundation Grant NSF-GJ
443X. I thank Patrick Suppes for his helpful advice and for use of the IMSSS
computing facilities. I am further indebted to my student volunteers. They
remain anonymous, but they were the most important people in the experiments.
Steve Weyer deserves thanks for his imaginative work on the original Logo
curriculum, for maintaining the Logo interpreter and for developing the Sailogo
graphics system. I also thank Adele Goldberg for her editorial assistance.
iv
Table of Contents
Forward..............................•.•....................................................•............................... iii
Acknowledgements........•.................................................•.......................................• iv
Index to Tables.................••......................•..............................••.....................•.•......vi
Index to Figures vii
Chapters
1 Introduction :...................................... 1
2 Programming Facilities 10
Languages 10
Peripheral Devices 23
3 Students, Tutoring and Curricula 30
4 Data Acquisition and Analysis : 55
5 Results 63
References 113
Appendices
1 Spm 119
2 Aptitude-Testing Details 125
3 Sample Curricula 135
4 Student Programs 163
v
Index of Tables
I. Some Fundamental Programming Concepts..................................... 7
II. Simper Machine Operations 14
III. Simper Interpreter Commands 15
IV. Some Logo Primitives 18
V. Logo's Procedure Editing and Debugging Commands 19
VI. Logo's File-manipulation Commands 20
VII. Simper/Logo Line-editing Commands 21
VIII. IMSSS Logo Turtle-Graphics Commands 26
IX IMSSS Logo Animation Commands 27
X Experimental Groups 31
XI Categorization of Observed Student Errors and Misconceptions.Il1
vi
Index of Figures
1. Simper and Logo Sample Dialogues...............................•..............•....... 11
2. Structure of Simper's Simulated Machine 13
3. Displaying a Simper Program's Activi ty 16
4. Tracing a Logo Procedure's Activity 22
5. Programming System Structure 24
6. Successive Frames from a Logo-Animation "Movie 29
7a. Some Information Characterizing the 1973 Students........................• 33
7b. Some Information Characterizing the 1974 Students 34
8. Some "Wrong" Answers from the 1973 Preliminary Test 38
9. Some Novel Answers from the Preliminary Tests..•.........•.................39
lOa. Student Ranking on the 1973 Preliminary Test .42
lOb. Student Ranking on the 1974 Preliminary Test 43
11. A Simple Quantitative Analysis of Protocols 61
12a. The 1973 Students' Preferences 64
12b. Some 1974 Students' Opinions 65
13. Some 1974 Students' Preliminary Feelings 67
14a. Breakdown of the 1973-Students' Programming Time 69
14b. Breakdown of the 1974-Students' Programming Time 70
vii
15a. 1973 Simper Students' Performance Versus Pretest Rank 72
15b. 1973 Logo Students' Performance Versus Pretest Rank 73
16. 1974 Students' Performance Versus Pretest Rank 74
17. Timing of 1974 Students' Mastery of Simper-related Concepts 86
18. Timing of 1974 Students' Mastery of Logo-related Concepts 95
viii
~---.
Page 1
1. Introduction
Herein are discussed in detail two experiments done at the Institute for
Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS) at Stanford during the
summer of 1973 and the spring of 1974. Previously, Cannara and Weyer
(1974a), and Weyer and Cannara (1975), have described the 1973 experiment; it
will be referred to as the "first" experiment. The 1975 document will be
called "report-I".
The experiments attempted to study children, who had never used a
~~",puter before, learning: (a) concepts relevant to computer programming, and
(b) modern programming languages. The languages and other programming
facilities used (e.g., graphics) have been discussed definitively in report-I; this
thesis will simply outline their features and concentrate on observations of the
childrens' learning-processes and the implications of both experiments in terms
of programming-language and curriculum design, and tutoring technique.
Why observe children learning computer-programming? Programming would
seem to be a decidedly adult task for young people who haven't yet completed
their basic schooling. A partial, motivational answer follows immediately; the
remainder of this thesis may be viewed as an attempt to complete that an'swer.
Three main streams of thought converge on the study of children learning
to use a computer. First, is the view that a computer is in fact a tool for
thinking, which implies that it might be applied fruitfully at every educational
level (e.g., Brown & Rubinstein, 1973; Dwyer, 1972; Feurzeig, Papert, Bloom,
Grant & Solomon, 1969; Kay, 1972[b]; Papert, 1970). In particular, the
computer can be used to stimulate the activity Papert has referred to as
"thinking about thinking". Second, is the desire of some educators to study the
thinking processes of people solving problems (e.g., Bloom & Broder, 1950;
Piaget, 1970; Polya, 1957), which leads directly to studies in perhaps the most
Page 2
general problem-solving realm: computer programming. Third, is a synthesis of
human problem-solving and computer-as-tool, flamboyantly named "artificial-
intelligence research", which aims to formalize problem-solving procedures (e.g.,
Feigenbaum & Feldman, 1963; Minsky, 1968; Newell & Simon, 1972; Nilson,
1971; Winograd, 1971). Sometimes, artificial-intelligence products can better
our understanding of ourselves and/or provide useful educational strategies (e.g.,
Brown & Burton, 1974; Goldberg, 1973).
We should not be surprised to find children and computers where those
three streams intersect. The educational linkage of computer programming with
thinking is expressed by the idea of a "mathematical laboratory", in which a
program creates a constructively interactive, and so perhaps more interesting
environment for learning. Unlike most traditional realizations of computer-
assisted-instruction (Cai), the laboratory is designed to "understand", at a
meaningful level, the domain of interest. 1 Unlike most classroom lectures, such
a laboratory can give substance to the material and exploratory freedom to its
users. The user's interaction with a mathematical laboratory is mediated by a
formal (as opposed to natural) language, whose semantics access the constructive
abilities of the laboratory and whose syntax is simply a perhaps novel set of
conventions. A computer and a programming language together constitute a
mathematical laboratory of the most general kind, because they are all that are,
needed to construct (simulate) any other laboratory. That is the main
justification for studying programming as a general problem-solving activity. It
is based upon a conjecture of Church's that (freely interpreted) suggests that
any ideas which may be formalized may be studied as a computer ~rogram.2
Formalization of ideas, a fundamental aspect of mathematics, is part and parcel
lSee Ellis (1974) or Oettinger and Marks (1969). for critiques of present educationalcomputer applications; and Smallwood (1962), or Suppes (in Wittrock, 1973), for~istoriCallY typical examples of Cai.
For discussions of Church's thesis, see Manna (1972) or Minsky (l967).
Page 3
of mathematical laboratories for programming, problem solving and thinking
about thinking.
The production of effective mathematical laboratories is closely and
bidirectionally connected with artificial-intelligence work and human self
understanding. It must grapple with questions beyond the immediate scope of
the laboratories themselves. Effective tutoring techniques, for example, are
educational objectives which must be attained even after one has constructed a
laboratory which "understands" its domain. Thus, applying the computer
educationally, as a tool made available via a laboratory, demands answers to
questions posed in a wide variety of fields (e.g., Brown & Burton, 1974;
Goldberg, 1973).
The theory and practice of computation offer educators some valuable tools:
(a) the formalization of ideas as clustered sequences of instructions, (b) methods
for .modelling real-world processes, and (c) metaphors for understanding machine
and human information-processing. Together, these expose thinking techniques
that PapeEt has termed "powerful ideas". Concepts of programming and
thinking can be taught as natural and inseparable partners, emphasizing
students' scrutiny of their own thinking about the world. And, it is not a new
idea that school-children can and should learn how to program a computer, so
that they too might access its unparalleled power as a tool for thinking. The
computer's natural ability to simulate has responded to the ingenuities of
students (as seen, for example, in the work of Brown and Rubinstein, Dwyer, or
Papert) with the same spectacular generality it has provided to professional
researchers (e.g., Levison, Ward & Webb, 1973; Toomre & Toomre, 1973;
Winograd, 1971).
The foregoing remarks were intended to justify a desire to study
programming as an intellectual activity for children and programming languages
Page 4
as tools for such activity. As a technological product, the personal computer
will soon be as much a reality, as the personal calculator is today.3 Access to
interactive computation may sOOn become commonplace for vast numbers of
children (and adults), at school or at home. Certainly we should be trying now
to understand how to hone this new tool to maximum usefulness. As a medium
for expressing, manipulating and communicating ideas, the personally accessible
computer may stand well above everything since the printing press.4
Teaching programming is a tutorial endeavor of perhaps the most general
kind. The work to be reported here attempts to characterize some of the
situations that human and mechanical tutors for programming will confront and
must be prepared to resolve. It is relevant to the common ground between
education and artificial intelligence because the construction of computer
programs which can tutor humans with human proficiency is a common goal.
No one has attained that goal yet, because the activities of a good tutor are
tied, irrevocably to humanness of language and knowledge (e.g., Winograd, 1974).
Although the theoretical power of the computer (Le., as conjectured by Church)
may be sufficient to simulate natural intellect, we do not yet understand
ourselves (or other species, e.g., Gardner & Gardner, 1975) well enough to
communica~e even a coarse description of intelligence to any recipient (note the
arguments of Stent, 1975a, 1975b; and his critics). Those who have recognized
the nature of this problem have come .closest to success in carefully limited
contexts (e.g., Brown & Burton, 1974; Carbonell, 1970; Winograd, 1971).
The generality of a programming laboratory and the intimacy of tutoring
combine to produce an interesting research environment in which analysis of
3 See Kay (1975. 1972a. 1972b) or Brand (1974. pp, 64-71) for one view of the nearfuture of computing.4 See Fenichel & Weizenbaum {1971), and Mauchly (1975) for historical pers·pectives onthe computer's development; and Vacroux (1975) for directions that technological eventsare taking now.
Page 5
errors plays a central role. A programming tutor (human or mechanical) must
be ready to intelligently suggest, accept or comment on an arbitrarily wide
range of student interactions and program syntheses. The details of errors do
more than indicate what a student does not understand, they indicate how the
student views the problem. at hand in terms of his or her own view of the
world.
Extending a suggestion of Papert's, if a student responds to a posed problem.
at all, that response is typically correct by the student's personal analysis. So
the student is surprised to hear "wrong". It is the tutor's responsibility to try
to divine the' reasons for the student's error, perhaps acting as does a detective
eliciting evidence from someone from a foreign land--subsequent interaction is
devoted to laying a common foundation of terms (definitions and relations).
The tutor necessarily learns about the student's world view and is better
prepared to handle future errors and future students. Errors are not "bad",
they provide valuable feedback to be exploited for student benefit.5
However, any tutor (human or mechanical) for teaching something as
general as programming is destined to occasionally fail the student, because it
must occasionally tackle unsolvable (uncomputable) problems.6 In other words,
the tutor must pass judgment on the correctness of a student's program, and we
know that there exists no general procedure for deciding that an arbitrary
program is correct or incorrect. But the range of solvable problems is so broad
that this hard theoretical fact discourages neither researchers nor teachers.
"Proof of program correctness" (Hoare, 1971) and "automatic program synthesis"
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------5 This relates to a basic criticism of most past efforts in Cai: not only have programsbeen designed which fail to understand their own SUbject-matter, they fail to possessmore than trivial error-handling strategies. Results too often have been just transferof programmed-instruction text or film to computer storage. using very little. from thestudent's vantage, of the computer's computational potential. Dwyer has said that Caifails in "reproducing the excitement of masterful teaching". I would add that rarelyaave Cai workers even attempted to capture masterful teaching.
Discussions of the uncomputable (unsolvable or unprovable) appear in Davis (1965),Minsky (1967). Chaitin (1975) and Steen (1975).
Page 6
(Fenichel, Weizenbaum & Yochelson, 1970) are active topics in computational
research which have clear bearing on future success in constructing competent
computer-based" tutorial systems.
Numerous research projects have taught children particular programming
languages (e.g., Feurzeig and Lukas 1972a; Fischer, 1973; Folk, Statz &
Seidman, 1974; Milner, 1973; Roman, 1972). However, apparently none has
attempted to make explicit the broad range of relevant programming concepts
and their relationship to a student's world of thought. In such terms, many
"projects have pursued hazy, sometimes arbitrary goals that concentrated on
teaching an available language through ad-hoc, problem-solving situations,
without generalizing situations and solution strategies. A study by Folk, et a!.,
(1974) is perhaps the most extensive attempt to specify relationships between
programming concepts and children's thinking processes. But their analysis is
confined to classical statistical models and the concomitant testing of rather
broad hypotheses virtually ignores a wealth of detail.in student protocols.
In contrast, protocols (and tutorial notes) are precisely the data upon which
this work is founded. The primary objective is to understand how children
learn programming concepts (e.g., Table I), with secondary emphasis on the
influences of languages and curricula. With error-analysis as a tool,
student/machine interactions must be exposed in as much detail as possible.
Narrow views, provided for example by conventional test scores, are inadequate
no matter how convenient they may be to obtain and analyze. Quoting Bloom
and Broder on the subject of "objective" tests:
"What is missing is information on the process by whichthe problems are solved. The methods of attack, the steps ofthe thinking process, the kinds of considerations used to makeone choice rather than another, and the feelings and attitudesof the subject are neglected or given very little attention.
"... attention on the processes of thought...may alsorequire a change from testing and mass studies to those whichinvolve small numbers of subjects studied by rather intensivetechniques.
Table I
Some Fundamental Programming Concepts
1. Machine as a tool manipulated with a command language
2. Machine possessing an alterable memory
3. Literal expressions
4. Name-value associations
5. Evaluation and symbol-substitution
6. Execution of stored programs
7. Programs which make decisions
8. Procedures (algorithms)
9. Evaluation of arguments to procedures
10. Procedures as realizations of functiOlls (tran_sformations)
11. Composition of functions
12. Partial and total functions
13. Computational context (local versus global environments)
14. Evaluation in changing environments
15. Induction (recursion and iteration)
16. Dat.a structures as defined by functions
17. Problem formulation (representation)
18. Incomplete algorithms (heuristics)
Page 7
Page 8
"The way in which each student looks at a particulartask may make it a unique problem for him."
-- Bloom & Broder, (1950).
It may seem obvious that to understand a physical or intellectual process
one must exercise and observe it. In fact one must observe what it does
wrongly as well as correctly before a good model of the process' structure can
be realized. Thus has error analysis proven its value in many fields (e.g.,
Fromkin, 1973; Newell & Simon, 1972). It is a basic means for evaluating
theories in all the sciences.
"Truth arises more easily from error than from confusion."
--Francis Bacon.
This work has depended upon observing children learning by making
mistakes and discoveries. For their own benefit and for the practical
requirements of research, the children had to feel motivated and supported.
Motivation is an essential precursor of effective learning, yet it is often
snubbed in the analysis of everyday ·education (Jackson, 1968); and it has yet
to be captured accurately in artificial-intelligence applications. So, apart from
examining interactions with a programming laboratory, this work has also been
concerned with the motivational aspects of tutoring, curricula, languages and
concepts.
That programming concepts provide a link between formalized thinking and
perceived reality is certainly not a new axiom (Berry, 1964). It was assumed,
perhaps tacitly, in much of the similar research quoted earlier. For motivation,
a student should look to his or her own life experience for applications of the
tools which an understanding of pertinent concepts supplies. This is the
ultimate justification for teaching programming, because the power of a
programming laboratory derives from the fact that students do more than
Page 9
interact with it,they intervene, and mold the laboratory to their very own
purposes.
The research problem can be summarized by two questions: (a) How do the
characteristics of a programming laboratory influence a child's motivation and
abili ty to learn programming concepts and apply them to the solution of
problems? and (b) What are some significant features of that learning process?
Page 10
2 Programming Facilities
Both experiments attempted to impart an understanding of the concepts in
Table I and fluency in two, very different programming languages. This
required the development of: (a) interactive laboratories (interpreters) for the
languages and devices used, (b) parallel curricula for teaching the concepts, (c)
means for acquiring data on each student's interactions, and (d) means for
judging each student's aptitude for programming and mastery of the concepts.
Part of requirement (a) was met easily by using existing interpreters for
two languages, Logo and Simper, developed specifically to teach children
computer programming. At one time, a third language (Spm, Appendix 1),
designed by the author, was also a candidate but was discarded. Development of
some of the devices used and requirements (b), (c) and (d) defined the work to
be done preliminary to the experiments.
Languages
The languages Simper and Logo were chosen because they are
computationally general, they are relatively easy to learn, they are interactive
with powerful editing features, and they are highly dissimilar (Figure 1). Both
are detailed extensively in report-I, so only a brief description is necessary
here. Both experiments, the first (summer-1973) and second (spring-1974), led
to changes in both languages--these will be indicated also. In the text, paired,
single quotes (') denote items in the Logo and Simper languages.
Simper was developed by Lorton and Slimick (1969) at IMSSS as a simple
simulation of an imaginary machine resembling an Hewlett-Packard model 2000.
It has been used to teach business applications of programming to students at
Woodrow Wilson High School in San Francisco (Lorton & Muscat, 1975). At
IMSSS, it has been expanded and rewritten in the Algol-60 subset of Sail
(Swinehart and Sproull, 1971) by the author.
Page 11
Simper
001 :PUT A 43002 :NAME REPEAT002 lCWRITE A003 :PUT P REPEAT004 :RUN
EXECUTING 1 TO 500+++++++++++tG
...23 INSTRS IN .043 SEC.
..TO REPEAT :LETTER:@10 TYPE :LETTER:@20 REPEAT :LETTER:@ENDREPEAT DEFINED
..REPEAT "+"+++++++++++tG
I WAS AT LINE 10 IN REPEAT
004 :EDIT 1 ..EDIT REPEAT001 !CASK A @EDIT TITLE004 :SLIDE 2:7 @TITLE TO REPEAT :LETTER: :TIMES:002 :ASK B @5 TEST LESSP :TIMES: 1003 :NEGATE B @7 IFTRUE DONE004 :JUMP B .+2 @EDIT LINE 20005 :HALT 20 REPEAT :LETTER: DIFFERENCE :TIMES: 1006 :INCREMENT B @END .007 !NAME 4 REPEAT REPEAT DEFINEDSWITCHING REPEAT'S REFERENCES007 !RUN ..REPEAT "+" 10
++++++++++..EDIT REPEATEXECUTING 1 TO 500 @6 IFTRUE SKIP+10 @END++++++++++ REPEAT DEFINEDHALT...45 INSTRS IN .117 SEC.
007 lLIST
YOUR PROGRAM:
001 :CAS A002 :ASK B003 :NEG B004 :JUM B .+2 (REPEAT)005 :HAL006 :INC B007 :CWR A008 :PUT P REPEAT
..REPEAT "+" 10++++++++++
..LIST REPEAT
TO REPEAT :LETTER: :TIMES:5 TEST LESSP :TIMES: 16 IFTRUE SKIP7 IFTRUE DONE10 TYPE :LETTER:20 REPEAT :LETTER: DIFFERENCE :TIMES: 1
(These sample dialogues produce alternative programs for the repeatedprinting of a keyboard character supplied by the typist. Prompts fromSimper are the current memory address (a decimal numeral) and a ":" or an"!", depending on whether the addressed location is empty or used. Logoprompts ...... at the outer level and "@" at the editing level. .. tG" indicatesa control character typed to stop a potentially endless execution sequence.)
Fig. 1. Simper and Logo Sample Dialogues
Page 12
Simper, is designed for interactive use. It is an assembly-language
interpreter for a simple decimal machine with an addressable program counter.
Its instruction set typifies those of early minicomputers and is similar to, but
simpler than, that of the language Mix (Knuth, 1970). As a programming
laboratory, Simper has three functional components: (1) a simulator for the
underlying machine (Figure 2), (2) a real-time assembler which translates
symbols and mnemonic instructions (listed in Table II) into machine language,
and (3) an interpreter which handles editing and general management of
programs (Table III). This system allows students to generate and easily
"debug" nontrivial machine-language programs. One can imagine that, when the
Simper interpreter is not running a user's program, it is simply waiting for a
message from the user which is either a phrase in one of the three languages:
machine, assembly or interpreter, or is unintelligible. The reader should
examine Figure 1 again, and then try to follow the execution of the sample
program (which realizes the function: 2x + 9) in Figure 3.
Logo (Feurzeig, et aI., 1969) is a procedural language whose basic data
structures are strings of letters or words. The Logo instruction-set is easily
expanded via procedure (operation) definitions, possibly recursive. An important
feature of Logo (as opposed to Fortran-like languages) is that operations which
a User defines are syntactically equivalent to Logo primitives. Logo contains
essentials of the currently popular Basic language as a subset,· but is superior to
Basic in terms of mathematical consistency, and clarity of phrasing and control.
Furthermore, Logo begins to address the important question of language
extensibility, which is a fundamental measure of the usefulness people can
attribute to any language for computing or thinking.
The Logo interpreter used in these experiments was obtained from Bolt,
Beranek & Newman Inc. (BBN) of Boston. It is written in Macro assembly
language for the PDP-lO. For the purposes of the experiments, Logo was
Page 13
Registers (10 max.) Memory Cells (511 max.)
(programcounter)
P :
A:
B:
C*:
001:
002:
500*, 250:
Instruction Format (using righthand seven digits)
000ora
p e de g d (indirect flag & address)
r i ra s e
t t si e so r
n
(* indicates the configuration after the first experiment. The machinesimulated within the Simper interpreter operates on ten-digit decimalnumerals (words), some of which it "understands" as legal instructions.Each operation mnemonic (Table II) corresponds to a two-digit code, eachregister has a one-digit code. The address field typically contains a threedigit memory-cell designator, or register and indirect-address digits. Thevalue in register P is always used as the memory address of the nextinstruction to be executed,) .
Fig. 2. Structure of Simper's Simulated Machine
Page 14
Table II
Simper Machine Operations
(* indicates operations added after the first experiment.)
Mnemonic
PUTLOADSTORE
ADDSUBTRACTMULTIPLYDIVIDEDIVIDE*
LANDLORLEXOR'
JUMPJASKCOMPARE
SHIFTROTATEEXCHANGEINCREMENTNEGATEERROR'
ASKWRITECASKCWRITElOT'
RANDOMTIMEWAIT
HALT
NOP
Action (if not obvious)
value of address field to registercopy value in addressed cell into registerinverse of 'LOAD'
add value in addressed cell to register
skip next instruction unless dividing by zeroset 'ERROR' flag. on division by zero
decimal digit-wise minimum between register and memorydecimal digit-wise maximum"exclusive or": 'LOR' except for equal digits
transfer to address if register is non-zerotransfer to address if a key has been typedthree-way skip on memory cell's value greater than,equal to, or less than register's value
flip contents of two registers
overflow error code to register
decimal numeral from keyboard to registerinverse of 'ASK'ASCII character from keyboard to registerinverse of 'CASK'input/output transfer (for graphics etc.)
random IO-digi t integer to registerseconds since midnight to registerdefer execution for milliseconds in register
stop execution
no-operation
Page 15
Table III
Simper Interpreter Commands
(* indicates items added after the first experiment, ** indicates items addedafter the second experiment. Parenthesized phrases describe optionsobtained by terminating a command with the "altmode" key.)
Name
DUMP
LIST or DEBUG
RUN
GO
CLEAR**
FIX or EDIT*
FLIP**
SLIDE
SCRATCH orERASE**
FORGET or NAME
NAMES
SAVE or GET
FIELDS
FORBID or ALLOW
NEWS
HELP
control-G
GOODBYEor control-Z
Action
display decimal content of memory and registers(symbols too)
display memory content in assembly language(and machine language), 'DEBUG' shows "secret" tables
execute part or all of a program (and displayregisters)
continue execution (and display registers)
set a particular register's content to zero
change the content of one or more memory cells(and show prior content)
illterchange the contents of two cells
relocate part or all of a program in memory
erase all of a programerase all or part of a program*
erase or attach a symbol to a memory cell(alld say how much room remains for symbols)
list all symbols and their cell associatiolls(and their values)
copy memory to or from long-term storage
allow abbreviated instructions
selectively alter the machine's instruction set**
obtain the latest system news
obtain general information about Simper
stop any activity
log out
007 :LIST
001 :ASK A002 :MUL A 10003 :ADD A 6004 :WRI A005 :PUT P 1006 :9007 :008 :009 :010 :2
007 :RUN$
13:04:12
EXECUTING 1 TO 500
(the user had created the following program)
(the user runs the program, "$" denotes altmode)
(the time)
P: A: B: INSTR:-------------------------------------------1 0 0 ASK A INPUT NUMBER:4 ("4" typed by user)2 4 0 MUL A 103 8 0 ADD A 64 17 0 WRI A NUMBER=175 17 0 PUT P 11 17 0 ASK A INPUT NUMBER:O2 0 0 MUL A 103 0 0 ADD A 64 9 0 WRI A NUMBER=95 9 0 PUT P 11 9 0 ASK A INPUT NUMBER:-42 -4 0 MUL A 103 -8 0 ADD A 64 1 0 WRI A NUMBER=l5 1 0 PUT P 11 1 0 ASK A INPUT NUMBER:'G (user aborts)
... 15 INSTRS IN 1.100 SEC
007 :GO 4 (user continues a bit with no display)213
...4 INSTRS IN .042 SEC
007 :EDIT 10010 13 (the user changes the function to be: 3x + 9)007 :RUN
Fig. 3. Displaying a Simper Program's Activity
Page 17
modified to communicate with various devices, including an "XY" plotter and
graphic display terminals (the total system will be referred to as IMSSS Logo).
A partial list of IMSSS Logo's primitive operations appears in Table IV,
program editing/saving commands appear in Tables V,VI and VII, and the
execution of a sample procedure is shown in Figure 4. The reader should
maintain in mind that Logo is fundamentally a prefix language--commands may
be composed of several operation calls, in which each operation is followed 'by a
list of any arguments (possibly produced by other operations) it may need in
order to be executed.
One of the few common aspects of the Simper and Logo languages is line
editing. Table VII shows the commands which allow users to correct typing and
other errors before they terminate their command-lines (causing Logo or Simper
to try to obey them). Particulary useful are the commands (control-E, -N and
·S) which allow previously stored lines or words to be injected into the user's
typing. One of the functions of good line-editing capabilities is to minimize
the burdens on the poor typist.
Finally, it should be noted that in learning to use Simper, the student must
learn the three languages (machine, assembly and interpreter) that are realized
by the system. This is not a trivial matter for naive programmers, as the
experiments have indicated.
Logo's interactive structure is more nearly unitary. Its basic piece of
executable code is a line composed of one or more commands, and its basic piece
of program (procedure definition), is an ordered series of lines. The Logo
interpreter is always executing (or capable of executing) a user's commands,
which may'call upon Logo primitives or the u,ser's own procedures. Control
returns to the user only when his or her last command and any commands it
might have called have terminated normally or been aborted. A few of Logo's
primitives may not be executed directly by a user's proc.edure, but there is not
Page 18
Table IV
Some IMSSS Logo Primitives
(* indicates items added after the first experiment,** indicates items added after the second experiment.)
Name Action
TO allows creation of a new operation (a procedure)
OUTPUT allows operations to return values to the evaluatoror RETURN*or REPLY**
EDIT allows the user to change an operation's definition
MAKE associates a name with a value
VALUE* or THING accesses the value associated with a name
FRONT moves the "turtle" or train forward
WHERE returns the present location of the train
PLOT sends turtle drawing to XY plotter or robot
SAY causes the audio system to speak a message
PRINT causes the user's terminal to type a message
REQUEST asks the user for a message
SNAP makes a "snapshot" of graphics picture being drawn
MOVESNAP* moves a snapshot as part of an animated display
WORD combines two words (of letters or numerals) into one
SENTENCE combines two words or sentences into a sentence
FIRST returns the first letter or word in a value
RANDOM picks a digit between 0 and 9
SUM or ADD** returns the sum of two numbers
IS or SAMEP* are two words or sentences identical?
EQUALP are two numbers equal?
IF THEN ELSE decision making
Page 19
Table V
Logo's Procedure Editing and Debugging Commands
Name
TO
EDIT
TITLE
EDIT TITLE
LIST TITLE
EDIT LINE
ERASE LINE
LIST LINE
END
LIST
ERASE
ERASE ALLPROCEDURES
LIST ALLPROCEDURES
LIST CONTENTS
LIST ALLABBREVIATIONS
TRACE
BREAK
EXIT
GO
Action
begin defining a new procedure
begin modifying an existing procedure·
redefine the name of the procedure and its inputs
change part of the title
display the ti tie
change part of any line in the procedure
delete any line
display any line
stop editing the procedure's definition
display any procedure's definition
delete any procedure's definition or trace
delete all definitions
display all definitions
display the ti ties of all defined procedures
display the user's abbreviations for all operations
display a procedure's arguments/returned valuewhenever it is executed
halt execution (same as control-G)
halt and print a message
continue execution
(Indented commands may only be given after editing has been begun with'TO' or 'EDIT'.)
Table VI
Logo's File-manipulation Commands
Page 20
Name
SAVE
GET
LIST FILE
LIST ENTRY
LIST PROCEDURES
LIST CONTENTS
Action
replace an entry on a file with the currentcontents of memory
append the content of an entry to memory
display the entry names in a file
display everything in an entry
display only the procedures in an entry
display the titles of an entry's procedures
LIST ABBREVIATIONS display the abbreviations in an entry
ERASE ENTRY
COPY
delete an entry from a file
copy a text file to or from a file entry
Page 21
Table VII
Simper/Logo Line-editing Commands (* means Logo only.)
- Name Action
control-A or erases the previous character typedrubout
control-W erases the previous word typed
control-X erases the whole line (also control-U in Simper)
control-R retypes the present line minus deletions
linefeed continues a line beyond 72 characters
return or terminates- a line (altmode is also known as "escape" oraltmode "enter")
control-N* insert (into the present line) the next word from theprevious (or edited) line
control-S* skip the next word from the previous (or edited) line
control-E* insert everything remaining in the previous (or edited)line into the present line
(An example of Logo procedure editing:
..TO WELCOME@1O SAY "HELLO THERE"@EDIT LINE 10 (causes the line number "10" to be printed and
inserted into Logo's input buffer just as ifthe user had typed it, so it may be erased.Logo has now also grabbed the existing text ofline 10 and knows 'SAY' to be its first word)
@10 [ 01]20 fNsay "fSfNthere" [ "] GOES A WELCOME"
(The above edi ting line produced line 20 by·using line 10. I1tll means "control-", Logo'styping is in lower case, deleted characters arein brackets)
@LISTTO WELCOME10 SAY "HELLO"20 SAY "THERE GOES A WELCOME" (the new line)
@)
+-LIST ACKERMAN (the user had defined the following procedure)
TO ACKERMAN oX: :Y:10 IF EMPTYP oX: THEN RETURN WORD oX: "Y"20 IF EMPTYP :Y: THEN RETURN ACKERMAN BUTFIRST :X: "Y"30 RETURN ACKERMAN BUTFIRST oX: ACKERMAN oX: BUTFIRST :Y:END
which realizes a" string example of Ackerman's function)
TRACE ACKERMAN ('TRACE' will allow the user to follow ACKERMAN'sexecution history, observing its arguments when it iscalled and the values it returns when it is done.Recursively generated copies of 'ACKERMAN' aredenoted by indentation)
+-PRINT ACKERMAN "XX" "Y" (execution begins)ACKERMAN OF "XX" AND "Y"
ACKERMAN OF "XX" AND ....ACKERMAN OF "X" AND "Y"
ACKERMAN OF "X" AND.... (.... is the empty string)ACKERMAN OF .... AND "Y"ACKERMAN RETURNS "YY"
ACKERMAN RETURNS "YY"ACKERMAN OF .... AND "YY"ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYY"
ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYY"ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYY"ACKERMAN OF "X" AND "YYY"
ACKERMAN OF "X" AND "YY"ACKERMAN OF "X" AND "Y"
ACKERMAN OF "X" AND ....ACKERMAN OF .... AND "y"ACKERMAN RETURNS "YY"
ACKERMAN RETURNS "YY"ACKERMAN OF ,n, AND "YY"ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYY"
ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYY"ACKERMAN OF .... AND "YYY"ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYYY"
ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYYY"ACKERMAN OF .... AND "YYYY"ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYYYY"
ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYYYY"ACKERMAN RETURNS "YYYYY" (to PRINT)YYYYY+-
Fig. 4. Tracing a Logo Procedure's Activity
Page 22
Page 23
a strict distinction between sets of commands as exists in Simper's three-level
structure. However, a quirk in Logo's evaluation scheme imposes a different
syntax on editing and management commands versus other operations. This will
be discussed later. Readers interested in more detailed discussions of Simper
and Logo should refer to report-I.
Peripheral Devices
Various terminals and controllable devices were available to Logo and
Simper students during and after both experiments (Figure 5). The machine
language Logo interpreter was modified to dispatch graphics (or other special
device) commands to a Sail program: Sailogo (Figure 5). This program and
Logo acted as coroutines. Hence, Logo's control of special devices was realized
by Sail procedures.
Most special devices played a relatively small role in the work reported on
here. A brief summary of only the graphics and animation facilities will be
included. All the devices are fully documented in report-I.!
Both experiments sought to establish good examples of how each device
could be employed in solutions to programming problems. Some aspects of this
will be discussed later with emphasis on relating device capabilities to teaching
the concepts (e.g., those in Table I).
All the students whose work will be discussed here began their
programming at conventional, model 33 Teletypes(R). This slow (IO-characters-
per-second), noisy, inexpensive but reliable terminal was their basic means for
communicating with Logo and Simper until they had mastered the languages
well enough to make good use of such special capabilities as graphics. In spite
11 am indebted to Steve Weyer for his fine implementation of the many special IMSSSLogo features, such as graphics and animation.
PDP-lO Operating SystemIII
IMSSS Student System/ \
/ \/ \
Logo ----------- Simper/ \ \ I .
/ \ \ II \ \ I .
.TEC(R) Sailogo -------.--------1-----.--I \ . \ I .\I \ \ I . \
. I \. \ I .\Turtle Audio Train Plotter Teletype(R) IMLAC(R)
(Dotted lines mark connections made after the first experiment)
Fig. 5. Programming System Structure
Page 25
of obvious drawbacks, Teletypes were in plentiful supply and provided paper
printout for projects (like posters) whose results students wanted to take home.
Some students retained a particular liking for Teletypes, because the mechanical
bedlam generated by one in operation fascinated them.
Some fast (a few hundred characters-per-second), text-oriented, video
displays were used occasionally by some students. These had limited, graphics
like capabili ties, but they were not exploited in the experiments.
In the first experiment, two groups of students used IMLAC(R) PDS-l
graphics displays exclusively. These groups, however, are discussed only in
report-I. For the students whose work is of interest here, the IMLAC displays
constituted a goal, attained when a student's proficiency in the languages was
adequate to allow comfortable use of the graphics system (Tables VIn and IX).
The graphics, line-drawing system emulates many abilities of the robot
"turtle" developed at MIT and BBN (Feurzeig and Lukas, 1972b). It allows
movement on the screen to be specified by "x,y" end-points in addition to the
turtle's normal, roving-polar-coordinates scheme (in which movement is specified
by 'FRONT' and 'BACK' along an angular heading changed by 'RIGHT' and
'LEFT'). For example, a square can be drawn by the Logo procedure 'SQUARE':
TO CORNER :SIZE:"10 FRONT :SIZE:20 RIGHT 90END
TO SQUARE :SIZE:10 CORNER :SIZE:20 CORNER :SIZE:30 CORNER :SIZE:40 CORNER :SIZE:END
Name-
CLEAR
WIPE
SEE (HIDE)
PENDOWN (PENUP)
PENP
POKE (UNPOKE)
HOME
FRONT (BACK)
LEFT (RIGHT)
SETHEADING
ASETX (ASETY)
ASETXY
RSETX (RSETY)
RSETXY
THERE
HERE
ARC
ZAP (ZIP)
PLOT (UNPLOT)
SETSCALE
SETTURTLE
WRAP
COMPRESS
Page 26
Table VIII
IMSSS Logo Turtle-Graphics Commands
Action
erase the text area of the screen
erase any drawing and put turtle home
make the turtle appear (disappear)
enable turtle to draw visible (invisible) lines
return '"TRUE''' if turtle's pen is down, '"FALSE''' otherwise
stick out (pull in) turtle's head
move turtle to home position defined by 'SETTURTLE'
move turtle forward (backward) a specific distance
rotate turtle left (right) specific number of degrees
point turtle on a specific angular heading
move turtle horizontally (vertically) to an absolutescreen position
move turtle horizontally and vertically to a position
move turtle horizontally ( vertically) a relative amount
move turtle relative to its present screen position
equivalent to an 'ASETXY' and a 'SETHEADING'
return turtle's current position and angular heading
make turtle draw an arc of specified radius and sense
erase last turtle move(s) up to a visible line segment
(do not) direct turtle commands to rohot or plotter
set screen resolution in units-per-inch
set both sca~e and home positron on screen
set up screen boundaries for wraparound
shorten IMLAC display list (precludes use of 'ZAP' oi 'ZIP')
Page 27
Table IX
IMSSS Logo Animation Commands
Name
SNAP
ENDSNAP
ERASESNAP
WHATSNAPS
SHOWSNAP
PUTSNAP
MOVESNAP
WIPESNAPS
Action
wipe screen and begin creating a numbered "snapshot" ofwhatever drawing (less erasures) is subsequently done
finish defining current snapshot and wipe screen
delete specified snap and its number
return a sentence of currently used snapshot numbers
display specified snapshot at turtle's screen position
identify a snapshot with an old or new "object" at aspecific screen positionJ or move or erase an object
. move an object (with wraparound) a relative distance ona relative heading and return object's final, absoluteposition (lOR" in an object number has effect of 'RSETXY')
wipe screen and erase all snapshots and objects
(A procedure for moving an object, referenced by a snapshot number, across the screenmight be:
TO WALK :SNAPNUMBER:10 SHOWSNAP :SNAPNUMBER,20 ZAP (a snapshot is a "line" under erasure)30 FRONT 1040 WALK :SNAPNUMBER:END
or, better:
TO WALK :OBJECTNUMBER:10 MOVESNAP:OBJECTNUMBER: "10 0"20 WALK :OBJECTNUMBER:END
for the latterJ 'PUTSNAP' must first be used to tie a snapshot (an appearance) to an objectat some screen position.)
Page 28
Lines drawn may be erased by 'ZAP' and 'ZIP' commands, permitting limited
picture editing as well as primitive animation. One student produced a short
sequence showing a fuse "burning" down (disappearing into) and exploding a
firecracker..
'PLOT' allows one to direct the effects of most graphics commands to either
an HP7202A plotter or a robot turtle (General Turtle Inc., Cambridge, Mass.).
Most students highly valued the .abili ty to reproduce on paper what their
programs had drawn on the display screens. Since students could use any type
of terminal and stiI! have their drawings appear on the plotter, this was
exploited to encourage students to write and debug storable procedures rather
. than to just draw by direct commands. The plotter was only sporadically
available during the first experiment and a true, robot turtle was available on
occasion during both experiments. The robot came along with a "music-box"
which was used significantly by two students in the second experiment.
During the first experiment, it became apparent that more powerful
animation abilities would be possible and might serve as strong motivation for
more complex student projects.. Prior to the second experiment, genuine
animation was added to Logo and Simper was modified to access the graphics
system as well (Appendix 3, pages 1ST and 1LT). The 'SNAP' command aI!owed
a student to save the effects of most subsequent graphics commands as a display
subroutine within the IMLAC. These "snapshots" could then be shown
anywhere on the IMLAC screen with 'SHOWSNAP' or 'PUTSNAP'. Snapshots of
the same object in different orientations or sizes could then be shown
successively in a "movie" (e.g., with 'MOVESNAP').
Although true animation CPUTSNAP' and 'MOVESNAP' in Table IX) was
not used by students in the first experiment, it was used in the second. Some
students from the first experiment continued to work with Logo, influencing
(
Page 29
some aspects of the developing animation system. A short film about
LogolIMLAC graphics and animation is available from IMSSS.2 Figure 6 is
adapted from that film.
Students used animation to produce such things as a flyable helicopter, a
rocket launch, animated tic-tac-toe, movies of throbbing polygons, and a tennis-
game. An example program appears in Appendix 4.
The computer could also be made to utter sounds (via the Logo primitive
'SAY') composed of any of several thousand prerecorded phrases, words, and
phonemes stored in the IMSSS system. No organized use was made of this in
the experiments, since it amounts to little more than the aural equivalent of
'PRINT'. Only a few terminals with audio output were available to students.
Nevertheless, most students discovered the facility and some made imaginative
use of it.
Fig. 6. Successive FraInes from a Logo-Animation "Movie".
2 pat Crawley of the Stanford Communications Department produced this film. starringAdam Grosser, Greg Hinchliffe, Steve Spurlock. Steve Weyer and the author.
Page 30
3 Students, Tutoring and Curricula
The desire to draw some conclusions about programming languages led to
the student groupings shown in Table X. The first experiment had been
concerned with assessing the value of graphics as welI, accounting for the
formation of groups IV and V. Those two groups are discussed only in report-l.
Groups I, II and III in both the first and the second experiments provided most
of the data for comparing the languages, evaluating the curricula and
characterizing tutor-student-machine interactions.
The first experiment influenced many aspects of the second, some of which
will be discussed here. For example, the enthusiasm generated by the graphics
and animation system inspired the inclusion of graphics in late parts of both
the Simper and Logo curricula, at a time when students had mastered either
language "welI enough".
Schools near Stanford were contacted in order to obtain inexperienced
programmers, 10 to 15 years old--an age which is thought to ensure that
children can master abstractions (Piaget, 1970).1
Teachers and others recommending students were asked not to base their
selections on students' performances in school, because the intent was to study
how any child learns to program. It had been observed previously that teachers
tend to recommend only their better, mathematics students for such special
projects. Apart from an admonition against such preference, the manner in
which the invitation "to learn how to use a computer" was presented to students
could not be controlIed, so it cannot be stated that the enrolIees constituted a
cross-section of local students.
11 am indebted ~o Carolyn Stauffer for her invaluable help as liaison.
Page 31
Table X
Experimental Groups
Group Composition
1973:
1974:
I
II
III
IV
V
I
II
III
8 students learning Logo and then Simper
8 students learning Simper and then Logo
8 students learning Logo and Simper at once
5 students learning Logo with graphics
10 paired students learning Logo with graphics
5 students learning Logo and then Simper
5 students learning Simper and then Logo
5 students learning Logo and Simper at once
Page 32
In the second experiment, an additional source of "gifted" students was
available. They worked at teletypewriters at home, were assigned to groups
matching I, II and III, received the corresponding curricula on demand by mail
and could call myself or others at Stanford for help during certain hours.
Unfortunately, only a few of these students did significant amounts of work
with Logo and Simper. Their work will be discussed at appropriate times, but
these students are not indicated in the Tables and Figures.
More students responded than were needed for the groups outlined in Table
X. As many as possible were accommodated, including friends who appeared
later during the body of the experiments. Figure 7 presents some responses of
the enrolling students to a brief questionnaire. Since students typically heard
about the course from their matbematics teachers, the indicated preferences
weren't surprising. As an aside, the students' attitudes toward school seemed to
agree with observations in Jackson (1968) that one-fifth or more of all school
children will readily admit that they dislike school in general.
In all, about fifty students involved themselves in the first experiment, and
correspondingly, about twenty enrolled in the second. To some degree, this
insulated the experiments from the problem of dropouts. Transportation
problems created a few defacto dropouts, particularly in the first experiment.
In the first experiment, students were scheduled to use the machine one
hour per day, four days per week, with more regard for their convenience than
for experimental grouping (Table X). Because the first experiment was in part
a pilot study for the second, Fridays were reserved for modifying the curricula
and debugging the interpreters or devices. However, on demand of some of the
more interested students, Friday was considered open too.
Page 33
Age/School Distribution Age/Liking of School
ch lO- st; 10I pe wo 14 15 15d hv la gu 14 14 15r hv me gu 14 14 14e 5- hv hv rna 14 13 13n hv hv rna 14 13 13 12
hv hv rna gu 12 13 12 12fr hv hv hv rna gu 13 11 13 12 12hv hv hv hv rna gu 11 10 10 12 12
0- ---------------------- --------------10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5
age disl ike lik.e
Age/Subject Preferences
Engl ish Languages Mathematics Science
1515- 14
14141313
10- 15 14 15 15 1314 14 14 15 14 1314 14 14 15 14 14 15 1314 14 14 15 13 13 14 15 1213 13 14 14 12 14 13 13 14 12
5- 12 15 13 14 13 15 14 12 14 13 12 14 1212 14 12 13 13 14 14 12 14 12 12 12 14 1212 14 12 13 15 12 13 13 12 14 14 13 12 12 12 14 1211 14 12 12 13 12 13 12 12 13 14 13 12 11 14 12 13 1111 13 10 10 12 10 13 11 11 10 12 12 11 10 14 11 10 13 10
0- -------------- -------------- -------------- -- -- -_._-- -----1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
dislike like
Fig. 7a. Some Information Characterizing the 1973 Students
Age/School Distribution
ch 10-i1d wor te woe 5- te ten hv te
hv tehv hv te
ba wo hv hv te0- ----------------------
9 10 11 12 13 14
age
Age/Liking of School
141413131313
12 1211 12 12 13
9 12 12 13-----_._-------
1 2 3 4 5
dislike like
Page 34
Age/Subject Preferences
Engl ish languages Mathematics Science
10- 141313
14 13 1413 13 13
5- 13 13 1314 13 12 14 12 14 13 13
14 13 12 13 14 12 12 12 13 13 1212 13 13 12 12 11 13 13 12 13 12 12 12 12 12
9 12 13 11 12 9 12 12 12 13 12 12 11 9 12 11 9 120- -------------- -------------- -------------- --------------
1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
dislike lik.e
Fig. 7b. Some Information Characterizing the 1974 Students
Page 35
In the second experiment, students used the machine three hours per week,
on two-or three-day schedules. This was done because the first experiment had
indicated that students should be segregated by group to allow more uniform
tutoring and to minimize the inevitable distractions raised in a roomfull of
students working at different places in different curricula or on projects in
different languages. The students still retained the right to go to another
room, after their scheduled session had ended, and use another terminal.
In order to obtain an initial assessment of each student's aptitude for
programming, and to point out possible problems that each student might later
have in learning the concepts, a test was constructed prior to the first
experiment. It consisted of questions gleaned from a wide range of sources,
because no one test in current use seemed to be valid for the range of concepts
in Table 1. A number of commercial programming tests were examined and
some questions from these were used.2
However, all these tests relied heavily on timed sections of multiple-choice,
often repetitious questions. Such structuring produces easily graded results and
is commonly used to boost the "reliability" (correlation among test applications)
of a test. In contrast, development of the test used for this work placed
emphasis on the more elusive but crucial notion of validity, and on the
exposure of thought processes (e.g., per Bloom & Broder, 1950).
A test, no matter how reliable, is utterly useless if it fails to measure the
property of interest. It may even be dangerously misleading. In terms of the
theory of testing and evaluation, as currently applied in the social sciences (e.g.,
see Worthen & Sanders, 1973; or, for the politics/reali ties of evaluation, see
Jackson, 1968, and McLaughlin, 1974), validity like reliability is measured by
21est5 included: the ARea Computer Programmer, the CPAB and Flanagan Industrial Testseries by SRA, the fePI data-processing test. and the IBM programming aptitude test.
Page 36
correlative techniques. However, no matter how long the chain of correlations,
validity is ultimately founded in human judgements and evaluations of quality.
An example of validation taken from a commercial test-brochure is outlined in
Appendix 2. It should alert the reader to some of the pitfalls that threaten
those who wish to do aptitude testing, particularly with commercially available
materials. Read critically, the example implies that testing theory and practice
typically diverge when validity is demanded, yet validity of measures is
precisely what must be demanded when meaningful research is the goal.
A test was presented to enrolling students for two purposes. One, some
measure of the students' aptitude for learning the concepts was needed for
matched grouping. Two, hopefully it would be possible to match the way
students attacked particular questions in the test with particular aspects of
their performance in the experiments. The test might ther,efore shed light on
the .tutorial needs of each student.
The preliminary test was constructed of some questions taken from the
commercial tests mentioned earlier and questions of original design. All
questions were formulated or reformulated to require constructive answers. The
1973 and 1974 tests are reproduced in report-1 and Appendix 2, respectively.
Multiple-choice questions were thought useless. They force students to make
judgements based on two levels: their relevant knowledge and the sensibility of
the prescribed answers. The grader of such questions is freed of the burden of
judging diverse answers simply by having it thrown onto the test constructer
and the least-experienced judges: the students. What students think about each
question and why they give their answers are important pieces of information
that such testing destroys. For this work, students' answers were valued even if
they were wrong or incomplete. Detailed answers would help evaluate the test
as well as the students; and the judging would be done by persons experienced
in the relevant fields (i.e., by the author or other programmers).
Page 37
The desire for constructive answers to all questions on the test is best
justified by those examples of "wrong" answers which nonetheless showed that
students were thinking along the right lines. Figure 8 presents some for a
question derived from a commercial test (note also the subtle defects in
drawings Band C, and the beguiling A-B sequence). It is important to note
that answers like those in the figure evidence approaches to the questions which
would have been counted completely right or wrong if nonconstructive answers
(e.g., multiple-choice) had been required. Figure 9 shows examples of totally
unexpected answers to a question of original formulation.
One can neither assess a student fairly, nor know what a test is testing if
. the questioning scheme critically warps or limits information relevant to the
purpose test.
About one-hundred questions were selected for possible use in the test.
Before the questions were presented to students enrolling in the first
experiment, their difficulty, clarity, and the time required for their solution
were evaluated by presenting the entire assemblage to several programmers
(children and adults) in the IMSSS community.3 As a result of this simple
evaluation, most of the questions were accepted and were presented in two tests.
Students answered one-third of the questions on the day they enrolled, being
allowed one hour. The second test was to be completed at home at each
student's convenience. The two parts of the test contained many similar
questions. This was done because the preliminary evaluation had suggested that
time should not be a factor in testing. Thorough and accurate evaluation of
both test and students seemed to demand that as many questions as possible be
answered. Two-part testing would also suggest whether or not any time limit
should be applied to the single test which would be used in the second
3 1 am g~ateful to Marney Beard. Doug Danforth. Adele Goldberg. Paul Hechinger. GregHinchliffe and Lauri Kanerva for their help.
Page 38
The Question and the Desired Answer:
Figure A was changed into Figure B by iI simple rule. Please drawfigure D so that it corresponds to figure C changed by the same rule.
A B c D
What is the rule in words?
Other Answers:
BOTTOM SHRINKS, TOP GROWS
TURN IT UPSIDE DOWN AND ALTERNATE SIZEol:J
A IS A SQUARE WITH A CIRCLE, B IS JUST THE OPPOSITE
YOU CHANGE TO THE OPPOSITES
TAKE THE FIRST BASIC FIGURE AND CHANGE WITH THESMALLER AND TURN UPSIDE DOWN
THE SMALL TOP FIGURE BECOMES LARGE AND THE OTHERBECOMES SMALL AND THEY. TRADE PLACES
Fig. 8. Some "Wrong" Answers from the 1973 Preliminary Test
Page 39
The Question and the Desired Answer:
What one rule, not using arithmetic, was used to make the digits onthe right from the strings of digits on the left?
999999999
556
6106
TAKE THE FIRST DIGIT
Alternate, Unforeseen Answers:
THE DIGIT USED THE MOST
PREDOMINANT NUMBER
9
5
6
WHAT EVER NUMBER THERE IS MOST ON THE LEFT, PUT ITON THE RIGHT
TAKE THE DIGIT WITH THE HIGHEST PLACE VALUE,OR THE ONE THAT REPEATS MOST OFTEN
Note: "number" was acceptable although "digit" or "numeral II weretechnically correct. More than half of the students who gave·complete answers to this problem seemed not to be aware of thedistinction. Their rank and choices of words contrasted as:
1973 or 1974student rank
at or above median
below median
"digit tr
or~Inumeral"
14
3
"number"
11
13
Fig. 9. Some Novel Answers from the Preliminary Tests
Page 40
experiment. Unfortunately, many of the students failed to complete the lengthy
"take-home" portion of the test, either for lack of interest or because they
dropped out. For the second experiment, it was decided that the test would be
shorter and that new students would work on it during their first day, taking
it home to finish if necessary.
Questions had been selected according to their apparent value in testing the
ability to manipulate unfamiliar languages, model or analyze processes, form
deductions, and visualize figural transformations (see Appendix 2). Some of the
questions proved to be very useful for discriminating among the enrolling
students. Two of these, the "candy-machine" and the "numbers-in-boxes"
problems (Appendix 2, or report-1, page 169), required an understanding of
concepts directly related to programming. Errors made by the students on these
two questions were especially interesting and will be discussed.
In the candy-machine problem, a partial flow-diagram was provided in
which few states had been left blank and connections between some states were
missing. The task was to complete the diagram in any reasonable way. Many
students had trouble with the basic idea that a process can be represented on
paper as a diagram of the sequence of events in the process. They left blank
states empty, filled them inappropriately, or misconnected the dangling states.
Errors in the solutions given could be divided into three classes: (1)
assignment of unreasonable destinations for unconnected arrows, (2) assignment
of unreasonable functions for undescribed states, and (3) treatment of the entire
diagram as a maze in which only one path was to be marked as a likely
protocol. Errors in class (1) or (2) suggest that a student had trouble using
the information alrell.dy present in the diagram to deduce reasonable "things to
do next" or "things to do now". Class (3) is interesting because such errors
indicate that a student viewed the diagram as a menu of instructions from
which to choose one plausible sequence, rather than as a complete description of
all possible sequences, for some process.
Page 41
The numbers-in-boxes question asked the students to obey a short, program
like sequence of arithmetic instructions which operated on some numbers
written in a set of numbered boxes. Very few students correctly obeyed the
instruction which read: "Add the number in box 7 to the number found in the
box whose box number is in box 6, and write the sum in box 6". The sentence
is hard to read, but the idea that a number (value) in a box could be used as
the number (name) of a box (indirect addressing) was the typical difficulty.
Many students also had trouble with the idea that writing a new number into a
box should destroy its previous contents. Solutions fell into a few distinct
classes which can be attributed to failures in the understanding of those two
concepts.
In both experiments, the test was used to establish a rank ordering of
enrolling students, and performance on the test seemed to break into a few
levels. For the first experiment, roughly equal numbers of students from each
level were assigned to groups I, II and III. The second experiment's grouping
was more constrained by the interaction of students' scheduling preferences with
the desire to keep the groups in separate time-slots. In both experiments
students determined their own class schedule within the time constraints
mentioned earlier.
Figure 10 shows the composition of the groups according to testing rank,
age and amount of time spent in actual work with the interpreters. The candy
machine and the "logic" (Appendix 2, or report-I, page 170) problems tended to
be most influential in discriminating among students of equal age above and
below the median. The youngest had the most trouble with the candy machine.
They missed the poi~~ that the diagram was an overall description of the
machine. A few of the older students were familiar with flow-charts from
school and thought that problem easy. In the first experiment, they had also
been students who enrolled late. These late arrivals usually did very well
Group Age
Page 42
Hours Spent Using Logo & Simper
III*$ 151$ 15II*$ 15Ill$ 13III* 131*$ 12II*$ 13Ill# 141# 14II.............. 13II 14II 12II# 14II*# 141# 14
median.. 1# 14II# 14I 11II# 14III 11I 12I 14III*# 13III 12III 131$ 121* 10II 12III 12I 12Ill$ 10II 13
36.435.718.129.711.112.759.2o5.8
50.633.522.8
6.427.9
5.75.7o
24.24.9
14.223.018.0
2.111.028.727.111.721.120.119.135.7
6.1
* marks students who enrolledlate.
# marks early dropouts.
. marks significant breaks inperformance on the test.
$ marks those who continuedprogramming well beyond theexperiment.
Fig. lOa. Student Ranking on the 1973 Preliminary Test
Group Age
Page 43
Hours Spent Using Logo & Simper
1$ 12III$ 9III* 13III 12II 13II 13II.............. 131* 12
median.. II$ 13II 111$ 141# 13IlL 14III 12III* 121# 12I 12
24.247.827.133.215.426.925.926.333.714.345.4
3.212.038,616.21.58.0
* marks students who enrolledlate.
# marks early dropouts.
. marks significant breaks inperformance on the test.
$ marks those who continuedprogramming well beyond theexperiment.
Fig. lOb. Student Ranking on the 1974 Preliminary Test
Page 44
with the test, perhaps in part because they worked on it quietly alone--a
feature lacking in the massed testing of the first enrollees. This provided
another reason for eliminating timing of the test in the second experiment.
Examining the first experiment's test-results in terms of four constituents:
the first three problems mentioned above, and everything else, the students'
performances compare generally as follows. Students at the bottom of the
ranking (Figure lOa) were unable to grasp the candy-machine and the box-
program questions, they correctly analyzed only the clearest statements in the
logic problem, and they failed to finish the test by a large amount. Students
near the middle filled only the empty states in the candy machine reasonably;
they correctly obeyed all commands but the indirect-addressing command in the
box program, with some failures to erase a box's content when they wrote into
it; they only missed the fourth statement in the logic problem; and they did
fairly well on the rest of the test, though not always finishing it. Students
near the top correctly filled all states and connected all the dangling arrows in
the candy machine, a few of them missed the indirect-addressing command in
the box program, they did the logic problem correctly, and they typically
finished the rest of the test. Similar comments apply to test results for the
second experiment, with the qualification that these students seemed to do
better on the test than did those in the first experiment.
Of course these breakdowns are not rigid. In particular, it is very hard to
order many of the tests in the broad middle regions of the rankings. Ranking/'.
forces transitivity upon performance ratings for solutions and problems which
are often qualitatively different. But by demanding constructive answers, the
answers contained much detailed information about the students and the test.'.If the test had been an exercise in multiple-choice, it is not clear what
information it would have conveyed, but it certainly would have conveyed less.
Page 45
Some changes in the test were made as a result of the first experiment.
Aside from making it shorter and unitary, and applying it individually with no
time limit, changes typically involved readability and the elimination of
frivolous questions.
Tutoring. Both experiments were planned to depend upon written curricula
which would control the basic information given to students. Interpreters for
the programming languages would simply act as computational .resources which
the students could use to work problems in the curricula or experiment with on
their own. However, any attempt to develop a fully self-contained curriculum
for programming was deemed unrealistic. The main concern was gaining access
to tutorial protocols generated by novice programmers working in the best
possible environment for learning. Therefore, human tutors were provided who
could help students over failures in the curricula and report their interactions.
The -tutors were to be knowledgeable in the programming languages being taught
and would be familiar with the corresponding curricula.
In the first experiment, it was hoped that enough tutors would be available
each day to guarantee at least one for each five students in each group.4 Two
instructions to the tutors were emphasized: (1) never type anything for the
student on his or her own terminal, even when giving the most direct help, all
typing must be the student's; and (2) when asked for help on any problem,
encourage the student to formulate and tryout his or her own ideas first,
before making other suggestions. It was hoped that these instructions would
guarantee the purity of the protocol data and help the students to think as
much about generating and debugging ideas as about getting correct results.
Unfortunately, this tutoring effort failed in some crucial functions. First,
4 My thanks go to Avron Barr. Marney Beard, Doug Danforth, Adele Goldberg., David Ragosaand John Shochfor their help as tutors.
Page 46
initial enthusiasm faded quickly and most tutors became sporadic in making
their scheduled appearances. This seemed largely due to their lack of prior
experience in working closely with, and at the immediate demand of, several
children at once. Second, and accordingly, the tutors could not maintain
detailed logs of their interactions. Third, the tutors did not always keep up
with new developments in the curricula, partly because its production fell
behind the students' pace and partly because pieces of it were designed "on the
fly" to patch mistakes/omissions. In either case, new curriculum-text was made
available to students and tutors simultaneously--a bad policy.
Therefore, for the second experiment, tutoring was to be done by one
. person (the author) working with at most five students, all in the same group
(per Table X), with the appropriate curriculum ready well in advance of each
session. This facilitated note taking, gave the students personal, more uniform
help, and ensured that problems with the curricula/interpreters were caught
quickly. It is one reason why the number of students in the second experiment
is smaller than it was in the first.
Curricula. Development of "parallel" curricula for Simper and Logo proved
to be the most demanding task in setting up the experiments. Both the
concepts and the languages had to be taught, and this is done best with example
problems, some of whose solutions students must copy, modify or generate. The
ability to teach both the concepts and the languages would be very sensitive to
the choice of problems. For the students, the experiment was to serve to
improve their literacy on the subject of computers and computation. Again the
choice of examples and projects would be important.
Unfortunately, documentation of problems used in similar work by others
was scarce or cursory. Furthermore, most of the relevant research had been
based on Logo or an equivalent high-level language. Problems appropriate for a
Page 47
low-level language such as Simper are typically quite different. That was the
fundamental obstacle to achieving apparent parallelism, given the intentionally
diverse natures of the languages to be taught. So, the curricula were
constructed to teach the concepts in roughly the same. order, using whatever
features each language possessed that could best be exploited for each concept.
As well as the concepts, the mechanical details of each language had to be
taught. A few features (line-editing, Table VII) of Simper and Logo are very
similar and were taught at the same time in the same way. But most features
were taught differently, either because they were appropriate to different
concepts or because they were needed at different times as tools in the general
structure of each language. The Logo and Simper curricula are documented, as
they were during the first experiment, in report-I. The discussion here will
concentrate on the changes to the curricula which resulted from that
experiment, in preparation for the second (see also Appendix 3).
Each curriculum was divided into five logical parts, each typically
discussing more than one concept. Each part gave students programs to work on
and fill-in-the-blanks questions to answer. The parts were distributed one at a
time, giving the author a chance to review each student's work on them. Those
students learning Simper and Logo simultaneously (group III) alternately
received parts for each language.
The concepts were presented only very roughly in the order of Table 1.
For instance, the concept of a heuristic was introduced relatively early via a
scheme for thinking about recursive algorithms. This involved a brief case
analysis of some problems (derived from Polya, 1957): (a) what case can be
computed? Cb) how.do I detect that case? Cc) if not that case, then how do I
generate one closer to it? Cd) what must I remember for each case? and Ce)
when do I stop? In procedural terms, Ca) and Cb) form the procedure body, (c)
is the recursive step, Cd) preserves local context, and (e) is the stopping rule.
Page 48
A special effort was made to produce visually pleasing curricula. Path
pointers gave direction to the student, making the next question or instruction
contingent upon the student's latest response. This subtly introduced decision
making and sequencing (program control). It was, however, a bit too subtle for
most students. Cartoons and examples were chosen for humorous as well as
conceptual merit, and summaries were included so that the curricula could
endure as reference material.
Changes in the curricula between the two experiments centered on
reordering and reformulation of discussions of several concepts. One effect was
reduction of the sizes of both the curricula to roughly sixty pages (a reduction
of 1/3 for Simper and 1/5 for Logo).
Modifications to the Simper curriculum were based upon apparent student
confusions in the first experiment. In Part 2, an explicit reminder was added
as to why computers don't understand human languages (because humans
themselves have yet to comprehend their own faculties). This helped to clarify
the curious results students obtained when they followed the advice to "type
anything you please". Otherwise, Parts 1 and 2 remained unchanged (see
report-I). Parts 3, 4 and 5 then proceeded along a mostly new course in
covering material previously allocated a dozen parts.
The new approach hinged on teaching machine-language first and thereby
motivating both the desirability of the more convenient assembly-language and
the need for the interpreter's powerful editing language. All this was
permeated with allusions to message processing and computational context. The
former being a metaphor used with some success in tutoring experiment-1
students, and the latt"i,r being an essential concept that had been troublesome to
many of those students.
Part 3 first sought to clear up the lesser problem of what literals are in
Page 49
the language by demonstrating more examples. It also tried to motivate the
need for registers as a scratch pad. It then approached one aspect of context:
attention. The machine was described as giving its "attention" to registers and
memory cells when in the process of executing a program--only certain values in
those cells could be "understood" as legal instructions. Without an ability to
focus its attention on a source of messages, the machine would be quite useless.
Registers, as defined by the machine's structure, were described as a means for
passing messages between instructions, reflecting an aspect of the machine's
internal context. In spite of the simplicity of the machine-language programs
written in Part 3, editing commands such as 'SLIDE' (Table III) found direct
application; and a few students suggested new ones (e.g., 'FLIP').
Simper Part 4 reviewed two of the three segments of machine-language
instructions covered in Part 3 (i.e., the operation and register fields), and went
on to motivate the need for the address field as a source of the second input to
binary operations (e.g., addition) and as a means for accessing "full-word"
chunks of data. Since the structure of most machines modelled by Simper was
once dictated by both technology and economics, a brief word to that effect was
included in the tutoring. The essential role of memory in any machine
deserving of the name "computer" was alluded to. Using a time-telling program
developed in this and the previous part, students were led into assembly
language. The use of new editing commands (e.g., 'LIST'), designed especially
for this second language, were also introduced. The remainder of Part 4 dealt
with execution sequencing, and decision making. It attempted to motivate these
wi th an odd!even number-testing program analogous to one used in the Logo
curriculum. This problem was formulated as a test of the student's ability to
translate an English "statement of a program into Simper. Students having
trouble writing the program were helped, and details of this tutoring were
recorded. The final version of the program demanded an understanding of
Page 50
literals, names (in the form of machine addresses), binary operations, register
and memory-cell intercommunication, conditional and unconditional branching,
and the communication of symbols to and from the typist. To cap off this
work and prove that problems can often be solved in several externally
equivalent ways, the curriculum suggested rewriting the program with fewer
instructions (three basic forms existed).
Simper Part 5 attempted to crystallize the idea that interactive programs
define new languages and thus set up new contexts when run. Student-defined
symbols (names) and relative addressing were introduced as conveniences,
peculiar not just to assembly-language programming. They found application in
a random-number, guessing-game program used also in the Logo curriculum.
The decision-making operation ('COMPARE') was then introduced as a way of
making the students' programs smarter--they could now give their users hints
like: . "GUESS HIGHER". At this point, the concept of a function was
introduced much as in the original curriculum and with the same visual aids.
Part 5 closed with some reviews of messages and context in terms of the
"domains" of functions.
Now students could go on to learn how to use the Simper graphics
capabilities (Section 2), which were identical in power to those of Logo. They
could also begin to learn Logo if they had not already. As in the first
experiment, most students did not complete both curricula, so things like
"pushdown stacks" were discussed only in terms of special projects which a few
students undertook.
Part 2 of the new Logo curriculum was changed in the same way as was
Simper Part 2. Part 3 kept the old discussions of literals and simple, direct
commands, but then led into procedures as program elements, rather than·
naming (e.g., with 'MAKE'). Time- and date-telling procedures were the focus
Page 51
because experiment-l students had generated these on their own and had found
them useful as well as instructive. The idea that problem solutions could be
broken into logical parts was demonstrated simply by a procedure that. called
both the time and date procedures.
Logo Part 4 discussed naming first in terms of procedure names and then
in terms of input variables to procedures. 'MAKE' was only introduced when a
student's special project absolutely demanded it. Execution control was
illustrated in terms of a procedure that called itself unconditionally, running
forever. This was parallel to what had been done in Simper. Editing
commands were reviewed, and message passing and context were developed in
terms of procedure inputs. Block diagrams, which had little success in the first
experiment, were simplified and given a second chance as aids. As for Simper,
the introduction of functions was unchanged. Logo's parsing of complicated
command-lines was depicted with diagrams, and a fill-in-the-blanks...script.
adapted from the original curriculum.
Logo Part 5 opened with decision-making as an essential ability of any true
computer and a brief discussion of the programmer's role in using such abilities
for his or her purposes. The various Logo predicates were covered using block
diagrams, examples and exercises taken from the original curriculum. The part
predicates play in decision-making was emphasized. Composition of commands
was discussed, particularly along the lines of a telephone-call metaphor. This
was expanded further in terms of good program articulation as the following
p~ogram was developed. The use of simple recursion (iteration) and stopping
rules was motivated by a clock simulator which printed "TICK" or "TOCK"
depending upon whether the time (in seconds) maintained by the system was"
even or odd. Applications of Logo's two decision-structures ('IF'... and 'TEST'...)
also were contrasted with this program as:
TO KLOK10 TEST EVENP SECONDS20 IFTRUE PRINT "TICK"30 IFFALSE PRINT "TOCK"40 KLOK
where
TO KLOK10 IF EVENP SECONDS THEN PRINT "TICK"
ELSE PRINT "TOCK"20 KLOK
Page 52
50 IFFALSE QUIZ' :PICK: REQUEST
TO SECONDS10 RETURN BUTLAST BUTFIRST BUTFIRST TIME
and
TO EVENP :X:10 RETURN ZEROP REMAINDER QUOTIENT :X: 2
were also defined by the students. That Logo has, as most languages have,
redundant operations, was demonstrated by having students write a procedure
CAI.N'T') equivalent to 'NOT'.
True recursion (making use of local contexts) was introduced, as in the
earlier curriculum, using the "little brothers" analogy of Brown and Rubinstein.
The true effect of returning control but not a value from a recursively called
instance of a procedure was clarified.
The concept of a "bug" (unforseen error) in a program was illustrated by a
number-gu3ssing-game program similar to that in the Simper curriculum.
Students were asked to design the program and then modify it in several ways,
all of which, except the last (using 'COMPARE'), suffered from particular
inabilities to interact reasonably with the human guesser:
TO QUIZ :PICK: :GUESS:10 TEST COMPARE :PICK: :GUESS:20 IFTRUE PRINT "SMARTY'"30 IFTRUE QUIZ RANDOM REQUEST40 IFFALSE IF LESSP :PICK: :GUESS: THEN PRINT "GUESS LOWER"
ELSE PRINT "GUESS HIGHER"
TO COMPARE :X: :Y:10 IF BOTH NUMBERP :X: NUMBERP :Y: THEN RETURN EQUALP :X: :Y:
ELSE RETURN "FALSE"
Page 53
Logo's file system was introduced at this point because it seemed natural
that students would want to save this particular program. As had been done
earlier for editing commands, a one-page manual was included for file
manipulations and abbreviations. Some examples gave practice.
Recursive procedures that return values were introduced using a more
thorough treatment of an example from the original curriculum. Both block
and little-brother diagrams were used to describe how a procedure-that removes
all instances of a selected letter from a selected word should work. The
students were asked to try their hands (and heads) at solving the problem by
synthesizing the procedure. Errors and questions were
were provided. A playlike script attempted to solidify
to be noted and solutions(
understanding of one
solution. Different forms of solutions (e.g., left- and right-recursive) were also
discussed. Then a modification was suggested which would lead to the solution
of another problem: writing a procedure to reverse a word. Up to this time,
no stopping rules had been concerned with numerical criteria. Now, counting
and program self-modification were introduced by a procedure that counted up
(or down) to a limit and then modified itself permanently by self-erasure:
TO SELFDESTRUCT :HOWSOON:10 IF LESSP :HOWSOON: 1 THEN ERASE SELFDESTRUCT
ELSE SELFDESTRUCT DIFFERENCE :HOWSOON: 1
The final of Part 5 developed Polya's ideas on solving problems in terms of
the structure of general recursive procedures. Several projects derived from the
first curriculum were presented. Students could then go on to Simper and
graphics, as they pleased.
The graphics curriculum was derived from that presented to students in".groups IV and V (Table X) in the first experiment. Since students in the
second experiment would have already mastered much of the basic languages, it
was shortened (to 7 pages) and concentrated on animation projects. Each
Page 54
student who completed either or both languages was asked to think of a project
to work on, graphics providing an enjoyable and quite acceptable medium.
What and how the students were taught were functions of two main beliefs:
(a) testing should be an educational experience; and (b) people should
understand as many of the valuable products of their culture as possible.
The nature of the tutoring prescribed implicit testing of each student, yet
all students always got each "answer" eventually. Especially in the second
experiment, students saw their actions precipitate prompt, accurate tutorial
responses. For both th" students and the research, a working goal was to have
students come to feel at ease with dialectical responses to their questions. For
a few students, this proved to be a difficult departure from their accustomed
experiences in formal schooling.
One knows not when a cultural product might be essential (physically or
psychically) to the individual or to the whole culture. But value is subjective
and evanescent, and one who finds an application for a cultural artifact may not
also find others expressing agreement that the application is valuable.
Nevertheless, any successful try at an application (discounting plain luck) first
demands some understanding. This reeks of technology, yet art, history,
engineering and gastronomics all draw from science to form their own
technologies. In short, everyone should understand and be comfortable with his
or her machines (e.g., Pirsig, 1974)--in the particular instance here, the
,"machine's machine": the computer. Some of the children in these experiments
hopefully would benefit in just this way, even if they might not discover the
fact for years. A nagging fear that this might be a vain hope was instilled in
this author when cO'nversing on this research with a successful educational
researcher, who regularly uses computers for statistical analyses. Hearing that
computers can do more than perform numerical computations left that
professional surprised--an example of how a tool can be misunderstood.
------'--.
Page 55
4 Data Acquisition and Analysis
The simple methods chosen for obtaining data and the type of analysis
believed to be appropriate for this essentially qualitative study will be discussed
here. Some reasons why the analysis should not be founded naively upon
classical statistical inference will also be outlined here.
Throughout both experiments, the Simper and Logo interpreters saved
information on each student's activities. Each command or response typed by a
student was appended to his or her individual protocol file on the operating
system's disc-storage. Prompts and error messages elicited from the interpreters,
and output from students' programs were also saved as they happened. Each
such piece of information was tagged with its time of occurrence. At the end
of the first experiment, the Logo and Simper interpreters were modified to
accept these files directly, in place of keyboard input. Each student's
interactions with the interpreters could thus be replayed and be observed in
their proper context. In addition, the error-message and timing data in the
protocol files could be analyzed in more conventional ways by forming summary
statistics such as error frequencies and typing delays (response latencies). This
sort of data was not of particular interest, except insofar as it could be used to
point out particularly common errors, or confusions due to imperfections in the
curricula or the tutoring. Some additional data were obtained from notes made
by the tutors during the first experiment and the author's notes from the
second experiment. The bulk of the data derives from the latter notes and
replays of recorded protocols. Some problems with the IMSSS time-sharing
system, encountered during the first experiment, are discussed in report-l.
Most, of them also affected the second experiment in minor ways."
The usefulness of these experiments rests upon the ability to understand
students as they have tried to learn Logo, Simper and the concepts explained III
· Page 56
the curricula. Classical hypothesis-testing is not of concern in this work,
although others have attempted to reduce their analyses of children learning
programming to clinical forms, e.g.:
"Children who have had a Logo experience for several _semesters will perform significantly better on problem solvingtasks than children who have been in a non-Logo controlenvironment."
-- Folk et alia, (1973).
For this work, the goal has been an exposure of basic features of how
children think in the relatively unconstrained environment of a programming
laboratory. That is a qualitative exercise in careful judgement, and it centers
on a detailed study of errors made by students as they tryout new ideas for
themselves. But, as in any analysis of data, an analysis of errors must be valid
in the sense that its meaning is not warped by analytical constraints.
"It is a capital mistake to theorize before one has data.Insensibly one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead oftheories to suit facts."
--Sherlock Holmes, by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle.
Whenever statistical procedures (such as classical hypothesis-testing) are
applied to data, certain mathematical assumptions (e.g., of scale and
distribution) about the data must legitimately be met, if resulting conclusions
are to carry any scientific weight. In too many research settings, the
importance of procedural assumptions is ignored, generating technically invalid
or misleading analyses.
These remarks evangelize to those who, perhaps as students or other well-
intentioned researche.rs, might be seduced by the apparent power or elegance of
various, common, analytical procedures (e.g., analysis of variance), while being
unaware of some of their potential for frivolous application to expediently
massaged (e.g., vacuously scaled, "transgenerated" and/or "Windsorized") data.
Page 57
In the social sciences,especially in education, the style of research too
often reflects a Quixotic quest for numerical results, apparently stemming from
the belief that quantitativeness is a precursor of objectivity and respectability
in one's discipline.
"They use statistics as a drunkard uses lampposts, for supportrather than illumination."
--Andrew Lang.
For instance, some psychologist's fundamentally qualititative data might
mysteriously be provided a "scale" on which important "variables" could be
"measured"--the accrueing benefit to psychology ranking with that brought to
music by some quitarist's chance strumming of the Lost Chord.
Quantitativeness at any cost is a precursor of sham not objectivity. This, and
the dangers lurking in the fog of "cookbook" mastery of statistics, are amplified
by the relatively easy access most researchers now have to computerized,
statistical procedures (e.g., Ellis, 1972). Perhaps as seriously, widespread use of
standardized procedures has led to stereotyped theorizing (e.g., to hypothesis
testing restricted to linear models and Gaussian-distribution theory), wherein
convenient rather than reasonable procedures define the theory, and the implicit
necessary assumptions of the procedures are virtually ignored. The judgemental
analysis for this work hopefully respects the qualitative nature of the data to
which it is applied.
An example taken from Simper protocol data illustrates the nature of the
judgemental analysis used here. It shows how one student suddenly seemed to
grasp a concept with which he had been having trouble--name-value association
(addressing) in Simper. If the p!,ogramming is unclear, the reader should refer
.back to Chapter 2. The student's dialog with Simper is reproduced here as he
was engaged in writing a program to realize the function: x2 - 3 :
Page 58
003 :2
015 :ASK A016 :STORE A 200017 :MULTIPLY A A018 :SUBTRACT A 3019 :WRITE A020 :RUN 15:
He appears to understand the purpose of addressing in 'STORE A 200', but
his program contains several errors that suggest otherwise. The first causes
execution to stop at 017 because the symbol 'A', used in the address field of the
instruction in 017, has no binding and thus no associated value. The student
thought he could square the A register's content with the instruction:
'MULTIPLY A A', and he thought he could subtract 3 from that with:
'SUBTRACT A 3'. In both cases, the meaning of the register field seems to be
understood, but the address field is misunderstood. The student corrects the
first error (messages from the interpreter are in lower-case):
020 :FIX 17017 :MULTIPLY 200 200200 isn't a register, use a J b, or p017 :MULTIPLY A 200020 :RUN 15:
and the program works except that, because location 3 contains the value 2, the
subtraction doesn't do what he expected. At this point he seems to understand
that he can store and access values via addresses (names) because of his correct
use of the register and address fields of the 'STORE' and 'SUBTRACT'
instructions. But the idea crystallizes:
020 :FIX 201201 :3
when he associates the desired value 3 with the name (location) 201,-.
020 :FIX 18018 :SUBTRACT A 201
Page 59
and correctly accesses it to complete his program. From this dialog, one can see
the student begin to apply the concept in correct fashion (in the 'STORE'
instruction), then fail because he has not yet mastered it fully, and finally
succeed, partly helped by simple error diagnostics. The student later made a
similar mistake, but corrected it at once.
For the purposes of these experiments, this type of analysis can suggest
when and how a student masters something presented in the curricula. Students
can be compared in far greater detail than can be done with occasional discrete
tests, the curricula and languages may be evaluated very finely, and the
preliminary aptitude test's validity may be rated subjectively.
The language evaluation aspect of the protocol analysis is partly
demonstrated by the following examples from Logo and Simper protocols of
absurd or misleading responses to students' syntactic errors. First, consider:
..PRINT :::SNOOPY:::don't use the empty thing for a name
in which the student's obvious attempt at multiple indirect-addressing is
completely misconstrued by Logo's simplistic parsing (the first pair of colons
are found to contain no name string). And second:
001 :SUBTRACT 1 FROM P002 :RUNwarning! you forgot to name a location frompillegal memory reference 0 at 1
in which Simper, striving to extract three fields and no more from the student's
line, compressed a simple syntactic error and generated a more advanced type of
error. Not only was this spurious error unrelated to what the student had"
done, it exposed the student to a situation for which he was not yet prepared
(Le., the use of assembler symbols). These examples were taken from the first
experiment's data. Since it was in part a pilot study for the second, the
Page 60
analysis led to changes in Logo and Simper that corrected at least some of these
kinds of faults.
It should be clear that the Logo and Sirnper interpreters used are not
"smart". They do not tutor their users on the semantics of programs--in the
experiments, that was left to humans. The interpreters do little more than trap
syntactic errors, sometimes acceptably well:
001 :SHIFTunspecified register, use a, h, or p001 :SHIFT 7676 isn't a register, use a, b, or p001 :SHIFT Ashift uses 1, or r or @ and a number in the address field001 :SHIFT @56@56 isn't a register, use a, b J or p00 1 :SHIFT L 56I isn't a register, use a, b, or p001 :SHIFT A L57
As was mentioned earlier, a simple analysis of the protocol files was also
carried out. For example, if a Simper student's errors were categorized and
plotted as in the graph in Figure 11, an interesting effect usually could be
observed: familiarization with the language led to a decrease in errors classed
as syntactic and an increase in those classed as semantic--an infererence being
that as students increase their active programming vocabulary, they can more
easily realize their ideas about problems as programs and find that their ideas
(now programs) aren't always debugged. But this is more reasonably
corroborated by tutorial data and detailed protocol analysis.
The tutoring process often was dialectical, especially when students became
confused. It therefore possessed an analytical facet which influenced the
recorded data. For example, when students expressed doubt about their ability
to solve a particular problem, they were asked to explain the solution they had
attempted, then they and the tutor examined the pros and cons of this in
relation to the problem statement, converging toward a working solution. For
billl63.dta;3 AUGUST 1. 1973 12:20PM
1 DAYS. I LOGINS. 33.40 MINUTES ON, 372 KEYS TYPED ON 60 LINES.
RESPONSE DELAY. MEAN & DEVIATION: 32.15 34.35 SEC,
1.00 LOGINS/DAY. 33.40 MINUTES/DAY. 372.00 KEYS/DAY
33.40 MINUTES/LOGIN. 372.00 KEYS/LOGIN. 60,00 LINES/LOGIN
11.14 KEYS/MINUTE. 6.20 KEYS/LINE. 1.80 LINES/MINUTE
36 ERRORS: 36 GENERAL. 0 NAME. 0 RUN. 0 FIXUPS
36 SYNTAX ERRORS •• 60 SYNTAX ERRORS/LINE. 1.08 SYNTAX ERRORS/MINUTE
.00 RUN ERRORS/LINE •. 00 RUN ERRORS/MINUTE
Page 61
o 10 2DI I I
11###################21 ##########31##41#61#61#71#81#
30 40 50 60
llUNSPECIFIED REGISTER. USE A, B. OR P21EMPTY ADDRESS FIELD?31SHIFT & ROTATE USE L. R OR @ & A NUMBER IN THE ADDRESS FIELD41EXCHANGE USES A REGISTER IN THE ADDRESS FIELD510NLY VALUES FROM 0 TO 999 MAY BE PUT611SN'T A REGISTER. USE A. B. OR P71SHIFTS OR ROIATES MUST BE BETWEEN -999 & +99981UNKNOWN DPERATION
0.2 +
0.1Errors per
Command Line
I /0\ ·syntactic
I I \r \0 .,, ~I semanticI * . .
o +----+----*----+----+----+----+o I 2 3 4 6 6
Weeks in Course
Fig. 11. A Simple Quantitative Analysis of Protocols.
Page 62
reasons outlined earlier, this technique was employed extensively and uniformly
only in the second experiment.
Implici t testing was thus an important part of the curricula and tutoring
(e.g. pages 49L & 49S, Appendix 3), apart from the aptitude testing done before
both experiments and after the second. It allows students and their mastery of
the concepts to be compared at varlOUS stages.
The second experiment's post-testing was done only with those students who
completed all curricula and projects for both Logo and Simper. The posttest
contained questions like those used in the preliminary test, but also asked
questions that required writing Logo and Simper programs (see Appendix 2).
The preliminary aptitude test's results were presented as a rank-ordering of
the students (Figure 10) obtained by a "forced-choice" evaluation of their work.
Perhaps this is not justifiable, for a test whose validity remains uncertain. At
least a few students, especially near the medians, might well be reordered or
considered hopelessly tied. Yet rank-ordering enforces transitivity. The theory
behind the test is simple and qualitative: take as questions examples of the
thinking that programmers are typically asked to do, where some types of
thinking are more important, in the programming sense, than others. The
former relates to validity, the latter to transitivity. No part of the theory
suggests cardination or interval scaling. Perhaps a careful, subjective evaluation
of students' constructive answers can more nearly approximate an objective
ranking-technique (if one exists) than falsely objective testing/scoring
procedures can. The theory behind the test may be wrong or incomplete, but
determining that is one purpose of the experiments: what do students'
interactions with the preliminary test have to do with their interactions with
the programming curricula? The test's validity teeters on the subjective choice
of questions, and stands or falls subject to experimental data.
Page 63
5 Results
Anecdotal and judgemental information will be presented which helps in:
(a) understanding the students, (b) evaluating the tests, programming languages
and curricula, and (c) characterizing relevant features of the tutorial process.
Apart from normally recorded data (replay files and tutorial notes),
students provided both direct and indirect feedback in both experiments by
explicit opinions and by their behavior. Figure 12a summarizes students'
responses to a questionnaire they received shortly after the first experiment.
The total numbers of opinions for all rows are not identical because some
students felt insufficiently exposed to every item to render an opinion. After
the second experiment, a somewhat more qualitative questionnaire was given, but
only to a few students who had finished both curricula and some project. Their
comments appear in Figure 12b.
Most of the feelings expressed in Figure 12 correlate with casual comments
made by the students during the experiments. In the first experiment for
instance, the plotter was preferred to the robot because "it draws better" (it
produced more faithful drawings); the plotter was preferred to Logo graphics
because it produced portable, permanent results; and Logo graphics was
preferred to the robot because it was faster, more accurate, and personally
available for each student. In the second experiment, more emphasis was placed
on the languages and concepts, but most students still expressed clear
preferences for graphics and Logo over teletypewriters and Simper, despite the
addition of full graphics capability to Simper. Graphics instruction in the
second experiment occurred only at the end of either curriculum and was related
to a project chosen lly each student reaching that point. Thus, each student's
liking of graphics and animation was a function of his or her feelings about
the project(s) chosen. For example, one student chose to implement a graphic
Tone of Student Remarks
Subject Negative Noncommittal Positive
Plotter 1 16Graphics Turtle 2 26Games 3 25Tutors 2 3 25Return again 2 3 25Train 3 14Robot Turtle 1 1 9Logo 8 21Logo Lessons 3 8 18Simper Lessons 5 5Simper 3 3 5Teletypewriters 4 12 11
Subjects are ranked on relative fraction of positive remarks.
Fig. 12a. The 1973-Students' Preferences
Page 64
Likes:
"I got to learn two languages and 1 was able to betterunderstand the difference between languages machinesunderstand and languages people understand."
"Liked everything about it and had a great time."
"I liked being able to use letters as well as numbers inwriting programs-- I was able to write programs usingwords and sentences, not just numbers."
"It gave me something to do."
"I liked the experience of getting to know them [Simper &Logo]."
"Everything was A.O.K. including the teacher ..• alwayswilling to help."
"The amount of time [plenty of it] to do things."
"I like the fact that Logo is so easy to follow."
"['The curricula were] well written, ... and 1 feel 1 learnedalot. 1 also think the teacher did a good job."
Dislikes:
"I didn't really learn that much, you would just learnsomething and then forget it. It either was so easy or 1didn't understand it and got boring."
"Simper '" [I can't follow] where it goes next as easily asin Logo." .
Suggestions for Improvement:
"There should be a little bit of discussion for everybodybefore the beginning of each class."
"Have a few review sheets and review 'quizzes'."
"Drop Simper."
Fig. 12b. Some 1974-Students' Opinions
Page 65
Page 66
ping-pong game complete with scoring (Appendix 4). In doing so he learned
virtually all there was to know about the graphics system and thence rated
using graphics first among his experiences.
The item listed as "games" in Figure 12a refers to certain programs
accessible to students on the IMSSS system, such as Hangman, which were
intentionally not announced until the students completed most of the curricula.
Some students, of course, accidentally discovered a game or two. The policy was
that games could be used after a student's regular session with Logo or Simper.
Features of popular games are mentioned in report-I. Students were encouraged
to write their own games and some were used as examples in the curricula,
particularly in the second experiment (see Appendix 3).
Since, as outlined earlier in Chapter 3, the tutors generally fell short of
expectations in the first experiment, their highly favorable rating in Figure 12a
could provide ammunition for those who believe that students are incapable of
appraising their teachers on educationally relevant grounds. The remarks in
Figure 12b, however, evidence some astute thinking; particularly the first and
third, which are beyond expectations. The student who felt she hadn't learned
much also wanted quizzes and reviews, she was apparently not aware of the
testing implicit in the curricula and needed clearer motivation. Her faint
praise that: "It gave me something to do", also points to a lack of motivation.
Furthermore, she had done some programming in Basic in school and never
truly saw the value of Logo's more general structure. Unfortunately, she
enrolled late and her preliminary feelings aren't available for comparison with
those of others from her school (Figure 13).
One prevalent opinion among students familiar with both Logo and Simper
was that "it's harder to do things in Simper". So most students preferred to
work with Logo, regardless of which language they started with. Figure 14
Th~ School-Teacher's Question:
"1 wish to be ... in the 8-week session of computerprogramming, being offered to junior high students withli ttle or no experience with a computer or computerlanguage. Tell what contacts and interests you have thatprompt you to want to take advantage of this opportunityand to be involved with a computer and computerprogramming for an 8-week session."
The Prospective Students' Responses:
"Computers fascinate me and 1 really would like to learnsome of the ways a computer can be used. 1 have neverused a computer before, but 1 have seen people usingcomputers and programming them."
"1 think it would be interesting to learn the computerlanguage. 1 have used computers before and have enjoyedit very much."
"1 like math and figuring out equations and other thingslike this. 1 have done some work with computers, butnot very much at all, and I haven't done any work withLogo. I would like to have some sort of career dealingwith mathematics, and computer programming would bevery interesting and fulfilling."
"My dad is a student at the ... school and talks aboutcomputers and how they can solve problems. 1 would liketo learn how to use them myself and also be able to talk'computer language' with my dad."
Fig. 13. Some 1974 Students' Preliminary Feelings
Page 67
Page 68
tabulates the proportion of time that students spent using Logo (and, by
complementation, spent using Simper). Note that, within each group, students
are ordered by pretest rank. Thus Figure 14 may be matched with Figure 10 to
obtain further information. This convention will be observed in other figures
in this section, whenever it is appropriate.
In the first experiment, few students finished the Logo curriculum, so Group I
spent negligible time with Simper (Figure 14a). But many Group II students
went far enough with Simper to be able to start Logo, partly motivated by
seeing their friends' work. In the second experiment, more time and a
somewhat shorter curriculum allowed Group I students to spend some time in
Simper (Figure 14b).
In either experiment, Group II's behavior shows that once students began using
Logo, they stayed with it, almost excluding further work with Simper. Figure
14 also shows that students using Logo and Simper simultaneously (Group III),
subject only to the stricture that Logo and Simper curriculum parts alternated,
chose to spend most of their time with Logo (apart from one, Figure 14b third
from bottom, who nearly excluded Logo work, spending time on a Simper
number-guessing game). Group III answered a capability question: students can
learn two languages, nearly simultaneously, and can do so at least as fast as
students who learn the same languages sequentially.
Mass preference of Logo to Simper was a desirable outcome in terms of the
students' computer literacy. Although Simper provides a convenient way to
learn and experiment with assembly/machine-language programming, it was
hoped that students would see the advantage of a high-level language. Indeed,
Logo offers what many students seem to want: easy access to message and,
picture processing. It offers a computationally more important feature: ease of
phrasing complicated control structures. However, appreciation of this latter
idea was usually confined to the more able students.
Page 69
(Logo hours I Simper + Logo hours, versus pretest rank,"-" denotes students who took the test but not the course)
Group I
.99 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
. .98 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX1.0 ·XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX.99 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
Group II
.70
.34
.48
.22.
.310.0
.17
0.0.04
0.0
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxiiiiiiiiiiiX~XXXXXXXXXX
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
XXXXXXXXx
xx
Group III
.82 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.69 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
.64 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.87 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
.67 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
.69 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
.68 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.68 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.88 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Fig. 14a. :Breakdown of the 1973-Students' Programming Time
Page 70
(Logo hours I Simper + Logo hours, versus pretest rank)
Group I
.83 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx'.92 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX.84 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX.80 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX1.0 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Group II
.32 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.58 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.61 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
.18' XXXXXXXXX
.01 x
Group III
.86 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.68 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.82 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
.13 XXXXXXx
.71 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
.63 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx
Fig. 14b. Breakdown of the 1974-Students' Programming Time
Page 71
Before further discussing the students' behavior, something can be said
about the validity of the preliminary test. For Group II, Figures 14a and 14b
indicate a strong correlation between students' ranks on the pretest and the
time they needed to complete the bulk of the Simper curriculum--Pearson
(Kendall) correlations of .9 (.8) and .6 (.4) respectively, the latter reduced from
.9 (.7) because the first student could not stay in the experiment long enough.
Students were also ranked subjectively according to final programming ability
and dedication to the tasks presented to them in the curricula. Figures 15 and
16 show these ratings, again by pretest rank, for all students.
For the first experiment, Figure 15a also tabulates the mean rate of errors
in each student's commands throughout his or her work with Simper. Some
slight, joint trend of error rate and pretest rank seems evident. However,
averaging errors in this way blurs the nature and importance of individual
errors. Without referring to detailed protocol analysis, such a correlation
merits little more than a "that's nice". For example, typing and reading ability
varied greatly among the students. Furthermore, some students forged along,
not caring how many errors they made, while others worried inordinately about
making mistakes, particularly observed ones. Various combinations of such
abili ties and attitudes obviously can confuse simple comparisons of error rates.
It happens that the fourth-ranked student (Figure 15a, with a high error-rate)
feU into the "unbridled typist" category; the third and fourth from the bottom
(with low error-rates) were extremely careful, tending to work out commands on
paper before typing them; and the fifth from the bottom had a penchant for
typing random numerals, which never appeared as errors because Simper was
perfectly happy to store them away. Apparently anomalous error-rates often
had explanations that bore directly upon correlations of pretest rank and error
rate.
Examining the "mastery" and "perseverance" columns of Figure 15a, we also
Page 72
Groups II and III (Simper data)
("-" denotes students who worked less than 3 hours)
Rankings Based Upon SubjectiveEvaluation of Performance
Errors per Command Mastery Perseverance
.06 XXX 1 3
.14 XXXXXX 3 2
.11 XXXXx 3 3
.26 XXXXXXXXXXXX 4 3
.03 x 2 1
.07 XXx 3 2
.07 XXX 2 1
.16 XXXXXXX 4 1
.34 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 5 4
.23 XXXXXXXXXXx 4 4
.26 XXXXXXXXXXXX 5 4
.50 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 5 5
.26 XXXXXXXXXXXX 4 4
.15 XXXXXXx 6 5
.13 XXXXXXx 6 2..16 XXXXXXXX 5 4
.34 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 5 4
.27 XXXXXXXXXXXXXx 6 3
Fig. 15a. 1973 Simper Students' Performance Versus Pretest Rank
Page 73
Groups I and III (Logo data)
("-" denotes students who worked less than 3 hours)
Rankings Based Upon SubjectiveEvaluation of Performance
Errors per Command Mastery Perseverance
.16 XXXXXXXX 1 1
.13 XXXXXXx 2 1
.28 XXXXXXXXXXXXXX 2 1
.33 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx 3 2
.32 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX 2 2
.35 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXx 4 5
.22 XXXXXXXXXXX 5 5
.26 XXXXXXXXXXXXX 6 5
.21 XXXXXXXXXXx 2 1
.16 XXXXXXXX 4 4
.15 XXXXXXXx 5 3
.24 XXXXXXXXXXXX 4 2
.26 XXXXXXXXXXXXX 2 1
.26 XXXXXXXXXXXXX 6 4
.19 XXXXXXXXXx 3 2
.28 XXXXXXXXXXXXXX 5 4
.17 XXXXXXXXx 5 3,29 XXXXXXXXXXXXXXx 3 2.15 XXXXXXXx 4 2
Fig. 15b. 1973 Logo Students' Performance Versus Pretest Rank
("_If denotes students who worked less than 3 hours)
Rankings Based Upon -SubjectiveEvaluation of Performance
Errors per Command Mastery Perseverance
Groups II and III (Simper data)
.08 XXXX 2 2
.08 XXXX 2 2
.20 XXXXXXXXXX 1 2
.07 XXXx 1 1
.04 XX 1 1
.04 XX 2 3
.04 XX 1 1
.09 XXXXx 2 2
.09 XXXXx 2 3
.05 XXx 3 1
.07 XXXx 3 2
Groups I and III (Logo data)
.23 XXXXXXXXXXXx 1 1
.12 XXXXXX 1 1
.19 XXXXXXXXXx 2 2
.14 XXXXXXX 1 1
.23 XXXXXXXXXXXx 2 1
.09 XXXXx 1 1
.21 XXXXXXXXXXx 3 3
.19 XXXXXXXXXx 2 1
.20 XXXXXXXXXX 3 2
.20 XXXXXXXXXX 3 3
Fig, 16. 1974 Students' Performance Versus Pretest Rank
Page 74
Page 75
see some mutual trends with pretest rank. High rankers, especially in mastery,
tend to be above the median; low rankers below. Figure I5b shows similar
results for Logo students. Note, however, the lack of obvious mutual trend
between error rate and rank in Figure I5b.
Protocols provide the following explanations. In Groups I and III: the
unbridled typist returns with a friend as the fourth-and fifth-ranked students;
careful planners are bottom and third from the bottom; the random-numeral
typer is now caught by Logo, generating a higher rate, sixth from the bottom;
and a new phenomenon: picture-printers, fifth, tenth and eleventh from the
bottom, who discovered how 'PRINT' commands could be employed in procedures
that "drew" their favorite things (like the "Starship Enterprise"). The latter
three students made relatively fewer errors because they stagnated at this point
in the curriculum. Students were never coerced to continue the curriculum.
Rather, a wait-and-see attitude was adopted, hoping that stragglers would
eventually notice" that other things, being done by other students, could also be
interesting. This tack failed with one of these three students from the first
experiment.
In the second experiment (Figure 16), there is again little common trend
between error-rate and pretest rank. But again, from protocols, notable
exceptions can be explained. For instance, the third student with Simper data
has a high error-rate because more than half of all his errors were made
playfully, in response to a naming error-message he received one day when he
tried to save a program under an illegal name. The middle Logo student has a
very low rate because he authored several games (notably graphics ping-pong)
which he and others used a great deal, and with little chance for error. As in
the first experiment, test rank and subjective evaluations are correlated
somewhat.
Page 76
In general, students experimented more with Logo than they did with
Simper, apparently because they felt more able to express their ideas in Logo.
This partially explains why the median error-rates in the two experiments for
Logo students (.24 and .20) are higher than those for Simper students (.16 and
.07). An additional cause is simply that one has a wider variety of errors to
commit in a Logo command. This had more noticeable effect in the second
experiment (Figure 16). The lower overall error-rate of students in the second
experiment also correlates with their apparently better performance· on the
preliminary test (compare proportions above performance breaks in Figures lOa
and lOb). More prompt and accurate tutoring also tended to reduce the total of
errors.
Understanding the Students. Here the central interest is, of course, the
processes through which students learn programming. The goal being to find
observations that shed light on student/tutor interactions in general. The
following results derive primarily from detailed protocol analysis, and begin
with a sampling of the students' initial, unfettered expectations about computers
as expressed first to Simper:
HELLO WHAT'S NEW? DO YOU WANT TO PLAY JOTTO?
DO YOU LIKE SUMMER? I AM FUNNY
THIS TYPEWRITER IS TOO SLOW SOME DOGS ARE WHITE
WHAT IS I2X12? HOW DO YOU WORK?
TEACH ME HOW TO DO A PROGRAM HOW DO YOU KNOW?
THERE ARE TWO MILLION FLYS IN AMERICA LET N = G
YOU ARE WEIRD, BUT SMART MY NAME IS ...
CAN YOU READ AND WRITE? CAN YOU TALK?
THE MAN IS CROSSING THE STREET ARE YOU A COMPUTER?
TO BE OR NOT TO BE PRINT MY NAME
DEAR JUDY, THIS COMPUTER CLASS IS A LOT OF FUN.EVERY ONCE IN A WHILE THE COMPUTER GOES WACKEYI
Page 77
then to Logo (some error messages are shown--in lower case):
HOW MANY QUESTIONS CAN YOU ANSWER?
HOW MANY WORDS DO YOU KNOW?
COMPUTERS ARE DUMBcomputers needs a· meaningCOMPUTERS ARE ILLOGICAL
HOW LONG HAVE YOU BEEN IN SERVICE?how needs a meaningYESyes needs a meaningAFFIRMATIVEaffirmative needs a meaningYES MEANS AGREED, CORRECTyes needs a meaningI JUST GAVE YOU A MEANINGi needs a meaningI MEANS #176i needs a meaningI GIVE UP
ARE YOU A LOGO OR A COMPUTEn?
I HAVE HOMEWORK TODAY,I HATE HOMEWORK
WHY ARE YOU A COMPUTER?
THIS IS GOING TO BE VERY FUNthis needs a meaningIT MEANS IT WILL BE ENJOYABLE
MY DOG IS BLACK
THE SUNSET IS BEAUTIFUL
PLAY CHESSplay needs a meaningPLAY MEANS TO DO SOMETHING
FUNfun needs a meaningIT'S LOGO
ADD TWO AND FOUR
GIVE ME AN INTRODUCTION
I AM A VERY BADLY GOOD BOY
I AM IN A VERY GOOD COMPUTER CLASS BECAUSE IT IS A PLEASUREWORKING WITH THE COMPUTER, SHE, LOGO, RETYPES WHATEVER YOU WANT
Of course, students had been encouraged to plumb Logo's and Simper's
"minds", and all the above efforts received replies of no more than either
"unknown operation xxx" from Simper or "xxx needs a meaning" from Logo.
Interestingly, Logo's mOre understandable response tended to stimulate dialogs.
Some students struck fortuitously upon primitive operations--Simper:
COMPUTERS ARE FUNNY'are' isn't a register, use 3, h, or pCOMMAND YOU'you' isn't a register, use a, b, or p
('COM' is short for Simper's 'COMPARE' operation), and Logo:
WHERE IS GERMANY?you are not using the trainYES I AM
RETURN YOUR LIBRARY BOOKS NOWyour needs a meaning
GET GOLFsomething missing for getGET GAMEsomething missing for getGET PLAYsomething missing for get
·',Page 78
YOU ARE A STUPID COMPUTERPRINT ••"•DO GO GOgo needs a meaning
MAKE A SNOOPYa needs a meaning
BREAK IT UP; YOU NASTY THING!break
IS THE COMPUTER A COMPUTER?the needs a meaningIS GEORGE HOMSY A COMPUTER?george needs a meaningIS MR. HOMSY A COMPUTER?mr. needs a meaningIS HOMSY A COMPUTER?homsy needs a meaningSHUT YOUR TERMINAL UP ANDGIVE ME AN ANSWER
At this early stage, accidental discoveries of this sort usually passed
unnoticed. Eventually most students did take notice of and exploited various
syntactic features like mindless error-messages, Simper's abbreviation-by-
truncation, and the commenting character ';'--Simper:
UNKNOWN OPERATIONunknown operation unknown
WRINKLE AHALLUCINATIONS
YOU CAN'T TALK WITH ME BECAUSE YOU ARE DUMB
('WRI' or 'HAL' select Simper's 'WRITE' or 'HALT' operations) and Logo:
I AM THE TURTLEi needs a meaning
THISCOMPUTERthiscomputer needs a meaning
PRINT REQUEST* IF PAUL IS GREAT TYPE THIS SENTENCE OVER WORD FOR WORD
PRINT "I DO NOT KNOW HOW TO PRINT"i do not know how to print; YOU LIED
IF OREN IS DUMB, TYPE IF NEEDS A MEANINGoren needs a meaning
Paradox and prediction were favorite techniques that some students used to
"insult" their friends. To his lasting surprise, the latter above student's
trickery hoisted him on his own petard. These were healthy interactions
because students were encouraged to keep experimentation as one of their basic
learning tools.
Initially, these naive programmers often had a very high opinion of
Page 79
computational technology. It was easy to show them that English is not yet a
mode of communication between human and machine, but it often took a while
for the implications of this to penetrate. At times, students' attempts at
communication were tied to curriculum ideas:
REMARK LITERALLY PUT A BUG IN A
SIMPER COMMANDS ARE FAMILIAR TO COMPUTERS LIKE SIMPER
PRINT "HOWCOMELOGOWORDSDONOTHAVESPACES?"
WILL YOU WRITE ME SOME SIMPER PLEASE
3 4 10 ARE RELATIVE TO THE NUMBERS 15, 17, 29.IN WHAT WAY THOUGH?unknown operation 33 (THREE) IS A NUMBER AND ALL COMPUTERS LIKE YOU SHOULDKNOW WHAT IT MEANS!
Sometimes they became confused about curriculum instructions for giving
commands. The following shows some examples along with the motivating
curriculum excerpt:
A FEW WORDS
LINEFEED
1 TYPING 1
GO TO THE SUPERMARKETBUY EGGS AND BACON
FIX PUT P 2 TO P 1 RUN
... type a few words and ...
... all you do is type LINEFEED and •.•
... and then typing 1 and ENTER ...
(see Appendix 3, page l8L or 17S)
... use FIX to change ... from PUT P 2to PUT P 1 and then use RUN and ...
In fact, some students typed Simper's prompt because it had been shown at the
beginning of a line they were asked to type:
001: ADD A 12unknown operation 001:
One student tried to get a program to run by simulating Simper's runtime
message:
EXECUTING 1 TO 250unknown operation executing
Page 80
producing an enjoyably idiotic response. Another student, in his frustration,
uncovered a bug; not in one of the interpreters, but in the Sail compiler's
string runtime-routines:
,YOU STUPID COMPUTER'stupid' isn't a register use a, b, or p
The bug disguised the "," and thus the proper error: "unknown operation ,you",
Once in a while, unrestrained joy of accomplishment in solving a problem would
surface, only to be muted by an unbending parser:
YAHOO! I DID IT!unknown operation yahoo!; I KNOW I KNOW
Obviously this student already knew how to protect her comments.
Confusions sometimes arose when students worked with both Logo and
Simper (as did Group III). Logo commands cropped up in Simper protocols and
vice-versa. In these cases, however, the first or second error message usually
was sufficient to remind the student of which interpreter was listening to his
or her typing. In a few cases, students thought they could resort to Logo
commands when their Simper programs failed to produce results. This was one
simple way students gave evidence of being more at ease with the Logo
language. By far the most common interjection of Logo commands into Simper
protocols was in saving programs. Apparently, learning the more complicated
Logo scheme of lientries" in "filesll overrode some students' knowledge of
Simper's simpler filing method.
At the very least, most students initially thought that a computer could
help them on a personal basis:
PRINT "ALL THE COURSES AND LESSONS YOU HAVE TO OFFER"
Agreed; that should, and perhaps will, someday be the case. Several students
Page 81
discovered Simper's '?' (or 'HELP') command which printed a general description
of the Simper language. While this was never intended to be a necessary part
of the course, it nonetheless was exercised frequently by a few students.
Curiousity and an open desire for aid were attitudes to be exploited and
encouraged. Students' were willing to experiment in trying to use Logo· and
Simper as information resources to help them work on ideas from the
curriculum.
Now, in discussing details of how students learned the concepts and the
languages, the Simper and Logo protocol data will be treated separately. Some
observations relating students' performance and their work on the preliminary
test will also be mentioned.
Simper. Since work with numbers was so much a part of these students'
prior schooling, it was relatively easy for them to accept that a machine
(Sim'per) could have a good memory for numerals. But several had difficulty
understanding that some numerals could have special meaning, other than
counting, to a machine. In the first experiment, this was a problem because of
the premature introduction of assembly language, thus working downward from
English rather than upward from machine language. The latter sequence was
adopted in the second experiment and reduced the incidence of syntactic errors
such as multiple instructions per line, making it clearer that only three fields
can be assembled into one memory cell's machine-language numeral.
,The orderly execution of numerals as instructions was still more abstract.
The shopping-list example (Appendix 3, page 17S) and the house-to-house
collection (Appendix 3, page 31S) failed to motivate successor execution for
some students.. Programs were written with interspersed "holes", despite the
obviously sequential relationship between instructions on either side of a hole.
A self-destructing program used in the first experiment helped here (see report-
Page 82
1), and in the second experiment, greater care in introducing machine language
seemed to be sufficient. Some of the "holey" programming can be traced to
Group III students who learned to use Logo line-numbers in canonically sparse
(10-20-30...) sequence and hoped the same editing advantages would accrue in
Simper.
In both experiments, addressing values rather than stating them directly
was difficult for many students. One wrote his own time-telling program, knew
what had to be done to get minutes from seconds, knew something about
addressing already, but typed:
001 :TIME A002 :DIVIDE A 60
though he did not intend to divide by the content of location 60. The
curriculum section On indirect addressing was very helpful to those students
who still had trouble with this concept. Not surprisingly, students who had
trouble with the implicit name-value associations of the numbers-in-boxes
problem on the preliminary test also had trouble with addressing in Simper.
The most pervasive problem was mastering the concept of context (or
locality of information) both from the student's point of view as a user and
from the point of view of instructions within his or her programs. The most
common example of the former occurred when a student ran a program and
decided that it needed modification. While it was still running, and perhaps
waiting for an input (for 'CASK' or 'ASK'), he or she would type an editing
command (e.g., 'LIST' or 'SCRATCH'), fully expecting it to be obeyed. This
runtimeledi t-time confusion was seen in every student's work at least once.
Context errors wi thin programs centered upon redundant or memory-
tlclobbering lt sets of instructions. For instance:
001 :PUT B 1002 :STORE BONE003 :ASK A004 :PUT B 1005 ,STORE BONE
or
001 ,PUT B 1002 :STORE BONE003 :ASK B004 ,STORE B @A005 ,PUT P .-3
Page 83
In the first program, the contents of register B and cell 'ONE' are unnecessarily
reset at 004 and 005; in the second, the content of cell 'ONE' is continually
destroyed by 'PUT P .-3' (instead of 'PUT P .-2'). This latter kind of bug was
common, yet it had already been exploited as an example within the curriculum
for the first experiment. It was apparent that a much more explicit treatment
of computational context was needed, and this was done in the second
experiment, with mixed results. Students who had the most trouble with the
candy-machine problem on the pretest typically had the most trouble organizing
their Simper programs.
The most subtle way in which context affected the students was in the
relationships among the interpreter, the assembler and the machine. Most
students in the first experiment didn't fully grasp the distinction between
editing commands and assembler/machine instructions. Sometimes they
attempted to abbreviate the former (e.g., "SCR" for 'SCRATCH') and expect the
latter to be obeyed at once. The second experiment's curriculum was modified
to clarify these issues, which were founded primarily upon the confusion of
editing time with execution time. Its better tack of introducing machine
language before assembly language helped a great deal and explicit discussions
of runtime/edit-time were included. No one question on the preHminary test
seemed to relate strongly to this type of error. This is probably one point for.
improvement of the test.
Toward the end of the curriculum and in student projects, procedures and
their calling sequences provided examples of how programs could be structured
by writing functionally related subunits. In this case, holes were ok. Success
Page 84
here demanded that the student had mastered the concepts of addressing and
program control. Failures to structure these programs correctly were of two
forms: failure to define a proper calling sequence, and misplacement of the
calling sequence in the flow of the program. Some inputs to procedures,
particularly the return address, were overlooked; once the call itself was
incorporated as part of the procedure body.
Because, in the first experiment, no students had time to do significant
work on the final part of the curriculum dealing with stacks and recursive
procedures, the second experiment treated these programming techniques only as
tools for use in projects chosen by students who had completed the formal
curriculum. When these tools were exercised, by a few students, the notion of
context could be be motivated very well. However, in either experiment, few
students completed the curriculum and fewer still completed some project. In
passing through the course, the data gradually becomes dominated by the work
of the more able, typically older, students. The remaining students simply did
not proceed as far. This has undoubtedly colored later observations.
Before dealing with individual student performance, a few miscellaneous
comments remain. Some students actively exploited features of the Simper
interpreter--for instance, truncation of operation names (e.g., 'STOP' for
'STORE' and 'LOAN' for 'LOAD'). One student occasionally harassed the
machine by repeatedly saving a program on a file that already existed just so
he could respond "no" to Simper's warning: "a program called xxx already
exists! ok to destroy it?". The importance of clear, relevant error messages
also became apparent (see Chapter 4 for examples). An example follows that
shows how misreading one word can dangerously alter the meaning of a message:
SAVEwhat do you want to name your program? YESok, yes is saved
Page 85
illustrates the care that must be applied to apparently trivial aspects of an
interpreter. In line with earlier comments about contextual errors, it should be
mentioned that the above question and the students together produced several
saved programs called 'SCRATCH'.
Figure 17 displays the sequence in which Simper-related concepts were
learned by each of the students in the second experiment, for which the best
data exists. The time at which mastery occurred was judged as outlined in
Chapter 4, using error analysis. These language-related concepts connect with
one or more of the general concepts outlined in Table I, and so give an
approximate idea of the sequence of their mastery.
Logo. Students were less able to adjust to Logo's string manipulations than
to its more familiar numerical notation. For example, most students had
trouble remembering to quote nonnumerical strings. Logo does not require that
numerals be quoted, but demands that literal words and sentences be quoted.
The former default tended to be generalized by some to their designation of the
latter, especially in direct commands. The second experiment attempted to
clarify these notational matters, but was not entirely successful--all literals
should probably be quoted at first, perhaps even by modifying Logo.
Procedures had not been introduced early enough in the first· experiment, so
those students did not have a framework within which to execute direct
commands and then add them to stored programs by editing. In the second
experiment, procedures were introduced early (Appendix 3, page 18L) and as
being, in essence, new Logo commands. Many students soon caught on to the
value of being able to construct new and personal tools, either for use or
amusement:
TO SKIPIP :0:5 IF ZEROP :0: THEN DONE10 SKIP15 SKIPIP DIFFERENCE :0: 1END
TO WIDL?123 P "DIAJ"124 P "DIAJ NEEDS A MEANING"125 P "OH, O.K."END
I ....__-~.._-_·---"-.-.---
Page 86
Approximate Hours to Apparent Mastery of a Concept
Student (by pretest rank, Figure lOb)
Concept 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Addressing 1.1 3.8 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.2 5.1 1.3 5 1.7 - 2.3 4.1 2.4
Successor .9 1.8 1.3 .9 1 1.2 1.4 1.8 1.6 2.5 .9 .9 1.2 1.7Execution
Simple 3.2 5.6 8.3 2.6 4.7 3.4 . 3.8 2.8 7.5 3.7 4.3 7.7 5.9Control(using 'PUT')
Decisions 3.9 5.8 8.3 3.6 5.9 3.4 2.3 3.3 7.1 3.4 5 7.7 5.9(using 'JUMP'!
'COMPARE')
Iteration 8 8.7 7.2 - 7.3
Sub -Programs - 6.6 6.9 8.2 7.3 9.1 8.5 7 7.8 10.6
Internal .9 1.8 6.7 3 1.6 1.2 2.4 4 9.3 1.8 - 1.5 9.1 1.7Context(using storage)
User Machine 3.2 6.2 8.6 2.5 5.6 1.2 2.4 1.6 7.8 2.4 6.4 5 5.3Context('RUN'-'EDIT')
(Boldface numbers indicate very accurate times, a dash signifies that aconcept was never clearly mastered.)
Fig. 17. Timing of 1974 Students' Mastery of Simper-Related Concepts
Page 87
TO TRY10 BELLS 9020 P "IF ALEX CANNARA IS YOUR INSTRUCTOR DO NOT I REPEAT DO
NOT COPY SOMEBODY ELSE'S PROCEDURE, OR YOU WILL SPENDTWO HOURS TRYING TO FIGURE IT OUT AND ALSO YOU WILLMAKE ME MAD1!!HWH!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!H!!!!!!!"
END
The first above was constructed by a student when, well into the curriculum, he
needed a way of clearing his display screen and didn't know that Logo had such
a command ('CLEAR'). He obviously had already mastered iteration and simple
recursion. Interestingly, simple (last-line) recursion came easily to many
students upon their first exposure to it (Appendix 3, page 20L), and common
ad-libs took the form:
. .. -. -~._--_._._._-_.-
TO RING10 BELL20 RINGEND
TO BICYCLE10 P "LIBBY SHOOP"20 BICYCLEEND
TO TOM10 PRINT "IF TOM WAS NOT GREAT I WOULD STOP WRITING"20 TOMEND
Several procedures (e.g., 'TELLTIME') that were used in the second experiment
were incorporated because students in the first experiment had done them on
their own and thus found them interesting or useful. Sometimes early
procedure-writing attempted the impossible:
TO TELLWEATHER10 PRINT WEATHEREND
In the first experiment, naming (name/value associations) had been
introduced via Logo's 'MAKE' operation, but there was relatively little use for
this in later programming, In the second experiment, procedures were used to
introduce the concept, as named chunks of commands which might even receive
messages or values (inputs) and link them with internal names (Appendix 3,
Logo Part 4). 'MAKE' was never mentioned unless a student's project logically
required it.
Page 88
Typical errors using 'MAKE' in the first experiment were: (1) forgetting
quotes around name and/or value, (2) using colons around the' name (reasonable
in view of most of Logo's syntax, e.g., 'MAKE :X: "Y'" is really not linking the
value 'Y' to the name 'X', but to the value already associated with 'X'), (3)
inverting name and value positions ('MAKE SUM OF 5 AND 9 ANSWER'), and
(4) linking assignments by one command (a reasonable expectation, e.g., 'MAKE
"SNOOPY" "CHARLIE BROWN" "LINUS''', where the curriculum intended
'MAKE "SNOOPY" "CHARLIE BROWN'" and 'MAKE "CHARLIE BROWN"
"LINUS"').
Naming errors made by students in the second experiment, where procedures
introduced the concept, were reflected by defective input correspondences and
control problems generated during editing. For example: (1) input-variable
names in the title would not match those in the procedure's body, and (2) the
name of a procedure would be edited but not then changed in a recursive call
or a' call in another procedure.
In both experiments, initial confusions about Logo's colon notation (i.e.,
':X:' means "value associated with name 'X"') produced errors like: "PRINT
::SNOOPY::" (to achieve indirect addressing), and: 'RETURN PRODUCT :X: :2:'
or 'DOUBLE :324:' (confusions between literals and names, and between actual
and formal parameters). Part of the confusion arose because Logo does allow
indirect addressing via repeated applications of 'VALUE' ('THING'), and it
allows numerals to be names.
Generally, students who had trouble with the candy-machine and numbers
in-boxes problems on the preliminary test also had trouble with procedure
construction. The concept of context enters at several points in producing a
working Logo procedure and, just as in Simper, is not confined to the
runtime/edit-time dichotomy. One must also consider the context of variables
Page 89
formed in multiple or recursive procedure calls or in complicated command
lines. The linkage is more subtle in Logo since it is managed by the
parsing/execution stack (see Chapter 2, or report-I), and most students'
misunderstandings showed up as soon as they tried to solve problems requiring
more than one procedure, or even more than one input to one procedure:
TO FUNNYADD :SOMETHING: :SOMETHING:10 RETURN SUM FIRST :SOMETHING: FIRST :SOMETHING:END
The above, when executed, e.g., by 'FUNNYADD 87 15', will not return 9 but 2
instead, because only the last instantiation of ':SOMETHING:' will be on the
execution stack when line 10 is executed.. This student simply thought that the
position of a name in a title line, rather than its character content, linked it
to a command-line input.
The 'DOUBLE' procedure, given as an example which students were to later
modify (Appendix 3, page 28L), provides an exemplary set of errors made by
students early in either experiment. Only the command line and not the title
are shown here:
10 RETURN MULTIPLY oX: 2 10 RETURN PRODUCT :X: :X:
The first is a linguistic confusion: should an operation's name reflect its result
(product) or its action (multiply)? The second is a very common error that
unintentionally makes a squarer--the squaring operation itself being unknown to
most students who made this error!
Since Logo accepts "noise" words such as 'OF' and 'AND' (e.g., 'SUM OF 2
AND 3'), many students expected to be able to use "BY" or "TIMES" in
appropriate places in 'DOUBLE' or its inverse: 'UNDOUBLE'. The pros and
cons of noise words will be discussed later. Examples of personal noise words
and other errors made by students doing 'UNDOUBLE' follow:
UNDOUBLE MEANS TO DIVID
RETURN DIV 2 :NUMBER:
RETURN QUO :NUMBER: :2:
RETURN QUO :NUBER: :NUMBER:
RETURN QUOTIENT :NUMBER: BY 2
Page 90
TO UNDOUBLE IS TO TAKE HALF
TO UNDOUBLE :THING OF :NUMBER:
PRINT DIVIDE :NUMBER: BY 2
PRINT DIVISION :NUMBER: :NUMBER:
PRINT QUOTIENT :NUMBER:DIVIDED BY 2
RETURN QUO OF :NUMBER: AND :NUMBER: BY 2
Some classes of error already discussed appear here, namely English attempts at
solutions, spontaneous noise words, and name/value errors. An additional
problem is evident that concerns the stream of messages processed by Logo
during command execution, namely: to print or return a computed value. Many
students seemed to think that the printing on their terminal was examined by
Logo at the same level as a command. One student believed she needed to
comment (with ';') part of a string because only its first word was a legal Logo
operation:
TO BY10 PRINT "GOODBYE; KAREN. SEE YOU TOMORROW!!"20 GOODBYEEND
Thus students had trouble understanding that the receiver of a message
determines its context and thus its meaning (or effect). Some were
particularly confused and thought that they must, for example, say: 'PRINT
UNDOUBLE 3' even if their 'UNDOUBLE' properly contained a 'PRINT'.
The contrast between 'PRINT' (or 'TYPE') and 'RETURN' was also based
upon the execution-control aspec"t of 'RETURN'--it terminates a procedure when
executed, no matter where it appears. This was typically a problem for some
students, who used multiple 'RETURN's as if they were appending to the output
message, as 'PRINT' does. Typically the several procedures given in the
curriculum as exercises (Appendix 3, Part 4) had all to be done before a
Page 91
student really seemed to master the basic difference between 'PRINT' and
'RETURN'.
In the first experiment, a problem based upon a preliminary-test question
(the 2-column function-table, Appendix 2, page 128) was presented in both
curricula. Since its command line involved one of the earliest exposures of
students to composition of functions, some attempted solutions are interesting.
It was hoped that students would use their 'DOUBLE' procedure in. the solution:
TO RULE :NUMBER:10 RETURN SUM 9 AND DOUBLE :NUMBER:END
But those not using 'DOUBLE' often became entangled in the mysteries of
nested expressions, noise words and syntax in trying to produce: 'RETURN SUM
:NUMBER: AND SUM OF :NUMBER: AND 9'. Some examples:
RETURN SUM :NUMBER: :NUMBER: 9
RETURN SUM :NUMBER: :NUMBER: SUM OF 9
SUM OF 9 TO THE PRODUCT OF :NUM: BY 2
TO CORRESPOND 3 TO 15, 4 TO 17, AND 10 TO 29
10 MULTIPLY :NUM: BY 220 ADD 9
10 MAKE PROD :NUMBER: AND 2 ANSWER20 RETURN SUM OF ANSWER AND 9
TO ADD :NUMBER:10 RETURN SUM DOUBLE ADD 9
The last example loops forever as 'ADD' calls itself with 9. In the preceding
two examples, students appeared to understand the rule but tried writing the
expression on sequential command lines, among other errors. Such attempts to
communicate values implicitly across command boundaries were initially quite
common and not related to prior work with Simper. In some cases, the
curriculum (Appendix 3, page 18L) was one influence, but most of these
-';.~. .
Page 92
students simply felt it was a natural way to proceed towards a· solution.
misunderstanding of context usually was the culprit.
Again,
Students were always encouraged to decompose a program into a basic set of
related procedures. This was true for graphics projects as well (see report-I).
One problem CSWITCHl3', Appendix 3, page 37L) was quite effective in
demonstrating this principle, particularly in the second experiment because of
the earlier introduction of procedures. Errors in solving this problem and
other, like problems involved coordinating procedure inputs, choosing operations,
and use of the 'RETURN' command. Students who forgot to declare input
names in the title, or used names different from those named in the title,
found that Logo happily supplies them with the default value ...... rather than
complain about an undefined variable. A desirable solution was:
TO SWITCH13 oX:10 RETURN WORD THIRD oX: WORD SECOND oX: WORD FIRST oX:
BUTFIRST BUTFIRST BUTFIRST oX:END
where 'SECOND' and 'THIRD' were previously written by the students to return
the second and third letters of a word respectively. Students often failed to
break the problem into manageable parts and thereby notice that some of the
components had been solved previously. An acceptable solution of that ilk was:
10 RETURN W F BF BF oX: W F BF oX: W F oX: BF BF BF oX:
CBF' abbreviates 'BUTFIRST'; 'F', 'FIRST'; and 'W', 'WORD').
attempts:
10 RETURN W W W F BF BF F BF F BF BF BF oW:
TO SWITCH1310 THIRD :INPUT:20 FIRST :INPUT:30 PUT THIRD FIRST AND FIRST THIRDEND
Actual
The first example shows a common initial belief that one input can be
Page 93
distributed over several operations. The second shows attempted inter-line
communication, implicit 'RETURN' and English instructions. A related, simpler
procedure, to put the first letter in a word last, was written by one student as:
TO REV :YIP:10 RETURN :IPY:END
In the interesting belief that characters in an input's name map into those of
its value. Because Logo defaults undeclared names, as mentioned earlier, she
persisted wi th this scheme in several procedures, thinking she only had to get
the right combination of letters to succeed.
One frequent error was forgetting to specify all of the inputs in a direct
command or recursive call, especially when that input does not change. One
1973-graphics student defined the following unusual program:
TO STEVE :BD 17 16 48:10 :BD 17 16 48:END
TO BD :L: :A: :1:10 FRONT :L:20 RIGHT :A:30 BD :L: SUM :A: :1: :1:END
She then typed 'STEVE ED 17 16 48', which works (in the sense that 'BD' is
executed), because in attempting to bind the input, Logo runs 'ED' and waits
for a value, which never comes. The student did not seem to realize this,
trying 'STEVE' with a different call to 'ED', with 'STEVE' and 'ED' traced,
would have helped to correct this mistake.
Many students had trouble understanding how procedures communicate
values to one another via 'RETURN'. In the second experiment, for example,
students wrote many procedures that were to return values:
TO COMPARE :SOME: :TOY:10 TEST NUMBERP :SOME: :TOY:20 IFFALSE RETURN "FALSE"30 IFTRUE EQUALP :SOME: :TOY:END
Page 94
When constants (e.g., "'FALSE"') were to be returned, 'RETURN' was rarely
forgotten, but when another operation/procedure was to be called to generate
the returned value, 'RETURN' was often forgotten or assumed to be implicit, as
in line 30 above. Several students used structures like line 30 to mean: "now
be 'EQUALP' and do what it does"--an attempt to implicitly change a
proced"ure's definition at runtime.
Some projects (e.g., 'BINAR', report-lor Appendix 2, page 127) were taken
from the first experiment's curricula and used as part of a posttest for students
who completed all of the second experiment's curricula. Other projects were
used for the implicit testing process outlined in the tutoring discussions earlier,
and most students added their own, especially when they were able to use the
graphics system. Some are mentioned in report-I. In the second experiment,
for instance, one student designed a simulation of the PONG(R) game and
another began an animated cookbook that was supposed to implement a recipe
visually by allowing the user to manipulate snapshots of spoons, cups, etc.
Some of these projects are documented in Appendix 4.
As done earlier for Simper (Figure 17), Figure 18 displays the apparent
sequence in which Logo-related concepts were learned by each of the students in
the second experiment, for which the best data exists. A few students' work
will be discussed in detail after some remarks about the languages and
curricula.
Page 95
Approximate Hours to Apparent Mastery of Concept
Student (by pretest rank, Figure lOb)
Concept 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Literal 1.8 1.7 1.1 1.2 1 1.4 1.7 4.2 .4 .5 1.9 .4 1 , .5 .6 3.3Values
Named 4.2 5.6 5.6 2.3 3 2 4.610 4 2 6.1 3.1 - 4.4Values
Command 4.2 2.3 5.6 4.5 3.2 2.8 4.611.4 4.9 6.4 7.1 7.5 - 6.8Parity
Simple 2.7 2.3 1.7 1.3 1.5 1.4 2.8 4.1 4.4 2.6 1.4 ·1.8 10.2 - 6.8Control(sub-procedure)
Simple 4.2 6.5 9.4 7.8 4.8 2.9 5.5 11.4 4 7.8 6.4 9.1 - 6.8'RETURN'
Recursive 15.4 18.9 15.5 17.6 7.9 - - 16.5 28.1'RETURN'(context)
Decisions 7.5 10.1 9.4 7.8 8.5 12.4 26.2 9.5 10.7 - 6.8('IF'/'TEST')
Stopping 11.6 18.1 17.1 11.4 15.2 7.9 - - 11.4 28.1Rules(iteration)
User/ 3.2 2.3 5.6 1.2 4.8 1.i 2.1 3.6 1.8 7.8 1.4 2 2.6 - 1.6MachineContext
(Boldface numbers indicate very accurate times, a dash signifies that aconcept was never clearly mastered.)
Fig. 18. Timing of 1974 Students' Mastery of Logo-Related Concepts
Page 96
Evaluation of Simper and Logo
As a result of the experiments, various modifications were made or should
be made to the languages.
Simper. First targets for change have been obvious bugs and
inconsistencies iIi command evaluation and assembly. For example, after the
first experiment, 'SCRATCH' was modified to accept the general form for an
address-range specification (e.g., 'SCRATCH 6:8' has the obvious effect). 'SAVE'
and 'GET' were made to accept the name of the file as an input (e.g., 'SAVE
GLOP'), resorting to dialog only when such an input is lacking. A more subtle
change was made to 'SLIDE'. One student was frustrated when his memory
space was effectively exhausted even though numerous holes existed between
program segments. So, by the second experiment, a forward 'SLIDE' (e.g.,
'SLIDE 100:200') could recursively squeeze· out such holes to make formerly
impa'ssible relocations possible. The user is informed of which holes disappear.
In the interest of making the name fit the action and to reduce confusions with
Logo, 'FIX' was replaced by 'EDIT'.
The first experiment also suggested some new operations and a new
command. 'LEXOR' gives a decimal version of "exclusive or" (Table II),
'ERROR' tests a flag set by arithmetic. overflows, 'lOT' communicates with the
Graphics program and the plotter, and 'NEWS' gets the system time schedule
and any new information about Simper (or Logo). 'DIVIDE' was modified to set
the 'ERROR' flag on division by zero, instead of the previous and unusual skip
if-successful convention. The structure of the Simper machine itself was
modified. Five-hundred memory cells and four registers (Le., A, B, C and P)
were made standard (with upper limits as shown in Figure 2). This was
motivated by students suggesting projects for which 250 memory cells were
insufficient. The additional register was added to make procedure calls more
Page 97
convenient, especially via a student-programmed stack. The changes were
achieved by a generalized restructuring of the interpreter.
After the second experiment, more changes were made, mostly on
suggestions of students (see Table III). Significantly, the students were more
concerned with improving Simper's editing abilities (e.g., by adding 'FLIP') than
with adding new powers to the simulated machine.
Recommendations. Changes are relatively easy to make in Simper because
it is written in a high-level language. An important improvement would be the
simulation of a micro-coded machine with interrupt handling, so that students
could be exposed to some aspects of modern machines. Simulated devices other
than the turtle (e.g., a disc) could also be pedagogically beneficial. However,
too many "features" can be detrimental. Since a valuable computational idea is
that problem solutions can be broken logically into parts that are in turn
realized by certain basic and sufficient abilities of some machine, the abilities
chosen should nof individually be too powerful. A pedagogically useful addition
would be the ability to run the machine backwards as well as forwards thus to
allow partially undoing a computation.
Perhaps the most beneficial results would be achieved by making the
interpreter smarter and more congenial in terms of its responses to naive
programmers. A first step would be a structured treatment of the '?' or 'HELP'
command. Successive applications of this command in, say, an address field
would obtain successively more detailed help about address fields. In this
respect, the interpreter would be more knowledgeable about itself. More general
(and more difficult) powers, such as the ability to evaluate programs, would be
of obvious value in counselling students.
Logo. In the present version of IMSSS Logo (excepting Sailogo),
substantial changes are typically difficult to make. For this type of work, the
Page 98
interpreter should have been written in a high-level language (e.g., Manis,
1973). Several changes in commands, apart from addition of animation, were
made after the experiments (Table IV). Consistency and clarity of nomenclature
was the goal. For instance, some Logo predicates mark themselves as such by
employing the suffix "P" (e.g., 'LESSP') and some do not (e.g., 'IS'). This was a
source of confusion for a few students. 'IS', in particular, is also very
suggestive of wrong i~terpretations (e.g., the line "TEST IS :X: LESSP 0" should
be 'TEST LESSP :X: 0'). Thus 'SAMEP' was introduced as an alternative to
'IS'.
'Recommendations. Operation names should name the action (e.g., 'ADD')
rather than the result (e.g., 'SUM')--or, as the precocious 9-year-old put it: "I'd
make a whole new language without any weird commands like 'PRODUCT' and
'REMAINDER'. I'd have MULTIPLY and FINDREMAINDER.". Predicates,
rather than simply being suffixed with "P" should end/start with "?" (e.g.,
'LESS?'). If ':X:' is to be analogous to 'VALUE "X"', then nesting of colons
should be allowed. Additionally, a different symbol should be used instead of
colon to delimit place holders in procedure ti ties, or a different, nestable
synonym 'for 'VALUE' could be chosen (e.g., "@"). Numerals should be
disallowed as names or always be quoted when used as literals just as text is.
More fundamentally, value names and procedure names should u.se the same
dictionary and notation (e.g., 'A' could either stand for 'VALUE "A'" or call
procedure 'A', as in Algol 60). Pedagogically speaking, any distinctions of
program from data should be defined by the student and not be automatic, and
pronomial notation seems most natural.
Another fundamental point concerns command evaluation. Commands for
editing, erasing, listing and filing currently quote rather than evaluate their
inputs (i.e., 'EDIT ROCKET' instead of 'EDIT "ROCKET'" thus disallowing
'EDIT :R:' where 'VALUE "R'" is "ROCKET"). A consistent, flexible scheme
Page 99
(assuming names and procedures share the same dictionary as suggested above)
would allow only 'EDIT "ROCKET'" and 'EDIT R'. 'EDIT ROCKET' could also
be allowed if the user could make his own procedure definitions that quote or
evaluate inputs at will--all in the interest of consistency, which is very
important to naive programmers. A further simplification would result if one
operation (e.g., 'DEFINE' or 'HOWTO') performed the functions of both 'EDIT'
and 'TO', since the only difference is the pre-existence of, or lack of, a
definition.
Noise words (e.g., 'OF' and 'AND' as in 'SUM OF 3 AND 5') should be
eliminated unless they are under user control. 'AND', for instance, has a very
strong meaning, almost equivalent to 'WORD', in many students' minds:
P SUM OF 3 AND 4 AND 5 AND 6
Logo should emulate Lisp in returning values for all commands and perhaps
printing these values at the top level rather than giving the message "THERE
IS NO COMMAND FOR..." when a student forgets to precede a function call
with a receiver for its reply. A user-controlled toggle for automatic value
printing would be a useful debugging aid. This would make 'STOP' and 'DONE'
equivalent to 'RETURN ''''', perhaps leading to their welcomed demise since
'EXIT' really does what their names suggest they do. Error messages should be
informative (e.g., "X IS ALREADY A LOGO OPERATION" not "X CAN'T BE A
PROCEDURE NAME"). Misleading error messages such as "OUTPUT CAN'T BE
USED AS AN INPUT IT DOES NOT OUTPUT" or "OUTPUT CAN ONLY BE
USED IN A PROCEDURE" should be avoided (the former is gibberish, the
latter should say something like "OUTPUT MUST BE PRECEDED BY A LINE
NUMBER"). Error messages should not end with a "?" unless the interpreter is
prepared to engage the student in a helpful dialog.
Editing and Filing. At one time or another, most students forget to enter
Page 100
editing mode with 'EDIT' or 'TO' when trying to change a line in a procedure-
commands such as 20 and 'EDL 20' typed at Logo's top level resulted in the
messages "LINE 20 OF WHAT PROCEDURE?" and "EDIT WHAT? YOU ARE
NOT DEFINING ANYTHING" which may have misled students into trying the
following commands:
EDIT LINE 10 OF UNDOUBLE
ERASE LINE 6 IN RECTANGLE
IN TRI2
TO @35 OF RECTANGLE
Students often included extra words (some of which Logo had used in its
own messages) with operations such as 'EDIT' and 'LIST', which do not obey the
general· Logo evaluation scheme;
EDIT TO EVENPyou can't edit that.
ERASE :XI:erase what?
ENDagain definedUNDEFINE AGAINundefine needs a meaning.
LC OF FILE OF MARTAof can't be a file name
hence, error messages were often puzzling.
EDIT :XI:you can't edit that
ERASE TO SQUAREerase what?
LIST ALL FILESlist all what?
LIST NAMESsomething missing for list.
LIST ALL THAT WAS DONE TODAYlist all what?
GET FILE PC136 VOWELPfile can't be a file name.
As a convenience, it might be helpful to allow some default applications of
operations like 'LIST'. For instance, when 'LIST', 'EDIT', 'ERASE' or 'EDIT
LINE xx' is typed with no input, the default input would be the name of the
last procedure defined or executed. Similarly, a one-entry file could be gotten
without naming the entry.
The distinction between what is in Logo's immediate memory (workspace)
and what is on secondary storage (file entries) seems to be confusing even to
adults. By saving an entire workspace on an "entry", it is fairly easy to 'GET'
Page 101
everything back at a later time. But since the workspace could contain the
appended results of several 'GET's from other entries (from other people's files
too), there is often unnecessary duplication in 'SAVE's. One should have the
ability to save partial workspaces (groups of procedures) on entries:
SAVE LIZ D AND UD AND SQUARE (Liz wanted to save individualprocedures on separate entries)
Student typing, some almost verbatim from the curriculum, occurred that
one might expect a reasonable computer-based tutor to handle. Merely
automating a programming curriculum by typing te)<t at the student
accomplishes little in dealing with such questions. Ideally a language
interpreter should "know" about concepts and problems the curriculum is
presenting and the intents of procedures the student is writing:
HOW MANY INPUTS DOES "MAKE" HAVE?
IS REQUEST A LITERAL?literal needs a meaning.NO IT DOESN'T
HOW MANY INPUTS DOES PRINT HAVE
IS "GEORGE" A WORD?
The ability to answer these questions is easily given to Logo because the subject
terminology (perhaps excepting "literal") is Logo's.
Debugging. Since Logo checks procedure lines for matching quotes and
colons at the time they are typed, it would also seem advantageous to report
other kinds of syntax errors at "define-time" rather than at "run-time". For
example, erroneous numbers of inputs for primitive commands or procedures,
and undeclared procedures or names (not defined globally or in the procedure's
title) could be reported before exiting editing mode, or upon request. The
student could act on these suggestions, editing further, or execute the partially
defined procedure while still in editing mode, or exit to work on something
Page 102
else. This could at least help reduce the amount of time students spend in
discovering and correcting syntax errors one at a time. The idea of 'TRACE'
should be expanded to allow display of command-line execution, since the
pursuing of typically complicated commands rivals the complexity of recursive
procedure calls. An ability to undo the last command would also be very
helpful, as it is to LISP users.
Implications for Curriculum Design
In the first experiment, reports of tutors about student involvement in
different parts of the curricula and their own projects, real or planned, led to
changes in the presentation order of the concepts and in the techniques for
explaining certain concepts.
For Simper, most changes made for the second experiment centered upon
better motivations for: context, sequential execution, addressing and assembly
language. The machine's language of numerals would be taught before assembler
syntax so that students would grasp the latter's reason for existence as well as
its structure. The fact that different languages are appropriate for different
interactions with Simper was exploited in discussing computational context. The
intercommunication of instructions (e.g., via the registers) within programs was
also treated in terms of context. For Logo, the first experiment demonstrated
that procedures should be introduced early so students can create useful or
enjoyable tools right away.
So, for the second experiment, names were introduced first when naming
procedures and again when naming their inputs.. This definitely improved
student interest. Decision making was also introduced earlier in the second
experiment, in both curricula. Students could embark earlier on their own
projects, like games, some of which were used in parallel in Simper and Logo.
Early work with decision making helped the students in the second experiment
Page 103
do better when the time came to combine it with other concepts needed, for
instance, in general recursion with stop rules.
In both experiments, the curriculum format (see Appendix 3) of path
pointers, questions, problems and things to try was generally well-received by
students. Certain connecting ideas or processes, such as how expressions are
evaluated and how program execution proceeds, are difficult to sequence on
paper. The flowchart-like diagrams with boxes and arrows (e.g., Appendix 3,
page 38L) were not particularly effective. The younger children had special
difficulty with these artifices, for the same reasons they had trouble with the
candy-machine problem on the preliminary test. Good yet static representations
of essentially dynamic processes are hard to come by. For Logo, the "brothers"
with knowledge clouds did test understanding when some of their states were
left blank, but were of little help in mapping this understanding into a
procedure. Good illustrations of effective metaphors are very important.
One of the questions addressed by this work has been "what are effective
metaphors for teaching the concepts (Table I) to naive programmers." For many
students, the concept of a context or computational environment proved most
difficult. In simplest form this reared itself in their confusing editing and
execution times/languages when interacting with the Logo or Simper
interpreters. Fresh students often gave editing commands to their running
programs, not realizing that their programs had, in effect, taken over the
machine and defined new languages. A linguist would probably say this is a
common problem in human languages as well. The most successful metaphor
used in this work involves thinking about the ability of an active entity
(machine/animal) to give its attention to some source (internal/external) of
messages and process these messages according to some rules (language).
Everyone knows what "giving attention" means to himself or herself. Linking
this to generalizations about machines (candy/computing) is all that's needed.
Page 104
This applies directly to explaining functions too, if they are thought of as
translators.
In Logo, dealing with recursive procedures that return values was difficult
for almost all students. The above metaphor coupled with an analogy drawn to
a chain telephone call seemed most helpful. The complication is that each
caller must wait (on "hold" or to be called back) until the "callee" has an
answer to give. The success fo this tutoring device raised hopefully clearer
alternatives to 'RETURN' such as 'REPLY' in Logo. The way in which Logo
uses its internal pushdown stack for saving local contexts during recursion (or
the equivalent Simper programming) links straightforwardly with the attention
metaphor above.
Play-acting out programs, particulary Logo, was tried in both experiments
(e.g., Appendix 3, page 39L) with mixed results. It seemed most effective when
used to explore command evaluation, coupled with the telephone metaphor and a
wary likening of inputs to be instantiated to mailboxes in need of letters. For
simple syntactic problems (e.g., how many 'WORD's to use) a little applied logic
often produced helpful analogies (e.g., for n values use n-1 'WORD's because it
takes n-1 dabs of glue to stick together n blocks).
Case Studies
The problem encountered by two second-experiment students at each point
in each curriculum will be discussed in order to expose both their differences
and commonalities in thought when faced with the task of learning their first
programming languages. They will be referred to by their rank position on the
pretest (Figure lOb) and discussed separately for two languages.
Simper. Student 6 worked relatively seriously and, from the start,
carefully and thoroughly followed the curriculum instructions and examples.
Page 105
She was not uncomfortable with the primitive nature of the Simper machine
language nor with the basic commands involved in editing. Addressing and
successor executions seemed common-sensical to her. After some brief problems
with programs that ran off their ends or jumped to nonexistant instructions,
she had no further trouble with program control. Her first major project was
the number-guessing game from the curriculum. She often did much of the
work at home, bringing it the next day to tryout. She made two important
errors. First, picking the number to be guessed but failing to store it in
memory for later comparison with the user's guess. Second, using the wrong
register in her decision-making instruction. Both errors can be thought of in
terms of misappropriating the internal context of the machine at runtime. She
also needed help in deciding that the program should pick the number before
the user guesses. This would not matter if only one guess were to be allowed.
Once. her program was working, she used it a great deal and modified both the
size of the numbers selected and the hints given when a guess was wrong.
Student 6 went On to other work, but had saved her guessing-game and
often recalled it to use. She worked on indirect addressing with no problems.
The next important project involved the concept of a data-structure consisting
of 5 characters stored in one memory cell. Again she had little difficult and
spent time at home working on her program. When the curriculum called for a
stop rule to be added to the program for printing 5 characters from a cell, she
picked the correct rule wi th no help. She still had some trouble matching
registers correctly in what amounted to a several-instruction program. She also
generated a control error by jumping too far back in her program on each loop
circuit and re-initializing a memory cell used for counting. This class of error
persisted in her work for a few days. A further error in clearing memory at
the wrong time prevented her stopping rule from functioning and her program
ran on and on. After correcting these errors, it was obvious that her program
I
II
I
Page 106
almost worked but stored only a partial result in memory--the full result being
in a register. She noticed this with no help and corrected the problem. A
subsequent attempt at a similar program demonstrated that complex control was
still not mastered--a jump was redundantly included and a target symbol was
placed one instruction late in the program. In addition, context problems with
assumed register content recurred. The program was eventually corrected with
help. She then went on to use the graphics system and constructed several
iterative drawing programs without error. She then began the Logo curriculum.
Student 14 began Simper and had difficulty immediately in understanding
successor execution. His reaction to an erroneous program was to erase it
rather than edit it. He was mystified by the first program in the curriculum
because, when run, it gave no visible result until memory was displayed after
execution. This resulted from a misreading of the curriculum instructions. As
a result, he required more than average amounts of tutoring. He had great
difficulty understanding the need to match register names when communicating
values among instructions. When introduced to addressing, he attempted to
address a value by content. That is, he used an address equal to the value, not
an arbitrary address, as desired. In doing so, his first such program generated
overflows by dividing by empty cells (0 values). He was helped to correct these
problems and still preferred to erase entire programs rather than edit. In
working on one program from the curriculum, he demonstrated a typical context
error: typing editing commands to a running program. At this time he decided
to review the entire curriculum. He repeated some previo.us errors, in.
particular, use of the wrong registers for inter-instruction communication.
Since he was in Group III, he was also learning Logo and some Logo editing
commands crept into his Simper interactions. His review of addressing helped
him clear up his old confusion about content versus location. In reconstructing
one curriculum program, he produced a control structure that jumped to a
Page 107
wrong location. He also neglected a printing instruction even though he created
a value in a register to be printed. Context errors from typing editing
commands to running programs persisted.
He made several syntax errors that indicate he doesn't really understand the
3-field structure of Simper instructions. Most notable was an attempt to use
multiple address fields to store multiple characters in a register. Again a
control problem appeared as he started the guessing-game project. His program
had a jump to a redundant instruction. His corrected program worked but
printed out a message backwards. When translating a 'JUMP' to a 'COMPARE'
he left in an unnecessary instruction prior to the jump that prevented the
program from operating. He repeated this error twice. Upon first exposure to
symbols, he forgot to attach them to memory cells and so generated illegal
addresses upon running the programs. In a later program to realize the
function 2x+9, he used an address literally and so wrongly operated on an
instruction in the program body. The data-structure program he produced
contained several bugs including a misaimed jump and a redundant instruction
that is never executed. With help he tried several times, but never quite
understood how the program was to function. Iteration and symbolic addressing
remained unmastered.
Logo. Student 6 had begun Logo after leaving Simper. She grasped
intraprocedure control quickly but failed initially at using nested
(sub)proceudres. Once helped she went on to create her own version of a
simple recursive procedure to print her name. She was initially confused about
procedures that return values and what to do with the value. She had no
trouble with simple command syntax, but did have trouble with the colon
notation denoting named values--she either neglected the colons in the command
line or put them around constants. After a few such errors she seemed to
understand name/value associations in Logo. A series of several procedures are
Page 108
faced in the curriculum which demand successively more complex command lines.
She used 'LAST' to mean "place this character last" not "take the last
character". Commands that build strings out of parts tended to get too few
'WORD's. She used the same name for both inputs of a 2-input procedure thus
getting only the final instantiation when it is called. She considered 'FIRST' to
act destructively on its input. She failed to use a building block sub-procedure
at an opportune time. After several string manipulating procedures she
mastered the command syntax, but did not quite know when to use 'RETURN'
appropriately. She failed to use a recursive call when it was of obvious
necessity. She used 'RETURN's successively, as if they append to an output
message rather than terminate execution.. She worked on the first major
project--the guessing-game and needed help understanding 'BOTH'. In more
complicated projects like 'REVERSE' she demonstrated understanding of inputs
and control but not quite of recursive 'RETURN's which she tended to leave
dangling so that values were fed to Logo not the calling procedure. The use of
stop rules was no problem for her.
Student 14 had been learning Simper at the same time as Logo. He began
by typing literally from the curriculum (e.g., "CONTROL-NU). He retyped
procedures rather than use edit. He attempted to elicit information from Logo
by having it print sentences which, of course, have no meaning to Logo. He
tended to use previous procedures' structures as solutions to new problems. He
had trouble matching input names to procedure command lines. Prefix notation
seemed no problem to him, but he did have trouble providing enough inputs to
operations in command lines. He also forgot basic syntax items like line
numbers and colons. The major project of the guessing game failed on first try
because it tested a cOnstant rather than a computed value. At this point he
helped another sutdent with earlier work. After much help he had a working
guessing game which he used alot. Some Simper commands appear. In the
Page 109
more complicated recursive procedures he neglected not only recursive returns
but stop rules. He tended to misplace stop rules sO they never got executed.
Once they were working he enjoyed observing such procedures operate on long
inputs under 'TRACE'. When the opportunity arose to use an already existing
procedure as a tool in solving another problem, he rarely capitalized on it. He
began using the graphics system and experimented with various kinds of
pictures drawn from building block procedures he'd been given, but produced
little original work.
Summary
The two students, whose work has been outlined, suggest the range of
abilities that were present during both experiments. Some students took to the
curricula and languages quickly and easily, while others did not. As has been
discussed, and as Figures 17 and 18 also suggest, the preliminary test seems to
order students approximately on ability to complete the curricula. It also
seems, from subjective evaluations of the students, to order them approximately
on mastery. The more important question of how students learn the concepts i&..·
only answerable from case-study data.
The .metaphors outlined earlier seem to work because they help students
identify with the process they are trying to understand. The two most common,
virtually universal misunderstandings of all the students were: (1)
misunderstandings of linguistic/computational context, and (2) ill-defined
intents. The former applying to both the storage/passing of information within
their programs and their interactions with the interpreters. The latter, or
fuzzy program specifications, amounts to wishful thinking, wherein the
particular interpreter was expected to read the student's mind and run correctly
even though, for instance, a command had been left out. Leaving out recursive
'RETURN's, as mentioned earlier, is a typical example in which the student
Page 110
expects the computer to be the command whose value is not returned. A brief
categorization of all errors appears in Table XI.
In terms of the concepts originally selected as important to learning
programming (Table I), a somewhat different ordering on difficulty for each
student is implied by individual case-studies, at least in the second experiment
whose data are best. Typically, however, individual orderings approximate the
sequence listed in Table I, with the notable exceptions of: concept 1, due to
user/machine context errors, falls at about position 5; concepts 14, 15, and 17,
because of internal program-management errors and common difficulty in
starting on a reasonable program design, fall last; and concepts 5 and 9 lump
together at position 9.
Wi th regard to programming languages and their influence on students, the
data strongly suggest that languages should be syntactically consistent, and
powerful in both editing and execution capabilities. As one student said after
her first hour with Logo: "If computers can understand languages like Logo,
can't they understand English?"
Page 111
Table XI
Categoriz~tion of Observed Student Errors and Misconceptions
Use of Language Syntax
Predicates difficult to master, especially combinations such as'BOTH'I'EITHER'.
Making up nonexistent noise words analogous to Logo's.Misunderstanding deferred-command parsing in Logo--inputs are read
backwards.Using infix and postfix rather than the Logo prefix.Trying to use ditto marks to copy parts of a line to next line.Existence of "holes" in Simper programs.Literal interpretation of Simper address field.Thinking that changing (Simper) target cell's content changes all
instruction's address fields that reference that cell.Forgetting to put a value in a (Simper) target cell before accessing
it.Testing the wrong register in Simper loops.
Sequencing
Not knowing any or the simplest stop condition on an iteration orrecursion.
Confusion between iterative and recursive techniques--input andreturn values.
Jumping inappropriately..Multiple commands per line.Improperly communicating Simper instructions that destroy rather
than pass on contents of registers.
Use of Procedures
Meaning of input values (using colon: in Logo for both constantsand variables).
Thinking procedure names must say what they. do in order to work.Distributed or forgotten inputs. .-Returns from looping procedures unforeseen.Names of inputs not distinct or assumed to computationally relate to
a value (e.g., see page 93).Names of inputs not the same in title and use.
Returning Values
Simple recursion and 'EXIT' is easy, but returning value to self isnot.
Procedure becomes, semantically, the value or function to bereturned.
Last procedure called, in series of calls, returns value for the entireseries.
Distinction between Logo 'DONE' and 'RETURN'.
Page 112
Table XI (continued)
Storage/~emory
Not understanding that a 'SAVE' can destroy a previously filedprogram.
Understanding memory in Simper as read-copy/write-destroy; andthat it is permanent until changed by a program.
Editing Versus Runtime
Problems editing Logo titles.Hard to think about runtime when editing (thinking that editing
actually executes).Understanding what 'RUN' means for a program--that the machine's
linguistic appearance to the user is redefined by the program.
Problem Solving ~ethods
Surprised that a problem can be solved or that the computer cancarry out a certain command.
Failure to generalize previous solutions to present problem.Inability to break problem solution into program steps to write.~ultiple-line solutions rather than well-structured iteration or
function calls.Failure to see minimal solutions.Failure to exploit the style of the programming language (such as the
possibility for extra inputs to act as counter or method ofpassing conditional information).
Page 113
References
Bassala, G. Man and machine (book review). Science, 187, 248-250, 24 January,1975.
Berry, P. Pretending to have (or to be) a computer as a strategy in teaching.Harvard Educational Review, 34, 383-401, 1964.
Bitterman, M. The comparative analysis of learning. Science,. 188, 699-709, 16May, 1975.
Bloom, B. Thought-processes in lectures and discussions. The Journal ofGeneral Education, 1953, 7, 160-169, April, 1953.
Bloom, B., & Broder, L. Problem-solving processes of college students. Chicago:The University of Chicago Press, 1950.
Bradley, J. Distribution-free statistical tests. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1968.
Brainerd, C. The origins of number concepts. Scientific American, March, 1973.
Brand, S. Two cybernetic frontiers. New York/Berkeley, Calif.: RandomHouse/The Bookworks, 1974.
Bredt, T. A computer model of information processing in children. TechnicalReport No. CSlOO. Stanford, Calif: Computer Science Department,Stanford University, 1968.
Brown, J., & Burton, R. SOPHIE--A pragmatic use of AI in CAL TheProceedings of the ACM National Conference, San Diego, 1974.
Brown, J., & Rubinstein, R. Recursive functional programming for students in thehumanities and social sciences. Report No. 27. Irvine, Calif.:Department of Information and Computer Science, U. C. Irvine, 1973.
Buxton, J. (Ed.) Simulation programming languages. Amsterdam: NorthHolland, 1967.
Campbell, D., & Erlebacher, A. How regression artifacts in quasi-experimentalevaluations can make compensatory education look harmful. In J.Helmuth (Ed.), Disadvantaged child. Vol. 3, Compensatory education:
. A national debate. New York: Bruner-Mazel, 1970.
Cannara, A. Toward a human computer language. Creative Computing,September-October, 1975.
Cannara, A., & Weyer, S. A study of children's programming. Proceedings ofthe 1974 Conference on Computer-Based Learning Systems, University ofHamburg, Federal Republic of Germany, August, 1974.
Cannara, A., & Weyer, S. Programming languages for children. The SecondAnnual Computer Science Conference, Detroit, February, 1974.
Carbonell, J. Mixed initiative man-computer instruction. Report No. 1971).Boston: Bolt, Beranek & Newman, 1970.
Page 114
Chai tin, G. Randomness and mathematical proof. Scientific American, May,1975.
Chapanis, A. Interactive human communication. Scientific American, March,1975.
Dahl, 0., Dijkstra, E., & Hoare, C. Structured Programming. .NewYork:Academic Press, 1972.
Davis, M. (Ed.) The undecidable. Hewlett, New York: Raven Press, 1965.
Davis, M., & Hersh, R. Nonstandard analysis. Scientific American, June, 1972.
Drake, S. The role of music in Galileo's experiments. Scientific American, June,1975.
Dwyer, T. A. An experiment in the regional use of computers by secondary schools.Final Report, NSF-OCA-GJ1077-S0LO, 1972.
Ellis, A. The use and misuse of computers in education. New York: McGrawHill, 1972.
Evey, R J. The theory and applications of pushdown store machines. Unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, Harvard University, 1963.
Feigenbaum, E., & Feldman, J. (Eds.) Computers and thought. New York:McgrawcHill, 1963.
Feldman, J. A formal semantics for computer languages and its application in acompiler-compiler. Communications of the ACM, January, 1966.
Felix, L. The modern aspect of mathematics. New York: Basic Books Inc., 1960.
Fenichel, R, & Weizenbaum, J. Computers and computation. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Co., 1971.
Fenichel, R, Weizenbaum, J., & Yochelson, J. A program to teachprogramming. Communications of the ACM, March, 1970.
Feurzeig, W., Papert, S., Bloom, M., Grant, R, & Solomon, C. Programminglanguages as a conceptual framework for teaching mathematics. ReportNo. 1889. Boston: Bolt, Beranek & Newman, 1969.
Feurzeig, W., & Lukas, G. A programmable robot for teaching. TheInternational Congress of Cybernetics and Systems, Oxford, England,1972.
Feurzeig, W., & Lukas, G. Logo: A programming language for teachingmathematics. Educational Technology, March, 1972.
Feurzeig, W., Lukas, G., Faflick, P., Grant, R, Lukas, J., Morgan, C., Weiner,W., & Wexelblat, P. Programming languages as a conceptual frameworkfor teaching mathematics. Report No. 2165. Final Report, NSF-C-615,Vols. 1-3. Boston: Bolt, Beranek & Newman, 1971.
Fischer, G. Material and ideas to teach an introductory programming course usingLogo. Irvine, Calif.: Department of Information and ComputerScience, U. C. Irvine, 1973.
Page 115
Fletcher, J. Computer science seminars on pedagogical techniques and methodsfor evaluation. Seventh Annual Systems Symposium, Princeton, March1973.
Folk, M., Statz, J., & Seidman, R. Syracuse university Logo project. Report No.3. Final Report, NSF-TIE-GJ32222-3. Syracuse, New York: SyracuseUniversity, 1974.
Forsythe,A., Keenan, T., Organick, E., & Stenberg, W. Computer science: Afirst course. New York: Wiley, 1969.
Fromkin, V. Slips of the tongue. Scientific American, December, 1973.
Gardner, R., & Gardner, B. Early signs of language in child and chimpanzee.Science, 187, 752-753, 28 February, 1975.
Ginsberg, S. The mathematical theory of context-free languages. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1966.
Givens, W. Implications of the digital computer for education in themathematical sciences. Communications of the ACM, September, 1966.
Goldberg, A. Computer-assisted instruction: The application of theorem proving toadaptive response analysis. Technical Report No. 203. Stanford, Calif.:Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences, StanfordUniversity, 1973.
Goldberg, A., Levine, D., & Weyer, S. Three sample instructional programsfrom Stanford University. Computers in the instructional process:Report of an international school. Ann Arbor, Mich.: ExtendPublications, 1974.
Goldstein, 1. Understanding simple picture programs. Technical Report No. 294.Cambridge, Mass.: Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, 1974.
Gries, D. Compiler construction for digital computers. New York: Wiley, 1971.
Harlan, J. Our vanishing genetic resources. Science, 188, 618-621, 9 May, 1975.
Hoare, C. Proof of a program Find. Communications of the ACM, January,1971.
Holton, G. On the role of themata in scientific thought. Science, 188, 328-334,25 April, 1975.
Jackson, P. Life in classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.,1968.
Jaynes, E. Confidence intervals versus Bayesian intervals. The InternationalSymposium on Foundations of Probability and Statistics and StatisticalTheories of Science, University of Western Ontario, May, 1973.
Kay, A. Personal dynamic media. Xerox Learning Research Group, Xerox PaloAlto Research Center, Palo Alto, CA., June, 1975.
Kay, A. A personal computer for children of all ages. Proceedings of the ACMNational Conference, Boston, 1972.
Page 116
Kay, A. A dynamic medium for creative thought. Meeting of The NationalCouncil of Teachers of English, Minneapolis, 1972.
Kimball, R. Self-optimizing computer-assisted tutoring: Theory and practice.Technical Report No. 206. Stanford, Calif.: Institute for MathematicalStudies in the Social Sciences, Stanford University, 1973.
Knuth, D. MIX. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Series in Computer Scienceand Information Processing, 1970.
Knuth, D. Fundamental Algorithms. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1968.
Koestler, A. The roots of coincidence. New York: Vintage Books/RandomHouse, 1973.
Kolata, G. Communicating mathematics: Is it possible? Science, 187, 732, 28February, 1975.
Kolers, P. Experiments in reading. Scientific American, July 1972.
Kruskal, W. Letter to the editor, Science, 188, 10, 4 April, 1975.
Kruskal, J. Multidimensional scaling by optimizing goodness of fit to anonmetric hypothesis. Psychometrika, 29, 1-27, 1964.
Ledgard, H. Ten mini-languages: A study of topical issues in programminglanguages. Computing Surveys, 3, 115-146, September, 1971.
Levison, M., Ward, G., & Webb, J.simulation. Minneapolis:
The settlement of Polynesia. A computerUniversity of Minnesota Press, 1973.
Lorton, P., & Muscat, E. Computer utilization at the secondary school level: Amodel for computer assisted career education. In G. Goos & J.Hartmanis (Eds.), Lecture notes in computer science. 17, Berlin:Springer-Verlag, 1975.
Lorton, P .. & Slimick, J. Computer-based instruction in computer programming.Fall Joint Computer Conference, Las Vegas, 1969.
Manis, V. A machine independent implementation of Logo. Unpublished doctoraldissertation, University of British Columbia, 1973.
Manna, Z. Introduction to the mathematical theory of computation. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1972.
Mauchly, J. Mauchly on the trials of the Eniac. IEEE Spectrum, April, 1975.
Maurer, W. Programming. San Francisco: Holden-Day, 1968.
McLaughlin, M. Evaluation and Reform: The elementary and secondary educationact of 1965, Title I. Report No. R-1292-RC. Santa Monica, Calif.:The Rand Corporation, 1974.
Merton, R. Thematic analysis in science: Notes on Holton's concept. Science,188, 335-337, 25 April, 1975.
Milner, S. The effects of computer programming on performance inmathematics. Annual Meeting of the AERA, New Orleans, February,1973.
Page 117
Minsky, M. (Ed.) Semantic information-processing. Cambridge, Mass.: MITPress, 1968.
Minsky, M. Computation: Finite and infinite machines. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1967.
Morris Jr., J. Another recursion induction principle. Communications of theACM, May, 1971.
Nedelsky, L. Evaluation of essays by objective tests. The Journal of GeneralEducation, 7, 209-220, April, 1953.
Newell, A., & Simon, H. Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:Prentice-Hall, 1972.
Nievergelt, J. The automation of introductory computer science courses. TheInternational Computing Symposium, Davos, Switzerland, September,1973.
Nilson, N. Problem solving methods in artificial intelligence. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1971.
Oettinger, A., & Marks, S. Run, computer run: The mythology of educationalinnovation. Boston: Harvard Press, 1969.
Papert, S. Teaching children thinking. IFIP Conference on Computer Education,Amsterdam, August, 1970.
Piaget, J. Genetic epistemology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1970.
Pirsig, R. Zen and the art of motorcycle maintenance. New York: Morrow & Co.,1974.
Polya, G. How to solve it. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1957.
Puri, M. (Ed.) Nonparametric techniques in statistical inference. London:Cambridge University Press, 1970.
Reisfeld, R., & Kahan, B. Markers of biological individuality. ScientificAmerican, June, 1972.
Reynolds, J. Gedanken: A simple typeless language based on the. principle ofcompleteness and the reference concept. Communications of the ACM,May, 1970.
Roman, R. Logo: A student manual. Pittsburgh: Learning Research andDevelopment Center, University of Pittsburgh, 1972.
Rozeboom, W. The fallacy of the null hypothesis significance test. In D.Morrison & R. Henkel (Eds.), The significance test controversy.Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1970.
Rubinstein, R. Computers and a liberal education: Using Logo at theundergraduate level. Irvine, Calif.: Department of Information andComputer Science, U. C. Irvine, 1974.
Salomaa, A. Theory of automata. London: Pergamon Press, 1969.
Page 118
Scribner, S., & Cole, M. Cognitive consequences of formal and informaleducation. Science, 182, 553-559, 9 November, 1973.
Serin, J. Letter to the editor. Science, 189, 86-88, 11 July, 1975.
Smallwood, R. A decision structure for teaching machines. Boston: MIT Press,1962.
Steel, T. (Ed.) Formal-language description-languages. Amsterdam: NorthHolland, 1966.
Steen, L. Foundations of mathematics: Unsolvable problems. Science, 189, 209210, 18 July, 1975.
Stent, G. Limits to the scientific understanding of man. Science, 187, 10521057, 21 March, 1975.
Stent, G. Letter to the editor, Science, 189, 504, 15 August, 1975.
Swinehart, D., & Sproull, R. SAIL. Sailon No. 57.2, Stanford, Calif.: StanfordArtificial Intelligence Laboratory, 1971.
Toomre, A., & Toomre, J. Violent tides between galaxies. Scientific American,December, 1973.
Tukey, J., & Wilk, M. Data analysis and statistics: Techniques andApproaches. The Symposium on Information Processing in Sight SensorySystems. California Institute of Technology, November, 1965.
Vacroux, A. Microcomputers. Scientific American, May, 1975.
Weyer, S., & Cannara, A. Children learning computer programming: Experimentswith languages, curricula and programmable devices. Technical ReportNo. 250. Stanford, Calif.: Institute for Mathematical Studies in theSocial Sciences, Stanford University, 1975.
Weyer, S., & Cannara, A. Programming projects for children: Graphics andspeech synthesis. The Second Annual Computer Science Conference,Detroit, February, 1974.
Winograd, T. When will computers understand people? Psychology Today, "May,1974.
Winograd, T. Procedures as a representation of data in a computer program forunderstanding natural language. Project MAC TR-84. Cambridge,Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1971.
Wirth, N. Euler: A generalization of Algol, and its formal definition.Communications of the ACM, February, 1966.
Wittrock, M. (Ed.) Changing education: Alternatives from educational research.Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973.
Worthen, B., & Sanders, J. Educational evaluation: Theory and practice.Worthington, Ohio: Charles Jones Publishing Co., 1973.
Page 119
Appendix 1 Spm
This appendix documents the syntax and semantics of a language (Spm)
designed by the author but never used in any experiments. It simulates a
string-processing machine in which one operation, assignment CISNOW'), plays
the central role. First, a comparison of Logo/Spm phrasing:
Literal "DONALD" [DONALD]
Name/value linking MAKE "DONALD" "DUCK" @[DONALD] ISNOW [DUCK]or DONALD ISNOW [DUCK]
Name evaluation THING OF "DONALD"or just :DONALD:
@[DONALD] or DONALD
Indirect naming
String appending
MAKE :DONALD: "FOWL" @@[DONALD] ISNOW [FOWL]or @DONALD ISNOW [FOWL]
WORD OF "ABC" AND "D" STACK ISNOW [ABC];STACK ISNOW [D];NEXT ISNOW APPEND;
String definitions(substitutions)
. Input/output
Labelling
Storage release
Operation definition(dialogs)
Execution call
Recursion
ABBREVIATE "WORD"AS "JOIN"
PRINT JOIN "ABC" "D"
line numbers as below
automatic
~TO DD oW: :C:@lO PRINT JOIN oW: :C:@END
+-DD "ABC" "D"ABCD
~TO RECURSE@1Q P "RECURSE"@20 RECURSE@END .~RECURSE
RECURSE
[PUSH] ISFOR [STACK ISNOW];[DO] ISFOR [NEXT ISNOW];[TYPE] ISFOR [TTY ISNOW];
PUSH [ABC]; PUSH [D];DO APPEND; TYPE STACK;
LAB ISNOW NEXT; DO LAB;
FORGET LAB;
DD ISNOW [DO APPEND;TYPE STACK;@[] ISNOW NEXT];
PUSH [ABC]; PUSH [D];DO DD;ABCD
RECURSE ISNOW [TYPE [RECURSE];DO RECURSE;];DO RECURSE;RECURSE...
asll and "or". '. The paired meta-symbols
andSpm Syntax. The meta-symbols ..< >
I
( )
Page 120
mean, respectively, "rewrite
and {} mean, respectively,
"a non-terminal", "one of" and "optional ll• Spaces may be ignored. Note that
( ) < > and .. appear both as terminal and meta-symbols:
<program> .. {<blank>} {<statement> {<blank>}} ; {<program>}
<blank> .. <non-printing teletype motion character> {<blank>}
<statement> .. <comment> I <assignment> I <substitution) 1 <forget><test> {<blank>} ,:. {<blank>} <statement>
<comment> .. <literal> {{<blank>} <comment>}
(assignment) .. <destination> ISNOW (<source> I {<blank>} <literal»
(substitution) .. «destination> I <literal> «blank>}) ISFOR«source> I {<blank>} <literal»
<forget> .. FORGET <source>
<test> .. (IFEMPTY I IFNOTEMPTY) «source> 1 <literal»
<literal> .. [ <balanced string> ]
<balanced string>.. {<string>} {<balanced string>} {<literal>} {<string>}
<destination>
<source>
.. «name> 1 <indirect name» <blank> I<literal name> {<blank>}
.. <blank> <name> I{<blank>} «literal name> 1 <indirect name»
<literal name> .. @ {<blank>} «literal> I <literal name»
<indirect name> .. @ {<blank>} «name> I <indirect name»
<string> .. <blank> 1 «name> 1 : 1 ; I @ ) {<string>}
<name> .. (A 1 B 1 c 1 DIE 1 FIG I H 1 I 1 J 1 K 1 LIM 1NIOIPIQIRISITIUIVIWIXIYIZI0111 2 13141516171819111"1#1$I%I&I'ICI)I*I+I,I-I.I/I<I= 1 > 1 ? 1 1 I") {<name>}
Page 121
Semantics. The Spm machine consists of (a) a processor, which interprets
strings in the Spm language defined above; (b) an arbitrary number of memory
cells, each capable of storing a balanced string of arbitrary length; and (c) two
pushdown stores called 'STACK' and 'NEXT', each consisting of an ordered set
of memory cells of which only that cell bearing the name of the set is
immediately accessible. New memory cells are created as needed to satisfy
assignments. Any existing accessible cells, except 'STACK' and 'NEXT', can be
released. The Spm machine also maintains an inaccessible and variable stock of
cells for satisfying 'ISFOR' statements and 'STACK' and 'NEXT' manipulations.
Certain strings have special meaning to the Spm machine as names,
primitive operations. Names which Spm automatically associates with specific
memory cells are: 'TTY', 'STACK' and 'NEXT'. Other names are defined by
the execution of assignments. All accessible cells must necessarily have distinct
names. Spm operations are predefined names which cause specific activities of
the machine when it encounters them during the execution of statements.
'ISNOW', 'ISFOR', 'FORGET', 'IFEMPTY', 'IFNOTEMPTY', '@', ';', ':', T' and ']'
have such effect. The two pushdown stores, whose accessible cells are named
'STACK' and 'NEXT', have special properties: (a) if either 'STACK' or 'NEXT'
appears as the destination in an assignment, the machine attaches a new cell to
the accessible end of the appropriate ordered set of cells. The new cell is loaded
with the value of the source and the name 'STACK', or 'NEXT' as appropriate,
is associated with this new cell rather than with the previously accessible cell;
(b) if either 'STACK' or 'NEXT' occurs as a source in an assignment, a
substitution or a (forget>, the Spm machine uses the accessible cells's content,
and releases the cell. The name 'STACK' or 'NEXT', as appropriate, is then
associated with the next cell in the corresponding ordered set of cells. The
same action results when either 'STACK' or 'NEXT' appears as a destination in
a substitution statement; (c) no change in the structure of 'STACK' or 'NEXT'
is made if either appears as a source in a test.
Page 122
Spm Primitives
Symbols
NEXTSTACKTTY
Operations
ISNOWISFORFORGETIFEMPTYIFNOTEMPTYAPPENDHEADTAILAFTER@
.[]
'NEXT' always contains the string to be executed next by the Spm machine.
The machine obtains one statement after another from this string by scanning
the value of 'NEXT' from left to right until a ';', not part of a literal, is
encountered. The scanning process removes all characters up through the ';'
from 'NEXT', shortening its content as execution procedes. When the last
statement in 'NEXT' has been executed, the current cell is released and replaced
by that directly beneath it. Should 'NEXT' ever be exhausted of cells, the Spm
machine will automatically attempt to fill 'NEXT' with characters from the
teletypewri ter ('TTY'). If a statement cannot be executed, the machine prints a
message and again goes to the teletypewriter for input. Note that this is
analogous to execution of the statement 'NEXT ISNOW TTY'. 'STACK' is the
accessible cell in the general pushdown store and may have as value any string.
'TTY' is the user's terminal. Assignment to it causes the assigned value to be
printed. Assignment from it to a destination obtains characters from the
typist. Its value is not maintained by Spm, sO characters disappear on the way
in or out as typing proceeds at the terminal. Its value is '[]' when input or
output has been completed.
'ISNOW' is the means for changing the content of the Spm machine's
Page 123
memory. When a name is used for the first time in an assignment, the
machine obtains a new cell in which to store the assigned value and associates
the name with this cell. 'lSFOR' is a simple symbol/string substitution
mechanism. After it is executed, the Spm machine will automatically substitute,
for any occurrences of the value on the left of the 'ISFOR' in the text of any
statement scanned from 'NEXT', the value on the right. This 'amounts to a
simple transformation of the Spm language to suit the user. Recursive
substitutions are not allowed. 'FORGET' is the means for releasing names and
their associated memory cells from the Spm machine's memory.
'IFNOTEMPTY' and 'IFEMPTY' are tests which, if the value tested is not
'[]' or is '[]', respectively, will execute the subsequent statement. Otherwise, the
statement is skipped.
'APPEND' joins a character to the end of a string. The character is
assu'med to be in the top cell of 'STACK', with the string immediately beneath.
It returns the resultant string as the value of 'STACK'. If a string is used for
the character, only its first character will be appended. 'HEAD' accepts a
string in 'STACK' and returns the first character of that string in 'STACK'.
'TAIL' is like 'HEAD', but returns all characters in the string after the first is
removed. For 'AFTER', 'STACK' and the cell beneath it each contain a
character. If the character in 'STACK' occurs before the other character in the
lexicographical ordering defined for the characters of the Spm alphabet, the top
character is removed from 'STACK'. Otherwise, both 'STACK' cells are removed
and the value of '[]' given to 'STACK'. If strings are supplied as values, only
the first character of each will enter into the comparison.
'@' indicates that the value of the string which follows should be
interpreted as a name. Note '@[ABC]' and 'ABC' are equivalent. ';' terminates
an Spm statement. ':' indicates the beginning of a statement in a test. T' and
Page 124
'J' respectively denote the start and end of a literal. Note that '[' and. 'J' must
occur in pairs according to the syntax. There is no legal way to obtain either
bracket singly in a piece of executable text. They may be obtained from '[J'
however, with the 'HEAD' and 'TAIL' functions. Some details of Spm phrasing
follow:
String constant
Empty string
Assignment
Name evaluations
Recursive naming(unlimited indirect
addressing)
Using 'STACK'(produces):
Using tNEXT'(program control,
produces):
SubstitutionsISNOW];
Input!output(types out "ABCD")
Storage release
Operation defining
Execution(types out "ABCD")
Recursion
Stack release
Premature return
[DONALD] (literal)
[]
@[DONALD] ISNOW [DUCK] or DONALD ISNOW [DUCK]
@[DONALD] or just DONALD both have the value DUCK
@@[DONALD] ISNOW [FOWL] or @DONALD ISNOW [FOWL]
STACK ISNOW [ABC]; STACK ISNOW [D];+-----+I D 1<-- STACK+-----+1 ABC 1+-----+
NEXT ISNOW APPEND; TTY ISNOW STACK;
+----~-----------------+ +-------+1TTY ISNOW STACK 1<-- NEXT 1ABCD 1<-- STACK+----------------------+ +-------+
[PUSH] ISFOR [STACK ISNOW]; [DO] ISFOR [NEXT
[TYPE] ISFOR [TTY ISNOW];
PUSH[ABC]; PUSH[D]; DO APPEND; TYPE STACK;ABCD
FORGET DONALD;
DD ISNOW [DO APPEND; TYPE STACK;];
PUSH [ABC]; PUSH [D]; DO DD;ABCD
RECURSE ISNOW [TYPE [ABCD]; DO RECURSE;];DO RECURSE;ABCDABCDABCDABCD...
@[] ISNOW STACK;
@[] ISNOW NEXT;
-."
Page 125
Appendix 2 Aptitude-Testing Details
An Example of Commercial Test Evaluation
The example derives from remarks in the published manual for one of the
programming tests examined. The validity of that test was assessed by three
studies: (1) correlation of test scores and grades of three groups of
programming trainees, (2) correlation of test scores and overall performance
ratings by supervisors of programmers, and (3) a study like that of (2) in
which grades on a training course were also available. Studies (1) and (3) both
assumed, without discussion, that the testing done during training was itself a
valid measure of programming ability. Studies (2) and (3) both assumed that
ratings by superiors were similarly valid. Study (1) indicated that, of fifteen
relevant correlations between subtest scores and trainee groups, eight were of
statistical (normal theory) significance. And only one subtest was significantly
correlated with trainee performance over all groups, in spite of the fact that
the overall test/training correlation for each group was significant.
Interestingly, the most variable subtests were those which relied heavily on time
and repetition. In Study (2), three of five subtest correlations and the overall
correlation were significant but small; and the two remaining subtests were
those which exhibited variable or minimal correlation with performance in
study (1). Unfortunately, the ratings used as the validating measure in (2) were
not confined to programming ability and included such things as attitudes.
Therefore, study (2) is invalid. Study (3) found three subtests significantly
correlated with training course grades, but one of the three had not been
significantly correlated with grades for any group in study (1). Furthermore,
the ra tings used in the other half of study (3) were virtually uncorrelated with
subtest results. The brochure went on to state that these ratings and job
tenure were correlated more strongly than anything else in both halves of the
study--the suggestion being that low correlations must be expected when
Page 126
evaluations place high value on relatively invalid properties· (i.e., tenure). An
alternative observation can be made which applies to any correlational
procedure: the sample variance of a measured property may be so low that
apparent but spurious correlations with another measure arise. In study (3),
the test scores could have had low variability for good reason: the testees could
have been of very nearly the same competence. In any event, none of the
studies provided a clear validation of this particular test for programming
aptitude.
1974 Test Questions
The pre- and post-tests given to students in the second experiment are
presented here, beginning on pages .+1 and .+5 respectively (some of the
questions are specifically referred to in the text). All students in that
experiment worked the pretest, but only a few, who finished both the Logo and
Simper curricula, worked the posttest. The questions in these tests were drawn
from the same set used to construct the 1973 experiment's pretests and so
reflect their content as well.
'lI.u h a .e'i"....~ o~ tou.. UqUI'''~ ~ ..a .... 1n boua, p1..... d....... ~n ~h. 1>0"
arod 'h.. ~11"". ,h.' YO" tlltnl< .hcu1d qo ..a"t ..... dlfl .. t'}M,.
~h.. S11u.. l""...~ l:h~ pl .." ..~ol~ 1;:l ....9 h,,,,. ten tln']flU Jun• •• 'I. dO, tUt
th.. .,h ..:~"t·n t"'OY ..~ .. tI> " ........,""t "",,"''On <lM·t 1<"<1:'< ..rol'tM,,~ l!u
"UI' ,U'llt. 0 ~~o..,.,h 9, the "1",...", ... ""'~ e ..... to ".,,"'t1ro'] "h.~" .....~U"7
Sl114171(llJ• t
• • •pl ....· ~~.. t"1'JU"'e D .., ~b.t 1~ "o""fI8pon~" to c I.G ~b.......,. '....y that II
c:o.."..~:!. toA.we Just ""eet"e.t • $11u<l......unq. O'ter the 1nt<oC'-'Jahett" l'.ot-U,:,...~:
...,,,ld UI<. Y'>"" h.,.1" 1" U'I"S1"U"'J • n ....~.. In It.
~~®rn. . , •at"". t~.'f·". qly.." us a c!tleul.. tlon Which : .. h an a.."ttt""
=obh"" pl ..os9 try w-so1Yd It ~or us an<l 'llv,. t.h ,. .....: 11\~ t.hot:
n=b...-1n1 ....4 <>''''''.,
__ (l;
h~... "". \h.. <'lann1tien. Of .one ordl"""1 _t.ho<oati<:al "Y"'bo1...lr.ICio
you ""y 11."....."" "etor••
1I.... h .. &"'l"""""" 0: t ....... U'}u..... tlle:f ell....']. f .."", lf1~t to ..1<Jht
..C<!O..:lt~q to ...1....h ",,1., try too .11IeO't... 1~ and ~nw d'. lI ....t U'Jl.l".
tn the .....,...r>ee.
~eoo. -.
• 00•• 0 o ••
""'")
<
•,,JII'.T!l~ ••
~
18 'lr..at.... th.....,
1:1 1.s. t.!wI"
I. "'lUal t.o
b not. "'lual to
1:1 nOt '9"u"t...< "h.,.
1:1 n.." l.os th ....
If .... XnOll' • h t..-... th.".., •• h al... ""ue
~h .. p:o..'!u<:~ 0: ~ ~h.. po~ltl"" whOl" ",..b..... ~..."" I t.O ""y 91v,", n....1:>&...
h ,.<I,.'Il:y 1n"1".t"'" b1 -!-, .u l! .. 1 ~be .. 2 ~1<0... 3. ~ha~ h I:! H
II • " .,
ltO ) (" b .. t.r".... • "at",unt ab",,~ the n"""be". ) an<l ., but. J. ( T
"'y"o t..- .... 0" fuso dep .."41.n'i upo<l ..hat. n~b.." ••n pUl:' l.~ pb.e....e x
....4 Y, "'.00; If X ) t tha" 0 (X 1.. s Uua .t."~_,,t tot any .......~u X.
I.n ...elI of the .... th .....tt"al "ondltion., .... ", ."st<•••nta bal iI. B ....<1 C
.und f= '"any """b.r-, to" "'"h. 1I""""'ant, plM'....y ..11. 11.... fe" "hlnlt
eon~t<;\On.. ~
" A ) ! ) e ~" A '",e
"A _ II '" C
~"., <
" A .. B • C ~" •• <
U A 40 D • C ~" •• <
" A { ! • e Tlltll " <
t"'~ ...~,.•" ~tvI1H"~I"'" Uoun_h,>.I In tl'1. y ~
~:.' t~.~u.~l'o ,,~~ In "h_"t ..~ n<'>' ...>11 .." ,1<1
.'"~ """t"''''~ :Out." (P",;on .'noS Y"~Hanl.
1~' !I"'" .." .... ,,~t<'",t.-.1 "0• .. it'> I.,n"to n~<i ",,«Ia.
""'••e ..,.~e="'Jh..,1'Is ";>=."",11' .." u,'" by th. 1Ia}'• .l.n the yeo .. Ht.
S,,-.tt.-n. Q~.= ""n\' \·""r". ".., 11''1'' "1'I"n~";l t1'l" ~uign o~ hi""""1lyp1'l•
.. ~=!';::I,,= ";''''1~no; wh"t t1'l.y ",,,,,,,.. So "e "e"d ~"'". h"lp to t.""slat"
t",,= """I.. .:!~.""'"..="'" :l1e=""11y;>ha "s t!:ltn'" "e.e "..;1" In B~~'
and ..:",1:. <lo YO" think
" .. a." nOt sur. a~t tllO Oth... hl••<!91'/9hs, but ..a ..h "" .. e .... t.e t.-:;a".h=e::.
into. "1",,,1<1 WON "he" "" """ it In a ""nte."::" with !1~".<>;1Yi'1l. "If k""....
~l....e "='=~ "1'1,, H ..s. to".. ""pl"ll1. h1e."'11yphs ..ith thes., .,n;1. to= ",."t,""'''' ..:It.. t~.s .."olt,,1 ..1'Ilell ."0" thlnl< th.. llayU " ..,."t it to "tand. to...
. .....,,'lot. ~~ =1... ~ lIuno; ~ltm.U"...u ".~ 1<0 "",1te t.!>a' 41o;IU on
tl'-.. "1"ht :.0:> th.. Hrl"<J. ot <li<JUs Oil the l ..ft1'
9933l9H9
".61C6 • ..hat!!!!!: l'ule. ",,1n9 2.'!.l!! 8l.<!"1,. ....Ull..,..Ue. ean you find ..hl<:h ehan;o"
."cll ......be.- "" th.. l,,:t tnto it" ltoi1hbor on th" "1,,:>:11;.1
he SOO'_" bo",,~ ..i"h n=b.... In th.... Eaeh b<>X ..1.0 M. " p"...... n ....t
n~ · ot tt. """'...!ltell 1. aho a n...t><>•••"
""
123'5678910
[6lol.I,l nl,I.J!4e!o611 1..h~t a.e lU<ely to be th" neXt ...... lette.. 1» tob" ."'1"...."",
"ety:t.J)C!J
1:..;-1n .. t~.t "P-'- ar. a ro~~ th"t e!ln rea" an::! ....1t". PI..".. ob.y th....
oo=an<ls Cno~.., ..~ ..n you >i:"U. l.n a 110". YC>'~ · ..ra$-'" ..ha.t 1t IId<l be~o."):
1. ..,:" tl'-.. ",..."ller i~ lI'''' • to tlle .."",,1><0.. .l.n boo>; 2
....<l ....It. t!1e .'a 1'1 bo>l 7.
58161938~1
2. 0.11<1 tlle " b,: In bo" 7 to
til. n......"b :,,';"<1 In .h. box .._ .. box """'\>or ts i!> !><»I: {,
,. .....lt1,ly n .. "c.,>b... tn tx>" 6 by tho "·....bo. in 1>00< 1
a.," ...tt" ~1't.. p.o<!·J.t In 11". S.
nasHn" th...Ollb b..o>:,,·h .... "" 1".. ':r ..... t"ctory .,,<l I1tt01 a fOU:~fOOt
cubo Of "".'111<1 I eua... btlt wae .l1rp..1tl.~ by tM- pvl~". In h.....""";>,,"n<l foll ..tth loll. cube 11lt.o ...... t Of "hoeol.t" "Youp-. '1:"" polle" ~"
th" le" ern.. f",,, _10:"".." but cout<:,,:" ".rry It <loom "'" 1;.1'1" U"tlo" h
g., .. pi"".., So th<>y CUt tt 1M" "" ...!<>'>t Cub"•• pOOO",j In <lty 1... to
prev""t "dt1n~.
\~O U'l~r.. 1.~ 'I"''':> 1 Its". _.th1~q 1n e-<>=on that 10 ""t. 01>,...001 toy
"'f of tha t1~ ..",.0 1n q~.,..~p 1. ..1~cl. tM Uo;»r. 1n 'l"""P 3 tt>at
t--~~~'J' 1"- ,,~C"? , 1>...t nOt 1n qre"p 1.
H ~ .~.nlo t"r ~on..........I><'..~, "Meh on" er th... oxp.....,"'". "Una
-. n,..,~~ "h1"" 1<1 .. "",r. tll.n) U,".", 1<-'"
06<>0
411 .. 5
{[)sc,n$
..11.\ ....-n«lay 6_htt.r .,,:.s ean you .1'011 ..lttl Ci;EDX1' lld"9" _"tl
lettor o~ly 'onco' (M~tl WAnR~ATi:l
;>1nse e=c>l"~. thit """t"n.... 'by c!.relln'l th" =~U"t .",l1ng.
Wh"" .. prop"r t.UCltlon lS """XUI'll"" by ltodf. the r"s"lt1n~ , ..""uon
is al"ays
equal; .to ~h" or1Q1.l?-u fnction.
1n" than the ''<log-lnd er..et1on.
1 ...." than. zero.
~"'SU"" t.1I........ <Il.t..,,,,,••..."",<1 tho o"t.l<1. ( ..l~="'fer""''''l. "l>~clt h4'
.,...." .... "l~h .. 132-1,,-c;" Ple..o of op..gll..~tl. If Albert "",1<". 1'10",""
1n the ol>"po o~ a", e"I,,1h>a ..d t=10nog-1", ...l~"le. a ........~•• "'-:<1 •
1':"''',",>0'' (.,1lc "l'u), }.,., '''0,,1.1 h., 11010 th"", on t.he ""nil t-olo'01
litul.t ~~ 1:'010 .......~ to "hang. the _>;-d. Or> t.boo 1.f\ "to' tho" •
.... tl\<t rl.o;lllt? .
p:. 1..0:10 tho but en<1:.n<; et thl. u .. ten"..,
1'h ,,, ", " ... ,,,/e.,, n,-...,b~r ....<1 0". od.I n'&'bor
0=
"".,.,.=""
.m
""=
1. al""Y" ov';"'.
....y 1><1 <>dol Or ove".
-M~ t¢r '000. ·D- t¢r 500,
·x- eQr 10, ~V· for 5,
-c· eor 100.
-1~· tor 1
..:...t t .. ~h', 0". U,,?l....'u1 .. "1>1el> .now, neh l ..ah~n,! =,<1 to 1>..
e~....~']~~ 1nt? e.,eh ~1<Jh~h""'l W?~~?
-II- t.h:rO"_"ih -X- e.. e 01n~h Il""'".. """'oU1", but '""r. than ..,." ""'y boo
c=blncll all<5 tll""l tHn.hte<l a"c¢t"l"ln'l \10 t.hla 1l1lL!: •
t ••~ut vitI> tho rl'Jhtl'l"",," n>r>" ..al ..n4 "'..~. tl'le t.<>t.a1 aq~a1 t¢ 10,. v"I" ...
2. 1<>01< et the n..>lt """..rd t<t th" lott. It 1 ... valu. 10 ho.. th..~ t~"~t 0:
t.~... n'.r;o,ol c" lt~ r1'lh~..."btuet Ito ....I~e e~"", t,,", toul. O.,I>"r>l1o •
..~-i ltoo ""\,,, ..... th~ toUI.
1. c-.....t1n"" wtth .~oP :1 <llItU there ..t.. no 100'0 '...........10.
,,~.t .10 yr." think tho no"t l ..tt..~ In thlo O"'1""nc. w1ll I>o?
....., "
~Ul \e, ~,~~ l>L.~" "Uh ..~.~ y"" 'l;l>I .... t~....~"~IM .1>O"t,1 <lo U, tt.·,t
~l.,,"· ,',! """"~"<' <.l>.. t,,<, "n""~ at tll_ ~H"O' h,'~ to tl><t pl.tc,,~ }'O\l
"1-\,,.. e~",· b.-l""l. A ..... 8 ..... C .....
..
1:"'3 >""'''111ht .t.l"U 10"". hon thr""" dO"ln .0 1:hey ""OU. Ue'!I'. l"'''leot.
Wl\l"h atat.",ont; 0" s"at;,.""nu ar.. ALW.\'!S !"IlUS "aq....dlu. oe h"", ttl. sUel'"
"r. """'&0'1, as 1",,'J ..,.. thq' .tHl .,.......
""!ll. ~ 111 .. n.
"'<;:1" B ,'31..... + 1eO d"".. " •••
....!l1& " d...,..u".." 0" ""..to ." an'll" B d.c on••
a.'ql. A d_....on " •• ""'11. Bin" .
• '1...1& B .. 180 dot<; _ ""'i1....
my 9J:":o.'dhthe.. lO<>Vad into • h.~"te<1 " U hte" }o-ld U v"",,,t,,•• , S
...." ..""'1"01& ..~ 32S bat... It.; " .....-1 ".,,10 t.o 1;oh., ellOy to 1";)< tor
"""k, a"" 3S bats U .... • ""1' .nd 11 " onu 1.,."" "od 4 """;>ir t."..n""
b ..ex 10'1:0 bo"", th"" hOlf c""y >e''''y ""t"" (nO't l,.c1"""l"'J <; ,dh;h"r)
....... letlo io "h.....Ul.,.
y.a lIo __._~1. 'I:Ot1l1 t.1:;?
/'• ..u the IlE;'ttlllf
?~~l1d?• yu 110
+.",.~~ . 'T""" ~""""
P\lt """'''Y 1'1 COin bolea:>.d ae" 1:01:01 to t.oo
I? ~c--------->
. "c~
U:I;J. .
"",b. """,ld 100 baa: 1'1 in orl"lna1 po..Juoo.
eorn"r e ..<>U!<1 b ....h.r. ""':'"'" f ..u.
""'..no,,'e ...ou:l4 be b.lev vl;..r. fae• .\9:;-.. "OIl ..
dOl; .."",1<1 ~ l.n t.tle pla.,~ ..lin ... i:.". e:;~tl '.."a.
th.. BOlli' fa"" 0: t.hI,. CUM, baa " 40~ On 1t. 110""'1."1. YOtl t""..ed the Cul><t
,,1.0<:""'10. :"",100 dll<1...... " around a" a"l. tl>ro",!b 1:ho polnto" ....,s II. t.to....
{.""'e d191ta e&ll Ju",'. mo... thon on...
aOlllld (e con 1>& l' or vj, .",1 .. IIlngl.,,,,
0'''' lI)·n.... II. au"oUtu"..... con."".....t a"""d tor 1I0Ct> dlq1t l.n a nu.lbar
u.ln9 U!~ Ubi. bd.........d tlul" puta _ ..18 bat..can t!>a ""o~..nta t.o
tor.. \lord.. 1'11.... ha Co""ec:U tM wor.d.....d thll '''''''~ ..1"h a atory.
•
•
'len> .... E. I, 0. U. V. X. Y.!1 (not 1'1 C:<:. SII, Til)
,
•
S!, J. C"d. G (aott Bo l.n ·(;~O~c;~·)
J:. 0, }le;. G (hud •• 1'1 -CO:I~-). C (Med' •• 10 ~CAT-)
" ,., ,1"''''110'' t .. ,.c",.d t.1-..,t you bd Iourned t.he 0 ..191.. 111 "ube. lSO <!""1~ua t.IotH
U"',," In • """, U ..ot On ~... ""a t.hrO'~gh th.. e,,"ta... ot ,,~.. ta"... A<::O.i!
&n,s WI!I", ".,,<c on ....... ,,1. the"""111 t.h.. "ont.".. a of M;:;Cl ~",s !::>~r. 0'1:1 la.;
on >In ..d" "h"o'J<)h t.ho <:.nt..~. o~ CGl<l) ....d A6I"C. /l"" "he h u.. "lth th..
<lOt ..111 bo \lh ~." o"lqt"oUy.
to fa:;:; (S1) ~!la::..'1 (l)(lJ) lion.. (15). \;"hOn BUbO " ..o"a to r"",..",~..." M.
p~"". ""..." .... h. reedl. "ht M' dO'.l Sh"U1:' In.,,, "0 "h_ 00 1:.1<>;>1>0""
BH~ r_...... t· .... t.h.t.h. ,,<>4~ h:~ hC>'>. Mod..... ". To ....5'1 '" sec" we,"u,.
he livu nut d.,.,.. to .. l ..u"d..=H. IIhlt h Ma t>:>u•• n""l>qr?
Vdt... n·.....~er .. ltll at. le.,.~ t1.,.~ dl..1to In 1t. It"e ",".'''ph, "/Our pm~e
ou..booe. b1HMol', 0 .. loe>:•• <:o:;Un~t1cn) snd Un'" enbo"s &y.; ~o "eli"
"".d...:'lcll '~on~ lb. eh" n ......b... It y"u "en~, v... "~,,, ....!t.o ".,tue..
'to eo",~ee r"'u, ..",ds and tll. n.;"b.... 1., ... tory U,,, ",y 8ltbo clO" ...
n/90
««, .««««««««««««««(»»»»»»»»»»>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
h,,"" ...... ,,11 rooq,ulr_an""
an~ ar" n_ o:~ld"Uy
U"."s<d. 't.O PU"U"'$
... ""1'
««««««««««««««««««»»»>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>>
t.~o """a.. o~ " h",,~qo" au"d ""at... PUU> t.M pa"GCt. ..0 ~h ..qa hia oqu.:a
p>.rl<.1nq lCl" ..". 1;". 81 .'1uaro y••<l.. 1.. ".,a<t. Ba told p,,~~ t.h.......l<1nq
.."h .1<1. 0: U". po-oun.. 10.. "hru 1'...,<la 1""9<>" "111 =1:.. t.he "rO><t 81
"qua•• ~...d. ....,<1 ""'1' t.1I.. lot .'1"aro. bUI:; h .. "",,,'t. t"U P....!a h"" b1q "h"
lot. h n"". Vh ..t. h th.. -lot'. arM ",~.<l """ 10llq h 0..<:11- ,,11l<>?
ha.. ara :our U'iUru 1n b01<"o, pl .....u <l.ra.. ""a... 1''''~ th1"" t.1I.. nut
U;ur.. ''I' t.lI" r1o;ht n<>ul<! b.,
110.:>". Ie •••••• ~"'l"r...,••
t.h. Il.nto,,- "orr. ot ."qtn.au aro ."...,o.1no; r0e4 _19".' PrO'll ::"r1.
C:"n.'01 t.o "..., So..d 1. 150 "11,,,. (.a",o " ... Uk••U .......1'0. ,.11..0. thoy •••
_nur"" 1" til.. 0."". <It.,,euo.. l. t.oo tort" C......l 't.O 'I\o~. sp• .,,,,,,,,,,t t.
90 "11,,,~. el>l..~ .:>;;In~. Chrr 1<""",. that only o~ t.h.. ~oU""'I"9
Uv. "t.H","o"t" ::lUst bo tru". but ,h~ 1\"" to....o Mel> <1O". Cl:<el.
"'h" "tH""'."t ..~I"h YOII vo\ll~ re"o".....,,<I.
1. tlla <l18U,,"" t""", a"". S"n<l to Phobo. sp.".....~ 1.* 60 .11....
z. :OU~ t1.."n" t.h.. ~Ut" ..,,:.. ~r"", ~".h en""l to It'''' ....... "'iua.h _I;"" to1.."...
th" 1l1llt."""" trD1l £"rl0 C""al "'" Phol>o" Sp.=:ort.
,. tl\ .. ~I.U""", fr"," Red Sen::! to Ph.obo.. sp.e"per. 1,a 2«0 "H=o...
4. th.. d1= .... ""'" troo ten.. C..."l to /1.0<1 S"<I<l 1. :JD .11...... Ib:>r. thM
tw1ee ....... <lht.-ar_ ~."'" tod. c:n...l to 'hobo" Sp.e.port.
5, the dist""". ~r"'" red S"",,- to _'hobo. Sp""eport e""nOt b. da"...,,111od.
tt you c ... rot.. o.", t.n", leftll.."", e,,:,o •• "u",h u you pl""~", ""tell o!
th" =1><0.. On th" rtqht do you t.hlnl< t" t."" u,;e a. til... t ..ftl>a,,::! ="' ..?
th" :1g=o" in 'iro,,? 1 Mve _e..hUg in c:o=.Oft 'lob"... 1..~ a"...:'<:d. };-oJ
any ot I;hn tl'l"o-oo 1.... 'i=O"i' Z, e1"elo t.'!'... Usuro 1" sro"p ;\ t""...bo.lo"9-" 1n ..:=? ~ bot. f>O" In 9rollp 2,
Q>--.l-71" '9&1 t~_a aal .. l=re COlt. """ .1qht 'II..."tl Ion t.""e., 00 th,,1r
Ut.10 "t 0; ...... \to:> to 0;""'0" play..d ,
II
.d. l""'" .ay not b<>1tew" 1;11.1", but " "llo>t .)'0" look 11.... to _""_"e "Hh
Jl"r"Y "1st.....ho" ~..,u .O'...." th" "".h and C<I".O"a"U,
00 D6''';:-;>'''''' )"0'11 w"et .. ~""" tto. arlthoa'!:1" p..c:<lUCt Al'll...~d. U\~ "U$l>O_ yO'\O
r,,?h"'«l ... with Ale ."'4 .r~<i1."ed B vHl'Ill>:C. U c: h "ot. 8'1.,....1 to "":0.
vow~ts r::o';SO:;A:<tS
•• 5'l f1) 5J •• 8!].'.. .., hthe" .~
" l1! [2] L. fT;~:::J.., '",.,
.. f2j f2] y • r::J1l2J.. .... yo'
" 12] [2J " l2J-, ,.., .... ~ .. l2J., '0,
, ,I I
( 5 6 7
I I8910111113141S
I I I I I I I I<=001 OV."..,lqhl;. .......hel! ..h1'Oh abo h<>d .. ·...rro. ."pty eM on It. 'l:h<>
shelf l'oc"~ 111o;e.
:J"~ill~" th"";"'" .... II rol>ct "tr.; "an nail ~<l __ no. YO!JJ:' "U.lon
I" t.o "C",~le t::.. c:::>~s:"" 1:1 t?:.. bo",,,. IS, 12, '3 and 6. Ev"'l tho'-"'l1'l 1:1'1..
","!:en are l"·~lsJ.bl....191':. nO"~. yo" " ..n ~a'oI.r thh by relj'ln'il on YO""
•",,<>.:"-h="" PO'V":' lind ob"}'lr.9 U'.au ="""'1
I>"'t1"" 1n ttl.,."
!l<::>r oh.. thltllcol .h.. oh.;>wdk~ lut t11,.h" IlIICI ~.u~ • .",.. p<><;10tl ~== O"e
ot "h. "tel. """". aU> one ot th .. other t"", ".n_. 1>",,, _h" ",,-,,'I; r..,<te~
::<>= .=.. (sh.. ':"u1el nave C1re."od It). . "'h4t Ct;'...... tt.n "0.._ h ,,1\.;
~eh FreelO hu u• .., t:h. OIL",••:h ..l:: to otor. at" e,,,,. 0: "<it.,= and••tnc•
toll., potton h eolod..... tnth.. .0,,<1 odorleu lIke vUer. Ap!'lrodl. .. tose ..
probI"",_ Pleu. t1dp :her out, whleh 0:: tllus thrn Ute o! "I...>s. Mve tt...
......"it" <:=M'd. I by r ..,hdnq 1:1:.. 1>0>: " ....b.." " .."l;lon<:<1 In
It ""'" ..1'1:1\ 1;1'1'1; bolt n=1>,,, 01n". 3.
"'..nuo~e.f 1n "".....,,<1 1 til... atop.
Oth"""h" 9" ".el< to "<:=,,,,<1 1.
,.
,.
,.
11....."*1".. "~U":U :.:I f_~ by I; f ...~. """ _I" ot l>h C4Jl1h..~ wUl ~h"
Sbh.ot tu" t.o "101,, to ~"1~'iI wnh h1'" "h.. lIoxt. t>. «a"" ~o "'U1t?
U:"u " wu "ha~'O...s Into Uq>.>ro a by b'pl" "ul", "Iu.•• "hL",'O. C
~ ~:-....."'" ..ul" Itnd d...... th" .... ,,It. (1<;1"". DI
,600.. a t l)
..hot (\0 YC>Il think th" """1. ~_ lotUl::• .,., tha rl9ht lJ> thh ""'I""'"'''''.ho,,14 bltl
"Mt "ho.,ld the ,.."t hy l.~ta.. " 0" tho.. tatt be?
.h,.! p..u=,. in th.. Vt>l~od Stat..,. "u thl8 halI4 11.1»1=..10,,1. fo:1'
c:a=tu~lc ..uo~. $..,.....1 .....d. Will lo. Un".up"l1e<i [."..11<>'" 1>l"
.~ln<; ~l\. 1>a"d .1<;". On••ttor another) c:>. the """I. P4o;U. ,,<:>
I' -) D
~ -) OG
pIns.. ,...1<.. "" ,,0:...."ID. ot yo".. 0.." ..h1"'" "".. <:t."".... S\I,..lO.<.il 1"'0;0 ... ~,,~ ....
and ._ 1'1"" ~h"Y ""..I<.
If L"\<;Il.. II o~ "'''9"1 .. h ~.._ tle.... •• big .. an ..l. ii. an" an..l. C I-
20 dog..""a 1>1 than angl" P. hen< bl'1 I" anil. iI?
tz.... It1..t .. Meh Of loll. thr.. t!nqeto!'.l1od l.u.....",!11~""~. 1>..1""
'''''''' an 1t"0;11.." _rl.
,,"
flu.. <lc .... Un... b.t...... ncll 0= tho thl"~. 0<1 t.hoI 1.n "".I tho<
l,,"~'l""'Ju 0" t.h. tl~ht. 1" ..h1Ch O:II.y Ada" '''''.1111n~.
Yo"r ..lut"" 10 t.o "rit." a ra",",ulva J.o.jo p...,c"dur...;>1"" "Ul "olp t""
col"",\, "'''p:",l"eo to>, .."ny 'i"aaraUou. Yo".. r=oc4o<1"..a al\OlJ.14 p.l"t. "'I,,;
tha colo:>y 1001<. U~'" ",,4 thon. :t.~ t~...... aro 1.." th.... J b111 ....""A1n:r.~
1n t.... ""10ny (u~. CO:J;1lr. Pa~t. S) .It ahO"ld <11". a" yo"r pro"<lJ"" C.n
prlnt -J!X1INcrIO:>II- .nil '01 CO-Mr. o,",-rw~"'" 1t. .t.<»J1J .011..... th.... J
""Un9 ",uha to ·<1",,1<1. WM~ t.h...."t g"nacAtlon ·ot ..... colo.~y h ""4 t.I\...~
cdl up .. broth,,: to hnn41. t"at nn eol_:(1
uu. Th. "",ly ltyln9 etut...,...0'1 til. plnnat
"In~.. call ~h....aolyu ·l>.lQlt.·. " colon\, ot
thol. Uta '!<,~..a 10<>Ka d"capt.1 Y .ly 11~" •
Un" ,,~ 'Ur,,_ a"d onu, _~<>r ""....plo. ,0010H.
"'~U."
t. ~
$1 "eM"..
6~.t 1nt..crc"t... "
Sl"'~.......'"b1"~
6;J(>~~O
E~~1'
·,lE:.t.::I r"E;ti~
"'~""'t,:pr P
"'::'lcl> <10 wl>u'1' ••••••••••••••
UU% r.."':l.". t.M't. ~ Moo< ,,0t.1Un9 a~"",.. prO<}c=or~"'J (~£o."l' to 1.m"'linat-.
}."" ....y?). ;>leUG ""pl"ln t." ..a vh"t. t.h" word ·GA."llM,f- .Hn. or .t••u9<J
t.'r••"d wll•• t.!'>o,,~ oUly "",d.a acO<oI".4 1t. .... ..,. 1n thh d~.1':1t.1"" o~ ..
.)
,)
It th" Ural l>1(l1t U "t. th"" t.1» n ..... 3 1>1;1" <I~" ...~.:l .. " ....
bl91tB ·'011· Ara toorn lIt tha >,1<;1<t..1>4 o~ u." c:Olony. ~. It
f.h" colony I. 1000t, f.ne.. tl>O na"t. g"".....tJ.cn .t. 0110,111.
If th.. tlnt tll'ilt. .IS III 0, t.1>"" tl'.. t.t.eo, J b19Ua cU......d 1 a ....
bl~lU ·O~- ..,,,, ~rn at ti.e n,;-lI.t a"<1 ot th. c<>10"1. :.0. 1t tM
""l""y h 011011. t.hell tho aul; ,>""":,,;.to,, .t. 0'100.
n tto" U .."t. )1'i1t. 1. 'lot. .. ° ""'d not. • I. U._ 1'....... ,,<"0"".:1...,..O1'>ould p~1nt. -A.f..Ull t.I~: POR"- "M. b<> <10<>;"
III>"t """",,,,,1 ...."ld you lil,... to ..a",. ~o obay II:>? ., ••••••••••••••••••••••
.1.11110 Wh"t do•• thls 51o:p." prO<l....... dO? ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
MIt,ll, (=15:ro A X1111t.,II, XIWL /I. XIWL A X~..PUT P zor
h? .
_BtIlAA 10001'000101101101101)O~GG
'""UTI~CTIC:'1
c:; any ft." 0""", if y<''' ._ t.hoIl:; ddblt1o.... 1'0" Can t.::f 0\Jt. your
B:u;"AA ...~y u .... }'Ou """.. ~ "oe Ch.. ...,.... "t...... AinU ~ .~l:; ..11 l:;~"
<leeldon" ..ach IlIlOA.'1. bro~h ..r c".t ",.1< d Ch.. or4tr.. I" ..M"a ho ",Ut ....".
Ilrlt.. a al>o"'t pr",,"'."" thu "Ill l ..t. .... t.YfM t.l-.o ........" ....1. 0'" tha l.:t. .....
....li:.. Il.:l.":>-,, ..U"I; t:l>e ... tchlnIT :c:u"lt..
PIIT A ,sro A 100PIIT A 905;;0 A Zp;n /I. "SCo;! A (KOa,;)CC1I A ZI\O?,~
A!Y.l' A 100'Ill P KOillC
O~876S4nl
",~o1.UOU~
1..SU2,..)"
001 IPIl't 8 6~
002 :P\I::: C 1')OelJ 'IISK A (ASIt)OOt ,DU).. 1'''0OO~ ,.1~)l ).. ODG006 'C/!!. 8001 'l"oJ! P ~K
OO~ .c..." C (OilD)
100 .2 (Iool
1. 1t. • (\lM:UO"7 ••••
»»)
d,.. ' ..r any 1J>p"t. ....:<1. yo" e.." un .."y o~h,,, F.o<:a<!"..u yo,,·... a ..rln."
• t.u~y I( y"" .11"" t.h.l .. <I"Un1uon.. A• ..0""1. t.har. 1. "0". t.h"" Or.a
...y to do H. PlUM """'" .11 t.h. ""y" you t.hlnK It. eM w dona.
6",,;>0"" yo"'",, p\lt lIilColla. Int. t""..•• ·_0<)'. Vh.ot, ..111 t<>Jo a.y It yo..
tn'.' P W/l,,>lG -~:I:'latR~
•
Page 135
Appendix 3 Sample Curricula
The following pages are excerpted from the Logo and Simper curricula used
in the second (1974) experiment. The emphasis on and ordering of topics
differs from that for the first (1973) experiment, but many of the problems and
examples remain the same. The Logo curriculum begins on page 136 and is
presented almost in entirety from Part 3 on, excerpts from the Simper
curriculum begin on page 152.
t.""l''' print. 5 ....1 tll.." l'nnto,p.~[,;r CAll'" BE US~:l AS ~Il I,,;>tJf.:t1 O()~:l 1101." RU1lF." .. ~...Ltl2.
1.0<]0 pd... ts " ", 8noJ 1<1' ...., yO" ty;>oJ8.,..,"thl.n'). it p"'ln~" ..Mt y0" ";{1''''10
tGo)o Ilr!nu "'),\11 but .~n "'y.,ny. 3 IS All ElCT~" Illi'll:r.
Logo punto HELU)
1.<>;;0 P:1nt'"TaU,E .IS 1 III~t..r ,USS[~~ POA Pi<im'.
:LO'J0 pr1"'" REOU;:ST
:Log;' ....1tl.. 10
1.090 pr in I:e B
tOO3O print. XYZ. IlEECS l'IEA..n~'O_
" ·IIELLo- .~ t<X;Q S!:;U:;C;lt.·
·25- m .:rO~"456
123~BC ·P....tJ:- 5~.7
·.5· TI.~E
-I'.AlI.T -, .'1)~)))9~~~)~~9~)~n)~))))
tn 1.090. tll"u u" tW<l 1<1noh O( Ith!".. ta. ( ..) ""'1""n".. ot
typ.......u.r ""..<.~t"u 8".l'<"uncl.~ ~ .. -1'..1.. o! d".,bh q~O"" OIUl<. (·1. on.d
(b) 1"t<>9"u ("OIJntln'l '1=1><1<8 11>< -t, c', " ~••• ,1 ..111"11 <!o "",t.
" .."d quot..... Ph.•"" c:trd.. th.. it b.1_ u~lc:~ you tn:nl< ....... 11t.."o1.:
p:nllT XY":
&...... 1'''''1'10> ~,,_ pt"'ur,," or box,," to .t.ono1 tor e.....~~a"<l8 1n
1'ln'!"a1..3 11)<;.. 1."10. Any Input....~01 OU'I;p·:t........ -:: "" <l'; <l.re·~G p"1"~""
t""'sl"o;l box". :or ..h1<:h "I\d... ·vd"~$ ~r" In?"t:i ""-<1 a y tr"" .x..><.... ! ......
..M<:l1 th.l... v.lo,.... a .... b ..ln7 ....t<'...n~l (o"tp"to). ~011<:....... t <lac:... t.<>..
bol"'" o1oe", anof. "<y 0'" 'M' new ·<""'''''''1" ",.')~() """ SUIl. 1.l }'O'J ..1. ...".
<:h..=k th" 'H,,')''''''':
':ry tll.. 1."'9'0~ ...~. 1ft th.. left cot"'-"II> boot......~cl. <1r....... U,n..
1><It......... each "<><:n. _«'I ano:1 th........"t. 1. p..odu"... On t.h" U ..h\:.
FIUIl? $!I:l <l? 3 Al'l) S
I'llIll'l' '''OM1- :I
,r..
PRIIl'1" 10
PaI/'T
P~II1:r ·MC·
FI<:t.~'" -JI,W..:t~-
ll uh e.~o1 1;h..1". V..tud••r .. ob.. lo"d bdCd"." .11....r " .....<>=01<>:1 On 1>o~1'i
.1d by <;\lot.... ·25- lin t.h.. 0=., val".. <IS 25 be"." Lei"O 1i"0"....
q..,"'t a",,,,,~o1 ln1;oq .. r., "'~d •• 1" .. 11t..~otl ..~Ch "" =l.. t v.ot"..
....01n.. -"':Ipty.,
Til .. n=b..u fO, -B· ...~o1 "9)n)9)9n)'1)9~).))9n)999l!.i"1 11te:!lls ~,,"a,",••
t.h..y " .... 1"t"9"'" ~.o1 lnt"; ..... " ..:: 11..... siqn. (..... _).
·rJlllY 1_ n.,· a 111:e ...d, 0 yl:l1in9 ..18.. 1n tl:e 1.o'iI0 hn'i'~"i"a. t.to"""se 1t
"ltll": h"M II. ...t"h" quo rk 0'" 1'1.... "" un....<: ..oo ....y t ..:t q"O~" c,>... lo.
dep",,<lln'J "pon your potnt: or vl......
XYZ, .:rOf)l456, U1AllC. 56.18'1<1 rIllE:~ 11.......t. "'101 thd... v .. l"....
«.unlnq.) "'<II' be dtre ..........t 1... o1Hf., ...en. dt""~1~n.. tlO'l;tc.. tll .. " 1'1
1.0?<>'.. l.n!l'~.'le. 56.1 1a '101; • n=~r 1><1".." ... Loqo ·<1005 no • ...,:"ratar.4
f .."eUon,,1 ""mb"..... TIl'IE 1 .. not .. U."<lral, b\:t ,1. In,,:..,,'" .. 1.00;0 """""...01
..hl"h ..ot"""", a aonto",," ..l1i"h """"'l'n ,"vory ...."0'1<1. • ...at· """U
PlllNT -~ VERY V!:iI.Y LOllG
PRINT ·Vtily lD;"~-
PllUl'l' -VE~YlD"G- ,
PUIli' ·v-
'"
t""l". 11".. :0"01 "o"p"hr l''''i'l""n, ",,<IouUnd, "v<o..-ol "in.:!.
0: ",".d" th ... }.".~ Con tIT". yo...·".· dr.."dy Inrn~ 10 uU _=0 0: toh.
111'1": ..,.H ..s -c,,=""":". ~nOll'1•• 1<1"", 0: 1h1011 1'11.0.:;0'" Ian')'"".;" h
".1l,,~ .. ·l!Hr~·. Wh." 1"0\1 tall< to t.o.oo .,,'" }'Ou ==.,,110n .. n=bo" or
• "<><:;,,,.r.,,. ~ t~" ..'rlt.r "1>S"""10,,, .urt<tW\ded l>y <Iouhlo ..-"ot.es {'" tit....
h ,,11to....1. ~". tl>tnq SMut. 11t"• .'I1, !t'" M,t h1dl"l1 a.'l'tMnq. Yo,,"
.l"...~·" l<.n~ .. l\u it "Uno Joy j".l; 1001<1'1'1 "to it.
th.. t~...,,,,,r:t....
tPHu:r t,,·, ... 0..... In~Ut thOlt !oU"". 1", no..... It p:tnh tn., .."lou
1'0 !,,~. ~""",'''. hHn....."". I>..I(':"t <;o••un~. f",r tl'pt"l1 ond
C1'>_'~'iln9' h~n ~.::u t.oq~ r ..~d. "'h""", 'i'h<ol' ..... ""Ue~ -o-11Un'J
<'<'.,.,....~",,- b"~,,,,". thor he yOIl oJ., "1\"1 U,. -.l.lt<,u <If n,""p'peu <10, thoy
('<1:"..,,1 Horl•• 1>.:",,,.. tho}· S:. print"'" for th. ('111>11" to ! ....d.
s ...." 1.0<]0 =anc:l .. (llk.. PlUllT) can reCelv.. "'0~U9"D~ o~""...
.",'~a,,~ .. (ta,e l"n!;...). an'" .""'.. (Uk.. 1'1:1<:) ",.... ",,"d ..........; .... ~ oth-or
C¢""'",,!.. {r..t·,:;,:,> -~uuu c'" -OUt!",,,,"), RZOtl1:Sf .1. a.~o~h..r 1,.0;0 "OI:I."a"4
"hlch ,"',,:n.... v.o101... Il"t 1" ge,a t1'l"" v"I"" f ...om YO""" typlnq "" thto
~YP" ~ u,u_~n'l' ".,.,....~"ISI to 1.0<;0 (.av....om. "0.1< by \lun'l'
conU.,I........ E. N, S. \I .,n .."ell 11'1.>:
ThO """,1<1" -.",ate:" ~tulllly ••1d t~ ..-ord. b.t-<un tho quou.. A Ul:er!l.l
1••"t..:~h1"g" "h.l;c:" al"..y. has th" .."'~ ol171$'S ""'ling" (v~luQ) "h<l:""'"
}v.J .~~ 1t. 1n the 1:.~'l'U~1~ YOll ~~ " ...J.~ln'l' or "pu1<t,,'l'_ Pleue lool< up
-11t...&1-·tn Y"'-C" ,aeuo"a.:y =.. u"".
ti";l~:lt..r. Typ" i'lI.1m' lltCU!S~ ..no1 tho Il~Jil.~. 111>e.~ Logo typo. II. ..
{SO".}. ty;>e ""rt~I"1 YO" pl .."u "'101 tll.. P.Ei'UR.~. \~~:)111 1.<>;0 prInt ..ht l""" ty~e<l7 )
YfS NO --?- T...y "cr"ln,
of~ ¥o" t!\1nk that "EOUESl' 15 .. Hteral?
'" ]VB"t no OM !<.n""" ..h».t ....lu~ R~Q'JF.s'~ ..111
nt~~n ""ttl """".. .,n.. typu $"",.. th1ncr On
t~" typ",,"lter, IlF-CrJ&S': is .. """""an'.
not" 11t..:,,1.
III
1
f
Ii
IIII
.,! tll.~ h~"t "" t~-" ty;> .....dt<:r. "n,< puu th~ tyr.......u ..r on tile n~><" 1l.n...
tn LO'J ..... l"n':iu ..... ~n;>"t.. 81 ...y. r"u.,.. t1l.. ",","""..~<l ~l>.oot " ...... tn..,..._
:l~ .... ~.~:;U~S'[" "".... ".'y In""t'? <';~ -'IaMI til" Rl':TUR~,
t
liipi("ny Ita.. Y"'.' <yp.. )
~
'" '"
flOUt. t.h...u~b.r ,(,) "t til. b"!l'1....1n'J 0' ·t.h. Un. In t::l.l.t1I1I:. t:l..t
""",be.. h e011ed " e ltn.. n""'b...•• tt. let II .... too t..ll .1.00;;0 tI"t th.
=o"d ..hleh toU..... It 1". to bit c"",,,..hr~ .a. p"rt 02 th.· P"o<:O<lu... L.,J
':'EI.t.TI~E r .. ""'--.lu.... t .. th1a e ...., you d.•~ln<t4 TUl.Tltlll ~ hay. ""ty u ..
"""""",,01 Pl!tllT TJ:'!I':. a .......' .... a. yeu "111 ..... 1·"" e ...'· put .....ny
r7:"==,""""",,,.i. 1" th d ..UnlUo.. OE .. p.oe• .!u... a. YO" '.hh•
Lo<;o ..111 .."""."'b.... t.ll"", aU and Ob.y th"" ".,ly ..1>0" you
uu tha ..,,"'" 02 you .. pro""d"n ... a """.,and. TOIl " ....
p..ev" t.h." L"'!o t. >:.",."b".1&'J your. "'OeCd"". b],. u.l"'J •
...... """"".nJ t~ll<ti t-15'l'. T}"p' .1.15'" T!'.':.t.Tl~.1': ..."1<1: R!'."l:t'~{<.
$" ~~~ Y""'Ye b~..n '\Ilvt"~ C'<l"",~n<l. to Lo.J'" ..1>1"" to; ot-.)".
1_,U~Vl)·. t>"", yo" "'U... Iurn h.... to writ.. p• .,..u",. ""lel\ \.<")" ..111
••_......,;;~. " • .! "to".,. uy U"'. l'~" un it to. ·What' ... prC<Ju"i-, ).......1<.
Ul'pro.J'·"·Dt do lhU n,,~••
o.
"., "r~n!ly ":"1",, 1t Qn 1''';::''.' rOt Lei"'. Ua..o o~ ,,=.n"'. II.... ",,11O'd
·pr""..<t"u...• .,,01 ~'OU "n" "ok" _as "_"I' ~::o ... .:!."••• ". 1''''''" WUh. In tact,
~ pre-e~".~. )'0" ",.k. or. Jua .. lUte ..<><,;0 .,"',,=nde fr... til." On. So
.. pr:>;=.'~ ,,~c. l:.. or.e ptoeo.:!uu Or .... ny ..,d yeu "'0" us<> y""" P"""""~u
Just 111<. to~" <:=_"",,<1••
y",,,·,'e d .....'~y t,,~.. p:~r=ln:; ~ ,,.10'1 the =",,<1& Uk" PilIN".
~Ut :>C"f )"" "".to hun hO'I to put; c.r-y ."c:1'I ,,=•.,<1. 1:>... " 11't to:: :t.ooo
this -.l"' (8) ty;>e :ro T!LLl'I!Il!: ....,/1 eh ""nll~li. LO-;o .hoQl<:1 typoo lin •
(1:-!to • ... t· I~l. th<l, tell.)"0\1 thllt you are d"Unl.:,q .. proeod=.. Md
.."" tyPe .. Hot o~ "","00,,<1 .. w}--l:oh t<>iI i,,,,;,, ..h!lt the I'rcc:.. du.... "~.<>\Ild do.
li.~. ar. ill the ll.nu you sl>lluld t.yp" (10 .. Loo;<> ..ype th.. _ ""d ..h.. flo
_TO 'X~~r-ll<:
ell) l'RIN':: ~I»E:,<:....~500:1 tlut 'r£UtIlI?: t~ denne<!. you ta" """ It as <!i toonan4. 'I'yp<o 'rUt-TIllE
.lI:!; th. fItt:r~•. Th......~I<u to.;" obq 1:."" e<><=a"d. t.......t ~ put tn tho>
an • at the beqtlUllng oJ: Y""" lin" an" y<lll hay....·". glYRfl t.n. l';!lD <:o<n..~o1.
pl"..~. typ<> ~il .R':l. t.h.. ~:£~:J!lN "0 th~t nt.r..Ttllil 1. d ..:loed. ilO>r H ..t.
'1tl.L~lKt (tW' LIS'" ...z:.L'i'D!!: .... J Rf:~l!ilNJ •
11101 1.00;;0 r ....~..l>~.. t.h., U ......itll 20 In t""":lt ot tt7
,,"t-.
'"
Co b~,,;" to P'''. '.iJ a.~1 ."" h"" ~"'" """rt"" the TEl.LnllE proeeelu"" tJ:
you'r.. not .ur" ot ..het. to do,
/ASl< fo~ hel.,.
<0
tII" au... TI:LL'l'I'11: 1.n·t. ..cult<1.
1lO... you.. (any-...."") pro<:'0<1..... print tl:.. dat... and U ....7
'"
~(..""t....." ....,..,."..edl~-ltl~, "ot.lC& tl».t. th" ."",leolon hi "u u.e<t tb
......k .. r"","rl<.• ..hl"h- """h1....l>tt I1no" '0 ......01 ~O of (""Y-"~) GO. rh..
~=1=lon "SO ..xpl.1ned tn P"rt. 2 U· y",,'v' t"or'l"tt"" about. It. Sl"".
you e..~.ed 'r~t-TI:1t b ..20...... you'll aho "".<t. W toy"," It 1" "'id" (u.
1''''1'' lEI 1~ you e.n·t "",""",lI"r wll"t tto loo"ed 11....1.
'llv, .l.oo;;o p,,""ftfte:>t """,,,"la. 1f y<>u "1'11. by typl"9" &;\'\Sl: "L:. ....d. t."
R£TI);lll, /:"" LO<Jo "OII't. .""".,,!>.... eny o! t.h.. p.~<!"",. you "rOt.., It"
lI"ory 10 ju"t th., "ay It "n whon you fl ... t. 1"'I'J«I ..... eo>pty.
<0ns
d.~t.... (h".. ':~I.'t'~llEI ...... t~... ~.."!,, bc!lo1l:>q b10"1:,, o"t. 0: .. :Itch y"'" ean
.... tt" 1&....-" ;>.."'1 ..a..... tor 1.e,>o to .......tn>b9r a,,1 Obey. ....y to ..rtt....
~roce~"..e "'"t prL~". out til.. elOU "dnq th.. ~;..rl: e~"el J""t. u you " ..'><1
Jut u t.h" TO, till': ~ £::0 = .. ,,1. ""l;. Lo<):o 1 .... you deU""
;>:r=~"t..... t.h" VIM!: =and """u to.;o t"r<j"et. "p..= ..d"..... 'fry It..
"," "'" m"", "., ". m'... <- o~ "'0'., ,="",. tt"..~ L<>;o "t.1~1 ..~,,=tJ... 1u d,,:1nlU=? ~
~ !"lIS ----------?' It "hould.. 't.1
'¥to p~ t.Mal< y"", """ u.o Ttl.I.'XII<E "" • ,,<>=>a,,'" ......,
eo YO" t!:ln\:. th.t you c." Ut. you .. d .. t... prQ,,~d~<.. '" • ~anel In ano~Il..~
1':~~<1~U?
"¥"
Th.. P • ...,.,.j~ .... y<>u d"Un. "r. J".~ a. g«>d es 1..?g0 e=.."~~!
proc~·",~ (":t'~.·'C"-I'",,",,,"H~,I-t~) to P~~H ~ t.1l" d,t••n1 t!'>e t1"0.
Yeou c.~ <;;tv" y".,.. " ..... p"occ~u", ."y ""-"11... bu~ I,. .Mulel 10<>); 11k. tllh:
to (.r;-M-')1) (wt".,·.r-y.u_e~lt...,_1t)
n "l"r.~~~!~~
2:<'
t P1.!:lr :!:~ O":lI; I'R:~r tlil: T~~2
I" hrt l. YO" prclM..,ly " .. tl,-"" th••""U.)' Inn~"Ct1on ..: t_
" ..........""'~n1. n~".;1 Sl'!l "'1,1 ~·~:tD. y",,' U ... t t .. u" t1"..., '<"(In. YOIl
lOt.:> .." th.':. \.00" .,.,,,t;1 ....". ,,~ n .... <",·~.~.nd. (pr."""I"Uo) ot your c"",
"~1"I>. ~o.,o ..",,,ld r ... ~~},..... hHhtuUy ..~ lt ",,,,,,=1>u...."'....,,~.,,;::. U~.
r.ll:ll:. $:1.'( ..".:t .;> 0<1. An"'. y<>u "oul,!....1'" any.M.~ W a pr~'lun, ).......
..h~,..j. ~"'1>"t'a 1" "n..,..•7-. ~'C" oar. lIoll. not =,,1>.. "~n .....• 1"
"",.u,U\.' " .... t1en~(".'1 tho v"l". itNH. R....=l>~: :'1'1.;1 L1tnrd? It..
lIo. II ".1". thnt h 0"'''10U' by l""'kl"n,; ",t hi". U~. 2 or ·ll~~to·. In
to"'. l"'<1 Nul<5 '''y IIh nu. h lIiS "alll••BlI.n !!.=!. .0 ( ..r 11"'=1 ll....... She h ~.,,~. "h;.' f.l Q "....1 hl1eo ..ho. 'h" 1"""<0 Uk. (lI<>r "d",,). \7 l'JI
~...~,,.... g~
r"". pr....."''''''. " ..,.~ TELLTIIt.l; to J".t 11k' i:laOlOI :;..... "I.. <>no "'."""',,
"M. It <l"•• ter "ur" ju" by 1=)<1"<;1 •• It. n"",., ju,t "" " str.... <;I• .r-
" ..,,'. ull ".""h ~""'ut. ~.." trOll only y""", rio.~". 1'110 "'...... TE~t:nnE "~ •.
",..d 1>""."... lt t"U.~~ vh....1-.<> p:<><=o.d...." <la." 1n .I:,,:;11.h. but :!.o:;..
<!:u,,·. "'~~.<"t""4 th...... you "a,,~4 ~.~V" "~lln 110 1L~~·thl,..9' d"ll L~d 1.
OIO'~ .10111 hw.. <lonlt ..lilt ,,=. thl"<;1 Whe<l you ".<oJ 1•• fl..."....... ,,~~:..;4.
""-j" "" tt 1.'"~ In """,ory M'" Y'>Il say L1:S'!' TE~r.TU".3
or '11.... ttld """",."d TELL':HE. 1.<>;...haul'" "Y~
•••••••••• N.I;EI)$ ~ IIU.~.I~ (E1U the blILW.). __Iv
Tl"P'"I yo.... TI:t,L1'II'lIl pr<><:ed", ~" Int..· L......• .....ory 11' lt 1.71',
thor. ( .... p"'J" II! It ~'Our .......ry n.""' ,,:r ...1>1n.,). It",. '11". th... >;wo
<:"""an.b (L"'Jo typ•••_ • .,.., -'·ll _r:OIT r~:t."l'II'lIlFon T1:~!:
At'.t th.. """071<1 ,"""",AM. t.o-...."",,1<1 prl"" ·:utL!:~. L....o ..111 "0"0 1"",
)'.'" " •• tho ltno o.!lt1n'1 eorrrnan<l. 1l~ .. e ..ntroJ.-lil ......."n 11; U r ....u1>.d""J
yo"r 01<1 UU... TYt>"" " ..ntr..l-:lI to 4""t .h. ·10- In tho UU•• ",,<5 aJun
to 'i8' th" p~.,.,<>1t:::"••• n ..._ (T:i':LL:l."II<t). ~"... you e.,. ....8 t~a. ,,"',. V1",h
e""'trol_" ",,<1 t}..,. 1... "''''y~ n ....... y.,.~ plna<> (""4 lt .. tth the Jl£"'~IC~I.
GI". th" ENt> <:'1,,,,,,,.n<l .0 tM.. tho proe~"r. 1. <I.Un,"" .<;I.t". II_ ton
"",r"'''n. n."r ~'O'I> ..h.. your pr"".<5"u 1. """,,,,,- ... <1 "'10. ht,. or fta..... '1u...
w!lll' 1. 4"".. It "I>.t "."t•.,... Ivo. 1>..." roa.Ung thlo ,,-=t tho '11'.'. ,,1.,1'1<,
b" ",lght. bu. thn,;·. "h.....ln<;lt
Yo,,- C"n .1,0 cl>.on-J...lI,,' " P~"o<!~" Clo",,, wlt!1ou Ing lt
0<' t)l'1nq 11:.'" U.r:u "'-.r 11;1..111 (tllh 1 ... <;1_ ""'I CO <;I'" av 1 "lth
p"""p1....Ix> 'S""o."...~ ~rr...t.1)' ...."......}. Un". 'I""'''. "h"ngo<! ..h....".
"1' 7.E1.r.UOIZ U (..1'In......,,) •. you IOU" tl11 .lr> ·(..h~i:""'.rl·. 101".
til.......... """",.. ,,<lSI _t!>!:' ("h.........r)1£1)17 LIm: 10
II.... LoiJ....Ill tytl. th.. l1r\. '",nb." ·'0· ...'" 'fOI;> c~ "0:1"'01-11.
"on'r01-E. =n'r..I-lI .,;". ju"t "" you Cll<5 "hen )":"I! ~. ao::!.lt1n; ..h. Uti..
Ch"~9. line 10 so lt ..111 p~L"', """It ht"uI 11:0:" ~3n..LO· ...~ythl.n,; 'fC'tl
" ..nt (ea" p~'.) it yo"',,.. nO. 'ur. /"..,.. W "",1<••"el> • <:=It.~d}. <OhIO
th" pm """",,,n;1 ao t""'" u. proc.<lIUC. 1. "';lOin CI,,e1,.101. t'.."plo " .....·t
'iuu...ka. your proco<!"". 'II........... "'..1.... t-h"y 110: 11:. '..", "". 1.1
c=~.:Qy:::"::::e:~~::::~(~::e::r;:s":l:.:~:::'n:O:: -:s,'a =",,<1 1,,"W., 1•••U?
= ~
}
TlI" SUlI ...,.,.;>;t,~:t 1:..." .. " •••• inp'~" ...o..1"e.....'" •• " 1:.1'1"", t.o ".1<" d"..
"hid> It "'etu""... 1th<on .. C<>=Iand ·"''''lIr".· .. "ill". it'••1'1••""''''' ...
oayl,,9' .hal:. .l:.h" II=- oe loti. <:o=Ion~ -.u,ullO tor· "".....0.1".. So sr.r-' J ~
.un<l" tOt B ....h& ~""t Lego~ "h"t: 51J11 "'0=.1101. I.·....~
.lJoportell' to "oU".. that~ ot tho ""'-....11<1. on P...... 2~ Ul<" t.he vdu•
toh.t .. proe.,.]"" .. ,""e=.and) ••<.."><1. t. .." 1>""".... they .:I.. !!.!!,!, ".~ .. ~O<>o o!>o:t
th"t p".,.,dur". I....'ON4. "',,>, <>:>.ly .....k.. LOS" ......k wlth "M " ..Unlt.1=
tor thllt:. Pt<>Co<!u:-••
~.,.. thlot:. 1""...." ....... 11."",1 II ... ", "(".CI. .un t.'I.a.. y..u.: pro""d..:•••
ft""'....... j"'" 11".. L~..·" bull' ln ~~nd" yo"',,. r ...<ly to .,,,,,,,
p".,.,...:""". that:. Uk. 1n~"t ...<tl".... Clo .""'''t:.ht''9 .. ith th ",~<I """"rn "'"
...d"... (outp.....). CO 1>_ ""<I lOOk at th" l1ttl. box .". p"oo. 0.
A v"l"o ':.1'1.1;; on. ~.n4 r ...utn" (.":1.:1. f ..r) e ...." b<I un~ to
..noth"r """",,,,,,,,<1 z. an t,,:>...-t:.. M 'ho.. <:o;'...""d ..anu an 1np,,~. "-hl" 1.
111<" pao.1n9 .." ••~....r<>un;! Ol> "Up ~ poper. Lo,o ~"••hl ..
• lIt"""'tl"..Hy"h,," 1t 'n<l•• U.n. }"13'11 typl><l. lO.. u ......ph. it you
t.ll l.oqo t .. obey' Pl:Zi't TlllE. t.tll. 18 "h".. ,,"PP"~:S' ( ..1 l."'i0 .~ ..."
PilI:;.. ""<5 "I' ~It~... 1nll>':l." n,,<:<l. 0"0 l.r.;ou", "sl....•• ~'" 1.070 l"",lc. '" ..h.
1'1<;1h' on "h" Un. ln .""r"h or •••• lni'"t =d uu ":I,ul {bl Lo,o ....:i..
-II""" 'rIll.. n"OI<l" n.. 1."tp"~,,...... L...... 1~1<. no '''~'II•• On thlt 11"., (el
,,1:1"0 ~~o hn OlI"uo;h l~p ..t. (0) fo: TlltE". it ..::,,,y,, 1. "'~.: g-O:8 th" ..1;1:"
of <I~:n (<1) L'>\i" u7" ·s= TIIll: "''':urn. 1"'" ·vel".·.... it ....d .. u,., :',"""u • ,,_..n..., .. h,,=,= to P?:;:,rtl (.) trOll" I: h"pj>)' r..,.~ b"""'J"" lt e." "t:"y
1';t~7 "":"7 the ""~..",,. ao"t. b'''1< b¥ Zll\~ to: l'itWt·. 1ft?ut••0 1. tYF""
th ,.. On the typ""rit..",.
1M'S·..·'•• 19 J••• 'O ono Or .. b...... .,h eC """"'nn<1~ (Y"~~ P<"""'\"'"'' ...,.1 L"'Jo·.
r"......,.,,"l.l. tho ""1 ".,..."".,,,1,, "u 'In., ..~.,t1>.r 10 ".U""" ~I'<"';r...·, =ntr.,t- o
n~b..:oocl •••• ""<I "b'Y. 1... "'Men ....,,~. it <10 ("~"''O''''er) e~a1'" Thlt
.~~ ,,: ("ho.t...... " 1. "dI..4 ~."";'Jr.1V.· b"",s"" 1. u.9O 1U 0\1:1
n'"" J".H" h ...H. rh.a. 1"",~ Ill' ·r"""r- or ·~ ..=:..1... '.. 1n yow:
..",h-: p~""'.,.I·j~'u .." =.""". 7h"" t. Z.2 ~~Ult1 y.>1! 'leO<! ." <:""U:>l
tho ""l' :'0.;" o';o~y" y .."r pr<>1...."... VI>...... you "r:" .. L,,~ .. p<.,.,-U'" to 01.;> 0
pont"ul,r t"'I"7. Y"" ",,, .. t ..:·~.ya thlnl< ..~o"t th~ ~2i 1" "lll"h L"';"
<51"t1e,,"~Y' L....o 1. p.rr~etly h.l'p)' "ah u'O'"r':"'81y <l<>!L11>1 pro<:..<1~ro.
.. Il<! you'll II$~ 'h~~ IIbtIlty eru~.
.I" he:. i ...tll 0;0 .... !"re'~etl
t~y H (r"""""l>ar. eontool-<;
....1'. Loqo frO"l <101,."<;1~).
l;:1v.. l ...hn cr} u· '" «.,:'M.I (typo
lt....." ,,<I t;'., 1l~:;R.~)'
"hen )':>" 9'1"~ .'>. ==.,,<1 h,1>o.'O&,... '.
Ie.,,'. """" to do lt. . Vn !:;)tt &:Id [;<;) to ",Ale. (wM.e"a:) 100:< 11....
t!l1~1 TQ-(vhlt:......:-)to FRInt h"".. It.eral)
~O (what""'"r) , thU 11n. 1.nJ~,
:10 'I"" thl.tlk tMt I.e.......UI ""Itt .top "",,0 it "torU ..1>0:11"'" ':.bLs 1'""proce<!W:.?
!oj rf';;-~ Tl>1nk abo"t "Mt. lin" 20 ..ak,.. ~<>;o <I".
",
"',
~
I~~
;,.5 " ~::.. : ij ~ .. If H
~<'i~i""::"~B',$[~ll~:l~~~::~~lc
<:,,"' .... ·'··m'Ii ,J! !l .... ": .. ~ Fo . ::
::~~~;~~~~~~£;"~ .. :; .. .tit:~&;lij..,>.i~~g!~:Z~~8~~;it
lb~~ ~8 '"• •~ ~
~ i• !i .~· ", .: ;l ;
! ~, ., .• •~ 'i:i •I; go
~
i~
Ei
!•,g
E~
•i~
~~t
: i· .
"•!"lI'--t.. ..
g, .::.. ' ~ ~5l....... ..§..... .
•
1 ~ i ~ ,0:: I> S Jl.,\., ~ >0 >J
'" ~ ... Ii ..In..g ~ i ;Xl .. Ol ~ a, /~'H.. oJ ... II
.. j B i
<
; ..,. .. ~
8 ~ g, ..~ ~ s ~~ '1 : g~ ~ ~ ~
~ i E I.. .., ti Is ~ ~ It
if 8 .. ;!~ li S:t E:: ;i ~ s ~ ~~ .; t :t ~
~ t ; j ~~ 0 : ..
• < ," ~ E " ~
§ f k :;; "" ... ~-: : *.. ~! !,; ,. • ~
i L ~ i\i i ~ ! &
•
,•!
!,i.
~
j,"r
t
j ~"!l SB " l>o .c:
'll g 5 ~g i .. II
.8 " e B~ 1 '5u &' l::~ u :! ..• ~ !l Z
~ ~ ~ ~ i.. '" .. .. ....:~]-;.~" .. ~ E3 ~..=: e: .: .. " .... l;,j ;0 ;z ~
~ g ~ s ~
i I ~ i i" " .. .:i ~~ .. v. '"£ ~ 11 ~ OJ,_
tI " " "
~ i i'~ [~L ~ £.:i !i :: >l
::i ? ~
•..: .. orr : 'i1' g ~" .. " II: ~ ~ : ~6 11 i' ~ ~
3 ~: ~ iE ; ~ 1i· .,
i ; : '5i ! : ~l:. g Ii ~·. .'3 ~ s-... n. .., ::
{ ! ~ ~· . .'" .. " ~ ~3 ': ~ 3 :S;~~-l§ ~ .: ~ ~
·s~~~;'Il : 'll ::$ ~
[ .z tI. .. II
~ ~ n~ ~
.~
.... R n
~ ~ ;, ~
~ ~ § ~:;l ;i .... ;;l8 8 ~ g""a '''t "', ..,
~ ,;1" .
11.• I~l
~I.,
~
OJ '8 s ] i .. ".:i ... .. : .. 'i ~ J
.." .." '" 1:.&' .. .:! !: "" '" .. :5.. S .. W li :3 .. .&
~i~.~~i~~l;i:~S~~O:;::-:;
~!~~E:~~~f
~~~~ff;:~i~::::l~88:;;:: ~ .. 11 ........ : ..Jl :: to: .j r:. ~ : 1.. : ..: ~ ;l ,~ ll' : ..
.i II :. 1 .. § g " : ~" : oil ~ ~ .. .; ! "!
.~ B : g ~ i:. ~ ; *.. ... ... : .. .!i :i ~ it ..
:{~~~Jlj~;.lI .. '2 '" it :: .. ~ g,
ti ~, i i ~ i J ~ ig. ~ '!+ ~ " ,\ ',~ " ': .... : :: ~ .:; ~ f {l : .:I
~~~i}~~~l~':~.:iB~::::':
~"r;l::,'
"
ff9
t!.•
fl!:; -;:~ :2 ••~ :;· ~
~ ~, "r· .:: g
:;: -: ~.. It ..~ ~ tl~I""""~ .2
" ... i
oJ; ~ z _
~!fl~!~~~"~~§5,. !; ~ .. :.l ~ ..
~~gi~:~.. ... ~l"'~ 'II
~~;~~~i:~~~~~~.. f/ ~ ~ -: " il
,. !
E: : ~ ~ i ;l3~~S:~'So l;. ~ .. (!. -.." ~I" ..r;; .. ~ -;:j .. ~ _" .. .. ~ .. .. ..
n~'~lH .,,~,:*~,"'~E ~
~ i ~ '; ~ ~ ~ ~ ~.::'k·:~(~~~[~
"g~~
~~
."..~;;
2~?~3~.
~ ~ ~
- -i ~ : ;.s 1 :: 11... e '5 ..j : ;: : ~ ..: a i it· , "i i ; ~J ~ .. ~.. .[ i . ~
i ~ ~ .~~ ~ .. It
~". i ..~ .; .i ..i f ~ ~
:: ' s! ·1 ~ ~.. " .
'" g
· "Ii 5
~
._--------._...,-----_ ...._....~----~
~~~.,._-----_.
""
Ii
r~
I'12Ie
I!I,!!I.
..f: a'I, ?,
;1 t
8~r,!
Ifs•",~. .' tl-J
i ; ~ "··E ¥? ~ ~ :;I. '~I. ~
:; li Q :;~ ~ G I'
~ ~ ~ "'" '" ..$ W ..
f.
~"•U;;
8" [. .• 8!i' ~
5 ~", ..&;
~ ",,' <:! ...::.~~~~~f no.B :r lii ... " t< 'i.i -.-- ., :;
~~.;~~*f f?,~7.a1!~r': "'J
'[~"~~j[ ~~'(!:R"'~ ~~:l~:i ~~ :: • ~ lI' .. =:: g ~ ~ ; ~ g-.-, ~ :
00; '" .." ·0 '" Ol
ij:~~ ~ ~
i~~~ ~ :.. a • 0" 0
a~~~ ~ ~I;' ~j ~~ ~ .,'1 8 ~:, ~ ~ ~
"{!l€~·2eea~~S:'~~;;!"0 '" i! '"~;:gi~" !' ~ • 0
• III ~ '"
g S' ~. ,=
f.
~
~•i':
,
.\" \~ I
....-:-':"""')\
~8:~~
~.~
~
nilLi~I~~i2o."o~~2
i~~~f!~ ':>' ". i;~~i.&.g~g~~i[
; i i :, ~~ ~ : .. i
~ : ~ go
it ; ii :0 Ii~ ; ! ~ .~ ~ . =~"it i 0
~ ~ ~ ~ ;.., :: ~ ~~ [Jl ~, ,,
~,2"~
... r;:';J' w'
i H, ;. i~ I:l'
~ ~* '".~:c,
§ Ii ;... It' :;
~ p ;- :;
ii
~ " ~ J~~ 1~ f~ ; ~ ~oil il. '"c ~ ~:. ~ .. IT: • y :
~
~. ia ~ ~~ ~ !:! S[ 11 ~ 'U• .. n ..
so ~ "',1.1 B t ~: ~ ~ ':g ~ : ~
! ~ ! &
,m~l ~ r'liJ ?:
-m,-lE.J (
j~sob,
: f"L: "'L~~ "~.
",
!I1-:~h
L'U •",
o lli}.: -<... '-,o " •
s~,
:rIL"',"1-: lJl..J ~..
",
o '") ,: -.; l~: '.Il: ,~,' .',•• 0 ~
0,
,Co
~('~'
-: E! :~I ;!"~.E
,f.-:....~.~~.
i -(·t:~~"E:
•
;; "12~
"Ii
,
.,~•
, g ,
! ; ~" 2
~ ~ [ i~" .-11 ~ n s: ~ ~ ~i \i : t: ~ [ ~~ '" i .
:Ii ~to ~ Q ..
! .. '< ~
i l ~ i'a .. 8" ]!:"" .. ..;- ~ 1 'g :: "; :; f ~g; ~
~ i 0 ~
~.. 'r ~ ~.. ? ~
~ F-..' ::
f<
.z ~ ~ ~ Hi:~li~~!: ~ .. " ,:::~~gg~8~ : If n bg. > ~ O!a ~ g l.'l ~
..... <:; .. sog .. '" '"go l -: ~ !l!(;~;; ~~<;~;:
., G! : ~ =.10" • " "' ..F. • a >~ ~ . .. ~;;..:'- r: .. !,'fj"z '" :; i'l• > ..~ '2 ~~. .~ ~
~' Sf ~o r:
~t
i,,~ ~!' ;;
I !." .i ~
; ~
; !~ R. ,, ,~ 1~ =.: £i ~p ~
t: ~: I~ ;g ;"
~~,.
~,•
§
~~,~
~
~,
~
i%
~
Ii
"J
i ~~ I';• II, "· 'e g~ r.• •s ~~ 1':
; ?t~,,
I~
!{Ii
Ii
• ••l: g ~
~ ~ ~!II ~). ~
~ s ",'!; ill,8,
~.
Z.
~
"
• •· .~ ;~ i~ 0;:
§' •
• 8~ g~ ~", :!~ ;::.
• •" ...' 'fl'
~ ~
i §. ,H01, ~
g Uo .'
s:@:
~[ 1· ,, ..! :·,· .i aj -~·'~ ~·"~ ~
. ..8 g~ ::: Ii ~" ...[ • r;t' ~ ..n ". '%~ ll. &':l 1 !
: .•a !
~ ~ t S I"':: :.! l;! to S'o l I:
~ ,~ ll.
1,J
d ni''" ;::j l':," g.. ~ i;• IE
J~
~ ~
o,f
~i
I /~~ !f ~ :<n ~ 1:, §... .
:;::- :::~ ~ ~
l~ ·![t.~
i i 8F ~ ;:t' : ~g ~ 5:~ ;.. 1{ &\i... &
i ~ !: ~ ~
; ~
! ~5 g.
K :! ~.. .~ s: ~~ "
P1'log
/q
" ;;
.. '" '" ......... ..,~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~" CI '" "
~ OJ - ~
~ g ~ ~" '-' ..~ ~• 0· ." .i ;g
••"
~[
i
J.,.
If[
~+~ ~: g. .~ .\
~··---a '"
i.
'"YCu'v" ........ tllU Lo~'" aut.'.•"ttc"Uy 01.<:1.1....ha". to .10 ..It .. l.npuh
to = ......<1. 1II,. rtRS1: 10""""." n .•y <:IIn l:-o !,.Itl>~ .. IIor.l. Or ',,"""u. $0
~'CII ...~. to. ~"~l'rUod ..II...... un"i r. ~", L ......1 ~t.. Vrlt•• ~ C:t>.lur.
""U-.1 S~,:",,,tl v:'I"" n".,.,,,,, tllo .<:"Or..J luur ot "" 11'<\>"" "".'" ("r .~conJ
"":.1 o! on 1"1>"" ••"".""".. ). ~'.~,;;•• !'<"«:<.lur. ""U-.1 tiltH" "Me" ".t"""."". th1r'" loa•• o~ "" In;>"" "":.1 (0: th1:.J ....,:'" or .." In;>,,t. ."""""e.).
!lev ~·Ut p."".J.,... "an"", S~lr'::dU U.u ta"... a........."t "or<l,
eu... t:'.. U.st ,'" ,:.t~~ l"'toa...n'" ••t,,:n. t~.••u".. t ..~ "".<1. "to\!
""l" "a"". "0 u" .,,,•• o( ,,:., 0'''''' r:o:edu:~. yo,,·... <1 ..(1) e.J dr".>.ly.
Yo"" p.=eJ=. "he"lJ ":'I.:o.,~..
~y "ov }'O\I'll r=b~My .'Jr.,., th"t <I,,"" 1~". th." y"'" uU l.o"o
to o"b<:)· h " """""0,,<1 "':"'" 1t ..ay loa l:Z"..:.'~"~1 o( '" ...."Y ..t:I~~I':''''.~ .s y.::.u
pie"..... lOll'} ...~ (""eUon ia". ,,,. "any In;'"'' ve.l""s t;"", Its "'J"t
.. I". ".ntB an" rv.. ''''''.on. <:n lu l .. ~t to "at"[,, • volt", to. •......"J
="j U"n.. In LOI" 1" 11"a ".It1n~ "."t""c.~ 1.. En'}U.n••,.c..p' that
En~l"'!\ ""nt"""". """ "l'h "p"rlO.! a"" t.D<;0 ".,.,......~<I....'" vltn tM .".'~~•••
8"t. I.n both I:n'}Ueh ..n<l LO<i0. ~·o" C"n "ontl..". " lo"'i .""'ten.,., leo""",,<I)
on a n"" 11".. (r.l'<I::~:D). aso "hU"a. ~..,,, ""y. ~ .. ll. "U"} 1.<:.0 "0'.
."""'U b....~h to wrlt.. ~l.!.i!.= C"""-"'''n''. "hl<:1> <10 Ju.t ":>o"t t =0'"e""'pH<:.t~ tMnqs you "a" tl>l.. 1< 0:. for 1...",,,,,,,.. , y<:uz last ""'....""...
Slil.CIiIJ. s:.o..1d h.w" loo,<ed .".."tll1n1 hie.. 'hl..
To S"nclllJ .SOIU'1:KI~'"
10 aHURIl "~;:;,, ~'O;«l \;O~:) '=iIIRD ,S"""r.~ISGI Sl::Ca,;" ,S:I,..:;."t:;:;,nitS! ,::,;,~.l::'i.;;W~, a~·.nli'" 3;,r',Ili.S. i1<1Ul;:;": ,S,":'~~dl:<:;'
DO'" sulTClilJ ",.do lu<tlll
YU SO -> '=r}' P 5..1:1:.::1113 SVlTC'llJ aUSsptayh 1t it.•~ 1..""".e?
"•l.Qol< ba<:ll OIt Fin....· r",,<:uo:> ...,4 >h0ll: a.lJ\"u••a DUn••
'<y """" -Jvl'::l\ """'~ .1":;>,,,,-. "hlell h"v. len t""" t.M"" l"tt."u.
b 5"11:0;.13 ".!!:S~! (u.,<:tlcn?
YES t 1>0 --?- ,,~U It wo:l<. th.. so..... _y (or aU wor<l.?
I - 50 n:s--
"Co"g:ae..taU"".: you ..:. ~O>l .. 11<:....ed ( ...,etl= gen.,.. ..t.or.
not .~:.. ~..". cn.:l",AUnd~ h<:.oo I.o10 o~al. H~.. 10 o~ S""li:::ij1J. 100"'
.t t,h'. bo>t <1I""~"",,, o~ th" WAy ....." ...". (vduu) a~........t ...-.i ree~1Vo01
vI:... L<:>10 Ob"yA It,
T!lIIU)
'"
in:;>"u. ..,,<l ,<1 .rotur to R&T'JRli wl",o "010 :lUll.
"" B:I1'I'IP.H "\nbc:: tWO, vho tet""n" •••••• "" ..UrilaSl' " .....,l>...
m .. "1\0 :r:"t~"n. ~IU."- to t.h.. H:r:at. ...0.-:..:> ..~... now hoa "",o"'ill
Bu" U .....eeon4 ,"OliO nUl nuda ;,,, 1"1''''', ... "hers <lido 1 Ie"".
of.( on th.. ~Ig"t1 01\ Y fI5tS'f. IIcU 1t. ""••15 •••• ""\,,,,1:."4 thet"'s '1oocl 01<1 ;'In, '"" flilSf ~"'Utntl ·G
aW
the ...c"n<1 1i'J1UI vhl<:h ,,= has """~gl> 1"0''''•• atle". th"'"
...,~" inp,,". to So for t."" Urat. \;OiUt. WI\..n dId I h"". o!!
",gd"? Oh ye ... 8U1:?IltS1:. If.ll It ....... <1~ •••• J....... t .0 "ho·.
0<\ the rIl!\t? .....ot""r lltITl'IaSl'. And anOt!\..rl ,,;n. but nc;.
s ...rrCd1J ret..,.." tMt.
Seene~. toil'lI·r UnoUy 'iI"t.e " val".. t:<>o S'~I'1'CJ11J an<! t.ypn ~ROGU.L.lla "n
til.. Wp"wrI".... ' Wh..",a
See" .. 51 LoJo "olh~A"" In nentd ""h"u5tlon•
se"""'l A to."""'a,, (y"u) ;;1"u t~.. """",""n<1, toR!!;? SI"I1Ciil:- ~GQ..,,"Iu.Aa.
L"'lo ""l"'" a I ""0· the <:== ..n<1 PRINT "Mch ""t><l•••••. 1nl'''t.
val..,.,. \,·..11 I",,'. 10-..;0: to "II.. rl..ht. '1'".." .... S"'UClllJ.
'\ar~.. :'lt"t "til "et":n a v41".. tor l'aJ:~r eo """. ~Aha,
S·~I1:CKU ill " "'...."In,,! :t ..ill!,"" c,...n ill. Ie. co"t.."l. e
Se.... h to",:;o. ob ..yl" .. :;',neath as",nCKU need••••• 1".....t.••" I'll
1=,. to t~.••••••• 0.. t"" =,,:><1 11n... Lo "nd b.. l>Old. I
eee " l1t,,~.l vdu.. •••••••••••• 'l'Mt .h"ll b8 the. input.
..~"'... """''' I" ••••••••••• an:! nO" I ca" do S>lnc.'1ll.-
$c""o 3, to:;o,~. ob~YIn.. t~.e "".....~:! only 11,.a In S;Il.C:":13, a,,-"'-.... RE:rtlkN
e,,;,u •••• 1,,:;>"'t...0 1·11 1""'1< "0 t.h.. rlqht. '1'h"...•• IIOR"I
W..:l; '00,0:0~ "etur" a val"e !or llEwall to U=". ;'ut. tu",
v,,;":1 n ....<1••••• Input" to &tI",. "O\/e"he.. 1"11 100>< to 'he
•••••• agU". "-,ot1\ ..: IIO;l;)j "<011, that .,111 ut"rn th" n."t.
!loot lter..•• t.he story o( 1~-.e 10 ". 1t t»l<es 91"<:8 in V""t"r4
C:".d.. cq." .. "n,,~· <1 ..y 1n t.h.. 11h o( :t.<ls0' 9h"". flU. in th.. bl.o.."",
10""""".. yo,,'~e 'th.. U ..d ..<:rl~e e.JHor:
1'.""=. bu,;; nO"~ thl. '"C".:> ncc'J" •••• ",,,:e 1,,:;>...U. i;~ 1 iO to
"."" "1';1l1t "1"'''' A t~l:d \I~"OIl Ii",," • ..lrI.~"'" Le"'· et tlla
.treI;l1t. T!\" U:st -.~...o ...111 ']1"" •••••• ,,~....t it "u<ls. th~
It :£211 h"v ...·t c"U"...o<I y.t; try l:o d."....""'" bO,. du;r.",. lor
0 o. t..,o of th" p:oceduree l"'" ":ot~ on 1''''1''' 35 """ lij. .n.... oh"..ld
~ v. !>...n one-U...."u "hoi
th::':: .<::~" wIll· '.11.... ~,•.~ •••• ,. .Oil." 1:. But· 1~~"t. ~"w tM
t.Mr<1 ....J~" n~~. t"" l'.;>UU. so <:''''3:<1 to t.M :1'i"~. r(;~<..·~
'1'l!:R". " h""M, erNt'.,,,. It nc.,<ln only •••• l"p~t .....d tn"U ~t
1••••••••••••• ":'0" >,»1"" 111 e<:~IWJ>. s" TIU;'D I\<IB ..1.1 It
ne¢~.. an" I.t r.tuer.s .~.- to t!\11 U,I[<l :':0"'0. ll"t thoot ~·O"D
"~II" "'0:" In;>u~••0 "" t.o tha <\ t~.,,,,," S;;C""".
v:.,e" ou1" •••• l"p'J~. '1'"...... ·s 'SOllc..~1I1~G' s'Jaln. So :;,co,;"
..... "."••••• "0 th.. '.1". =<1 ,,(np and ".,... ,lnt M" •••• Input" 0"<1
.r
"
IF..
,%~ ,
~:~"~;~G)':':"~':..~J. \."!;? ~
f"
\,"'----·"0,' ,--'. (,-",.\:i \\'";;;,.;,,
... ~r·se-~~~si£;[~~~~f.~I> ",.,:J'.. ~ (, .. If
~]~;e~Z~i~~~ 2 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Q :
~;;~'i'~~~-i:~!~1~ft"{~;:!;·~ .. i(l~,,~!%
:~Er.!it~~:l~
~ ~ ~ ; ~ ~ ~ f ~ i i!d:,~;,p'-'g~i~'s~&!"~
~ l ~
[,,~-~.--> .,;,..- '\"2';;, ./.. - \, , •.~.
~ • -- 1"'- ,-- ...."'·r· ,'~--i~; :"-;{<~~~-,;;;'~::, ." /- ,,,..;, ~jJ'~ 3"~ " L_..:---1·..· '~.~ - ,{' •e:;;:. ..... .;;.;:.-•.~./ . .;-:!;\ "t l
'
l!l~;~j,!
-H: B.:~ , , ; .II" .. I> " 1.~:"-'11
~~lf.~g~/l R ~ $I II if
:!.... ~~1~~~·S[;2.~~i;~~ • ~ .. ~ :r• 1!- ". " ...~... !! • :; •
!~m~~g·• 0 •,.. "". l .. ~ :l2. t:: i " ~
= " 2 ".f g 1! ;". .. lO ..
i K ~ ~9 ~ .. ~
f, : :: ":. ; ~ :to E" i :1 .. i! ~
; :; ~ ~.." .
)~1~ II f ~-"~ i1!~ ~1f.:l.~ ... :; ~ a.!! ~.
i~}Ji;'!i ;:i~iii
~!!i~fHi ~,~:~:~n,i.. .. to,... "'"... H .... ..
'U CI " .. .. .. .i: '" /I~ :; tJ 2 : ~ go D' 2.... },", /I -: ;' ~
f ~. ~ *~. i, r i LJ ~ 9 ~ fl'!~~'2::f:'1~ "'!~Eil!. .. ~~ ... :~5 ,..!:::.':
'"l~S-:;'''··!;5.og ~~8::;~ :: ~ .... ~l' • :; f $ .. :!: :: ... ~
g ¥ ~ : ~ ; ;. i ,: ~ : =;.2 .. Ii U ..; &. /I."!.,,_ .• g~~ :ii..~l:'~ ..
II" ~ D' .. & ~ ~
l r" ! r. ~. :. /I * ../I ,,<:. ......r~~!;. ;:~:~".g;"!)'/I ;s.;~;·,,~r.i~£"d Pi,
'n ~& ~, .~ 11: 3,.~ !~ !" .i !. ~
I,i
• •~ 1:• •.. ! ~
r ~ fg :' :.... .. 'g'
; ! ~
~ ; I~ ,. "t::' .. eo
f"~ ;,, .· .. ;• •
- .i ~a ~
~ I: :: to; ~ ~ ~....i g ~ 1!: ~ ... /I'l! ... .g ':!G" ~ ~ ~
I ~ 6 g.. 2'" [( :
a ~ ~ $~ . ." ~ ~.' ", .,
:
I
g " • ~ ~ ; ,a e ~ ~ ~~ ~ 2 ~
!; ~ fj
~
~ 8 .. l;'e : [ •l .. Ilo ..
!/' R .. ~
* ~ ; i§ :J ~ R.a " l!. s:~ ~ ~ g~ I ~ ~
~ :: !i ~ ~S' .. it~ i E, ,I i. "!
l:' =: l: ; ~
~ .!! .!! 02 ~
I i {.j i/I /I /I B ~
ti i i ~ E! g .. -; B'.. g :;-
.. t!: i~ i
iU.. '., 0 •
~ 1;"~ : ~ ~
~
~
!
Ij
4I
~•,i
r, :-==::> ~ ~ ~r .----;:"G,))' ; ~ ,:'a~~,,)t"!:rt.! "-:0 0 f:.:!tt
• 0 "¥ ~ ..
. ---..II'·""~ ~ s ~" :; ~ ".: It = :~ 2 I'" ::
lEE ~ S! ~ /I t.
]~
~
.•
• •i [? "J'~ fd. ~, '~d
~ I ;'
:.U<• ~I.. "• " <
!: 1 ..Li.i :! i
~
s'-H,/' ~
~'ir,m." , •, ..
"'l." ~ -~-e~ El,"
~.-." ~
<-11'\~·-f
" ~
~ !.i
{,• r ".. :: ~
" ~ ~ :o " It ..
II • "i " ..~ ~ I
[ I~
..•
i',.l,
]I
~
i
l: ......:;- a,~•.; g.. ,9 R...,, .~ i; ~§ :; i: !t
2",~M~goJi'.'\-;",m
0,,"
:28~g.;:z.....:=
!. [ : !a. if ~ ~.... ..~ '0 go ..
: ! ~ 1li n 11 •: ~ ~ :: ! ,~ 3.-!
.... r.g ;:- i, .r" ~ a~ fi' H. . ..g .. 0.. [ ~... .. g
! ~ :. .. "~ ~ ];: ~ ::
~ g~ :l" i
~
ill!' ,
t:: ~ :;-0:- ~ ~-ti-~
n Q ~~ ~.
!~:
-"I~ 'I
~ :•
~ r: :' I'.'!~ i ~ aif So t: B:: ~ ~ g~ !;: !e! ~ ii ~. t~ J;l ~o ..' •.. &~
i
•"·u
•. III_Ii
-{(-~,
0_;rg'''-,-, ,--<:-1 >;
lE_~"_~
.. ., ..".. . ,: 0 ~ itl ~ : II.. '" " ".~ ~ ~ ~~ it g ~~ ! i ~
f ~ ~ ~s~gt:·
~ : !
" .., " -ei'. " ., 9
~ fr ; ~;l. : .. !.. " ~'1 ..~ ~ ~. ~
1 i ~ i:; .. ~ ..F ~. [ f'<> r :; D
f • IT •" ~ [:' flo
t5\{( ,.,,,'"~~~~1i):~i.'- 7f~~
li\U~~- ....
.fil_ :._~..~~ ~ I.... ..
t!J ~
)~ d' ~....1 s<-Sl-SL!J 0, :.
!!:l ..-~Iii,-·fl ..
L"" f;,
[c"-_o~ g'
< ~ "i;j ... _G
, ,
~l ..~lito-!
ff1 ~. E-<-';;i:<,- ~--~
;~ I ~ •~ ,
~JIk- §-~!~ t1 ..L ~. ~
carr.",ln "..,~.. or t",!>\IU. It H. ';let:> U>o t_ 1np,,"--,- Loo]t:> "111 cO"'ptd"l
-':t:~ IS - I:I~~~ l...;:s::r~~ f;~ _-. It ·It '1"". I:C<> "'ny, 1.ooi<> ..ill
."YI • - I~ "-'I tx::iUl. Ill;>lI:-. So.U t.h.. ano-••n<1a Un'. Ii.\I.5 to ..,.
~J: tl\. 1>=""=.. ot 1n;>""" "1''''Y ..""t. ...~:l. ~ t>I>" noth.... e=_~O"d
....iU"'!' to piC!< "I' tto.. vaJ."", thsy l;'ot""/l. It·. Ult•.• p .. tv..u r.d.~""'''
e<>n"o..uUctU Otl. linen.... ,,:14 en" ~.•.l;<."t tor "aoh oeGui" (....l"~J_
_ .... I>uo:'.r c=< be .~Ir~ol.<>d by .......~<1 hair_ a ........ lr>ol..: ot O. YO\l .'f"""0. to 1<>001< ~It at 0."" co=o.>nol.. """ P..... 31 and u... pre.11".t.. ZUOI". Aoo
ns "0 -;> IIttat. q"..U= dO.. it. 11:1- .
~ SO' to:: yo ...•... be"n .,.. iU'lq p~co~"..u "1t.1I only on. Un. o~C<><:Q:iln<1. in t.1I..... 1.0')0 h b .. tU.. 0.1'.,,, ""Ur" lUg>l'~•• ' bo<:."." 1,.
c ......OM £01""-;". ba<:1o: an4 ton.ll. =0<>';1 IOO"r =""~ •.•11 on 0<>" 11<1 .
1""0"'''''...ho" y¢1I. C'Oo,o." .. l1n. ot e=nnd" • .o<::l'c c:c."un<1 .Qa,.:",. ...
:II...e .o""'ti<:u. "r.-. L:>~tt""~ to. be ab~" to. u"" "u.a:;"" l.r_
on., t.dk....··~.....·n7 li.~c:>":.' E'l'1'ehlly .."",. 01"<:1.1",,,. ar.. too be =a:1...
rOl;' _.'",~1... it !f.·a .. rlt<::.. Cay Co:, 1"a'1in.,.,:t IIIC:=- ·lIA~- C<l="-"~ ..e':~"a
·Tlr(JE·1 y:o-~ rli..':1.t. ..,.."to t.o tell 1'""..~..1~ to d .. tovo ~1I~'l".' Il) p~t 0" :fOol::
kth1ng .ult. (oJoey YO"" cloth._tlU\';l"';I <»::r>ar>cl) an<! ('1J 'jO ."J.:o:ll"i
(obey YO""" ."1.01 =ur.tld), bUr. it Ie. ".t .. ,,1.,. 'by ye.u .." ..1= .1"": ~ ena
r.M"g' .hy 1".1<10 ......:1- ,,0>44 (o~ yo-~ l:or.ad <OC><:::4.:.dl. st"c.o.~ U:1Ol0".
(<l"ecai"3' ...-.<l ~1=1n'i") .......'1; b••~..t."4 it Ie. a /tleo d.y. but. olt.!.y o'a
( ..o~1n:;1 cust ba' 'OU:e4 ot~••;"l"a. ,,<I'~:.".El!J; "",,!><It ot .<:::1\Olt.100 -",un
.j..r. c~/<><l d,,~d1"9' u~" t.M 1<1.." o! <lay_ '" r."":a·a ZlO loa.,...- """cttll
r.~ .11" .... ""..be.. or l1.t""..,. a. tdkolr. 11> C<I the _ ........r.l00. "11.~ do
lfO\> ,,<:<0:;:«1" """II .. ~1-, 1 h."" fO" ..al<.
....Writ... P,""" ..4\1:t_ caU"" 1lI~~l" u...t. '--Jr... on. l.lI""t ......loco .. aM ~,
... tuma "TIlt/eM it to.........,b.... h ~..,•."r ·rALs..- u· tea 04<1. )l.~ .. u •.~ 1
11111 ,"'0),~
[n~uJ
"
..... ......~([~I~~~
"
I. ,~v
l':dta~", <I."\j"""~rAJ.~jS· ?nl?
~, yr;~~'i
'Ril::!1ii;\TC,I,!'s 15l...:;;S;.;Wi;;Llflh<;:=!
"..
11". )'0">: Eyep OO<I:O.an4 in a n .... 1'...'C"<I",,. odlod l<l.OK "htCh
p .. in... -110:- "n .''''' .oe<'n1...~<1 -fOCK- on <>::4 ueencl'. It""' ....,,:>.>: tha.t
tIK!: ..e-: n. :It.. Uo>o of d"l' U • Unt.""",. or ~OUl;' 4 ... he.... " • .,lnlrt.u.
00<:....." .. , <1 -Art ot' ·PIl-. H 1'''".... n",t .~a t"", pte" tl", u~..,<.~ .. O"t
"\
'ifIs loIN':;' It<> ....n 1.~." ...... (doe" 1t. UIt':!<> a.nUl? ~:-----_-,
:rr.:: IlQ --->-.Try P .AI"'·T AIll'T ~Il\~£-'t
to.... AIr>"'" ll. ..". r.o uco =y 0% LoJo·. p.<><I:lc"1O"". liJr.. IS ?
,~
'1I. AIN'T • tunoUO"1
'n;S 1:0 - ,.. It. t.<>J-........~ 1n7"r. ...,,:1 ...t.""n. a "'alu,,1 ---'
j,I .. AIN'T .. prod1cat,.1
1.0;0. l1J<,"''''",t. conput,,,.... 1'1....0.... ba.le =<In<b r.""" 1t. " ....a.
:lI" ay toO p""",,, t.h<ot.. 1""9"1"" that. loO]" dldo:r. h."e th" lOOT
p ..-'-lc.r. o~ It.a bUl,e =",,"'n. 11'r1r.." p"c<:<r<!w:. eul<>c1 Al:ll.·T
u ...~ d:~S "="t lIot'" <!.ou., but~ ~~.. l<OT 111 ttl lUlU 1t JlO'r ,":t" ~ 4t1.n:>Ur. T?:;:S 10. >:>tt....n ••••••• " 1>"t· ~ 1t ....~s ••••••• 1t >:"'''.1'''. :I'?:J! - 1.01t. 1001<," l11t" ~!N'r "Hl hn_ t.o "." "£~T•
~P"Q!;"- c",",t.r<>1" 1••u"",UIll 1: ......... """" ';10111.';1 t<> bo a"l>l" to .........
"""""p"u:. ~ .~yt.h111.';1 .... c .... 01", a" Cto.u-<::h I>oU"vO<l ..a eo..12. 1.c10
~w~f.V
",_.... .::t -
I~
WA1"r?
.. Yay or m'~'lc7 "hie" ,,""..... n,U ~"'10 "",,""Id obey. In oth~... l'O:<:'" tll"Y
ht )'<Ill ""-.. trol t.<>",,'. UtcnUon. 'to" ,UIl U-.• t ..ll~" you c"",~:a",l lO:'li
'='=-"00 In ,,,,,t ~. b~t !l~ <:=..<>4 In Un lln~a "U ;l;.~ o<-OllN,
teu, Ir1~'J3 .....'" IlYA:.!:l lot Y-'11 ""'h 1' ...<'<)" ""l"" eon <:I\Mqll "n..:..
~. ·~;.r.S~· It !;urna til. l1(;l:.t 21.,;.. Tllat u.'JI:~ h th
I:uu... ~hU Ilnv;< .,,4 li7A:.S.e .l....l'~ '''>.11; tor. U
th" llSht h ':::1. lFnUe ":>:,,. 1.<>-;0 ~:::l:: dl ~ "=~n<b.
SoU"" t.~••"u%y clH~..r",~'" ~t" ..cn "l'....t 1:1>. riPR: ..,,'" JOlI!!>"'.\' ....."",,<l.1I ~.
"-".<! 1>......,. «:II" .10.. h>n~y.
In ~o·. l""T~",!a t"'...:_ "'''' .,<:01 ~. 't.O .cc:'l4 lIua&<;lN
('0'0\1"..) f:roa ""'. ,,=,,-'>4 to """1' othot u 1l1: enc:.. I'or 4 ...uU<>n
"""hS. t~ 1~5:r ~:'I<l " .... 40 thllt. Try tW_ ,,:"""..:."....,
'I~I~~'% .,0~ ~~<:::::>'§; U
'-'V
~
~
. ;~ £
i ~nf ;
, ... " .E
'; ';: ~
" I ,
~ ; ~.!l ;0 ..
I (IR ~ ~-.
:£ :1:- if~ ~
!§~•I
~ j
~ .. Of "
t : i 21 ~ ~ 2.. ;; i ,:~ i ; .... :. !ia : '" "...... !i ~ ; 1• '0" : .. ~...~ i 1 i:1i E; g ; f:l l :: &~ : : ~
q ! ;; ~' . "" ~ r :§ ~ ~ *i ~ ~ k
fo a •
S • i iI •t
~2E~,
~
coi;i ..<j
~
"~
",
•"e•··"; f
~ .~ "j;; ?
i
~,!!~
.F.
L; B P, ".... if <0 •, . .~ ~ E ~• " <
.~ i ; ~o , & i~ :0 :t e: 2 ~ .... .. • Po
::t rll. Iig ~
[ :. ir. R a'< n, ..
e ii 2
• g" ,I "·'~ ':.· ,· ..· .i ~• •• •-~, ~
~ ! J-:----~ ;." ," ~~ ~ ~ r--:-:'... :: ~'I ~1: If ... "i ~ r II i ...;-~ !" r. : :~ .~ • to
~ ~ i~ ~:: gi ;a ~·'g ~
I "Eo ~
Pf
~
B
~;;~
n
1
~
~~~~'2.~';;
;i~:~;;~e.~:R.~:.. : !t-#' ~ ....§c.t., .. ,
J( it ;> ~ ....
l . .. r. ,. ;: t'• i~'ai. ~ ,g R g i 11 F! ..." t.; ~ '< il. ..,f-l':E2e.~.. ~ .... ": ~ l; f :: g5 ~"f: r:
~ go 8" ~ S! , ,
C- "/",r" -------.,...-. .-- \.-,
, "--, ( "' H _.I ~""\r-'-L-:::-_-':'-=''''''''''
/~ ';i.. .-~~~:?-~.)~.:~- '):~,c1 ~ ,c:'''' 7~].>.r\ /p•..r -I .' T:~ 1ft: ..
-~. '"g-~;J"~_._- " ..~{,(:;;
t r § ~ ~ .. tl N : e ... ~l <>. l:!. .. Jl !1 II , " Ii ..=" ~ a ~ g ~ " ~ ~ • ~
~G~8R.g-a;"~~p
j ; ; ~ R ,~ : : ~ J ~ ; ~!}t: .... ~ ·g!>Il!l~"
fi~[~~~fi~~:f;~• '!.~" , •• ,~gC1 .... /';l..nilfl"cl .. I ...II '< " Po !} ol ~. !i: It I[ .. ~... ~ .. ':l .. "RS"l2~2... H " .. .. a" a..... e" 'J. 0 .. R .r .. ~.. l-' A"' .. ",,[ .. "'''l:"a:lt 4~:~,ci!:;.~:4:;tri l: :0 II " •• .. n .g;.i~:~3;:~:-~r., " 1: ... l:' .. " l:' " i\. • ~~9,,~o;ll*E~t:rir." " it .. ~ :l "!J U ..... a8 ; ~ f • • ~ " ~, ~ a ~ n
.. .. .. " " .~ a :0
f:~l f!~g~~j:~1 : ! : &: ":. a' 'ij:( !: y i ~~;.~ E"R~i?~:;~:g '2 " t.: .. ~ ~ .. " ~ Ii to .g~:Z ... l~:: .. :;~.l'i:
:::~Jl'~. ·"'..,e.l'l:f!~ 6::'·!:2:li~
.'"'l<~~''''': : ~ E ; ~ ~ : ~. .
i-S 8' ~ ~c~" f C ~• •~ !f "
" 2" •1': 2 < l: ~
2l:.:!~ lrI ~ § ~ 1
.. " " gr~~~~ r.
"" " ", ....8!El:1 :e It < <>" .." ... , "· . -, "'~".8 .g ~ 1" ~ v~Q go .. I::n !; g ~ :;~ : 1 .. :e ~ n.... I;. ~
a ~ = ! !I: "'- :"~ H [ ."'... 2"~ : ~ { ~
J j ~ : i~ . ~ ~ I
" ,8 t ~
[ ~ ff· . ~•• •fl ~ ~ 2:~ ii ~ ~'< " II 2· t i i.. " .. to
R ~ ~ ~1 :< G ;N
• "" .. go
~ ~ § li... ~ 1:. ..,g !J f' fl'~ ~ .. ~:l 0 tr ~S~ ~~ t.. I: t ..~ & t ii; R { ~· ..:i ~ ~.
~ ~ t :· , \;· ~• r • ~~ ~ ~
~
,
•i ~!:I' ~~ :~' f~ ~
" ~
~ ~
~ ~
j ;f. ::::
Q ~B ~
; &i ;:> ti, .[ ~r. ~:- !
i
.. '" " " " "~ il' :: t fr ~
ii r.. ~ ~. ~ ~ :t~ ~ !} :: .;, ~n tt Ii .:' ~ •
~ r. ~ ~ l;' f.'t:':"'::~r.: ~ .., Ii 1} ~
g~~:r.~'" t .. "~, ~ '" ii 8 2, ,"i . ." : ~ , • :l~ :; 7 2 ~~ "., ~ ~
j~~f~ij!, .. a .. • S"
E.1~~~f"fJ:~i:'~ oj ~ 2" : t'
~;isFi£~i~b';... :,: .... :::: ::~g~:;'... .. .. ~ 1:"
~ ~ ~ i ~
~
~.
~.
:S~o8><.,.,~
~;~~••;~~~,
~~~~-..".~,
F.
~a11~~~~i~;~,;'t;;~~;~::::~2:~~~~
~~'if-[~!!~;~;i'.~li"g'" .. [ "3 .. 1} :;:: 'II
~ i 2 2 a ~ ~ '3~ !i • ~ ~ t: .', g:t fr .. [ : .. ~
~~il~~i~.. .... 0: p." """
~~E~~~K~" I> " .." a aii~2~2 .. ;.!t~~!~t;'~iI ; .; ; ! ,~ ~ :1:~]:';~~~~g:li~:~~... p ~ ;: f, ~ "
tY';i~~*~~~ ~~~~
~ ~ ~ ~ N ~ M r M
:if ~ ;"~ ~ ii;i~f~g~j~S~llg,:;~::~~
:;~~~~!i!l~~
~!~R:~~j~
iji~~iJi;" ,. t ;.; 2 r; .. !.. "!; :. • l' • " li !to '3:g'~~;\~B;':~
~j~~:.~[~?
~~~~'i;~~~: ! i J ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~§~~l!- .. g,:!",
. ~ ~ i ; i ! :i1J "t i!, \', ~,~ i1" 5- ~ ~ ~ii - - ~ l'
]! ;;li ~;
~ ~1 ~
!;:II:.. ., '" ":~~~g':l;~r;:i~~.~~~:~
:: <>. ., ~ ..
;i:"~~;'~:. ; ~ ~ ~ :
o g ~ ;1" ~
~i~~~ ..,!;£~::;, ."s ~ 1: ;: ~In " ,,0"~~:g~~~
~ ;; ~ ~ g~ :' J II ~
'< a ~ :;-g g. :; i!.
~ " :>
"""' l' ~ ,,, I:~ ill;~§',~.o~:
'-'V
'''''"'- 8a ~II~e;;::,,~ ., ~,~ ~',-.::.....c.:.:::>'~- '-'V
~- ®Q ~C;:>=- II :'l, ill;"'--Z=,~, ~,'-'V
! ii1'----:-,5?:l.'O~." ~---z'--' '"" '-'V
~Q7:l
ft~~~~t~ .. s" ~"
"""M
~ 2
~~ ~
g
,,
,~ ;" &F ~;: '"> <P 2" ~; :;~ ~
[~ ~
g ~
~ ~. ~
'"
or CtQ "/l~ O. l4"it... n.w p<...,.,s...... c:dled Co,,-PARr; ",,1."1> .,..~.. dU.... 1:.~1
by ...t,,~nl"i -1'~\lE' t! b~<:h ot In two 1nl'''U ••• " ....1>..... m ..... "'{lIaI,
but ".tur"" -FALSr;· Ot"".....u .. Ih1.nt. thlnl< .M'''t tl>. p.-:llc"tu 0..0.;0 bu).
TO QUI;: ,x,to ~t;)r CO>:i'AAt •••••~O IH ~
~o n, .• 0 Ift (lUlZ IX,
y".. J..~_ t.l',.,t t~ C1.t. CI~~-i' t:<OthoO" "1...~·. un • yd.... of ••••
for MoO "'~J:<D !:.~ .." •• t:'. " ..111. t.~o ....t ....". £0" Lvnr :I.. ~T"\ll~ .,,4 .0
t."lO o~·.. !J..:ll!i". T""t·. "~I' h ..•• t~ lut CII;I'.1'1 ,l"t t:>' hn CllOftP·.
D\;~:: <!~.~n·t .tov 1>10 01~,,~ btot.!>u. teo. 1"100")' Jlln. atop """..... tMo
1:.:. .. "t ..h~"h thoy " ..o&u~ tl'"U .. ro"'~"." H"thot. lhr.o ~O) I •.th"l ..~
11"... "c.l :."'.;" .tw,,)'••~"r. " pre"N...,. "'h.." H k .. no =r" hnu to cbel'.
h t""~. tor C~C~ ~STM~. C~C!l.P broth......un 'h>.. M. l<.-WWlaoJ.j<> 0{
A'~~1:ll .~"",,,l ,,:u: 1110 l1~t~ .. b~"'tll". 1C'~'::'IP ~l "".......1. 1.<»0 010 .... I:'O."Z.
T".... ,,'"" p.. ;>Ye t.1I1" by e~Jln,j" tllla 111''' to CllQ.~i'. 40 P1<I11i IA."aD,
:;"" ,,1:,,1:. I!o the C1iC:tP .. pdn~ to" CIior.\' ·STM":r
1"1"1< " ,,,r.\>.,, ,,:14 ht ~.,"" <r~'u ",~r. it h. It y"".......10;11.. 1t. .hc\>Ls
.,;:o\9....;.:1"t.. roll {y"", ,,"" "tni 1:.':.. b.U .1tb a~l. It ).".... 9""'" 1.
o:t 1t,.~l:l<: 9h.. )'011 BA<>thl." t.:y. If.....•• eo 0"t1J,n. of (It/It;, pI""""
TO C:lU 'I'1'1 ::5:: IS ••.•• • ••••••
ig ~~;~~;o:'::::::::::.4' IU.....S;: C:iIZ 'XI
"S1t~ '¥= 1'= .. .;>l"u. yell t.yp~ JIIOt. tl10 l.l:r':R:I "1,,:. ,". no=>l><»? .
~ ~l i:t~t".......""-,,.,1. ot ..:u.t.'" "!lUaf .. ~t",,~.
tl"'l's In pt....~=. """ .":~"1"•• t.h.,t. ..... ofUn t.",.::y.
il:-:I' 1'.....;>Q> tt<t" 10""""'0 f""..... cl"..... =t.~;J """""'9.but 100=:.11•• )= ~... ·not. h""" ""'~..:al:.OQ4 Chll p;:'Obl"",
tl:0~1". th"t 1'011 ,,"" ""."t. CUt4: by IIUn') TilAC!: t.o .....1O. l.O'iO .M.. yOu ...."11
«IlZ broth~..•• lnputl 'Uy It. You .".,..~ 'J.t you h .....""·., .lu...4y, tbo"-ih:'
Of 1 ""'I<I>. QllIZ ~","an It.••lf ,,1 ..1> <10<> :I""'.".... 11' yOl> ..<!.d tM.
11•.,., 2~. 1fT CQIZ ; ....'1":-1. And. lt yo" ..u .. bl~o;"" nU'Ol>u., yo<> .,.", .....
• """ cc6:l:><l. 1I.1oIl .. .!n.t.....,s or RA:IO:lll. fIA.'1Jl. t.~l:.". t.wo l:>p"~t n=<>..",.....,,,-
"stll""•• ~..,,/I= <::1\:;1<:.. or •.,.,. tt=l>e.. bet ., t~.......... '0.. """"0'1... t:y
11..\.'11) 0 '9...:tlch .1»tlld r"t."..... n ....be.. 0.. 0 ""d·n.
Cba::>g" CUI4: ... tMr.· 1t.·. "0". ,"ocl"bl.. I'...le. 1t. .,"1"t. -GUESS
tOllt:."'- lf yow: .. .,..... _. ~ .."- ...or than th 1110 t:. .,1"K~ to" 'It', ""-GlJZSS 1Ul;l:JE:R;- 1t YO"" gil......"- .._1..... t.h ., IXh Till..,\<...bout. ",ill.,I>
P~cr.:!-l=t"~ YO" c:a" II..... "M ""!' ...,<::1> t.,,*tllllJ ... OO<!.... to be .:0 t. lso:-t tn..
.rlg"" .."t1on toe ....."'1> ""So. a"" b,,: t.h4t Jl,SQ(1EST "ld I< )' fo.. D:O....
tha... """.. 9"'"'' it y"" II........ 1 .. "" t.h1t.~ 0".,,, ln a:iI>: .,0;1'" tow tile.
Inpllt. ....... I ..bl•.(xl is 1I0ed .... ~l4 CU-l4:·• .,<»1"••0 it c ..n be 1I.e4 100:.
eh ..... """" ," a"JI:!: - y"" t>i!rht ..""t. .... " ... thst ld.." •
• ""11S th<.t. I<1n~ o!: p bI YO" ""'.t ~1t.h." ,,1> ""0"".<1"",. n In
"","lOry ",boo. n"';.. la th.. u .... lI. Cn. on yo.... Ul.. "nuy. 0 .. ~ ...y ..
" ...,,¥I>ln9 In "~"y ,,1Ch th.. £i'.As1l ALL co.=..~. or ""'''U., r<"l """
...... SAY%: to 'P"" "h.. t 1 .. now 110. """"'t)' 1nto "n"t1" .... ent.../ '."'4 tb.n· .........
S.... "". _ .. c=nel. ,,1>1..1> Y be ""lprll1 t.o yoII ,,1> In') ....,d 9 ..ttin9
YO"" 'l.ooJ.. P"O<]"""'. (IOO/:IS YOII·"' l:u"y •••1' 1" P....t. 4 .."". yo..·v.
not. y.t " .......<>4It .
....
u ..... th.. "_.1"" or 811 p"<><:.~""" 1'" """"'''y
11n .....ry P..O".....II.... tn ",c."..y
11_t rytllin.. 11' • ..;,..iy
"opy ryth1nl 1n ...."'ory onto entry y 11' tt1e "
copy OY )'~h~n'l t"",. ...,,,,,'1 Y 11' Ul. x 1nt.. """'~"y
'11at e;lary utr7 "'''''. on ttl...
U.t. p ceo:l........ titl In entrY y ot t"1I .. I<
11.t .:y p.....,.d" · tn ..ntry y 0:: IH.· ..
110t th" .bb....... l.atio". In ."try y ot Ul. x
1~~1; ....OI)'thl.<'''l in ."uy Y of UI. "
LIs:l" ."O!.-:'t>l:IS 0: I.e
LJ;ST AU. Pil.QeEO\lilts0 .. LIST "Llo ..;;S
LIsT AU. i\0211.&V~"Tro:;,
0" L'ST AloL i\!aS
SA"'Z x y
en x y
L!ST ULl1. x 0" lor It
LIsT COllT5lll'S lo Y
I.IS1 pp.o::eO:;ilES x y
UST A~BJlf:/IATlC~S " Y
LIST L'lTR:t x )'0 .. I.e " y
!:~"!i~ E~>TR'I " Y0 .. }!~ lo Y
An.." y""...... "o..lee':!. h<trd on • P"09 ....... you _y ..._t. to ....v. ill
thot proc.Jut.. YOII·"" ....Ut.en ... ~hAt )''''' ""'" 10'J" Otlt. ..n<l ~o _ "HI> ..h..
;>.. ,.,.:·.1 te ..11n'l t.h<lt t.1':")' ..Ul &11 b<t ..alt.lnq 1'0;:' you ..h"" you nO"" 100]
On. E....•• 1'10>< to <!.O Ch~t. Typ. SAVS ",,<1. ':>-''''' the.. )'011" .."",be:
..~~ t .. ttHh t., ans -....<1 ,othe" .P&c. th<O" "I'I' r""," .. )'0\1 pl.........nel t!>o
J;;!:!UiI.';. Tl>... =.n<l. u '''9<,'-1'11''" ln to;o·........0-"1' th.o.~ you M.V",,'t.
..,,~.~. iii.. p"n "Hh ~..,"" n:J:\b~: 1" It. 1" C411~ y.,.,.. -t.ll,,~ ,,<I"'" &n<l
t.h.. lut p=" 1:0 .,,,11~ )'0"" ~ ..~~t)'- ........... y"" ""'-)' ......" .......ny ...a~l•.
on 1'0.... ~1l...U ~"OU pl ..u.. IIlw:1 Loso obey& .. SA."S = ..n4. It .,,",'0.
.......<;'th1nq by copyl".. It. .!<i~ ..",..1,,'1. "a t""~ "ft." YOll· ..........<>:1 yo""
" ..<><:.<1" th"J' ..... In~ phcu, S" t.o<:Io·s "',"",o"y aM on the til. """,,"y.
rHO'S h~~ till,,'1 ""!>1.nr.~ L,d ..n~~1•• "". u~" d ..~we.. " In • "ab1.net.
tI.~~ll)'. wI>."" )'0" <:'0 I>. S}::t:. y<l\.l·11 ,;:nt to p1"l< ~n "'"tt)' -,. ~t<at h<!.
.=.thl/l'1 "0 ~o "1~I> ..hat )."" '''..In'1. Th.t w~y '1",,'11 "..,.b.: ..h<tt
1t w"" "alled-I..t •• 0". Ilu.· hot F.lix '"",,"p' .. tile looluJ 111<,.. ,
• ..,. "h "" entry =nt~l/l uy.b1"';! thnL "sa in t.o<:Io·. '""-""'t)' wh It
ol>.o:fe4 .. SA~E co=o.t.",s.
~~: ""~ t1>.. Ute an" .ntr;( M".... H yO'. "'...... p.c<: ..~ ..."a I" mft.""""Y
..M"h.n ,,100 o~ th"t. ..nHI'. WJO ..Ill uy' ._- 1:1 oU.Rf;.\OY DU'IN~O-.
H ';111 nOt bn,,? ~h .. Pfoc"<:".. On tl>a Mt<:f l"t., "'''''''<"/. It yo" " .... t to
Atobu.. l.U.,.,o ..~ .. ""'~4y' ..h"" 'I"'" 110" lon-, .."...... lo~ " ..0<:..,,""' ....
It'•• ';<>?4 1".... to "'0 .... lo.,~ .. ,,~"'. ao ,/0"" H~.. "'" tn.r. H 4~<:Ubn
",lIat ~h" p ..o<:~"r.. d.,.,lI. Tn~t "'Il~. It ..u1.... 10: .~,UO(l•• y,,"~ too. ro
....~4 yo".. pr"'lr"",.....,~ ....,<I ..<at ..n<l th_. B"t. t ........ typ1.:'l';. you ....:./
.le...<tnt to .bto"""'lat••..,.., proe..,;...... • ".......... ACr•••n .b!o......hUon
"...cur.t".. P'OCo><:lW''' 111<. CIlOIlP ot CUll.: C: .......~ ......i ...l>o"ll,
t ...... MOtl\"r to h<ot.lI..t J".t as a"'Uy u til"}' eon'" Inp"n Io,".r"'. ro
~h." y= """,,14 ny. C Jli\,~:l(l>l "W"~~sr O{lO ~o. .b~r.V1&Uon. "'~" t>a
~.~ .... )'C" uu (Ocr ~ ~.t; -.0•• to"u, au ."try lIlW "._<Y. DC W ga"
...."try ..lt~o,-,t ••uln'i Lo..o·. "":>o:Y. r~ "c:.ph, Q "1'llh,," ~. e,.
• ~r"'hU<''' f"c t'I,'o.It:lT In .n .",,')' tha ... =oM..." ....' ..,...on..•• ~'''~~LZ.
(hint! ..hl<t """"",,.~ ..." ... ,..""""".... ",.t" "al""11. "n.... yo" ~O' tnat.
ths .1tUAtlon h Ju.t 11)<•• tsl"pl><>". c:o "c..Uon. r ... n."!:. h''''t>u
c:dh "p Moth.", ",,<I hop". tor ..... "" ....0. I" <oturnad ".1".) rrc.. hl.:>
I".tnd 0: Ju.t h.vlA~ hi'" ho.A'J "p "h"" h.'" <I ...." •
4 ...,;,,~••" ,,04' 11: ,,"ly "11... y .....I". lnlr. of "lY,t
. :Y"'l'l'o 4ol:>'11
"r1te a p<oc,n:h,l"" ....Uoi 1'A1' wht ..l>·tak"" t._ Inpu~., .. I.U'.,.nO
a "0<4, _ .t"~""'" "ho.t h lett of th" "'GI"d an... th. ht~u t\u ....."
.<l::IO,,6/I (t:4t ..~) tto:> ..~....yv"":. within It. Yor """''''1'1_, YOll .ho,,:.<l, 1:.
....1.. to 91". toh" CO""''''''II P.Il ..~-r £11.': .,.. wAI'l'l.E.S"UC:E~ to LoJo ."d. .... 1011II
..,;<1. ~P?L!5UCEw "':IUe" in fro"t of yOW' ~.., l ....eOll:> •• to .... :::;U'::& if
you h..... b"i ana ..t".. to ._ t"'" "'''.U'l'''. (val"••) ••CI> !:AI hootl\.r 1.
","".L>lI"7 ...~d ...""'IA",. II .....• ...hat til" tIl.i' b.Ottler••!lChJ,ld ~ eol":> t.,,:
tho e:t=..nd.. v,,: wo • ~I'OLO~ (. tAlk. I:ul>bla. a"""... """"'i". ut"<n"" f.o:o·.ltal; I;.1U.. of pr"<:o.!,,.,u ..ow b """o:y
11.t tho "b1:l.avlO.t..1o". on tH.. Q enuy 0
lht. 1I1c>:y". l'lO\lSl!: ....tty
coW Peltl!; fc""..•• Jillil': cnuy .I.:IW =e::><>"y
c0i'1 aVCI');'t..'d.n'] 11..1"" hae 1:'ltO ':lCtzl,=X
US:' E::-:-~>: 'at=<T /\:JUS!:
LIU'~ A3S~I:..u.n~s
1I'h<Q y"!! W""" ~ .".,h.e....... 01'" "ntty ..!t,h
....COt P"'O'>==. J,,'t. ."va 1t. .,11::.11 t.Mt. ."try ...."'••
~o ..Ul .t.....1)' ....ll...be 01;1 .:\t.ry ..Uh t.ha'"
....... CII> t.:tat Uh. 'thd !:il,>,S3 ~nY c ..""• ...:: .1,_
,:" t... .11:1:& )'0" u.~4.r.ta...s Logo'" tHing = ....,d•• ill...... 4".... a
U ..,,, r."", ....:. =..",,1 10,,10," to Ita ""Uon.
&0 It Y"" 'i'O't It t,,~ ",."ory wit" OJU Ilr>3 lU • ."l><avlaU<>", L~" "0,,14
o;lIt l.~"'li.ltlo."
"lt~ t~••"cc~,s input !,,. " ."I'Pllo<l 1':1' lito youA"''''' lIrotha'. I:o\U). " ....
• ocon'" ~1' '0"08 .11 th. Il&y w tn ~d 0: ,\IOIUl•• so tMt t.1I. l=';;
l"t~"r 1e aU"S<;A O:'lt'" tile ro""lt c=. {r""" t!:" tt.3 "n<l of I'I'C-II", (=1.,,,,.
it'" t.h•••""~ lift IL~::p.•• o! cO"""!I), I''''U''" tll",,- tho Ct'>;> .ut". {hr...
£.\1' p:ol>'!M1' ..... "~<Y t.a".:t ..... .,,,1t. I.:l.:t tco>~ "lot .~ th1n!<i"'o:.
Don"t loot, th~t both&r 11'_, It'. en. or th ....,,1'~1<:..t.od 1I' "'~<O...:"a
'you'll _ e<t4 1.0 ".tIt.. lIS 1. t.bon ~t 1........ t >I,"y. y=
C0<l1.o! n",v "ttt.... v..... (it O::o ·t. =t...." "het"".. 1'- ",,<>4 'rES:.", In.
nT cr 17 - 'ilt~- ~Sl': _).
TIl" nl'.'" Iol",~ of &10': tall;U ,1o';);l.D••Fn",t l ..tt..",-hy-I""'t..r i.co tot... htt.
"hli. tl>••,,<:0....<5 £.\1' 0::0". t.ho ...... th:1,."'2, :lout. fr= ...1>& (10?~ ",t.
t1-.o .,.="",<5 ..tu. :i"::::' o. ~'Ii C<\ lin.. 20j. ';loth Ut """'n ,\leJ.pt
....."'iet..... 111 1ett-~ri"'ht ..rd~. Din"" .LI:1;1'£III, ~et ~ nut L\'l 'i"",a
1011 t~" "&11' t'J tlIa "'~hto 10:1'" 'Or ,\lO;UU .0 tM,t t.t\3 U\.. htl,.l.tte= 1~
Ulcl<. be"'" ""to to.,., ~'OI'in'1 ...."le C:""'-a ftee til" lr~ end of .1<:1:0.=1,
(to• • """;lIl", 10::>1< Ae Illle.t 1" ;£,. tJ-.... ~" ....lr~ clC',:;<! to.. r;.\T1 O<l r"'. ~8
O'r 59 ..~.<1 ",,'>:1"'.. ",~.e h" <!.en "11"" ba r,~".,~ to " o!><=y, 1tr:1I?~ 11 , ,>;n~"
~ ~~tr.;~?~~~_:)g;p.;;!:li F.::XUi'~ ...2D Zi IS ,L<;;;r::" r.,~:.. ,0::::,0.
'=-,,:~ :;tl:"C~:, ::.0.1' .L~n:;a; ll.~7U:;i' ,VOF':;"U;t J;nu~ ~';;~.D E.1.'t ,L...-n;:~, II~USt ,W:;:il::ll l.I<.'iT ,WOiI.:),
;; ~-:t~;~Z:;~;~;r.;~zp-r.~= ..~20 %\" 1S 1~&n!;.1.. lZ~'I ,\'-;;;i:l,
tt~ V;i;;~.;1 V.T ,L::n"'.-#' 1I:r.P'11S'i" IlI':lRDII::L~ Rl;;f~::.o );07.;> :r:11Sl: ·,\''O:l.DI Vi% ,LstT~. Jarni.&T I~I
Uh
(1).
(.~" ;Jr," ~.). "~,,t·. EA7· •• ~op ruh? .
Moth." ,,1'10,,101 <leclol.. t<> .~0i> •..~d ~ call VI' a ....... 0<'1". !iOU~. tll,,'" tl>"
h.t b<"otl'>er h t1-... YO""<J"U on. uA h th"~ 0<1" to l<""" .!:.£:~ .,h"t
".h" to r ..t""" to h10 old.." Moth"". ';hl,,1< ..bOvt the U ..d ot ..<>1"...
tl>"t ...el> Ut lI"oth• .r ..".t .tot"." tor ....el> ot I>h· po'''ibl" "etl.."". And
thL~IC .~""t .,h~t J'MU ot 1>1. l"!,"u c.>.n h" .",<><1 t.<l calC" 1:1-.0"" "a.t"....Your u.... c~.. b .. do~.. "i~h tw" Un" ''''In.. I\' - taM - ~!: -. 01' 0"
fi"" 11"... "d"", 'I"~s-r. 11";" and IF1. choose ..1I1"1>..,,.r ouy you pr ..t ..,,"
Is J!:1l.: • f ....ct1""'?
U:li 110 -----r &>.<:1> EA:i" trroth"r .... t. input" ....a t<otUCnJ a "al"..1,~,
ll ..: .. ••.• 0::1"i""" ot til.. "'...",,"' ... s..nt b ..~......n u.r broth.."a tor ~"'" .,"~. ot
l:1put.,
~o~-~;;-r-·O·~_~·O·~!J!:.\T;r-·O·-...,~o·~""..~:·f>OV3-;..;r7V-·OLO~':;A7··i~LO~--f'T-?-~O·_7'/'.~~~~-~
.,.-",.. '----"." "---"." "-....:.-.. '------."
U01~1 .. urJ."l~J ;>"cc~.!."." >11:11 a .t.,;> r"l .. (11)<0 v,r) 1. 11~" '''b] •
c=.",,,d 11,," ..h,,,'" IM"tll aut"'Htl-::"U:f "Mn']"" to .·.l~ it" lnr-J~$. tAr
",&~.&s :''''J~ ~.. o""~"J Ju,t t"" CI111t n,,,,,I...,, ,,~ "";0,\'0. "t It...it (~<othoo""l
to ~.,. 1~. J"t.. y""~ .!I""''' ~" "~"'11" ~"''' =&n"J tAr e,~"""".~, ""'It 1I.
r... Vot. un tb••""'0 "to;> rule ~"c."." t ....y u •• tho ..... buic .....l".:4 t" ..
••1v1111 th.. ~r"1>l"", <It ..ot1n1 htt",u t • .., ..".~.. 'I"" .. t1ht ""'~<' to U.
..h1C}.c,,"t r...1: yo'~ <51<:.,,'t v:~e.. 4:>'" .... .,·n.AC3 to ""a "hoe "."'&100 .of ..
~Ul9" ....<. b.~>::u" bc<>t1-....... That " .."lA .100 h..l;> yw un '" th.. ~lo:t""
t.""1o ar.. C=lrI'1 U;>.
."
'"' ':::!... ':<y. P &1>': ·OA'l'$- "~&$ &'.1' OArs AND tiO~ u,1' o.>.':S·
oo:l4 ..oUe. wb4t. "",...n. t.o t.ha .1'4"....
."
~..t. s1n". "ratho.. n.=:>bII.. foUl: 'lI"to on ...,:y vah:.. · for ••••••• h..
",,,It,,,, :.0:10 0~"Y 'l:hi5 e"""",,,,,4 u.'1 an llrOtho.. U'."o 1::1>
t.h. "'~":"\I. --. .rother t."=", .tlCI<" t.hU. o...t.o t.b.o fU·.. t 1.t.t":I' 0: h1lI
IltOlW. ( ..Meh d.,.. ·~ <10 ",,"y~h.I."'ll ..~<1 rlltur to broUl".. t."" ta>
.u 1s"n=in~ the ••••• l ..=t of hi" ,ll'O::lIl' .nel 00 nt.urtls ••••• to
brot.1'!o::- ....". B.oth"" a>.. e flnn11:t .tlek u'e ••••• l ..tt of tll.
or191....d ""r~ OM" ..hn ":l'oth~ •••• hbs ..ot"..oO'! an4 .."t" thl>t to •••••
vo!tn = on"- ..t .... t .... onotha: •••• "'..... th.....Ith .LUTUI ..~d ~I>O ...... ot
s~llD "Ja tn,...h. Th." t.hat. MT brall\or ._14 ..".......".uy :-our" tt>a
.... t o~ ••'?~l>l ..ith ,I,:;'t'rlR, :_.,..••,,4 thot'" ..h..ot II,);;\) .."".1. ~o '~le ..
ont.. Ul•••••• lut.....f ,.v~J" .0 tl>"t U... ilUe. LA: broth... can ."'....
PRI"T·. ",.U. ,;"" I::U\lln. '-Mt y." u. "0010 ..l.oy1...., t.1>o fr'""'''' EAt
..1>3 t.yp... 1t. CII\ YO""' t.y;>cwrl=.... Sigh. If you ha.... any .......9y l.ft.
101>" lit t.h" c.cond U': '"" "es''' 60 anel noU".. t.h4t. le"l-.dUf.u,o"~
b.><:""n 1t. t.ast. tbs 1 .... "· lot.t ..e oE 11:& lf1p"" .......4.
II"",a po ..t. of 11".. 23 ... the U:I'.1'; llrot.:'u <11.1. bo<:."•• 1::.10 Lnp"t. val..... 18
...t. ca;>t.y ud t.h.. UUt lot:... 0: 1>.1. vd"" of •••••• 1. """ c."" .4..>," ••ILII1'l'l:.l.. Sa ho "dh u;o bro~h ... """~"" .......1~h t.h" 1:I""U ••••• an<!
t.h. C'02<'.""<1 .e on 11..~. 'lQ h1,,11 1 .
Yo" tto ""'lit tur..... v ...b1. t ....ho_•• " ..110:1 y .... up. but you <I... 't. ....
any ..... c= "" "..ell"•• the tint l"tur ot ".?RIlI 10 t.o t><> t.hr""'" '''.Y.
...
u· =.:"", ..~ur n..st "!lJ.<:h I_ .
~: h r;:r~nd to lU.""" a _.-4 an:1 alJlCfl the Urll;' U1 b.o;.h.&.. c1aeJ.<lc4
c....... t ~••, •••• h~t.." 0: ,O':ilUl. wU ~ 0""" to ~ e."=""" a"",/. U .......t;; toe.
retlJr.le<l a" ~art 0: tl>. '\.:"''''''' M'l' "',,:tt 91"" ¥;I,!lIT. 111,,= t.lo. <I.~i"lo:l
....J." .,,:0:: ~ ...t e.".'t". ".ora ,,:, tn. Ur.= l"tt"''' of :\/.. ~'ll. bee"""...... " .....
on17 l.o¢1< at the U.'at ",r •••••• latt"r of a "",:d alt.h 1.0\1",'. b.>sl..
~".:!.. ',_ I. L"t", Ur.t &o\T ~rD1;har a".... 901"i .... t'~ out ..hlOt t.h,
rut ,,: ~"t. v"l". h .. ,.,,:::t r.t...,." h t.o b.?-. yotl ...~. l:ol1...bO·.
r~r.>"'.<o:!: to ~...,... _ to re.='a II lett..r f .._ .. "';rd? ••••• 1 =;>" yo"
ad;l u... )_~d """ '''''''II "': ,lfO:ul' 1. bft to ba checked? ••••• Md .." ..t
port,ot .~"Jall. C<l.:l b .. ~ott"" ..tth t.h" •••••••• <»=::14<1<1••0 "~y "ot 1.t th..
Cohu. E:.Si 15 U .•••••••••. ",,:::0..,,<1. ll",,~ U the ..... ~n<l ~o".."a..
st..."", til. 1.>11"" .~~Cl. 0.0 t.b Hr... J.\f brOth"'" h ••••••• 1t.'. nOt. «>pty,
... the """"'0.•. ,1 d ..~ T"dtll "'" 1.t..... 10 1. l~""r..d. Tllor..•• n.. lUi" .... 1J:>S"
;<'<':1 "'" ;0 :.t.u •••• Tho "=::5and ,'" Un.. 2:;> =1<u £.0;.. 11.<::1<10 "h.. !<ho..
t:>o •••••• 1 ...t<>....::: •••••• '5 tho u",.....1,.F;'r:Z<l,. It ..hey ...". th.
:~~l:'" Uut.; yo......~@; J..o,j'o "'''"'--I tha Ur." f ....: .... P"i'" flO ." tMe
ee-..... ".s, P I'.\7 ',,' °M;>-. "Me,," z.>.t..11... ct.. u,;,on.3 dUiuo>",,, peg. $'1.
y~ =.-.~~ _..:or... t.~. tl.... It.\'l' b::,t.'lo•• Vhlell IOU... I.,.... Uut Obet
Itne. ~'r , ... r""Ql<>a, ~_ <"'" <: ....<'Ou <:.,...~<h1. 111<00 toM,. ono.
_, UT -,.- r:.\t ·0· ·J'Oln'rAl,.I.- ..Mel! ,.... On. I'-\'t '"..."Hly an Input val...
to. .."<><~._r. 't"Y ..~;. e='...~>1. VJut. <114 1.0.;0 1'<1:11:7 •••••••• ~"h4t. 4.d.
~... u=.." rAt r"~u:o w <:.. UUt? ••••••••• TJ;y 1'l:A<:11lI~ it.
........... ",,~l.s ....u 1.0$<> c'::<T? Ulo =ancl Utu f£.SS. 5"ln<::. loC<,1o 1,...._
o~i~ th. Hre..· (;.\'t broth.=. ~.. flUt l.t..e .. of Ulo~'. "!\leI! 1_ •••••
h :LOt ~~... :U"':," ". ,L=:Ii,. wht"h la •••• 1.0<;<> t.l\;!r.~or .. ~"'lt". ~ oto.-:
Jl"U<:"'O \:.h... t.h.. at"? ..u1... of Jt.\1' (l.ll:. 10) ""'= ..0 I:L$ll port.. rn"" t.1"...".
h ..... U.S3 a,,,1 U" 50':.& ·'Al.S~-. loO<Jo J t .:..... notl>1.... mor.. "lth t.lIe.t.
llJl.. SO &\'1' eo.:>. .. "t.""11)" ~...r1l;t= «0.. 11"...
,I",,,lrr. lI.u..• ...hat. 'tha II.tVflllil! .1.. t...... 1..1gh..-ucur.lv..1 .ho>J.1d "'"
.>lY1"" t.o ....11 oth.r fo.. tho t.=an"-. P "II.V£IISII. -u.:r-
'fQ v.1' '''~'-;;::l, ;li03D.to U Ei' h"';.":I)'
:t":l::.:: RL:~.'Cl --~3 Ii" 13 ,:'E-:i't~, , .'o:~RD,
:;:~::.:: Rr.~~.ll £.\1' ,1,~r1'S'" 8~ ,;roaD,U.Sl: Rt:l:";i<:Il v ~ III~aDl EAT ,1,1:1'1'1:.'1., B<' ,wean, .
Of "'o",,"u. t.l-....."""" Vl1' c<: 51""_ 60 " ... ba ......:ltt.... t.M ...... ""'y". SO",11
':":1111t10"~ ,,: v,1' u .. ue"""tv... 1>~"..u::: .. they "03" t.haU ""'" .. ""'........
e<:c"->,,j 1n01~0 Ulolr '::a:1.nlUoa.. Dut t.1I0 = ...4,. ..n ..... USE Rln:U:uI 1a
t~" =~.... EA:. "" ~••;> 60 "',.. oJ.l'i1lt1y <llfforent. 'rl'.o Hut 0".. b c",U(>:I.
·1"1~11..-1='l"'.. ",,4 ..1\.. v:,,""¢ U·-loft. ~'>CU'''lv,,·, 'i:huv ..""CO hr.....
t.o Jo "1;"" tho "'''Y 0:. ":U't !Ol.T 1>'0..1"..." h .t :1 (coll<:<l .... I. Til..
t1t.t:i t ....t' .t,rtS cd""hUlI'" t.1:... val". 1<. "'''.t t....... hzr~ lt " ..U.
~... n¢:<t u.: ...";> (R=:::;;,.'I W r l~all. I:.\1' -I. ~ln".. 1.<>l'<> r ....d .. "o.,,,,,,nd.
Is yo.:: lI.E\"~S1!: 1e:: ..- 01; rl<]<:t-"<>=.1,,..1 •••••• (it.y"" don·t. ""eM. ul<
t ... I>.lp). "Otl"''' t.Il,,= th.. rl'iM,-u=,ulvo f<eVl;P.lil\ aUUra 0lblot.. ev.y
.t. t."..1:< Inp"t. f' .... :l'illt-t.o-l...~. but th" rl\1he._t""",,ulV. Uf nl~!>l<t.eI
fro."1I loft-to-"1Irht ("e~ p:',le sol. So II p"""<:<\~"" ,hf1:l1t.l_ 10 Illtt- 0"
1..-; lo:t-t:>-::1:'t 0::"", 1t 'i.ta t.o ·n... <.\': e""",,-~<l. -"_~;; lt 1"...~ 0:::''''Y~:l
r ,'."7.7':'>, ar..: ." 101 0" t.~... £';2!'.-bo.r.d "i.~", 0: I>ORD'. l ..""tII. 'tr..
v,......n .. U Hu" to.. =t.• :::."~,.,, 1:,1""- o! Eh't. Yo" ca" .. ~"' ~1 l>en )'O\l
II." t ...M:~ «>. bo'th ~1"~. ot v.t. au. ""u lu Ioro~h~.... to U,.. out. ti>tl
r~'1:'~-1':'.""" ,,~:l. of ~ho .. a ..,,1>.:. Uut.. th4 o~""" U ..~r,,~ out ..l» laft_h.:s ..<1
:t.." .....I;o"""d"a ""'",,"U 0: 1".:>01 It. "'dh l:P """th... e"7Y of ludl:. t:tl.
b."""c~ of tho d1:<acU<O:o 1-.. ,,-"11011 """,>""... It'' in""t.
1. lIE'1rJlSII. Ita "'.." 1,,".r=<l (d»>. 1~ un4~ 1t.~..lfl? -<;---,
US 110 --).. ': .. y. t 1t~"Zllli1!: ~e'J!Jl~J: ·~II.PILUlT.
~
IIM~ .."uJ,4 h.W..... 1: )Iou ........... <><1 1..1>0 "'y EAi: p"to lta ..d .. "
t"""o,.n try 1t., chll.~g. thO' l:t.SJ'.: p, .. t On ~h<o lut. 11,.... ot tM &AT ""
tIlJa plll" t.t> 1ooJ. r=.sJ'.: ~'tl'!;'.>I" " e.>.'r ll,,<;r.j;~, Ill! ,~O~Il' , .IIUi1Il'
"rlto .....""eeI",.c etHo<! ,2n:S.Ul "hl-::h u,,"oo ~ 1Il1>l1t ",,<1 t .. rn"
it .......:..-.::1 b"',,"""r<1. vlu.~"t ~n'l,,'1 ."'1 l"~t~u. Tho e~",..,i"' )1<>11 "'<1" to
~<><:'~r::1"Q Hoc<:1·J.:a ....... ·trry ,;:""'" t.<>"h for g"lvl",> ;.o"~"'u t.Mt
" .... b .. brok"" <I""" Int.o .t.. ~.. t.Mt .or .. t.<> "'" n;>"~tc4 ovsr ~ "".... "".U
..."ht.Jo" h .. bun f"..,.,,,I. F1"<lln~ .. _l ..Uo" U 111:.....r"'hin'i for.
...""t _ you co.. n ... =-....-.4 t"" <j",,1. 1f yo.. 10"" " .... lt., b ..t 1e YOU e",,'t
..... It. or 1f It. ~<>'Vu (1l~" th" pot of 90101 "t t.ha an~ .e u .. 1;&1,._J,
.;.}, .... you <I",,'. 1<,0""" fo,. .,,:0 ..I>.th~r )Iou' .........11)' 9.~Un.. cloool; to lt .
",'Ut"" (lh.. a:C.'U'. Mi' .~..l /I,:::'IJ:.lS~)
.. U ~ ~<>J. ta: t~U 'i"~h In nop•
..l'il~b : .. 1n ttl.. <:"::..,,, Ilt:"",,1"".
T:'wu "u n~ <'~~~, t1'lU...0 ..... tt.: """
lot.. L, ln~": P" 'i""" I;!"."",. th"y ..ouId
."
111~ ..t nuob<l.... 1'1>< lt _0 $tUDF.<1:at,lCt ,",,,n't '.10 on ~ore...,.. "'O<\UIl~
lIttl.. ".othou "h", you .. lvo .1.10 _ nogllt1Y" In'''';t ...1".. :lI"lnt. ,,1>:>0..
L~oth,.. p • ....:Il.,..~.. Ir= pa.....U •
to EA'I' .L'I';!;! ~WJU)I
to ~~Ri;~~; n
E:.S!: IF lS. .t.'iR., (F .";W.)'i;;:~S ~t:'i"l:';;':l EA'l' 11.-':11. IllE" .WllD,)I':!.S!: it:;;':tI~ Ii ~l' l;oilO:) (t...1: .lolll, lsI' 1"".;<0:11
II"•• 1" • '"''')- o( tMnltln,; .bO,,~ "."""elv. p ..o ...."u:n nn.i ""'" to
..rlU 101':_ to .01.." II "arU""hr p ..obi.... YOU <:." 1""91n. tl'I.a~ ~ .".
<>o~.. ot tha booth"" .. ot th. $'.0::<>4 y"" ..... t.ryJ"~ to ....-1t.. ""<I "~l<
)'Ou:;-ult thu" 'l..oot10,,~. the "n sho\>14 l'I"lp yOll 'l;"lt. Ute ""=,,n~~t
"~'t1<ou,,"t .""" youn"... b....th"., q.t elo..." to t.he ......11'\
He....•• h:-t v,. e .... b .. tak"" "l''''''' t9 .1Y.>If ,,111.,," <:.....""~...n_...""
..M.,h 9"",,1:10"" ltl'l.. • "",",,10 ...... tho rlght.-..ee..... J ... " ...."1"" ot EAT "'"
p.q. 6J and lin """<!-IItb..." () "OWId .0000e "=":><1,, ..Meb 0..:. t..'i'I'-='. to
""ho. """""'''~.l )":I" ...." IS•• ".renthou. tOO, ..lIsn...,er yQ1.l tl':l11k th.y "4l<..
tltt"gs e1enuh
'"...."u: ,,:>Ot "",,1'1 I':~c<l""'. ,Ud ..lth lU top"t "u.n·;. tt rl"~I'" ••nt ..
~..l!.:!. ~."-: =..~e.~. te .tt. )'O""~.. : 1'.",,1'10: 0:.•t.:o:, <t.n<! n,," pc""•..lur"
l'I,d .. ~.=.!.::;: t<:1 .. t~t "h"""OIl tu lnput ".'4e~.. t ""pUn th.:.
!"..».!. ..... boo .. 1>"""h"" co••lote: tMt ..C'"~1" a.y. ~J l:.,.• ""th1n~ to <10 ..
th"u". 110 8011•• "dUIl~ "p "")">o~" dsd ~. 1'hl• .I<1:1! .,t '':.In'i. by
d ..s)-. oto;-~lr... ~r,,·,d .. '1".1. 1_ "dIed ~H""_U=·~ 1'1 l""lt "$'
~lUU:.~ "" ~1te:"tlo..~ l .. y ..."" dl"t~on""Y" .. ...,. U;::: ••
n> $!L:n:·!Sr;l:;'~ ,1>\;'.·$0011.10 ? :,,~"Z~O';1
20 IT ;1 :1 ..;·.:SO:)(.~::>I £l'~-_!~ 1:::":Dts';;!~"CT
£:oS!! S!!,",:ll:.s:Ruc-r 01....<;<;;;:.;:::;; tIlOlo~e«f1 i
Yeo; """ ....n. , .."",od".......hl"l': ,.t",-" t'''''',,<1 ,"""1. l>y COtUtt1:l9
..lUI "\I::::~u. :".t.,,':' c:, ..~l>blt.'~ en "":Il .. &<l4 .ont"n".... 'i:ry till"
em., b>l.t ""-=''':' lt e&:.t<:11y, 110 1:1.1:... to dUlIp?,,,,u,"
Yo" .,= 91.... =ar.<l.. 11k,.. S~D£S1:iWC1' 10 • but " pr0i' ....«l. to <1cs
.=.000:. t:/?l...", 'i"" DIi'?Pl~c& C'<:<:::I..Dd :1.8 ~o·. w.... ot .,d,.u"",Un".
1t _..bu~eU tt••""c.-,4 Uli'"t ,.cl..." t:<:o:::l 1ta Unt """ L-.4 :u~ n" t"",.e..u1<t. So .SC'~.sOCSI ';":" ••••••••••••• (=..lh., 0: 1 ....'19.,1) "1'110""',,
" ".", S~Ill!S:<I= lorot.':,... 'leta "u.,t"". l\~~o., tho y"'""9""t SE.l.PD~n\tlCT
"~ot~.~ U ObC)·"". t.o....... uye: "":'!lEU IS '"0 J'1l=Uits. I II"S AT loI!lI!: 20
or S=l!S:riICCT"~ lil>'fl
Writ.. 1I ":eJl",.. t,, -e...U<>:I ~O".E:.P ....lell. "" -i'llUt;" U ~ .... lnp~t
h II v~l tA, E, X. :> 0. U) 1I<;(l 'FItloS-S-" oth la.. IM... t, ..... .I'lL<..EilO>I.
V"'t. a "=0:<111.... ""U"d 1I~1\Jl~R.i' ..bleh tal<,.. t_ 1n""......11:""..-a ·l..~t..r and II "o.d..... It ....:.<1 .r.d a ..."Un"". It sno"l<: :"tue" ·1'''.J''~
H t!:a lette.. (Oil' word) 1>1 In th......r<! (or ...n~e"e...) •
•1'lould .,.t.... n ·r-'>1.S~-. 1':';M.lo""P h " ..ppooe<t to be .. n P ...... l.,U.. "nle"
"y. "h"th Or not :I.~.. u ... ~ In;>ut. :I." a ~~ ot th oup of pl"e..,.
O.tt."<"S Oil' "r';::::) tMt ",,1<,. u;> 1t.....<:o"d 1';l'"t. I!tad";"P ..111 bt; 110:,..
'!:~:r. It·Jt. "1..?1 "nd tll. two ""y .. to <So :l.t. J".. t o. t." to·r
v,'l'. Ex""ph.. ,_, 1lF.;'!8!';ilP I ~S::A.~E tns·fAI"S<;
'i~tI~£~~i' -1'.1.,- ~I "EVF~·IlE1' A ......ll I Olll,,'r t.l--<.!;"
Y"" .,111 11"9'4 th.. n""t. tJuo.... l':o,,""d";u (or ..""'. ot tI'.o P1'oJ~u
:lis t.h. n."",. (an!! !1n"U) p ...,t. 110 .n.... yo"'",, qot. 10....... _""lng. :r'" .. l"r.t
"Nit to .no Ul"". ... Iht oC =at ot looqo'" """"""nd.. 1 ....10 u.. e .... ..t
Ul1~ .,..rt..
E~Mnext~~.......,'\
~)v....-£Ai' .r..'il' (SP .10";<0:)
l&ll? ,ioTa. (8...1IilD,)1
Ii! tP .lIiW,
':!!En 1'.E';"\I~_'1 ~"
£~S::!l" tS '~:R, (I" .lI!!O')",,!:;,. 1'.l!~~_'5
£;.~ ;r.l!';;?~ Ii (t" Il'it>l')
Vrlt.. 1I pr=e<1ur• .,..Ua4 n:lO "h1ell. """',, tW':> I'Ip"t.. .".. tlU:.
.~.oul<l b9 " n"..b", .. ,,"leb. UI~s FI;ID ..hleh pl.,,,,.. of t"" "..cond :I."~;o" ~o
ret"r". Th ""'nll In!'',t. e"" b" " .""~"""o or ..." • .1 ••0 FI';~ "IH
ret.. rn .tth" ,,?=d Or • htt.... FIllO ..Ul .150 t>e lt~. ~; b"t .Up1...
"".<1 tt ..111 boo count1-.; It.II "."p• ...""... =d" 11;11 ':1""1 ." Sa..-~"~i'~;::: <11<1.
h~::::(>103:
_1'1'1"'0- 6 ·-ro·ill; OI';.ot .~ ",-.
"It you p..<>t .... yo" ro';! ....,t.. I'ENtl 1.,.t.....oI. It .t.rt.. 010 t._ U<jnt .,,,,
ot t.1I......""nd tnpot..
." '"~h. foll0"'1"] U .. lu~ ,'C /',,")0'. bade ....,.,.".,nJ...hleb tU. In;ouU
~ ut"m "~l,,,u If"""'~I"~.1 UC"t'L tlwo p~""'I".tu (toe H..",•••• r·'~""
ret"...n•••el\unce 0' the ..ct .....l Un. In• p"oc-.l"t .. """,• .t ~ le. nUt. I",a: "a"th" 11... n,,"~bec oj!ypn ~ Ito ",,~..nJ. in;at(Un" 0 .IS tn. uthl.
c:,....d~,' Abbc_. l"?"U lieU.",
A~~ r,,~ucM ..hM. .. WI'N .. .~ typ~"Ut'H
" a". <lone "l~·"n .,. In?~5 ..""1>0,,, 0<'''''on-ls. otllu,",ue u~...n.
",=rl~~f .- , .. t,,,,,. •,11 ", "0 fte"t ch_,•.,c~~c .,'" l nr"'t ~'Oc-l. " d' ,., ". £1••; .."r~0< M.I"p"; ~..,\unc••
9;lT,,"S-:' " .f"t',:rl~ .u '" ,~ ~ut c:', •.,cur ., '"Input ""ttl, " .,1 I>~t ... lut "0:"\ of
'" lnpo: 00":""<:...
~L'l':r, rot ........ til. """'ber •• cJune:••• " '"In,.,,: "or". .. tn• ".....,:' ... 0< "ords In "n
Input ..."te""••l:IFfU,::;Q l)lFP t"btr.."u '" u,,"n.:!. In., .. : In'''' '" U"s:
"..,..\ ret",,,. :11,,-= "01<:<>.
Cl'l:S:C:<: on returns tho '".01". " ". Unt In?\ll:'Hvl<l<O<l " ". ••" .."J. as .s~nU.nc. ..botl> ;h. quotlen .., tn<t ",,,"un<lor•
"1I:sr .1',,:0.1'''' ". Uu: c~-,:.."te: 0< 1,,;rut."".4, 0< '" fun ".,=<1 0< .~..nu.~.,.,.
US': ....e"..,c ... IHe "l>;::.:~"tcr o • tn:;>"t"",cot. .. ... ho... ""cl ., .menun"" •
II.U::II(;."! ,= r"turns ... h".,u •• '" ... 1""uts.
1I):!.:1I:;!'1 m' r"turns ," ,."aHs" .. '" ... tn;>,,;s.
,~O~;;::" P~Otl ""tu:ns ... pco.1~"t " ". tnput n"",bs""4
C':cr.l;:~": ." dtvtc:"" '" flu," In"" • ., ,.. ,,""""<l. ,,'r"t=ns only the '1:~"'U""t.
1lEl'!"'-t!i::ls.~ .~ dlvldu '" Urat tn~at " ". ..-.~
r"turns only the ".........""'-.".nK~<:'~CE retur"s • c""t,,n"" of '" ... tnput "0"<1,,.
SZ!ilS!iCSS " , t.alc"" .., ntL-::ller " te.puts ., .. the ..... ... ,,="~d .1t·s " ... pat. th=t<>il"th.." .. 0"" .""t",,;,,.
n, ret".". '" ." ",,, tnput n=b...,a.
tIU~O
I/t'IIl::lS
••• ,
UtUrn. tn. vat"" ~u~"'''t'''' "ah ~""
In~ut """'" It?" ~M. U • i" .X, I.r.t"rn~ a _cd fo.",~,j ~)' J"l''''.• It.. t .."in?"t "O~<I"
,ol~. e"y " .....b.or of 1"~~t ""'<d. up to U....nd. of tll. "=~M It'. In .~ c.turn" tn_.....,,1U,,'.J ,,"~<l .
'"SutdU pr1nUng oassag"" on.FlOrt of th<s lInla,,·. a"ze"n (tr.1a ts
C411e<t tl'te ·tYP 1te...- p.... t). you 'O"n co,u,,,,,,,<l tM to~t1. to 0<0"'_ a.oun~
t.ho sen.n ""d d" pt<:tu:"s. 'tM tuctl" ""n PoiIE 1U nO"" OUt or "lo""o(~
It (.",11 It in). Ia thts It"'.... ual t"cth?
c-~~~lU,- Ii' 'I' -IL..;I _
~~~.--;=-- JE:::~____
'"
Y"u. L."h,,·s ."r....~ "",.e ."y GilAl'llICS
tn It.. law•• l"tt corn"..
c~ .. ~.,. "h<tn ~he p.,n in <lO'M? ••••••• •••••••••••••• •••••• i'...:n~,; 'ha,.'
PE/l1Jp {Ptr}
llN?OIU:'::1? •••••••••• ,. fry ueh of the co.,...""" u..x.".::. ~""<' ...~........~
Th tucth"'" tM .erun hU ·1t._ P"",tn ""'LUon. :l:C:f
both. HN:>? .':1"1 PW~Q".~' .......c,,1 t\Jn"n. ""at "";>1'''''. '"'" t"" tu«h'"
Any 1;1.... IOU. type S:;::E. th.. t.urtle ,,111 appear. U you tYF ~<;
"lI..n you tlrat ":~ct I,o..o. th.. turtle "111 a;>pe .... at tM ",nUt 0: t ..
."re"n. taci<>J to the rl'1ht (J 0·c1=I<). 'tou ""I' h ....." ~ "Ut • to ..
".co..<I. t<>. th.. turU. to ",,;0... up. 13 th. tuzth· .. "",,1 ~t...(£-.I or
e:.....a t~." t.yp"",rtoer printi"" on tlw L~l"c oc .."./\.r..'" "U h""o ...'d "utOr"" tu:;.l" to _""s~_,,"" tl\e turtlebld"s tl1" tunier"..:lie.< t" .. tunle foc <"'....tn9 vlSlbh Unu
:~::~~~-~~""~~~;~"~h"r~~el."" pe" 1_ <.lOWn=~~e~ t"c~le sll<l" 1\.1" "e<loto,,?Onte ,,~ 1'0""puts ':ur.l .. a. ;-""." .. position (s".. ;;gEN",'l"~tl "ltl> p.":!ownoov". t".. l~ f" ...".<1 i"l'ut """,boac ot s"uan "'~lts"",,,es t".:le <;.,,,,",,,,, ..<1t,,.ns tut:te t<l 1U 1e~t tn;>ut ,,"".<;"c of <looo,1c"eSt'J:"n" t".:lo "';'\lh:"nS~S 1<:. Une 0:" s.,,,?s",,,,t '>c,,'":;~~:.: %;~;:~~c~~~;ef~ °i,"i~~=S c~~e~~a~:a<1s'~ru u","lO" On 1'1Clrol;e... lin?". h tWI of plo....cl""tS 1'1" tr.."1~.;:"""" ~~ :.z (u".~.s/i"ch) ""<I X ""d "t ."".... p.".itlonoets .",,1.. (u~lt:/1n<:hl ,,'11'p<>lnt t""rde t1.,~". 1n d"'Jre-es celat1"" to 3 0'''10'''')I:"_OV. t" ...:l" l'n~u.s ere A ,,",1"t C,. ....,:e-alC'!W" 1n X <It'''''::<10.' "n1t""V~ In "t d'cect'oc. ",.Itp"t tu:"tt~ a" " s."",: (tn;>ut" """ X anO Y. p"'Huon).." .... t ..<:1« to X S?<>t >:" .. ;>1"9 01<1 "{"'"".. tu<th to Y. s;:"" ~~e-?ln.J ",1<l Ace:U'M " : .."t""ce ot 14 .nd Y p"'51t10n" an'" ""Jl"s",,,t <lr"'''''~ a :n"""'lOlt (1npat 1: sM.. 0)M:l " $.,~~~,.<>t
=~:"~ .."~~~;~(~~!~~~ ..~~. ~.~,,;":} 0/..,,~:~ all o"o?~
c~.u~~~ .. '~,.«r.<:" "f dlt ~n~:> 1"".. ...... usu<.l so. t"c""~~ .. ".,~" ~·",_"l., ,'-o~~"t ~'U « ..~t .c.~~t"."
~~,,'~nc~ .... : ".~i' a,." "oJ"Ct n,,'~.'•. •~C<ln·J H" """t ...."<oof )( ,,~.-J '{ ~..,H~'~~l ~~" 'Hu.~ ~"o~nc~. "f "oJ~ct n,,-"b'or"~,OV~ ~~ co;~Ct (t~·., ~~"t.,~r.~", o~;'''~ c.~"~·,c_...U:.."C~"MI' ..~·lt~'1 Oc.l ~~t'>ro • "~~tc'.<:" ,_, n~", l'04HV>~~.",. ..<".~.,..,.>~., ....,·",1, (:'~o ."",,,c.c~.: .Utilt ,,'.... AU,,"t.YtO" an. ·roott"'''')
n:':lC"'i'l~~;~?
n,,?i';;"~:::
::,;;>::(!.:;;~z
f.";O;Y.r.-. :!.::~ ty". th~ ...."~E SC~~';H hy, b~c~~_'. t"" .. til to ... y<suc
t,,~th a,,1 t,~·,.. t ........ e ..~.t Y"a ~..w~ bnll 1o.J out .n<l ~"·l I" .'Jun.
"~,,,,r
~AC:(
~!i'r
1'.~r,~:
~~?
:.~ ..~v2~!SS
.~,,:
;;';"~Y<"~!;'~i<:-Lt 3~f:s;;"'~e 1H:f.!'....~1,;3 1H~:~y 2;_~~:x I;.:;::~.{ I/c, ••n ;l.t!-"_:X I~;~'Y IF.=c.z~,..,..::...~~~A?~,- ..,,,;,,,v .~,.\~~'~".~";?~._;~..~:'H~;~"~~:;
.-,':,:,.;!'
)t.t
..n~,,"'~ J.,u•• to t"cn ••""n.1 1U ".nou. {H. penl.
Do yO" """'" "",,,t ........)h an" .. d •.J .......1
.,.,p<>.1.... '''.•y. y",,,·v.. ~,,:n.,.J "bo".. 1,,:1". JI..u ......~
an..1..... lis "111 el...y...u .. tn. ,U • ...,.,,,,n to tn~ n.,r...
(J o'"lock) to be- 0°1
tA "1",,,,1<' .....eon\l·" .....1 turn.. )';0" (Orw"na .1 .. )' / .v..q..In,,u. In 1/4 .. In,,t .. it ""."" ~()" .."" 1.. lId nut. 1..
n~t _,~o
'll.1lir 1;).l 100)
8"<:.':1< -A.<<:.':"
r;;~1":itI>I C1 50 .......;) S.1
'K~"r
Tl..,'" ?~Ui' .n.1 ..1>..... ~I<. 'th ,.ttl.. ...,~.. "110." UOdl ....<I 6",0{.
':':.'l''' i'p.~z"':i .....d "",,1<. '0.1'1. "ur~l. =-r "'. lOOU. to.... ,I;>o;)VO,' 11r.... ar. 'i'
....·:>It enJ $ ...::r- U~e """c l"I"'~, "1I1,,h 1... ",."~..r a<hi "MCh ..eU\lre ....
~1 .....''''' 11." \:-"lts 0" UP "N..,.) til.... th" t".U.. "111~" (1"~ ""1 U
,.~.,.~ .. Ol':>e 1,,"11). try ..1\ ""tie """"".".1..
Y1&11>1•• W .. ~.=. i'f-~'U l1nu .
li<N' ..•..~c ZAP. \:ll.." }'O" ..y".. %Ai' .. t ..... J ..... ln9 .. v>.uoh I1n .
1.0." V11l au." 10.. it ~'O" ..W" Z.....00.'" <1,""1"\1 '"" >.nvl.1b1. 11n .
.....~.. "Ul .:"... All lr:11Ui...,h Und 'ba<:1< ~ tM 1"".. VlSlb... Un.. :.'Ii'
is 11:<. :.\i', bu.. H tuu on.. ini"lt "101"" tdl. It.hoI; cany U".... to ••" ...
(1\k.. Zl? S). T.y ZI;> ..,.J 1...... on .0,,,ethl"'J }·o,,· d....". ""ti"....ndt
Y'>u "",,,14 .......... p:OCe.;l"'...hdt u .... 1-A1 an<l ~ ""..t <III' ""... ~.
<:OU.".U."9 .1~n. so zu do~$~'t I-.av .. ~o bo One of 1."\10'" bdalc.Can<Illn<l".
It t'lk "'''lcn.,,, for tl\o! tUft to t"en ,,""phtdy ",c"''''~ "'" "h ..10. h."." In th" "u.. <ll"""uon.
'0 @'..{}J-\ 0
'-'Lr.r:r gO o. $1.1(';111" 4S or CU, ~~~ o.RIGHT -!lO Lti'r -.;S jlIG<if 1&,1
C=t.ol_X <!.c~~ to " " ..",,*"Ce "1".0. ••••••••• do......0 a Pl"~"'''' And
.......... do... to a ......1 ..!lao. ZAP <10•• to ~!l.. last Un.. .l:_n. RIGIH' i!EQ<lES1'
T!>e 0.".0.18 .,an be ........&01 as v<>lt .... 1II0~..J ln ....al,..ht Un.... _
·Th.. cc""",,,,l. LUi' .....<1 itIG>lr eoc" tal<. on. In .... t ""1"" 1. th.. n"",be. of
.."pure On til" .":..,,n. ly;>e l!o.~ ~o ....k. the no.rcl. So ho<>4l. WII'£
".53 puu ~h.. t"...I. """'''. but .....u. you. pl"tu....
. TQ RZC7...xL& ,Lt~G':it; ,'.11)1",11
(you lUI ~h1 .. In!}
J~ll
If yOU'y" ....10.....1' a procell ...... "hl",h d:...... a ,,1"'''''''' you v';'n~ t.O
••V". you can un th" plothr ..0 p" .. 1t on pap.... " ..~...v,,, no Oft .........
b ........ th.. "lott"., then 'iet 1t .ud.y by ch"el<1J\~ eha.. its pO,,·\lOR·e.;o
oU tho 1""... 1~~ "I'd ".,.,,,. rlght corn.... of tto... pap..... .. "y". Pi.Oi:
lORd tho t.l ..typ., n"",x. of ..h .. plott (us Uy )24). 1'011 e n"" ..u •
1.0;;'0 oboy My p.""ed.... t"at ",.." plct ,:<,01 :Lt ..111 ,,=.. ""~ on V ...
plott... In .. te.:o''' of th.. I3Ihc ."rcon. W!" n yo,,- ..o done" typ .. · ijSi'LOJ." ""
tM" ."",.on.. "h. "sn "ae U ... "Iot..o ...
;:o-.YOll ..1>ou14 lo...bl. to "tite .. ;>:oce<l".... ""lC" .l:""a " "'iu"" ';1 any
su.. I ..._ld call on ;;&CO'-'::;:;L& fo.. h ..lp.
.... tt.. "" lU:.. tlv.. p~oco<lu... "hleh " ...". any n=bo:. of 111'......Hh
tn.. ,,""'......'ih b""wun u"l'I PUf of 11".... I" "no,,14 <41<.. thru lnput&,
( ..."" ..... 18 u" to yo"t)
~,
-, ,,- ''''"no'''.nYo,. ea 1<.. plctUC... "tu.c" ""''''' "'0,,1'01 o ...,,;>..... ~<1 i1 .....p""..e en.
the 1-0110....cra by ....1"9 th.. ~n ..p..hOt """""an<1.' $11"1'••EM)~,;t:i'•.$.;;g,;~:.!..i"•
EMSES:'"... "'Ii'tS~~I'S. III!"T$.IIA1'S. purs:.,.....- K"YE~II"'I' ..n<1 "d"'l'. ll ..~o....
pi"ture "an be ""'Ie<! at""nd. it 1II".t 1>e"""' " ..p.ho... 1M"'" vM.. l>....~
dou_ S~"'i' t.l<o. on" lnput n"",be...:><1 le you ....:t <l..."ni ...1"""'''which "111 h..~" thO\t n"",b.... It<f n ..~... \lMn fO"· ... do". <Iu,,,c-i1 0._
plct".... g""" d,.. E!'llSll """,,,,,,n<l. Yo" ".Y "0" 10." $ll........ ''In to dra"
",ore ..n.p.hotl ..It" 'IlU nt !!lP.Jl!t£.! (or " ..",u•. T"••n"p,~.ctl .ra
.~ored l.ul<1 .. thlt I"he emo.y••0 you ...y ."'.. o"t o~ .p."" U you
try to ~:&" 0."" .. ,r.!' .n..".ho..... to .... t .101 of ...n~p~C'O ..
·ElIASES~"... vhl"" uku u j.t~ Inp.. t ..~e- n...~b~. D( "h...n..p'''''' " .....~,
Ie you ........ to l<..."" ..Illc" an".. n...~beu you'"" ,ulld.. "'1" P \MA ::""'S •
Ii"" th yDU h.we- "om.. "n.pe-~-"t.. <leUned. yo" "'~y .""'" t~ ..
"h""",,~.. th.. o tl" Ie- l>;{ 'Jllrln'J ..he- ~HO"'~l0"" c"","~ .. n<l. Iu Inp· uU•
..hi"h ....p.""o ..0 .how 1',0 ..hI> "e"een. Ie y",,, "..ov. thu .." ...1.....~.. ~~.....
• "n.p.~.ct .q"ln. te•• pU"10". on....Ul , ....yon ..h••".u~. Yo" Cs"
'10 elAGOot ,SlOE, .SIIlES, I dr .... r~"lu poLYJ<>~.
10 $.~M!; .Sln:, 1)00 360 ,S10U. ,51DES,
W 1'Ot.\'Sll.o.PI'E!l. ,rU'-.f:>:fAP, 'LASTSll..... I .~.I'. tnol pain"'''10 II' Col' .rUSr:i~ ...... ,WlSfS''''P, r.lEot DOS!20 S~\I' ,F,~n~.~w,
30 "'.<'10." 10.1(1 ,7US,:S~,\P.
~o Eli:>,S;>,?50 p;::,.y..... APPEot SUll ,Flit"T!S"P' , .lJ<SrSll.....
W FOL'f:illO~E.~ ,1'tRS:,;~..... , ,U.STS~AP, 1 ._•• _h10 IE' (;P ,l'lgsr:i~"p, ,L/I:i-r.;~N" T~l'I< 00';'11:20 S!{""'.llAl' ,nilHs."Il,l',30 ~Il? I r .....ov" 'c."1. ""<I ."e ",Mt. "";;>...~s~O P~:.YSKO;o/n S:l" ,'l'l.SrSllAl', I .l.AsrSllAl',~O S~C'~SllAl' .7IilS-:S... AI', 1 n .. " .."b..~ OLO"P?
~et"o"" ...I"OJ i"OL'!SlIilPPER 11''''' cay ",.."t 't.o er....e all pnv1Ci:ls ""ap.D<:>U "'U.n
W!PE$lIA1'S, o'c.1l.....lO. tho Ul'",'...""",ry 0.11' (111 "I"
. :~~~~~~~~R 3 8
:EH:::::: :POl.YSSOltl!:R 3 B .ho"l<l <10 t....1O'
I ..ru,," dl oU .""F.~'"
1 "''''(>. t.rJ.a~l. to on~~..,
I ."""" .. ="1.. at t~~"f .•u ...." ...,Iy tn" .C'd~
I th.. Md;>~ dr.. otlH ..cc"....
"II"'" )'",,'11 pr"!>~blr IIgr~" thllt U"'~..r dou"'1:-
....... co un:b.n ..scl !'n<Jlh1'> " ..~.....11 (tt d"es,,'t r-~)-
u"j.u~...J ,".>n"..."'...tthorj. 1I""""",b". t~-3t·. sili • \t ..~.u~. ~.!.: d~.\<l" r"~F.t.. U /111<1 peer1.. "",,'t~ ;,,:,:., ,~':::::::~\""IN ~_'" to ",.~. '''''''i'ut..". uncl••sUnd peoplu' hn~ulI<J"" L'-,""'·-','----_.~.JJll". loot' ....... """1;. 51...... .lOH und"uuncl. Type ",.othor Un. at "or,l",
b-~t <1",,'t ...",1 n "lth the n/ns Or RE::-:JRX "0'" yet. Inotud, wpe til..
II:'!-:\.' l<oty II fN U",... )lOt1"" th" ie't s~u"r. brIlCl<H [ tl>IIt S1",per
r:"'t... ~C\< ~...l<l. d""" the C:~Rl. k/lY and. tH'. ,th" ll. ""y. '1'1\1 .. 1"
<:_1:"", -c:...ur",l·il.~. !lOU.... ,,~.•t h"I'''''''''d to thll Int ..0:4"~ ~",ur 11n••
A~';"t:l' ".sou letteu {:O"' ,,'w Un.. \"0" lire 1;.)'1'111'1 to Slnp"••nd
e""uol-II """"<os St"pe. r .. ~'i~'" "hn h art\ldly l.n toll" 11"e nO>'. 'Iou
..." .. un "l"" "'0":" l.tt"•• on the Un.. l' yo" Ul<e. ~ry 1~.
·11'",,'11 ..... U",t. ..l-...II you t.ype R<.lBOUr t.o e"as coe ..ll""",,"urll
..~.4 t.bll t.Yl"1I ."""e II..., "1I ..,, ........~". t.1I. OliO t.h..t. "",,00<1 IIppU"
}~t..~"" • p ..1" of b".."k.t... ::."t.'. st ..:>~.. • y of .1>0'011119 you ..hat.
~·ou·"•• :I\'~-.1. ":'ell" 1111.. 1""1<,, ..;.sy be u". Q: d .. t. of itU!lC'u'r".
~~ot t.~';'. """:....l-Il W 'let. • "~e"" "";>y of 1t.. ":11.. n;lllOn y ..u ..:on u'.
J:;:~O~'1' .",.\ ",,"t...o1-R ."'" ot.II.... """"",,,,,d. you'll Ie".... b t.hat. :a,,~.... h.>..,
"!':.'IO ...11 """put.."" ",u"t. hoi,.., - ..........ry.
Sh".... ,,111 ..180 ':.et. )'CI1 ~YV" veJ;"y 1<1<19 11n••, .,,,," ..ldu ~llan
t.!Is t.y;>......1"..:. All you do is t.ypa th" t.lt:HE~ l<ey ""d S1:op"" ,,111
~v. you =... "...... '100 ",""Un". yau: line. T..y It.. t.yp.... "o"d:. t.y?"
t.!':tI Ll~!Fnl) key. t.Y!'e IItI"t.n.... vo..c:I. and. t.llell ~yp.e o:cnt."ol-lI.. You "M
=k. line! U lon'l ... you "isll t.h1s ....... be!o"" typl.n\l t.b. RI:Ttr.<l' key.
TIl =1"01",, key ; t...l111 sa!",,, W 1'1"0"" "",""yt.l>l1O<1 t.n...t.
• """'... IItt. 1t. "'" t.he 11:1e you ..... t....lnq. T..... t.hl. "'" ..~ Una.
I SIIlPER. I CAAE YOG TO Jo~S·.·E.l1 IlEi
n t ",,/I lool< insill.....<:1> he"... :11"':>~,,· ......ory 1m J,,'t. 11l<. t""t.
,-,. 5'JO ph"••• ". " ..11 U•..., ~loc..tloll"·. 111 Sl..p ..... • ......,.~ .,.../1
eaeb =. een 1\01'" II "l,CIto~r ''It.h U .....ny U t.en d:t'llu 111 1~. So tar,
y"'~'"'' put. "u",~n 111'100 .. t_ 1oe"UOM (hou..... ) by U::Iply t.WJ.n'l ..
lit"...l "ha" 5\.-.p".. p"t you lit .. " .... loe..Uon.
LJ~1l~!:S5. 001 001 OOl 004
So th .. """,b .." t.o th. leU ot the "01"", 51"' ..... t.yp... 1m t.h.
.~~r... o~ the 100""-10," you e put. ...."."'ht"'l 1nto ".,.1:. Ie·. 11l<.
.u.lI<lb'i 111 ~e""t. o:! ~ll" he" vltb tMe "::lieu,,. 1'.... "a.tI op"" t.h.
/I~r ..:I<l. p"t "'t.htnq In.tll,, by t}'Pin", .. Ut.", ....t a::od t.1I" 1ll:'IV1Ul kt.y.
Ploue "e1t" eh of t.h. ,,""W:. (lit.oeds) you toy!,ocl into S1...pe,,·.......ory 111 1;" ?:O?"" l"",..t.lon (hO"") "bov.. Sup....u ..ll ~"" houon on
t.1'I" "u..ot. v~,,~ "''''. ''It.b notl1:n'1 In t.h",,,,. TMt.·" ..he.e 51:>:> ..e·. "' ...,,"Y
i. ltl<. "h"" you Unt 1<:0] gn. ttl<:h ",.",ory loc ..Uon cont.101. tloa
..~b<er G. il~<I:IIh.e...nyU",.. you '11'''"1: t.o .". "h"e. in S1:o? •• "amory.
j"".. u<t' t.lle ,m.l' """"'''nil.
~ .... tht 11'01> ""n ".k. S1:>".... "r-a"bot .. t.hln'l........thl"'1 ""y"""';>Uur "",.t. b" .b1.. to <:0. you "e. "".lIy to ....1< .. It. :o"qn lIVe~y:hinq.
<;f Ty"" S':il....I'CII L"" th.. RETUR>l key.
i r .."",1;:" •••
:ala la.por .. .,..,,,,,b,,,, youe old ",,,,b."07
\T /"It ."""Idn·t. h."~l .
Y0:;.,,,,,. th& 5C~~~!I .,.,..,.... nll ~1"". Sb~n p&:""n~nt .."",,,,,1... HI t.h.
'"~o f .... )'<"1> 1••rn~ ....... hd~tul "'......104. for t.yPl"<f an4
",h.llqtn9 Un~. be~ U"'~... n.~. t.h.... TII.y An C:a.l1~ ·A41Unq
"'om. d:.~ tI~"~•• t.h~ 1 ..t. you d:o "hu -.Ilt.o... o.~ " ....p.? .... 40. t."""
"o "t lIt"rto. to.:o ... t.h...• ..... p .. lnt.'><l. fo.. t.ne pubUc u> u.:.
51"0;>001, UIC......t. """'l'I1tee....... <1.....t..... " v ....d kll14. ot "0"<1.
t.hat you "0" t.ype. yo..• e .1 ..."<1y 1""""A" to ",.. Of t.h. k111<l
"allOO<1 """"<:1811.1·" A..ot.h IUlld ot "o::d In 51,.""..•• 1 ....qullq. 110 "611...
.. ·Utere.l·. IIh"" yeu t.oll< t.o sap"" 1I1Id: you "'.nUo" • """'~II", any
.."",be.., thst. ">nar is .. Ut.t. ....l. ChI. t.b1nq ..bout. II ltt......l. Ie. not.
bld:l"q .")"IOhtn... '1......b.y. kn.... VMe: It. .....n. by J...t. 100kl..... t. it..
b :!1I9'U.1i. poopl. U•• qt.lOt k. 1") to 1IU""0Ul\4 ..otd. t.h.~
.... p.. rt. of • literal, a. I" tbts t."""..1
n.. "....k.t. """"..t"", .et. U)' .... ld t.M ...."d. be~..... t.he quot.... Til.
_:tl .. bnv t.h.·quOt. IIl<6 .. 1it.."al in t"'Jli.h. 51,"""". _.Y.",
/I....~ , ""ot... to "k UH"1I1s. B=bers .... It.,, 11.uuh.
"'"1:8 lire s=.: 2.9U.66B.9!Jl -45 +1 ....52
11."'0 JOOl< up ·1tt.."al· .In your dieuon.....y .=e Itl,,,,o.
...flow t.yp....."",IMt" t.o $1..p"" .n<! l".t. ....d 0: "'11"'1 1t. vtt.h tha
~llIl key. t.ypo t.h" E:l1'1!:R key. !IOU".. th.t. Sl....... tYO'eII t.h.o 1I...~.r
ba"k lit. ytlU. Th1a i ••0 you .,en ••• 1=....1I1..t..l1' ..h .. t. 51==.... thou.h:'
you Wed. "St.~.. h,,"'ll1q t.o u'" O:l.~P. Thtt E.'ltEIt k.y h h.1p:ul lit. tho
anoi ot .b.... t. .....y "",,","an$ ya.. t.ype to Sl",p...,. Voro·t. h ..Ut..t.. t.o ..... 1:'.
~""0lJ!j? ...u i~a .". "'"....u •• it :?'t, .:'?
werle.. 111;.... d""p-t."UO: pt.yJng U ••lt ~~out.. It. ab..... yo.. en. t.h.. "1rIfben 0::0 :~/lD ~Q:bSl"'P.... hu 111 It.. _""''Y' -=-' S<'1
So tar you·v.. use<!. st",p.o,,"....._ry loc..Uon. t.o hold (eto...)
.. W ... t.hot. ~..... t.l'i'~' TM <4 "'or .. phe•• t.h,,~ S\"lI." hu in In
• ""'''Y to .t.or. " .....beu. Theu e ..Uad ·"'<tql.ta...~. ·lIhet.·' ..
..eo;lOt..n·. 11'.....~. "r"1l11t..".;h" .p.et..l pt ..". 1.n .. ..,.ory th"t II
C<1<'l'Ut"r uo.. to.. e"I""let.1c:o". I'ugtn. t.h,,~ at. t.he .... '" 0: Our In
.t..r... t ..1t.!> 503 bolla.. On 1~ ~h " 1. en "11"11' ..lth 4 _ ... he" .
Th.s.4 hou... aho h07a .._h to.. •~....... 10, 1".:, l). B"t.. to
.vetll con!'J01"1 n ......lUI t.he bou..... on t.he ~1...tr..t.. w. "Ul ,,.. ~,....
tatt ..... " ,11., :. 4.-~ C "h"'" " .. t.oll< Ilbol1~ ~h"lr ..lid".........
•IlII'JlEll·. MtKOlIY
• LJ' ,••LJ' ,,
LCl(:A'UoU:! LJ L' ' LJ',
LJ ,A~JJll':SSf:S 00'
) L] e ,'n ~, ,
S1:"l,,~ 1aU Y""O t.yp. 4.l.r""~ly into lte "Un .........y we t."",:••
vh.... It. ..U1 '!l1"'. i ....t.t.."t.!.... t.o t.h. prO'J".". t.hat. yau ,,111 e1t... er.<I
t.h01e 51""':/ ...... ,""t. b" .. t."....., t.h.:. by :J2J. 51,.,,,4<'·. r~l'''.e. 0..::. Uk.
.. ."".. t.ell p~<'l to" ~O".. 1'''<>7U''. t.o u ... to.. ".. lc:uht.ton.. whu ~.... t ..... ~h .....
...01<, yo,,'_ ,,,,,t .." .... Pre<J ....... I"t.o til.. S1 ..p~t " ....pu""... _.... CI,; ycu Un<1
o"t. t.h.." al..;>",.. "." u"<'l.~.t",,i! til." In.tr"etl"" ;"000001 U.Y. '".t. Ull
"•GO bod< to t."•. 1 ..." P$... a"", t.ry "'1.'''. 0t a.1< f"t· h.lp.tGca...tl
lI"t•• "h.. t 1'0" 'U&>·t··"".... 1. th.t.~ Slmpe... lnatr""U"" han 3 pQ"t.s.
."" uch Ii..'t :1' ""lled .. ·thld·. !;acll field In an llIQt.nv::tion .......",
."",..ehl"" ••"':1,,1 to th.. 51.." ..: eotaput .....
11_ l ...t·.· ..dt..... p ..O] ........ t.h.. t ....Ma SI r do ."", Mn.), ull
whot. U it 1Ir, to" 8x.""I... PI:"t you ...... t 1 ".""" 51 ••
IMt."'CU u. po.1" ""'l".h".... T"" al ..... ",y 1<" tMt vhe.n Ii\. c 1.1:0101 to o~ 1IO<J~00 1t .top. (h..l".) ~..",.. t"~t·. "hat 11000~1) ....".
t~ ~ tbe~o,.. thl•• 1100000 p ..oblO1>ly dld,,'t ......J\ ,.",,1I to(> yo,,}.
"ot • t""'-"'.I on., b-:lt II: u'e. t.1I. ""CY hr<'rt'nt. tn..."cu.... "h!Oh t...n.t.he S~P"'" e:np"h" .0 ""tOp "unnln,,· 0" "h,1t-. 1I..t.'. ,,1Ia" 710000(1
'"""'. to h. I ..•• al ~. a iDOcl 1<1•• t.o I<n<>< bow .,.. at"p· • ..,.thll;<J
b ..:o Un9 1." r onl>t hat. ",pp.n&o! t.o tn. .<tr<:Il P..~..tl l
~Ir.\.t lS a f'~""'U"7·. ~_ sill. 11 i'~"'.ln", h .. lUt of
I'..t~"ctloo. U'st .,,,..• ~..·'"n O~ ...~Iun. csn u .•~ .n'" ""l>"Y.
Yo"·,,. at ....dy b<>." ?to<i..a:::... ln'i ~ '''IR<) th.. f>11tln~. PUlt!' en.1
S::;lO\'t'C!l .""'....nJ.. B"t, a .pOOC'lal i'a~t O~ SI"'pac ..l>c!p s,,<:h c",,,,,,.".1.
1:"".~.;1t~uly "Uho"t ..aftl"'] : ..c ~·o" to II>1U a Hat 0: tho<l. \oIl1!It you
"", ..t Inrn r.""" arO ......,hl ....c.1•• c"Ua4 ·1.'.. t ....<:tlo".·. vMclt 51",1'."
vitI l,,~ Y""~ pu.. In .. Iht :or It "0 ob.y lu...~. Wnan vo =1<0 a U.t
0: tllln<J. fcc snoth.~ p.er..". to <!". ve "."aUy vrlt.. n On paper. for
51"';>5:. 11.... 0: lnn:"""lo,,. (p.r"'ir"",al ""st ba vrltUn 1nl;O lU ""''''"tylcc"t1""a 1I,,,,,,,a. t.lI.t·. vh..~.. It can <]IYe 1t_ etuntlon to th"". !o"
ah.".4,· 1«>.... tllU 51..p,,~·...,,"'"..,. b h •• ano"<Jh l...,atl..". to hold SOC
"·...l>an. You <:.1ao ):.nO" ~.cv to p"t "",..b.u Into locatio". by t.ypl.:>..
In.....d. "t.o 51:::1''':' /l"d }..... I<n;>V ""'" to Ua Dr ..u ... "Mt. yo,,'Ya .t.orad
I .. 51",pe:'" " .....ory ..ith DC'll' Or SClU.TCII.
to.... Y",,'ll no ti':."-t tl'l.. 51"....", c¢>.."e...... UI<........ t "OOlput..U.
"":t at.an". an': o1>eys~~~ ,,,. b.t."""'''1''''S. Uu 5ca",r<:H = "~J
el ", SL....a:· ~ry. ""'" tl'i''' 710000() ao:! t.h.. Il.trJll..~ kay and tha"
"S.. DlJ~J> t.o if 71000ca Is .toroJ In 51,.""...•• ",.,llIory lo"a"l= t.
Is It...1""..3 1I0 -- -' _
'" '"
(4 .0n.1l.""""lU. ? .W~"<l«t."",lul. but. a""" O........ tlo"' 15 ,,.,,.Uy do"..
on " dlt:a"e<"Ot p ,,15 "" " ..n·t. ..Ix up t.he p&op1" In ..ny old .."y.
51=.." ... <l""""',, ac.." pee;>l ... o:'Jly on " ...ba~a 1n r~lst..n 0 ... """'Dry
loe.Uens, An" 1•• opa".:1o"a s ..~·t. ."''ll''d. t.tlcy·u ",a"h..."U"al.
ll". ·~<l1·•• aub:..,,,,,t.·••~...c..-. ·"o"a"..- .. M<l ·v"U,,·.
t.o loe",uon .........~~ put '1'<''' b""l< .. t. loeetio" ...... so you could typ..
·lIi!lt:'" ea4 It.'; o;>&.....,lon CO<l.. I .. " •. ' It t1,,~... Z'e<JIt""", tl..1<I, ... CI" ..
u (T%Il11). b,,~ i""t.....: Of p..,t;t.1,,'i Val"4 Into th.. ngh...Z', It. ""pi .
It. onto Y""" tl'i'ewtlt..~ .0 y"" can It. That'. "Ily it'. "411..., W;oUZ.
A<U It to you: P~O"J""" thlt ""1'0 {al f1ut be ."ta 'l'<'U hay.. thl.. p: :Q:>
"t.o"ad In SI..~..:·" ..nory (,,~.. DUlt" to " .... 0: SCll"= to .tUt _ >0
ODl ·oM'OOOO002 17100000
iii.... YO" _ho\lU b.. ·"bl.. t.o run you;' P"......."'" ....<1 'l..t tha tllae
p:l"ted on yo~ t.r.>"".. lt"c I .....cll.uly (t.yp .. Rrel an.d tli. l!.t'1'l1ll1O).
Do". tbs ttl"'" .."t 1>ln..... ~o" .."ell .."" of you: p..<><]r"'"
U5 110 ----7- t.::y Q'la1n 0'" ..Ie tor h..lp ~
YGOO<!. To"'",, J... t .... Itt.,," .. pr...,r U",t p."a" 1nto.,.aUon (Yal"..)
b .. t.v..." t .... 1~.t""et1en.. 'rh. """' lcal Y..l". p"t. Into r811n... 11 Vi
tha TlKZ 1"• .,..u<:Uon It...ya t~.."••0 .t.h.. ""'HE 1".."r"ct10n c .... nnd It. 0"
t.o y"", ":'11.....01". til tha A .......ltt".. 1:f e.o1l~ an -o"..p"t· f ..... tn. u",e
In,.t.r"cUon ..han '!"I"P. 1"....... It thU.. Til.... ""'0 Yal". U c.llad an
-in!".t· ..hon SI,"p"" I. oll"l'ln<) 'til... IIIUTE InstrueUon. b".,e".. t.hl.
I""trucu"" a,... ..<>to to ,,",<l. copy .. " ..."'boo...lra011.!!l tha " la,..I.""t.Til.. 0\ ""'J1nt.e~ 10 J,,"~ ..," .....nHn" ph". to~ On" l".U"ct!on to lu......
.....u,.... for ..n.,th"r InotcucUon to ..." late:.
1zr. til. l"at. "U,?" .
(b) t'IP;' 5UPK 211 ~nd .h.. RntJR.."I. tcl typ" S:UOOOO ...cl t.,,", l!.2l'lllllO./lDDRes5
I'ZEl.Il
"'h.t<. SI",.-,,: obey. an In" ..c"cUon. It
1001<,. at. tho ·opuat.1=- fl..lel to ......
..~.. :. It. h ~1"'J """'"" t,,, elo. th..".
1~ It "a~.. to, It 1""". a" t)•• ·"''''Ito''''r
..Ad ·"<l<l:u~· ~1..1el. t.o • .,.. "p"" "ll.....". It
h b<>ln'l ...1<", to p.rto..,. 1:.11.. c~utlo".
Tilto Ie 111<.. "J-...t " ,"",S""" do.... he
h...."au1. "]a:"1:.10". t.o <l0 ..seh cl"y
11".... "'..., ..,....,pl". 7100000. 10 "ot " • ..,. l,...tn••U",... II....." ......000
U 5';"t:pac ••n til." " 1" .~... opa"• .,I"", fielcl. 1" !<no".. It h ."I'po..d to
tldt. (at"pl a"<l. It. <lOasR·t. n".4 t.., 0:0 ."y.,M"....1th th.e "O<J1dU" ""cl
sclll"..u u ..;;.:... Th"'i ••e .11 "a:-o,. Ilut t.ll")' co,,14 b....ythln'l tlsto
$1"". 51"',~: l'i"0~". t.~-=. T..y t .. tool 51;;p,,:. Cr..,nq.. t.h" In.t.""cuon
I" loc.tion 1 t .. be 7Hl4S6 t.M. v~:tl 1.1 type torr t and tile R£1VR:i, "]"
(b) tr.>" 'llJ4S6 ""4 t.~~ RI:T\;?Jl. Ic} t'IPs Rl."ll ...,<l. t"" RI:TURtc t.o .."I<..
.la-,~.. 0"""./ t"1. n .... ln~t""et.1O<l.
Old ::a".. a .. $'Y ·Il},:-.:r" b"t. !'2!; "I:~RC~ 11.0.1.'1'·'
"'I:S NO -7 v•• DU"? t.o "".Cl< "hilt 1. In lcc.Uo", I.
1Ci<>o<ll !OU.,M t.ry Othu """,b..n It you ..hh. NoUe. "Mt • n"",be!:'
U·.. t ~.." 71 :"'U.....",) b-/.!!~ By.. 011!"" you choou 1<0 ,,1>"1'." by lalllp,,~
.~ t.h. inat.""Uon t.o hdt l.""pl. So 71, ..h.... It. ta in t."" c;>",~"uon
tid" Of .n In..t,,euon. ta cdhd th.. ·1I},L'1'· o;>.~~t1o".
".
5:)~ your P~"'i!'''''' .hould 1cclc. 111<(1 thh (""•. IlO'>u>h
OM 16610000002 12~100e6'
003 16210000004 17100000
r""ht•• ~ o.l4..... U ..14~ .co- In """"'y. VJ>MI lil"'I'"' "~y• .. ClllIlO!:
JIIsU"O:'lon, It ""l'''''''' thoi n<jh..... U.14 ..o ....11 U, ~,. "Meh • ...,10.....
th.. ""..,..... to. vlU b.. :o\O\d• .and 1t "><1''''''' ."".ftlloluu U,,11i to .,,11 It
1n ..h1"h "'......:y lc<'oU"" .l\.. de""""l",,'"'' "111 b. fo""d~ "'''d. wile> 1t hu
n"lOhod dl"l~tn'J. 1t 1envu tho .0001.. (quoUu~1 1rI tb"~ ....)1....... in
..M"h It :"""cl t"" ""..,~u.o.,
Ol<, I'll. th.. 41vld. tn.~~ueUon tnto your '1",,,, pr<>;r&:ll I:M. wI"
v.... SLIDt .0 -.I.. !;hoI WITt InurucUo", <:I""" on" l""' ..o.1on 1rI ....,o:y (I:yp.
SLIDE 2.3). Th... O?"". 01' " .;>llo;••0 you c." put 1n ..., In.t.tvttlO11 ..h"t
..111 dl"'ldo tho t:i..... ll1to !lOu'" bo:or.. IfRl:Tr: pr1n.. It. so" typ. 2411)oa6
tnto l""'.U 2. V2. EDIT to P'lt 36CO lnto 1""''''lon 86 '''YP'O %::11'" e6
..."'" F:n"t1RIi en 3600 _ Rt'i1,1RlIJ. yo.... pr"'i!u" ,,~olli n"" uU y""
u... t:i.... ot ~ay in I\ow:" .1ne:tr II.1dn1l;h" _llU...,. ..yl.... Jl~ 1. t.o "•• ~
'D.... :1."7WIlt'1'l!: "11" ..el".. III a re:lh"".. _to UIfI "y?e>o>d"..r
p,," .".. '1'L'lS 0: day 1rI ..ooond .. Inw a ..eghUt
IlIoU·. '::0 tiC> .,"u In.t.n,eU"".
"..,..
"" h.truct;l",~ u IltU. p~.".' of .. blllll'" pst.tern. U. <lou.. '" ...GoS to
""-",,, t~.t 71 1_ ell.. n ..-.r~l "1'11<:1\ n.n~" fot the ,,,,,,,ba.. of th1n9. you hav..
,,1\<':'1 )'"'' ha"'e u ......."y-o".. t~ln9.. Wile" It &Ceo tlW """,aul 11 tn ""
op....u"'" fhid. It. J"a; tl>~n1<.: 'IlAL'I", &1"\,*,, thln~ elwl 811"'. vay tor
",11 t1.~" ..t all It, L".t.~Ctlon". So, tr= n.,... "". w.. 'l1 Un.. tha "or4
-""'''.r''~- tOr pU.tern. ""''''.. "'" ot J"." the typ.wrHer Clleu.ctou O. t.hro" ..~.
9, .."\<1 0111\, "'1'>on .. ",==erd 1. und to sunol to• .. " b..~ ..nl .... ""u 1~ "
.....,b.. ~. i'h~se loc", "? ~"=..~al· II> l"''''' <:Il"tt"" y .."'"" '1l>e.
So t"•• you 1<:><1"1 t.has.. ,"unInS' ot "h.... """",.41.. "Mn "her ..... 1r.
an 1.....~.-""t1""·. 0?euUO;\ fi..ld,
~ t~~ ate N.~ """,be..s. te', 1I~l;d t.o hold , ~ ~ lS:t1J'i1
., "C'e<\....~nt1O<1 wUh on""". 1/l the I01nd ot G~~~( \J U ) ~ '"~'~o"," -" -~'"'" 0'0"" "" ~ VU)\j~~" ,"'".. ~\IV
l.~ -C>-Ii'VI In ..~,t hr-'l"o;,', ~=d••~.. Ju:u:. I>utorn. ot "hue""_>:...nd
p0<Tl.....<>CUte p.~t1e.:l..r~ '11th each pattun. tn bct, the
Sl:"'Fa.. .:C""!'''" ..... """'n'" n.Uy c.'u th.t 1"" Inou""Uon ....d. are
2::::::
In .1'1 .. S1.-"';>.... .,.,.,.."...... am in ""!It. "o,'"put....... "h" ,I." of ""II",~ty l"".. t.toO\ Ie ..t.''''C' h~".. 'h~n a",y In ••~,,"tlon·e "d.l~u. fldd ".n
_p~..... rlln·. b<>C'."~,, ."""" o!1'llt pod~10n' 1n __'-y In .. ~ ••,et1o<l ""'••
S". y<>'J e ... ,,~.. bI99', ,..,,,•••• as Inp-Jts to op...."uon.. UI<" DIVIoe if
I:ho~. ","TbH. """ In '"~o.y lo<:"Uons ",,(I t.h" """."'lon. un t.h..l~
.e1t~~..r .....<'1 .........o.y loc"t!"" e ... l\old. t.y W;>I,''1 .<)'11" big nu",b Into
SI-?".· .. "'''''''''1' "',,' 0'" :>~"'7 to no b?w "''''1' <1i'llU H .•"",,,.,,\,.0 .
hp.. """"":III "'O.t o:.,.,p~t~.. ~:.. buU~ to ..".k. ..1..h ~,..t~"et1OtU
".~':e o? 0' n'.r"e:.l~. ther ..··~ no .~~.~n ..h:.- peopl.. h"'I<' t .. p~~ u? ..!til.
..:~tl", p=~;:.,,~ tJ,.~ v'~1. 51.." .. O:""'i1·'t..r.~. ':>1 Cll.urel,·" ...,,,.1., "r"
"Ji'?"''''''' ~o ~" "!>1 .. to .to --~.t M1th~n9 vo """ tMnk. 0:. v'"'1 nOt. l ..~ ....,,11.
....II~ht"•••••.:y .. 1101'1 .. Ian,!"""". ealleel ""u_lIly Inn'luail"" lrIto tho
tn~t.r'-""1;1011~ that it" """,,,,ute••etoally unde nd.. SII>;>., M. " bullt
i" noee"ble... "",,ot .. "h~... h ••poet"t p t of SI"'p.. r that l,"",,,~u..,,ly
o~ey. "Olm.n~. 111<.. CU~.l' ..n<3 """".ol_w•.. "h"r.. 1. "",otlle••p""Ul pan 1:11....
o,.d.n~and.......b1y 1""'3ua"". It·. e"Ued an ~"'.o,"ble.· baeau". 11:
d~o. ""rdo .h"l: you ,ype _na P',U the r ..aol ... I:·..."the.. to fo... ono-pl_c ..
Innru<:Uon.. So, l"at..1><1 of 'ypln']' 2~100B6 you can ty~ 01VIr.2 " ~6 .. n':!
tho ".U",bl". U'!""....~ oul: ..h .. t n""' ....I .. that be<:OIO•• ln th" 51:0;>":
""",!,,,~..r·. I<n'}u01'" Stn"" th.. Sl..per """,put,,. h "hln... 1'"
no;oartc!>l In.~.o''t1''n. "'" " ..U...: - ....."Mn" 1<0"110.. " ~n'" .t>at h ..hIol:
yoo've b ...n h .. rnlno;- '1:11 nOlol.
: • ..,~ ...h"n .".,,,,,n~ b':!. 0 c""'p,,~~r. tho nut tll.~"'1 11... or .h~ o"~,,lly <100"
I. "'~. ".,,~ l~ ".,..", vl'"'' 1"""'." ""tho!." ·aB''''''t,\c.~. A,. u ...",t,h.
... if. t~ ~
il .: ,..> "
]
• 0 0
~ ~ "!
; ~ tE ~ f.. ~ "
f E i: ! ~:<: .. c.:; {i. ..
£ r I" g ..'g :; t: ; f.
!. t
tt
t.t
.~
tt
':; ;t"..~
t
tt
t
!
;;
,
.•
~ ~ ~'" :l" >
::: . ~ ~ ~
~~;:~~;~~";:9~· ..~§~.;;~~~ ..""~t ".r~gSg~~:;-;
E;;~Ei~,!....... " '" ..s];f;£.:E",.. .." ti •
i;i~~~~~g ~ oS I:: .. '5 ; ~
~
"~.~
~WJ'.1.1~ ~\. it6'-1. , • •~ . .. 2
m ". §I ~<"'.. E ....<.... .. ::i ~
~~~ 5 ~ 0 ~h<;; ~ c"
;f:8 Ii:000
. . .n3ia~s.. .. ... .. ~ >-
~ .. g .. :::• .. >- ... j •.. '" .. ..~ l ~::: ::~~~!~
~;!i[:~:~·s~:
: ; ~ ~ :: ~ ~ ~ ~ ~'" A .. " .,
~~,;S~~ ..
ij!~;E;~ls~ .. .3 :5 ~ .. ~ ~l'i. li -:; ... .'" .. ..:
!l~.~;~~[~~!.~N .. ~, '" '" 'il .. : 3 fo
::;,,&::~
§:§;~:~;
!HHiH.:: ::i !l ~ 0: .s- .:::
•:
•~Vl
-'."\gg~;. i
. .
~ !;; ~ :. ~ 1~ i f t!2:E':~~:;~~~ MJ'2tl!:~ ·.. ::io .... .:~
HHH!n!H~L... ] .... e1:i .. ~ .. g~'.Ig .. ,s
:i~~~;ii~!~i~!'i!;~I~~~:~:~!35;gc '" " ~ .. " ... ., ., ~.. ".c"
] ~ ; ~ f : : ~ ~ ~ : ~ : ~ ~~~"'!:~~~::~~'::E~~
~~::~~~~~~~~=~~
! ~ ~ ~ !J ; ~ i i ; ! f !. ~
jnn!nil~HH
s ~ .. ~.. " ..i ~ 8 ~! is'; ~ ! ~ ... ......~ ',; i ~ :: : ~ ~ ~~ j ~ ~ ~.... 0,:0:
<. <
~ ; ] ~ ~: .. 'll ~ ~
_ i ~ : ~~: t....::i ..; ; ; r ;
to ::: .. '5 •.. ~.. .." II 'E ." .!l.. .. 0 8 ..
'~~~i;to : " .. g{; il ~ .. E.. ¥ "" o' :>.& '" .!; .. ~.. .i ~ 8 • ~
~ ~ : ¥ B
.... ~ ::
.;. ; ~ ~
i ~ <: ~.. .. " .. ..., ~ ~ 3 ~~ ! .'i : it~ : i ~ ~
i i!}j2 ~ : ~ ~.. '" 0 ..
:: ~ ~ ~ ~r. ~~~]:
.. .. .. '" 0
~ ~ is;'o .... fo ..
:; 1J i Ei ~
i ! ; i ;... 1<" ...
:: ~ ~ ~F. E ~ ~", 2''' ..~ ~ ~ ~... ..... ,
~~
~
~%
i~
"
.~~•
•~js ,
~)J('I"
< ~< ~~ ~ ~
00/' %~ ~;! F .. ~ It::: ~ :'i ~ ~· ~ ~
~ ~ :::• 0 ,o •"" .,. ':i
,••
,.. : ...., '" 1! • ~ ~.. g, .. '" .!! ..8' " .. '5 oJ ..
l::. ~ ;: t " {i.. ~ ; '" ~ '"~~~f,5~" ....... ll' ..g,~=;~~
• ~ go '" .. .. ..] ::~~.5~.. " .. ~. "oJ _ 1..... s::"" ....~~g"'~~g::::~~: .. ~S;l... .., 8 ..,.<:....";" t'.... 8. ... g,
1:!1<[~~!~-JJ< .~." •E 1 ~.: ~ ~ ~ : ~ j
8 " "' "" Ii ...
t ," ~ ,·:"t!:~~~2{i".. ,ll' ) 'i\ :;;. .. '0 e
g jn~nn~(; '11 Ii ~ ... t "E!l53.~~8~->-
•,
o: /'? n
-......... -gggg l!l
. ~~ ~~ .;;; i~ r" '
&l: ~e ;
> • <8 'il t ..li ! 8 ~!C ; ....
~ ~ i ]i i ! ]., .
E .a~ E
·[J
f
i•,;••
•!
E
•
" .
.. U ~ll;:)i"
i:I ~ i 11IiI!iif) ii'1 J~ iij!I." .. !i ~ ~ l!' ~ .. ~ .. "ti~o~;: .....~, .. ,,&~
~ii~~ i~~:i~i~f::E: ~:]~!-~:B~~~';.j ~:iE~~:.*,!i 8 ; .. j:;::i:i~:"liC~rJ,.i .... ~:>.zt.:£
~~i~i E~!£~;],:t " eli" '".."........ ..~::~.~~ ~~~::~g8:.. ;:~t.<; ~""5 .. ",!;:"='5 .. ~~:;J:"~~,,,f'''~Z~ :t;;;:S1!.:c~~
!~,;: i:~~ .. ~~ ~:i:l.t;5 -;']:;'2.8:i:S' ~
,I, I. .~ !I :.. • 0 ~1
~i>O ~~g
~r.D 2~~:: ... ...t ~ g, < ," " .'5 : ~r: g ~ ;;B ... .. ..~ Ii ~ ~
<
~~
"~~
~
!; ""1s
<
•
!f ;~ ~
.~ .. ~~ -:.- ~ -'--:1
"<'C "'~ ~~ ~
fi ~, ~
~ -
•'VI~: I
~ H~ !:i':; H ~
~i;fs ~o 0 .. 0
:> E 2 "J g .,S::5~; ~
~i2§: ~!2:t..'l ~
:8~~~ :!l 0 ~ t g ::g, ~ :: ~ tl §Ct :: "" ... ~ c:
EZg!.:!~;t[ ;~ :..:C: &. Ii ..
r~~;~j
~~}~!/~ ~ ; ;! ] ~ ~
. ,: ~ 2
~ ... " ..Ii <: : ~ ~ ~
;~~iiE~ S .: 0 -;:~ ." v II<......... " ...
~ Hj ~ Ii~:f·~!;.j;I;~~ 5~;
;~:~i5Sg. .. ,. ! g' .. 0
"! f : i ~ i ;~£tf~)
~iEi;~., ': 1 .,.'l ~ ~ Sj .5 [; :: ct: ~ A. .,
Ii
Ii
(1)) lint, you: P:"'O....., ",U>t CO"put. th.- ., 'n4..., U>ln1 th••••••••
opersU"" "tlO'. a.1<1r fI.ld 1'1.. the " .-1 tor .. l"",.-Uon 10","10
<:ont... l". ttl.. n IMnto ..1>'-" ar" yo" d1Yl<11"1 by?). Ie
t.h. ""l1h<o= h In !''''i1at A, tn. 1''''''''1..<1 • .: "Ill ll.- 1n ""'Jhter ••••?
(.e.. P'-1'- 30 It yo"•.:. oot. 10.1••1.
:In,,''rueu,,,, .-~uld ....Il. 51",;>.1' obey tile AS,," instzUCtion &'lUll lf
ttl. cr....!>.-r w,u !l2! :t.ro. so :I."s .e4dr.... tld4 .1>0,,14 MY.- ••• 1:1
1t., .OtM....1.-a. yo..x: p~o;ra..,. .1>00.11<1 .-tOP, "h1clI "'.n> tlls. ....t.
'"
opez.ttoa .l>oul<1 b•••••••
It t.h...tnlMz ".U o.S<I t!l.- .: ...... ln4... "",,14 H •••••• ? l!\opc}'O\l"1<1
on.-. 11••.•·.- on out11no o! .. 50."? ...... try to <10 ......eh •• }'OJu C••~
t<, ~.. - •.1.. -". I'""r pro-Jr .. '. u Sl.~;><'t "N.y" th"", ~nln'" ,,[ dl tho
d·~t.. l ..". v',,, ....".. """'1' J",! ",.j l',:,u'U Un r:UN l"'p<>rt"nt th......blllty 15:
'"
i~~~):~~f@- 11~ "~."<\' J"'~ u 1t """~\l' .1"'... But, H tho ._~::. ...• T"'~
r"·l~vr·. "'~"" U not '.'0. 1t til"" U"~. tn. ~.<{:'~~\;::~'~~:<';'~--'~'i",:.... :" u ••1Jr.. u H ..I.1 .nJ ~t .. It tM'> the P .~ ~ .-1\~:'Q .;~....;t ..v., a".1 )"''' atU·'·'11" k.."" "hn. S1",'" ..Ill <10 1 fli ,","
, t.. ", ...t!':~ .. - 1t w,ll ..~.,.., th. tn.u,,,,U,,,, 1n tn". ~.Ir.... ~ \/ .;:.;::
I':·~t. .n'''? 'iO'. It. n"-d b.."."•• 1t l ..~. yo". P<<:I9:·"''' ~6 'OJ ::-.~':'"
t ..:t th st-.,.. """';out... t" ~JIl"l>- &:0......1 lndj..
5,,'X>Os.. you d\v1.1 .. "".~ ..=ber by 2. Tlle ."""1..(1,,. :I." ••••••• ?
toU yo" ..... u:o?
51?"".'. <!...,.t .. l".. op"••H".... ",,,,,'r .."k" t",,"Y <l""hlon. Uk..
"I:~.....bu. )'"'' "'1';1'ot 1>.. ,,"1., 1;.. 'I." ..lin It; """ do "",1 ,,.It. "~
( .. ~1tI':"'t'><t 0:'1") th•• ~"M ..." ..pt "..th qu".~l"ns a~<l <lecl,le wtlat to
<l",. F"~_r.~. w~\te an e.'~ler I'r<>Jr"", th~" decidu w1'o.. ttler a ,,,,,,,t>er you
"l"''' " .. it 1~ o;H. Or Off".'. It sh<:>ul<\ tlAl" U YO" ty... "-, ""en n_tl..r.
c~~ you ~h~"k of· .. proqu.., "0 ,,~par'Ot" .>dd. and. eyen ••=bera ttat way?
110~ 1001<; for ~lp.
leern on. 0l0.... Q;>.z..Uon c01104 C'~lII'I'!:. (:WRITE., 111<" "'lilT". e>:peet• .,..
1t1put .....lu. fro reqlst• .:, bu" C\I;UT<: d.......·" pr1nt "11.- ll.>.nl>u. h.
prints "1'1. t.yp lt..r cbu.cter t.hat. ",or.,.a1>O"<10 to "Mt ..du.-. 1,,'.
Ju." .. _... O:!. the Int P"'l''' 0: :t.bl" p."" 18 .. 1:1.1" ot "h. c~.. fo"
.n "yp.....".i:t.." cha"a"... ..u. tb.. ce><!e tor -Z- h •••• .,.<1 tile eo<!" t<>1'
ao~ 1e •••• 11'"", ttl...... o;>sraUon J'uu • n"",b"" Into .. ".'11U.r.
\..""" 01..1<" you::: pZ"'lra,. • IltU. _ •• .-ociabl. by ll."tn, :l.t prlnt
an -g' tor odd ''';<Ib,z. ""1<1 an -",- t ...: ."''''' on... You·ll Just " • .:1 to
'Y~S~ Try ttl U· it 40u~'t worl<,
C..... bACk ll"re tor tlelp.
::0
110 --+ T~y 1101
'" '"
"~,c.~. "se S:'ItI~. 5CR"''rC~, (It Ent to ""I<" you" proq...'" 10<>1< 1\k" this
s ... :it you c,.. t19ure O\J" .- w..y to ...-". th" 50......_ <loth" s"-,,.
"1'01"1. !>oJ" "lth f,,".r ln~trueUons. 1I1nt. n"U". ttl. 1<1enU<:,U iI.1ra
ot tn~erueUon~ In l.;e.uon" 5 ."d 6 .....<1 a ..,,<1 9. ..It 1e otten """.
th.t. ttl"... is "'o~. tM" on.. "~y 1<0 vr1"e • proqra.. wMeh <l......
p."ucula. th1nq.
SlOl~!:1I'5 TYP£\o/lIITF.1t ~DES
CC::ll:
,,------;)>- Try "'J"ln. ~ ~
;'Gre4~. t ..~·s s .... it yo,,·r••1'•• ah<>"t ..h.o.t It " ..ku SIOlper ~o. th.
.....:..rI1n .. "., ,
"i ". • "ben " " • "• .. ,"... "
, ., ,"11ll."!~ ,. ,
",
"," • "p..q,,!.~ " • " • "zet"zn "
," • "," • ","
,"end ot Un. "
," • ".p..... "
," • .,
! " ,"
,"" "
, .." " " "" ; "
,"" "
,""
,"
,"" • .. ,".. ,
",
"" • " [ "",
" 1 "" • .. ".. • " ..
I "u It ""~n or odd?; It w.....y,""
I .. 11< n........ n f"r a n""be.C':ll 'AS!!; A(lQ? ,tlIVr::E: A '00OJ l ,':HJ~.? a 7,o4 ,?:I:i' c: 6~
O~5 ,=-.~I;E C(:05 ,?:lr Ii' ,C07 ,Fur c: 79O~~ ,=-.it!1~ C'03 ,FU:i' Ii' I
''0 12
,;c.• ,; t~., •••••••• I".,;~"etlo~ e ..n ,:H"I~ .. it b'/ ......Meh I," 1:'1 10e.tlon
~,,,~t, the ••••• I",tr".,\"" t~,," th" ."1,,. o! ttl.. r=a1n<lor .. hlc:tl
h 1:1 ~"71.t~~ , ••••.,d. It it·. no~ z~r"...a~n SI"~~r ob~y ~1\8 ., ••••••:
'c.·,;z,,~~ I'm I,; I"",... I~., •••.•• Ttl,. f"'." ttl.. <>001~ !er th~ htt~r ••• l .. to
r-:ht... _••••" tl;M ~~.~ •••••••• In.~rueUon "111 prln~·It <.11 you.:
~
-~
I~l''':-'--'~' .)., " \.., :\":" , • ·r ~. ..
, .. f, '.' \, "'.'1'""1 :.~ " ~ .. , , 0' • / A 'J;'>:". ,?) ,.. !l B I .... \ -...1 .. Ii':. Jf • A I _~ • \.... .:' ~ ..
~ ~ n ~ ".. ",". j'.' ,: 1: $.: ~ a' ~·.t\S:\\~. ''J ~.tl ~ '0.. \:'.\. ~ 1 1'8 • " ~ _,~ '_" " "co !I I> 0 •
:Jl~t> ~ 11.. " .8 C ( -.......::.J '" ..~ , , l ~ i~:~:(1'~'. =,n ; ! : ~ ,:I ." 2Ii !l " .. .J '1 'l1 cl'l:e: ~ ~l!:;:.... ,---../ ... , ..1., '-,-..: ';'i .. "'''
" " .. c •• ;~:~tt~0't .t::f.~"C, ~ 1 I" ~ C I> ~ " ~ ... ~ :t..", 1"I.g., I:> r t. " .. '!<O~·.'''·!ll:'''e-~,;"'. .. ~ .... ! Ilo 'ii. .. I>
-;iG~;Ip:n.~~"~:::!l~:~si.ii~~f.2~"'~;:!llo~m"I~~:ol"t~;:~"I<:-[:;~ ... ~..":::S-o:sr;:;;~~~ .. :"t:~~-~2't... .. I> '" .. i 0 E: ., ~"l : S" ,g ;> "
~~':W''", '12 ,- , '-"'•.~ ~e, . ,1~'J!J'ro, ",:~r-i'~'(.( -G"'"-' ' -,.' .I,.~f-~'In,,~, ~;. _
~ C:"3~ 0""-';) 1 'I.. ....." ..,J'E«'f:",(:; <~~ ,Ill'''_1)TM
\} .J '.J •
.•
"1C!;~!l'Ro:~t:Ji!'Il'~~
;~i¥~!!~~~i[~i~" g :;- iI' ., g Jl ~ .. I! '
~ : So ~ S; : ~ i ~ ~ ~ ~ ~:O~"... MD:;g-~~ii~
~![i~:!:~~:t~f~~~~i:'i~;!"i:~~gff.~8D:~ltg.,il';"·E: ~ : : :'~ t ~ ~ ~ t ~ i~3F-~ii .. :~Aff~.il=
• , M ... ;! ". \iii = I> " .. l:' l;
t if~"=~~iir~sto .. 1'1 ....
f- -= E~!:[i!::i . " ! .. C l; .... !; iRa f
! ~ i i ~~,~ :. ~ ~~ g ~ 0 "
; ~ ; 3 r• ~ : ~ J:~~;"~~• ~ t..
H. Hn~HHn.d! ;U ~ ~l.nn~ ~J ~ ~ ~ ~ ; ~ ¥ ~ ~ i ; ~ ~ E..... ". " .. ~ " oi
:~~ ~~i;~~~:~~~g~£~ ~~£~g~ ... ggn!i~~!;~ 5'~~':-"'~8~' ggi
cr~: !i~,,><::;~r~:':l
~i1 ~'i?~'~~~Ji~~~~~~ gg:~&~'3 ~'::·5~... ~1S ~F~B"~:::;"'~~:"~~. gl~~"~:;:':~~;::~
i~i a~g~:~::,Fg!Ig~~: f 2 ! a E i ~ ! ; ; ; ?"8 .. "'~"§'''~I'~
"Sl: i:~i;!.:::[·oa~:! .... .8 .... n~ .. ~l:' .. ~t
¥!~, ~~~i~;,~~;f·l~; ~:"'~ig~8 '2-
,
•
..
..~!i!.n,
g~•.
1 •; i
, i i; ! ~
~~ ~~ ! ~ i i'~Q ~Q r, ~ .. i'.. ~ .. ~ ;; ~ ~.... i E1
! ~ a". !l ,~ "lo',; ~: ~
ll. ~
i ~
1 ;~ i. .~ ~
'2 I
~rz!i·~£ g[~ii~i*!lf~~i:"g",,"'3a ·~·:l!}a~"'i"S-~~:i~n~~< ~:ii"'::g2:{aL."
~,~~;l:if 1':~~!f1g~§:f~ "0 .. 0 l'\ fiO .. "." 'b ....
:~"'C~~a1 i~~i.,~~;~~t~i~: ..·;·~~" <>~iJ:~.!!,.,!j~ .. ~;
;, Jj ! ~ ~ i ~ til ;-i ; :; j J! j ~! "·r "~'ll ll't,,~t: ,,~cU;:J"a~2":~::~ Il .. &:l!-~:~!::i.... ~~~S,,;'t l~~'ii?~i~"'~i'll~~~,~g:~~ ~l:g~I:~~la~~/tg'<iJ:0." • ., .. ",. 'E<>"S
~1~~'~~!~ i~!~~~~:!ij~g ",. ':1'" .,p'oH·iG"il a .... g- .. &'"S G : .. e .. O .. 4 .. '<. ~
i~H!PiiiUnn!i;~~;2:~?~5 i:~~~!~~~;ig;I si j ;1~·~li:~1'<E[.....
$
<~
If
I
,•~ :! t
j,
~ga~li~~"
:~:;:•• ti,",6'"
."""' "n:"gil'"..S"~
• •
i.;
~ r; :.onooo .. <>,
::::: i] .."",1"".. .." 0
~~~E~ It G ..Ntol:l:a- ~ g E.... 110 l: l:
.. ~ ; ~ ~.. Ii il., .:. ~. ~M ~ l>
~ ... i,
! ~ g~ ! ~S !' i'!~
§ b> t
". ,i ~
lr !l :; y ... '" • l.I~ ~ ~ ..~ §l : igo : g tIlo ° • '"~ g l:: ..[ : ~ i
'<. ~ ~ 1'.; ll" '" ~.. .!! i '", ..:;: f s ~< •
~ f i i~ : ;. i
l • ,• ••5~ R :
~ ~ ~ i~ "
~ ~.", .~ g
g ~
~ r.~ g ~, " ", ~ "f, 2 .g! i ~, ~!
'" ~ ~, .; t :'.. :' !
~ t! :. § :; §! fj .... ~ .. ..,
~"ii;~
f~~;~~~;~:'~~
~ '" ~ ~ ~2 ~ ~ ti •
~~!i:'" .. I ..I: ~ ;: i ~... '" ,g ....:. ~ i ~ S D-
c: .. ... t ..~;wg~a::.; ~ g :' { ~ f :
" ". ((I ..
::'::~~:~!
&-lil:'~~'<
:H!;l:i:;~f~S:;~~;;:'Rt1r::;oa~~~;~
:i"'8;;2 i,
0",.,000
:::~~es~'
.. ~rs~~....... 0;0;
"'''' ......00"0':~.
.~E
; ;- ! E:; = £ ~ ~~ 0.. ~
~ ~ ~ "' :g .. ~ K "~ ~ ~ : :. , .•, b ~ : ~..... ...t : ~ * g.. .. !: .. ":'! ~ ! £ ~~ ;; ~ .. ~... :T... (
"'. ~ 2 :; ~
~ : Ii : ~s ~ " .. ..! S i ~ ~~r:,~~.. ~ :r '" ~
g : ; ; jt ~ z ~ :~ ; ~ ~ s
" .. .. "~ ~ :: 1~ ! : ~~ .. ~ ~
~ 1 : ~:; " ..~ :
'"...
how ..."I'f; ~II;l= l'uUy la. Il~l"" t1>.at U'" ;IId;l.~~u U"ld ot th• .,,,chln.
lanqu.ag:" tor PIl'1' P STAAT to... tl~... <:h.,,,.o<l .~t=llot1eall.\'.
.. cclU.t..o ......
SIlUT
,tIT It. toT-e
T"'" u. "l>Ou.t .....<1y to" anothor r ....OQ vh'.. tn.truet1..... carey
~oS••• ot "d""" cother thsA .."lu.. tb=s..l....... .II"r. aro U>.<'•• ne"
~4tt"". to try, Aft.... yo" thl:\X y"" ..ndee-un<1· th<>uo, "dt... Ii'~Oo,ir....
tll."t pleks • 2-.<11<;11t "'''''4''''' ,,_~r ..nd 1 ..... you try to 'iI"'" ..het It p~""• .i
""t11 yo" ';l"" eorro<:cly. II1..t. yeo~ ..U1 proba15.1y Ull. """ ..."" ot t .......
1.... OPU"tlC<lS 1'1"" ... : ..... fIlota y.... ton"" .1"":Ody.
1'll:t'r .03
.. 1IA.'Ilt ........
To to:- ...... yo.. llR4.utand. the <lHe"".",. 1o.1,Il"'. ot ........ you ... <1 ".0
1" .~~... f1<1ld. of .n00l\b1y hn~u~'l" 1n.trueU"...•• ph"". a ... 1I.n.' ftc=
""'''10'' tnn~celo"" to ......... 1<1n<I. ot ,,=os th<l1 ""'I
1'110 n."T.l:R key ..0"d1y 'iota yo.> aXU" ln~o....U"" "h"" y<II.l _ a
"""""",n<l ..1th It. 'or !loUiS, 1t toll. y.... how _nJ" ..0... ,,,.~,, you _y
""........ rOt llMoZS. 1.t tdla ')'011 "hO,t ..01"0••re In "he location. y.,..
l ...:n ,,-..<1.
ft. booo th.......1>1... tr."at ....... H. Un"", G loeU10Q t. ll_e<I .~••
t1'oo ""eMn" 1an'J"~~0 .dd<.... Ual.d 10 ••••• (;~ thh bot uol"~ the
1<....'1::11 """",.nd...h1ch "0110 YO" ..hoot n'''O' yo>.>'"....ad _ "hU,1l location.
tt>oy tto;. TtY "0 I'\K\ the P"O'l''''''''' II"" typo IIMIl 040 L01 and " 1.151'
.f>! tt>. Ell."Tl';II key to ... "h.ot tho e:!d..... fU1<I. 1••.,... u •• t1Al1J1S ~n.
~ .........}·thl..~s_ ".la<h~••" l' I'"h ..... dlo" hou.;I. U
0·.... t.t-~...
oJ, Il"~'f C 79 [STAllt)
CJl .""'" '"(J) ,011' .... :NO~~~ ,.1;::\ B ••2OJ) ,P!."l: C ~9
N6'1C"1l e0,)7 .·F~" P STAAT
NO .2 (Tl/O)
Mal<t"" up ".:n.. hen yol,\ .... SLIDi': ""'...
1'...... ly. t...,auu S;'!Oll: """ 00Iloo" _.
1n.t.ru"uon~ ""0\",4 an'" "Ull·~. the
An .M..... 1I..It. -,.1· loa ...U<14 .. -,,,laU,,.'"
ad.1:.~s ~t"H it "lnU .. toeauon "Me 10
U~ co the n.rUn'1 .dd",... IW
." 1<> 2·)
by .. e....u~.. "=\0.,,, C-.:-}. 'fou O:~ U ..
.,IUI." y","" .."" ,,""u ..r Sl"'~~·••• u:..nlng
ad.1:.;'" Ilc.d you c ,,&. p.>&1e1v. c .. n'"'J"Uy•
..=........ to" ".o.l..~. th 0;0 .. ~,k... ~ t.1:""
(ou=~~u••l:=~-4". ""'0.238 0: j.a.....-,.
'tho au_bh", lIu U,. aP<t<'t&1 ,,""'. a 0" 'totl r,,: l-M lo<:U,l"" yo.>
.....~ (th<> ......ul a" U•• ~~t",,1n, or )'0<>1" U". tooth ..1>..,. 1"" co_ I,.
..""",ry). • ..;,~t·. In .. ,,,u.~... )''''' __y. ...U, ...l"'ll "h_ II....!.~ coa>::ia"<1
nl>3 1:1'1& d~t.. y.)~ =,,1<1 ",~l<. yen,.. ~d ...,,!·...n 1''''91"_ look Uk. thU (ciy It),
'10'..\ ","" \ua a " ..i. In aDo a<1<1reo. U\Ol<1 bdor" "810<;1 1lAl'..!!: to t,,11
Sap"" vh.>~ locaUo" 1l:. """,... B"t l>,,~or" you e,." run " p~o;"..." all ~,
.. ""'.. yo",'"" ".0<1 tl\ ad.d~..s tto.ld. 0"..... 15" .t"c:l< co l=aU...,. by I'AIl!::..
"try tM., \In SC!li\= to el".~ "''-''Y, ,,"'" tnM .1IJl1P A LOT ",,01 U1t't;< to
001 ,p.;",-oo~ It.e02 IlI?n:,: A003IPl1t'Pt
001 .ASK It.002 1&1111'1' A fU003 11/Jl.Ir& A004 .1IM.T
001 d'IIl'''~.
002 .SU"~lUlCr " 1.loI~OOl 11'U: l' .-tO~ 11 (<>af.)
'r.I. llJ..'i:lOll. ope~auon h " way ot l::lal<~"9' yo,,<, p"o;:r...,o plel<
""'erd....ho.... vd"".. you can't pred~ct. 1t'~ Uk" "p1nnln'J. r0l11"tt9
vbul Or 1'01Ung' 41e9. ta"h U:>~ $1:>"... OMy. A 1U\Ii;:(l!l o;;oarnlotl it
plc". A n=au1 l>a~w""" 0 ...." 9B9999999 .r.c:l put- 1t ~nto th9 r~h~or
n"",011 I" the 1n"~rucu,,,,·. ~O\Iut"r Chid. Y"" " ..n use """...0011 1n
p.l'''9'r..". "ho>."" phr 9""'''''. Or aCt ""?<<!<lleU151r.
'i'''" Sal<'r op"ut1"... .."",os thol n"",usl 1n • "e'l'u ..... r eo tho lott
<:Jr to t1\" "l~ht as raa"y <1111t pl.eos as YO" "tsh. 1'110 a<l<l.c"n fleW ot
.. SHIn tn"tr"et!on tdh tn "Mch. d1re<:U"" ..n<l 1>0.. ",,,,,,II to ~hUt the
%.... ~ster·a vel"e. C~a.~9''' tho ..eo.~<l. pc"'lr..... eb<>.ve so that lt shU""
tb.:.Ito r ..;~euc·. vel"" to the htt 3 phen .ln8t~4d 01' to the r1<Jht.
Sino. no vduo In ..n:r rc;loto," or ....""'<r 10"at10n .,.,. have "o~.. til"'" •••••
dlg1t.<>, "'~:r. "1'l'lt. ,,~tCI\ Si!Ul' "U'M' out ot a ..eol1s~"" duappo:o.r to~"".r.
The S'J~"R"-"'T O?..UUon work. 11'<" OHloe. b"t onl:r ,,",s on .. ",,,,,s4<j"
hho dt:fer<>~e,,'."0 le."". It taXe. t1\o "at"" tn thoo " ....ory lo<:"UOt:I
"h!>.o ."'lee,," la 1.~ U,,, ~<l.dro.. fUll1 01' th" 11>.tr"ctl0n an<l s·"b"",,,eta 1t
:ro.•. th" vd""'l,, "1\e registe" n.....<I. 1" the ""'iIlate" t1eld. Ine .ne;tor
"t"y. in tl>o ""SIlotor.
;:.... yo" ",... "n<1:r to do y"ur <;I,,·.... ln'J g."''' ..<""Jr..... i:=ber, 1t
ple~. 4 2-<11-;lt n"",bo~ ",,<1 1.."" yo.. 'J"""~ ""tH YO" .... right. lI.er"·,, 0
<ll"Jr ... ot th.. h""l<: nop" In U'e P~O'JU'" - you <1\\." <10".i",,, "Mt SUoper
1ns:r""tl0.u " ..., .... "ud C"r ...,,1\ st"p,
Jl.... "'."0 your pr->-;<... ""<'0 tClendl:t by "a"ln1] Lt type '". H :.'''''
''In ...-.:1 '". U 1'.......1... The ch""act.... <;.,.10~ ""0 "t t~... 0,,<1 0: P"'~t o.
'U YO" 1.,.".. t<ouI>1<o, "h4"'< "h~ 0'1.1~...~., P<"'jt~" u~r...
...'ir?l!-' ..
Tou knew tha.~ ~JfLa ."n opo""U"" "l\l.eh ...""" ..
cllK:i.~<>n. I" d""tcl~. "bethor tho S1m~ e=putot vUl ,,><>y thio
1.....~uC't1on >.tl>.1ch :oll"""s Lt, or "n t".t cUo....,.,,,,,hara do. In ye-~r
p::o<Jn"'. H 1'011 for.;~t h"" JT.!~P ""~ka.• look boel<; et p"ge l~ 4,,<1 .tudy
you" Odd......."" al'l<1 !jU.ut"ll 9 pt".. .....".. YO" can l""'gl"* e:... t
opero:.t1o." ..Meh ...1<" <1"",hio" 0 n"Uy uy~n,. thot .""'Ot"1.~",,, Ul ~..
Or fd.. about tho ""'dd tnBJ.d·o the ",.ehl".. For ,," ....ph•• .ru!'Ip
inst:<"",Uon 1001<. At'ito r,;qt."or·s val".. to ."0 "h"tt>o~ tt ilO zoeo or
"'. ""0 ,d•• ,. '" "'0 ( T<~ ttJ....~ by ?"tttn; :it•
'cldrou Uelcl n=<lr41 1ntO P. .
M:t"dly, y<>" cAn thlnk "ha.
.,~,,,. --, " ,- "..... ~!ffJ:<. ~'~'.~ •
." tho:." J'.IlIP~ J ...p ({;;.---. .. 0'?'$: .p' ~... . ~",f/r
1: tt·. t""" t!l.t. tt.. ff...-:< ~
..,,,••, j, .~•• " • ., ~;'~~.- Ig~1a "p eo you. ~. (~")..,
~.rt/
$1O>p... he•••.othe" op".. ;,uon "Meh ..Ho-~3 yO<i: 0'1'0-;1''''''' to ",,,lto
d",,:"lon... It h~ .n<l it loo~....t t ...o ".',,-.a.ono In 0 <"'Il~.t.r Md '>:'0 tn 0 "'''''''1'1' lo"4tton. 1'"" In.tr,,eUon tl\at
CC,.,;o,o,;tf ,,&1:'0. st.,p.. r oboy no"t do~en4. on. \.1\.., t"", val"". th.>\. CO"~IY<!: sav.
CC,..;>A..".';: h ...... po>ou[ul th.n .1I./1lP. It. "'0.. WMt. 1U n.."o .,,;.......... 1t
ItQo>p~...." its t'o'O inp"t ",al"•• sne! <I ..el<1~...hlch ono. ot \.nra" pOB.lbIe
.ut"",~"ts ,,!>'>ut th"", 10 true,
I. thol "1>.1,,. 1n lM locouon h 1.c.lI, .l..!:lll!! tho "d". In U", r"'lhtor
2. the ".1<,.. in lh.. loc"Uon h =~ :loll tho ".1"" ln t .... r"Jute..
3. the ",,1"" Ln tho 10<:"t10<> 1.0 =;l..'..::I: .t-'l!:!!!. t"" ,,01"" lr. th.. r"'Jlotor
•
~
~
!
~ ~ ~0:: ~ :.
~ 8 fl~ .f
~ 9 ~ ];; ~ r ~
i i Jl :... I: ~ :· .;
l
.~
"~,
~ .'I; ~,.~ ..'t :
"
;; .;, 1
~Fi~~ i ~;:~ i: ~" . . ,; C~ l ~o "\ ~ ~ •
J~ II ..- "' ..
, ,;: i,~
~.= d~
. "".•~ : ~ 2• : =: !
8""1;""2· , ,~ .'" ~
~ s ~• 8 ;
! ; :. g ~
., ll. ;; .. "~ ;; .. " ~ IT
1:!~~sh 50 §i ;t ..
!~:~~,~';fB~i!iJ! '5. .... ..~!:i:~i:
i~a~i~: ~ == ::: ~ S.. n ~ 8 • ...~ ~ ; Ii" 1:' i~ ... z ~ ~
!r ; 2 : o· i~ .. Ii ~ .. ,
i ~ ~: ;i so ; :
• I 0: ~ .!
g. ':· ,o •
3 r.~ ;., ';:: :;· .• •~ :~ :-.. .~ i~ Wt: ~
!•
~ [
; ~~ ~
: i, .p
f ~e-, ~
~ !" ., .i! ~" .s ~· .o ~,a [~ !! •,r r·~.g :;,, .:' i· ,~ :!
~~
t'~
nII !~
~••
Iflls••
of'III ~
~••
" .. "~ ~ to"
:' : ~ I ~
;~ii"~~j f i, f .. 'II
i .;. "~ i,
o • •; Ii 8:.. It :
~ :; :l • •• ••:: \;' ~g h II... S" :j g. :: ... i Si~~i:;,;;~
~1~i:~t?J} .. :: :( .. ft.:!2e~~~o<~~~!;n~2~8~a~~j; • ,. g ;; JI .... .::. ... :: a.. Of • II l l/. P... 8. : i: i" ~ i~:g~:8' ..e;~i4!it~o\lO~;"... e. ~ :: \;' ~
~;:;~;I! " "." S~,sl!iJ.~~ II .. II • '"e a' : .... It ~ g l
: ~@ •
~ ~
!
§g:]~:l
;=;~~~~ i'. S .. .I! 't:I
=ts 5 [:i.i!:! " .. .. • .,"~~a;c
~. ... C'
i~ ~~.~
H• I.. ,. II II .. !l _ _
r.~!i:::::'U .. .. 2 .. .. ';!' ".~u~:::::~s~.. ~ .... t: .. a:~1l3~~~~
~ "~ig~~.. ~ :. §
"l ::: =:: ~ .~ ~ -o • •
~ .: ~: l: :• 0
E '2 ;~£~g~~~~~~... 0 ... ",,.,.>-:<00\1>
~ ~ )<0>< e~
..,,"0"00000o~g!;l~:5:gs:::e
[ r ~ ~~ !r , • ,· '.a : i ..
i ; "I F r ;8 ~ g ~S" ~ ... :(00.
~ i ~ :. . ..... l" .... .. : II
~ ( '" <r·.'. ~• • •R g : ~.. " " 'II.... "" <)
8 ~ ~ ~: : ~
'! i i ;.; ~" ~ ..
g • ~
~ ::
i••} f: "igo :~. ~
~ ~~ ~: :~ ,
•g, s ~
t 't:I .. 3llo .ll g ,;.II' ol> ~ II
~ ; ~ Et ." '" a.. i·
: ":i ;: ~! r; l"
"
~ ~o •
~ ~~ a~ !~ ~. .. .~ §~ ;2 g: !~
~~~~~~~i;~irg
; ; It :: i:I ~~ ;; " e: : .... l\ 1: "J. '< ", , 0 •If l} 'il • f, lJ
.. r, I:' ~ 0 :(
[a:r.,~l".... g 1"', ~
~~j::a:f:7:2-o:l: ~ .. : ~
!2~1:1;28 j; .. ~ ~{g ; 5 g ~• ::> :::: ... 'g ..:: ~ ... ~ 'I: i;:: . : ~ ~ ":' ~.. .... ~
~i!~~~s~E:2~1!~I·hi ...'~:~~:i!
i1> (I"
! 1: ~~ g: :~ :;:" ~o •
j g, .i ;"i Eo •2 i
~ ~.: lOt
••; ~I I
!i
•
~
I
£"iI ;• •• 0• •§ ia i~ g"f: :•
i g :; ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ t: i ~:: :" ,. ::~ ... g, . , "
o • ", . .~ 9 g ~. " .!f ~ ~ ...5 !i t e.;; r. ~:;g .p "',' a;:~ ~ 1, • 0'. "i" ~ :; ~
.. { I ;.... :;:i ~ .. ..
] ! ~ ~~ t; ~ jo\l S 1! ~. ..; ; ~ ;3 ~ ;I'" '"
~ !- :; i
, , .i ~ }3. :... i!o !i'Ii: i ..: : ~:' l: '"· .
"l; ~· ,• I~ i~ ;
:
f,
E5'•§
~g ,:
i~•
i"!
~'CO;"'-
~'11i
I!
~ ! ~ ~~ [f 2 :: ~
::: S" a ~ II~~}riS: ~ g ~ ~~ ji ~ 3 :; R
~ '" ( " ..~: i ~ ~ ~ i~f~~~~~g,~fi?~.. .. Il ... "
~~g;~~.,.. .... Il
~"t~:::[;= s ~ g z. ..n ~ ,. .. • 0
z~:~~~"
~ ~ HU~ ~ ~ ~ j
i ~ ~ i
•
[ J ~:s: '" :
~ ~ ~ ~; ;; : ~o •: ~ ] 1'.
~ ~ ; ! Ip . § :
1 } ~ ~
s [ : !~ } f ~
• 0 •• 0
; ; ~ ~"" ;> .. ~
:i :. ~ K~ : ~ &
i F j ~• 0
! .. .. :;~ ~ i :'< ~ [ ~
~ ~ :ig ~o ,
:'. i
~ .. ~ ~ gc -! f, :; '"
~" :! ~:!i:~~9 ~ .. ~ ~ ..';; f, ~ :: ~ ..
~~~~~~![~i~~
'" '" .. :;- ...,tJ;~i~g
~~:f!i- .. .. :i" ~ ..
"c ] ~ i ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ;:; ~. ; ~ [ !~ li S (~~~2~~~~:.-~~;;
g s ~ ~ f1
SF"·=-f~
~~
;!~
!~[~ ~ .....
"•;g
; .. :::~
t([
~'
~,
'0
'"
U' "0 " .. I".. )""" ~I¥O ."... A ""rUin t)'r~ ,,~ ."""t ..""u~". '''''if .ar ..
",,,n··, -r~"L.• l- t""cU'1n~ 1-<>"""... <1>."11 o~ly ".<>.Iu"" "n O\ltp"t t"r a 51~'~
o~ tile t.,tAl o~ po.n1:>t. ""UU'jU you c"" ",.\li," up In th. h"')....~.. ....."
H)'''''' J""". "~""••"" tl'lU pr""Ju", M" "II,\!-
;:$c.\.:!; ~~cU"'" I>.c~u." It u.";" ct> o~"r.'t~= to ~et .. ""'~"""e
tr"'" 1"0\1.
[V~, tl'lo''''l"n (""".1.,.,. U .... Si,liH·"...::r "nly ."1''''''' """..rats 4Z
ln:-u"a, ,,::t)' itS..~ pUUal £uncUo"" be"a"$" th"y g"" t",.u ....""..~e"
1>c """".0.1. 1:>«:3"' .. """,....1$ at. "l~ en" h cO th.. oS...p... ""'"'1'"••• '.b:::9ua;e. ~il .. ""nUl.. .1!l:!H.<l th......eM ".on ·n"".... "" _yt!>!",>! but "-
..odd 0: 11"",..ul••
.0
G''l;./[\
. i I
r[!.
n... chu (l<ln.1) of "'''"~,,gu .1"....... """"uon
kn~. h".. to a,:<".;>. 1S c",U.,j lU -<I,>ul"" •
PI:;' II ~5
10i A 'CO ,loc:.tion 101) ..111 1\..... th. firs" inpll" to.. M£TXY
'Ot' ,,,) I tn. X in:;>u~ alu.101 ,-2S 1 ~ Y L.put d".
/;~ t" • 1'..0]"....'" ..11."" y"u Hut .to... Str>po.. , EM turtlo "Ill .1':''''''' ""tl>. ""'It... of t~ .......'1. ~~1"'J t<> tho "l\1n~ (.) "·"loe>:). Y""" .o:f ,,"w.
to ...It II f~ 84<:0"01.. fo.. el,. t ....th to ..""" "l'.
Bu14u p.. 1nt1r>g "UU'J". 0I'l pUt. O( tn. 1..1&,,·••"1'8 (.1\1. h
".ll~ th", -lyp_rl••r- 'PattI, YO"',""" It. &1011'."1'..01' !oiel\ ICOU
1h4 tur.le ••olll\d on tlle se.""" .an'" dU pte""..... 1'he tl. "an fo<t&
IU hud o"t. or \l:1PQY.1: it (l?Ull .lot. 1'1). I" .h1O 11"... , 1 tent.? ••• _
to ~1<1 the ,...."'1:>.... of ttl. 10'l' to 01l-<ly. M<I tM .40:1..... =-oy 0' ••"/ no. l>e-
"".4~.1 ttl .. %0"1', d"l'~n<l\"'J = ..ho.1> ... 0 .. ,,(I.~ it UK.. 1n",~. 0..........".
..~l"".. '1"h.. t._ """",..t .. 0" pa'I" ••~ thll~ y""" ,,,.,,.Uy " ••0:1 t<> 01'" .t.
hu" t~O 10e"U"".. I" ."".... :.' fo' "'''1'1 t"..th <:-....nd lo~. 10.. tl'>o f;n ~,,~
"". £or t.h.. 1')'1") •
.~u .... ~I\~ ~y;>evr1""~ p.lnt:l,,';,1 on "n. :t=l"" .".._1>_ru•••u l1nu =<1 ~..to:".. turtl. to ~.=...~,,~ ~h~ ~ ~~l"
hi·:.. t.tlo ~ rtl"~.~u"'. "tl.. •"rel .. :0" ~"'''1n<J ...hit>l" lin.....i~~~lU 0' p""1~,,
. re~"rn. 9n~9l9Hl H th.. p.... i. d ....... 0 1:1: " ..""~C" t"..~h .~..,.~ I\l. tl~ ..d.<:p~"H1; .. 0: pok..p",:. tutU" a: tl=. """ttlon (u.. SEt-rUR<rLE)="". t."ttl" !o"""r<j inp"" n=Mr 0: ..",.,,<11'1 ,,"1...'""~u t"<1;to t>;Ck,,~.o1~,,,~,, ~..... th <.0 it·. lo~~ 101'",," ,,=~. Of J""r"os~"<,,. ""~U" .. t"tl1;.... , .... 1 .. '" Un" 0 .. """I'''hO'' 01.....""r.,,,o 10.1''''' r.",-,~..t .,: l1r.~.
op~1'"1t."" p1Ct." ... 1<1 I"h", h ...... ly u.~j
O<Ht" ~., 1<_~ 0" plot.hr ,,~U ,,"'..b .... i<l l"I'"'<~
.. ~. pL.,:" I<""J I"p,,~.. $C"L~ lIe.a,,/lnch ""<I X'l: l-=. p<>01.ioll;u~ .e.l" (.nlrc/h"h) o:>ly~,,~n. t"<.1,, (1.",,: ~"o::c'I0""''''' :<""..) 0'''1''''''')""..." t,,, .. ,,to (le.:>·"h ' .." X "".I. Y cl18 ..."".... )r.-')'. ~" X d.lt<.<:tle" only..~.,- I~ Y ~ ~,,~o.~ o.,lyI'~~ ~"tU" .. t ;...~ (lo""U &1'. Jt 4t>4 Y p""'U""1~.l~ t~~U.. at X ";0<>'F~' t·... t .1 Y 'v.o'..,,-<u<r.> .) ,·ab." 1 ar4 y "".Itlon." ...~~ .."~h.".n .tu'd"~" .""1'.1>0" (1<11''-''' 10 .""p 'J..,,~ ••",,?,h'>t.~-." .. '-.';' (t".'"t 10 onop 'I• '0 d "i".' (:".~u. 1..."'1' 'J.< Il 'M~.
<e""r. ••U '_.',' ,,=~~r. ".o~ .0 l ...."'.~. " .,,':> ••.".....'b-~. oh) ..",t .lit XY(4 1<11"'1'>' .no:>'. "bJ.~U. J(. Y)•. ').,~ '.' ObJect {) 1,.;>e'.: O"j""'t'. """'., Ul'Jh).. t "'"1'.'''''''''' t-"l-"~O (4 l"I'''U' U ..~t. X£"1_j"'.n ...... Y.....<e""j
.~51""'..•• to\:' .1n,u:".,Uc.;. io:t u,.. 'hrd" (1.,1"" "r 1'10.." .... )
lOti I.o-;o 11"-,,.
00 CL;;'!11 Yl;>;;:;: st;;.) H':"t.. t>:::::.-ol!> ;>1::::::;>6 t>::::,1'7 2:;":B tiS.>'(!.9 EO·t<:10 r~'l,.:r
11 .,"':.<H :'!:,~r
n P.:':~:r
U YA~
15 ZP16 C;:l,;l!'-S$., f:':;:U t,'.'n:r.n f;:',',' ;;:.:U;2' S'1:::II.I.£21 H',' .....~I~'i22 ;;':;:·;~1
2) ~~,'_"
24 ~ ;':: y25 ~3:~~Y
25 A:'::ri7 "':;::-;Y:3 J;"!:.':i~ S:i,\?JO 1"):::'-".). t:i:,';::.\?n En::::;,.J) If: l:~;;.oJ>"
J4 If~,\T l'"r~
.)~ p;r:~:</-'p
)~ P)·:t~,:AJ'
H ,,~,\I'
E->.eh I:n' i".t:ueuon ",u~t n"'" ....e~ist".., "1>1<:1'1 eon~4l.n. ~h..1'1=1:,,: ,,~ ~l\4 10"~ ~o \>4 e:<ecu~<!'d, .,,01 a:l "'<l~,,u in l:I=ry ..M .... tn"Io~ "i11 :1r.<!. 1n t~~...~{~) 4~<I ''''n h"v" ito ""t<,ut( .. j. AA lOT ..111
::~t1~n':~rn"~:~~~;~~~I'n:~:it~~:~;,n~;:;~~';"~~"!!,!!":.",n")1
7m' A i I t1\.. -i- ,,111 ;::nn ·SEE- <.0 10'1'10'l' A • I ttl.. S~~ 10'1' ,,&1':\....0 in,,"t., .0 ~ 4~""•• " .... boo _yt.l>.1<><J
'10_,,_ run tM" p~c.j~_ to II...t th. t.,,~u. em Y<hi<" .""."nl
00' ,pro A :IO,]J ,I~'" • I iSS 4<>o.,,'t. e.r••1>:I"t. th. 10f'" ..w"... Uol!O,]J 'RA:.
..... t.ry lOllf'. lih .... ~. " •• :u.p .tt.r <lrk..1,,";! .. "hlbh U"••
$1"",,< ..Ul au, It. If you "".. nl' "f~or du..l"'J an IM10l"1" 11"",
Sl",l'<'1C ..111 ill In... t.nt. UII... b4<:1< to t"" h"t "hllll" lIn.·, :;UP
10 111<. :1:41". ~..t It t~I<.. :s. _. InP'lt ..1\1<:1> ny•.""" ....,,)' 11..... t.o .......
~ IIII' ....,s 7.111" In YOU" p~"'J'_' 1I0U.... t.hAt. :to" ...-1" ..rit.•• ;or"J''''
tJl"t 'Uu ::11' e...~,' <I.,.,,, ..h.. t :11' doo. by ...,,,,,Un'} d"""'_ .0 ZIP <1oo.n·t " ...".
to I>ll on. of $I:O;;OC". 'tvIote li)1'o,
'flW t.urU. "" t.h••"~u,, hu 1"" pon I" po"U;I<;>n. Ad<l.
Inlt",,"tlor.. to )..,..... "<i09"~CI to <1.0 ,E....:w .1'1<1. p.SJil)Oll:{. WbIlt. b ....""n. tI>
t.". t.ur"l.'. """t. h." lUI p"" io dO""'1 •• 00 .
no:sl' 0:"<1. lIA~ talt. OlIo 1""",<:, "n~eh .0&.Sllrea tM <'ItOt...",. (In QrIlta ....
U'>I' 00;<.... tn"t t:1>o tu.rtl....111 _. (100 unlh I" ._1:0 0<>. Inen).
.,
"A cl_·. oO'co<.d_handl '-I'r". 36l:1" 1° •••n. <lO'}"".)' ~"fY
.In..t.... za f/4 ..In''1:'' It. t.,,<n. '/10" and ln, 1/1 ."'..ta 11:
~rn,; 45°. 1oIh_ you t."".. yo<>r...U .:0Wl'" t" h". UIto
OJl....Ut.. ...y, 1'0<>'.". t:.u"nlld ebOu.t 180°. Ii""......ac"
anghll. 11'" ..111 cl...Y. ta... t.ho d1r"" ..lo" to t.ho .l'1g"t
(30',,1oe)<) to be 0 0 1
n. t..,..Uo c ...., 1>0 t.... ,,0<1 •• vdl •• 00...0<1 In .tn,lgllt. 11:>.•••
'1':>.. Un an<!. 1:1CUT 10'1....eh t."le" on" I"p"t. ..1\1"" 10 t.ho ,,,..loU of
.~1o< de>Ju'" to t.,.." .""""'<1 Ito c."to.. \iU 1'=),
0" you lui .... "hat .... &l\<lt .. &."d .. <I~r". "r."
001 ,1':Jt'.\ 10 ,t.hl. co"l<1. 0" 11 for BACK(1(12 I.U.( B , ulC tl>O h"""n ".... far "0 ClovaOoJ IS'l:O • 100004 ~lO'1 " to0(15 tl'l/? I' :I
.1oCK+~->rR09T
ror neh lQ1'. th... In;ut. .."ot 10" 111. tboo 1"",...t10<l lIO-",ed In t.n. 10'1'0
"M",ul u ..tol. Mod. ."".. lkOl'l' ...,<1 IlACK ;tor. t.o }....... progr.... <U\,J """ t."'"
n:...."::1....."ll "0 t"at "1'1"", )"<>" 0_.. tNt ,=U.. , "h.. t.=tl. l.~...... 1:..<:,,".1>e~1,,! (<1. ;1,.... Un.). WHb It.. PUlUP. tho "urtlo 1-0........ " .. U.".. ,,1'1"3
'to ......" tM t"rd".
'fry thU_1
'0 ©" .f})-1 0'-.
l,UT 9(1 0" UCKT 45 0" 'LU'f Jf>o OIC1'1l~!l':: _~O 1.0;:"1 -45 IlIGlll Jf>O
.p;o...:o en t.::. leu"". Tll. llQ~ 1~ "Ul p"t. It ther... IlIPll ,,1=0 plln
V ... t.un.l. "ca., b\<I: ....u. YOU: pie'''....
..... It.•• P"'09~oa to .:.::: ... 0 "...,t.IU:l31.. I" .2>:1,,14 e.u t_ Inp"U
f".". Y"''' (h1nt.' \l'" AsK) ..Meh fOr" th. hn.."ll e..."14 v1<:t.h of the Old"".
1:.,.. yo:.. ."""ld be ..bl. to ...It.. " plC"1"e:> "htell dr"". 0 ""l.''''''''. of any
"leo. It .~.o"t<l. C"U on yo"r "oct.~gl.. P'<><;rU'l for helg.
1I'rlt ...., 1"....H". p:..,r..,. ..!t1el> 4r""" .n1 """'b.r ot UnO'....1t.h
El',...."'" '""11 .. Nt""".. " ..ell 1'''1 .. of U""~o I" .~'14 talc.o t.1>=..,. Inp" .....
""" hn'}th' o~ each lu.., t.ho ""'}1. bot..""", I.""••cl1 tn" """,l><Ir of Un..
to .df....... It .1>0,,1<1. du" p10;t"...... 111<••
~
Il 1"""'",,, .... it.t"" .. p:ol:= ..htell <l.u.." • pIC".... " y<>U ...:,t. t.o
....... yo" e." ".'" th" plot"~" t.<> p"t It. "" 1'''1'''.1'. JlaI«1 a,,:. no on...ls",
h "'lnq t.l>o plot ....", t1>"" q"t. I' r ..lldy b)' eheel<ln:I th... I~ "e" von o.. \00
of! th" 1"""" hrt. ont!. up..a: rtOJht COm..u or tlw p~.,..:. N_ .... SI.I....
or ElII'r' to 1'''''' u'u" two 1n.t:""U",,,.. ./It. t"" b"!llnnlnil "r yo~r I'roJr.,"
pur A Hlor A PI.OT!:R
",,<I t."19 .......bo<r ago\",,".r.. In mlOQO..Y,
2~' Ipt.o1'~lI.)
Tluly "111 t."U 51",no..... """ tho plo ..t"r~ ..1>0"., ""lnty!>" n_~: 10 .:~~o
Aha h .. 0'"<,, to "u EDIT or 51.10<:; ...,,:1 <I." en USPJ.(l'"; 1(;'; ..t. tho! ...,:1 of
your prO<]< ot"...... l ... nO "ne eh.. ,,111 ro.. ,,"1.. to "e.. th<l plon"rl
'Jou. e." lee slmpe.. obooy your 1'.0<1"..... "h",t. dra p1e"ut" ",~d 1t
..Ul """'" o"t on t.he plo::.""r in,,:.,,"" or th" 1101"" .0; ". w..." y...... r.
d""". b ..."". YO"'" pro;""''' h.>s ..x"c::,,~"<'1 an U:;PI.OT .0 tho.t .COl.""••h.
ean "'. the pto!:.t"r.
Y"u Cen l<... plet.w:,.. "hlc::h ..ov" "'0\11'1<1 0" ..1'1'....... ond d"";ope .." =1:.">" I:T1lO'e .e by "011'1<] t.ho .." ..p.hot IQr", 5:1.0.1', r.:-OS.~AP, Sr.,".I~S ......
U.~5E..lOAl', WIpESl:APS. XHlllS~Al'5. ptll'SlIl\P. 1l0"£S~"P ....d ,,~n:o. e ..!o<.. "
pIc""... e"" b" ,"""..-1 a"ou"d. It. ",... t !>nco",.....a;O.l\<lt. rhu· ....... t. s'""...
doe", 511"1' t""'''a on" l ..p~t ""."be" .. n<l leta yo"" pr"'Jr ..... at.ort. "u,d,"...
p1et"....."1eh ..111 h.."" ..Mt n"",b~r 80 ita """'''. 11"0" yo,,' .... ;0«>••"''' U
60n6 dr"lI~n'} tl1e ;>1Ct"U. 1t I:I"~!:. "b~y 0''' E....{j~".\? lor. II,. "01 ,,,,.. u~..
o· • n~p'hot.. "ra ."0,,,,, tn.l<1...he 1",100;'. "'''lI\Ory, W yo" "'.'/ ''''' 0"" of
'1''''''' 1f yo" try to d,,,·~ t.= "'''''1 .....p5ho..... ro ...... r1d o~ .. s<.a ....,o ...
to ... tl'ASf.SI;Ap...hleh u\:".... Ita 1";o"t ..h. " ..... II.. r ot ..h" U.~8l'>Ot to
It y"" "ont to 1<1'1"" .. !'Ileh ~"";> 1'1"",1.'1<. yo.. • ..." "as", ",,,
WHATSI'APS. J1 r"'''"rn. 8 l\lt ot ..Ii ...... ;0 """,l>M. uoe<l, and 1 .... 11.c::
.~ ..rt .. ~" 'h~ '""...<><y l"..,~t.l.,.. 1'1°,"",<1 I" the IUI'·••'1<1..... ~hl<1.
'"
Ie"• .,e.. .,""'~ p:o;u"'. "Meh you I>19h.. 111,_ to uy.
{II e:n... u;ul,,~ p"lY'lo"s (''1u.""....e.),
I "nU~APS5 _ .....,,~ an ..;>. to .....~..
I st.,~t .:"a;>pl"9I go to til. I""ly;o" d.n.....~
I ""e.. ""n;>" t:o ....I<..?
: ;:S "to 'JO (Nel' .....n. "dO ..otI>1~9-1I Y _ ........ goIng t<> <Jo .,noth.. r '''Ilp
200 .fllJT ... n201 ,:"r A •i(l~ ,~$K A~OJ .~ro .\ SN;'PS20.. IF;;. '" 1205 .Ho A !lSI.£'
~g~ ;~~ : j~J (s~n>ol 1K1;> ...." .. £.~il~"1U' ../l."" .t,.rt1"g
20a '~o>T A • I L"OS~.u>
20<) ILO... '" SllAP210 .OJ'" A SHA?S211 1~(.IlL
212 11I"P2t3 IlSC A2101 ,::1'0 ... WAPil5 ,1';)', .Il i9ilo .!Or A s.~.'IP
217 .;>ar P 1
(2) Add tllu to your puvl""" pr01u", .nd yO\> " ....... l<.I "".~.hI>'" 0: ...
lIOn)' "fl1luh" 1'01:f<Jon.... you "101> (u .... N..... & to '11". iOl _til. "..". S~ ~
and to ""1M oth"r 1~""1on. SlIlU'S .. nd SIIAP), .
you.< p~r"'" ..111 k""1' on "''''";>91'''1 ....~. ~han on.. p1" ..u.... ~/l..,. y .... ~ ....
it "'y, llllf 20(1. b.e",,"" eI.a .....;>91"9' ,"u"t. .....et ...eryt.h1"'l. .it:fO'l
~ .. 111;>:: a.. ~n" 1l"'llnn1~'1 of the p~COjr"" on til" P~"VlO'" P";I_. you " .. "
U.J<. it Out if you w1.h, I>.";>us., S:l1I1' do.... Wn'E. Alu~ you. .".. t1>h,
you c .... us.. the n""t p~....rn... ~ sll......he .""p.hOt." 1n • """1". tou ""'"
;t""....l><>c tll" 1 .... t 'nO;>~hOt """Mr you~ l'~o<J~"'" u...d (tl'l.. Hu.. on" I.
al..ay-' II •
l ...1<. A "G-i"Uv" for ccu"Ung t<> ,...eo
I "el""l"u .,,;h I>"t..e." UelU
l PL.~::(l'..r!l
l to" FaOST;~~~~L:~~? (".~ ae",,~ - .. n.. puu~t lo<:..t.\.o,,-l; Y~3
I no, ,>0 f",~....~dI turn; .~.o" .... "'lei "" .. ""'~...1e1"l ,>0 1>..,,1< t.o ..... 1f ..,,'~.. elon.
0:;)1 .AS" AO:l~ ,S~C .\ SIDE:eel .~H "C~~ ,5!.:l;' S:D~CC~ ,li;;':" 11ce.. ,?;;: 9 3';(1a::l~' ,::l:~ ~ SII)E:SDa~ ,5:C- 9 .I.~G!.!
a~~ ,:o;;t ~ (,al::l , • .:-= ~ •0'1 11';;. a HIO'i ,i'~, .:: 12au •.::~.~ ?o _••201'; ,s;,:,)15 ':ut B stD!.OIl> ,lOt C .I.~Ol.&
Oll ,l.~::: A0101 IP"f po .-5
It 1''''' ,"v. """••nflp.hOh "'.!tnod. y"" .....1" ._ ~h.... "h.uve~ '-!'I.e
~ur'-~. h ..1..h ~h. SSO'JS:Ul' lOr. :u 1n"",- ~db ..h1"h O".PQh.:>" "0 .. ho>I
.", '-1M- ~eu.n. H y"" """''' .. 1\0 .."ed'" ..~..I ehov " anapM"',- "~.I.n...""p~.v10"~ ""' ...111 ....... On tt>. S"~Unn yO\> .",,\ .~a.....".p.lIOt ~,.
U'~ 0I1t1'o :OAP or ;:U'. "011>,,1••nnp.!"'_ 10 .u.<>oi l>y ~.II <:...... "'" "001
\'.,... 1<:".... cn.-""y to 1l\OV. plet.,e•••round "" t.1>fl ,.,r..... r~y _1<1"~ .nd
.11.... 1::.~ • ..,.••""".1'0... 01 "h.t ~'oue pr""to"'. dr....
:a.. .""" to ........hot ~AI'~ """""..M t<> n<l"'.. s"""" ot1>u 1""....1=. SUIE, UD~
• ~eI A.'l<;:.t. You ..~y .ho·"... t to hav" y.,..... p"o<Jeam do ., 1I1P;!; I>"lo.<..
'"Ul 1'1110 P~<oJ~"''' "an 10" .,d;Jfl<1 ..... y""r puvl,o... ""'... to ._ .. "ov1" of
the .n":u~,,, you h,,"e ",.<1.",
30::1 .P:if A 130' .:;ot ....302 ....Sot A-JO) .St:> A SJi.llP3C~ ,;,.s.~ il30~ .SlO il S~ ~S
305 .'::0>1 A $." S (sl307 .1:A:.30S .:,;;?3Ci l?l"O: B 313lC .:;C'i' il S,;;U>3" ,?~'" 3 143\2 JI"= II •313 I.H' ...314 ,.:r" ss....315 .?;)! P S
1 IIIPE:I 'J~t t1'o" tint .~.al' to ._
I ""t th<o l""t ....p
, h.v" ....._ .. them ,,1l?J ye. .l no. on" to ';0; no. =~., "h "" .. to 90J ._ t"," "." ".pJ UP 1 .., ._ "'.. d1d on. ""'~"
I go b.,"k to ae. lt ....·re don.. ,)
:t 'JO'" "ont to ..1.... t1'o" "",;'1.. d""". do a ""'l'r be:o~" "''':>pln,]. lIcow
try l:4k1"'i th.. turtl .. ""'va """,,:,ot 1'1 I>.t"un SHC...SN .....S.
"
"
Page 163
Appendix 4 Student Programs
The following are listings of some original student efforts in Logo and
Simper. Some work and some have bugs. They are here to indicate the kinds
. of programs that interest students at various stages in their learning of
programming.
TO BEGREAT1 PRINT :,. . . "2 PRINr """',"""6""""'THIS IS GREATNESS •••3 PRINT
• ••+6 ••••••••••••*••••*.**••*.*.***.************************••***••**.**.4 PRINT·····,1111,',1""',1,',1,··**···',1,',"'·*··***"'"I**.'II"'~**** ••*"
5 PRINT·····,"~//111/1//1,',11111***····"",',',·***.*·,"""*"""'~.*****."
6 PRlt\T··········*···,"'11,·*········*·,11,',1,'****···"11#·,11*1"',*•••••*."
7 PRINT····**···*···*"""'*****·**•••·"""81,•••***·"",*11,.,",'.**••••••
8 PRINT···~··***·*···IIII',I***·*·***·**""',I",.····*·,I',,·*'**1',',*···***··
9 PRINr··············,11,",··*****•••*.,"'#",,***.·**"',' .*.**"",***••*.*.10 PRIm'-·*··"111,·**111111,···***····**1'61111"*****·*",,,***.*"",********
11 PRINT _..··**"""···'1""'*···*·*****·""'81"*******1""·****"",.**•••**12 PRI~'l'ft*···;"'I'···"""'*•••••••••**"""",*••••••"",.**••,,,,,**.*****_
13 PRINT···**/161',"11111111**··**·*****,"',',1,.*******"".****1",'••••**••
14 PRIN-r···~·",I'#',llilll"··**·**.**··'HII*',I#**** ••*IIII'·••**1""***·***.·
15 PRINT•••••••••••••••••••*••••••**•••••••••••••••*****••*.******•••*••****••**.
~~ :~i~ :;:~~ ~~i~i ::::~:::~~~~=,~~~~~TI~~i~~~TION BROUGHT TO YOU By••• •20 PH.INr ·THIS PR03AM. WILL SELF-DESTRUCT IN FIVE SECONDS.·21 WAIT 522 PRIN1' -1111111 I II III J 1J I U 111BOOOOOOOOOMMMIlIt Illllflllllllllll111l"23 GOODBYEEND
_.BEGREAT
THIS IS GREATNESS •••**•••**••*******••••••••••••*********••••*******************.*.*.***.**•••• ***••** ******* *.. .*.***.*..... • ••••** *.**.*. * **.*••**•••• *~.*••.jl..* ••*****.....* *••*.** *. **.*****••••*••****.. ..****••• ~*. *******.. ****•••*••*.*****••** ***•••••*.** .*...*..... *. *.******••••••••••••• .'lIo*********. .*.**** ****. • ••••**.•••• *.. *••**•••••** •••••** *••** **********.* ••• **••****.*.. **••*** ••*** *.**••••••*. ..* ..*••••*.*** .**.... **... .*.*•••*•••• *••••*.***.. **••*** *'*••* **••**.*•••• ****••* ***.* ********••*......**••*••••*•••***••••*.**•••**••••**•••**.**.*.***.**.*••••••***
(TrlIS SECRET INFORMATION BROUGHT TO YOU BY, ••JIM INGLIS)
TRIS PROGAM WILL SELF-DESTRUCT IN FIVE SECONDS.1I1111II111 111II1 11I11 BOOOOOOOOOMMMIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
GOODBYE
_TO STARTRBK85 PRINt YOU ARB CAPTAIN KIRK OF THE STARSHIp ENTERfRISE•••• Il'·S PIVE
810Y~~~NT ·'MISSION t TO EXPLORe STRANGE NEW WORLDS ••• TO S££~ OUT ~EWLIFE·
'15 PRINT ·NAND NEW CIVILIZATIONS••••• •820 PRINT ·UII",',',TO BOLDLY GO WHERE NO HAN HAS GONE BEFOREI·825 PRINT ftAPROACHING GAMMA FOUR t CAPTAIN·830 WAIT 2832 PRINT "I EXPECT THIS TO BE A NICE SHORE LEAVE·935 WAIT 2@37 PRINT ·CAPTAINI THERE·S A KLINGON VESSEL POLLOWING USIl045 TEST IS REQUEST ·REVERSE COURSE·850IFTRUE WAIT 3851 IFTRUE PRINT ·REVERSING COURSE·852 GOTOLINE70955 U'FALSE TEST IS REQUEST ·OPEN A CHANNEL TO THE KLIHGON VESSEL860 IFTRUE WAIT 4@63 IFTRUE PRINT ·HAILING FREQUENCIES OPEN , SIR-e'" ~ IFTRUE REQUEST.. •1)70 IF~'ALSE TEST IS REQUEST LOCK PHAZERS ON TARGET@75 IFTRUE WAIT 3677 IF'l'RUE PRINT ·PHAZERS LOCKED ON., TARGET _ SIR-
::~ i~i~;:Ep:~NT ft WHAT NOW SIR·@95 PRINT "'SHOULD I WAIT FOR ORDERS TO FIRE?·8105 TESTIS REQUEST ·YES"'110 IFTRUEREQUEST@115 IFFALSE PRItIT ·FIRll~G PHAZERS·8120' IFFALSE WAIT 50122 IFFALSE PRINT -GOfiEMII-8125 IFFALSE i:RINT "ONE WARP ENGINE DEAD CAPTAIN t THE KLINGON SHIP IS
HELPLESS8130 PRINT "FIRINGPHAZERS8135 WAIT 5@131 PRINT ·GOT·EM·8140 PRINT' ·THE KLINGON SHIP IS DEAD CAPTAIN·!tENDSTARTTREK DEFINED....STARTREKYOU ARE CAPTAIN KIRK OF THE STARSRIP ENTERPRISE••••IT~S FIVE YE~R
MISSION. TO EXPLORE STRANGE NEW WORLDS •••TO SEEK OUT NEW 'LIFEAND NEW CIVILIZATIONS•••••
TO BOLDLY GO WHERE NO MAN HAS GONE BEPOREIAPROACHING GAMMA FOUR • CAPTAINI EXPECT THIS TO BE A NICE SHORE LEAVECAPTAIN I THERE·S A KLINGON VESSEL FOLLOWING USII"EB"END
SHOULD I WAIT FOR ORDERS TO FIREE?"NOFIRING PHAZERSGOT· EM! !ONE WARP ENGINE DEAD CAPTAIN t THE KLINGON SHIP IS HELPLESSFIRING PHAZERSGOT·EMTHE KLINGON SHIP Is DEAD CAPTAIN_GOODBYE . .
001 ;PUT A 10002 :IOT A 86003 :PUT A 12004 :IOT A 86005 ;PUT A 12006 ;IOT A 86)07 ;PUT A 1008 rIOT A 86
009 ;PUT A 4010 :IOT A 86011 :PUT A 10012 ;Iar A 86013 ;PUT A, 12014 ;10'1' A 8&015 :PUT A 10016 ;IOT A 86017 ;PUT A 12018 :10'1' A 86019 ;PtJT A 10020 ,lOT A 86
,- 021 :PUT A 13)22 :IOT A 86
023 :PUT A 10024 ; lOT A 86025 :PUT A 12026 ;101' A 86027 :PUT A1a
028 :Iar A 86029 :PUT A 12030 ;IOT A 86031 :PUT A 10032 :IOT A 86033 :PUT A 13034 :10'1' A 86
035 :PUT A 10036 :10'1' A 86037 :PUT A 12038 :10'1' A 86039 ;PUT A 10040 ,lOT A 86041" ;PUT A 12042 :IOT A "86043 :PUT A 10044 riOT A 86045 :PUT A 13046 :IOT A 86147 :PUT A 10.,)48 :IOT A 86049 IPUT A 12050 :IO'I' A 86051 ;PU1' A 10052 IIOT A 86053 IPUT A 12054 :10'1' A 86055 :PUT A 10056 :10'1' A 86 "
057 :PUl' A 10058 :IOT A 86059 :PUT A'12060 :IOT A 86061 :PUT A 10062 IIOT A 86063 ;PUT A 12064 :IOT A 86065 :PUT A 10066 rIOT A 86
067 :PUT A 12068 :IOT A.S6069 :PUT A 10070 ;Iar A 86071 ;PUT A 10072 IIOT A 86)73 ;PUT A 13
074 ;PUT A 13075 ,Iar A 100076 :PUT A 12
086 :90
001 ;PUT C 4002 ;IOT C003 :PUT A 10004 ;PUT B 12005 :ASK C006 ,5'1'0 C 110007 slOT A 110
OOB :ASK A009 :5TO A 120010 ;IOT B 120011 :PUT C 0
012 slOT C •013 :PUT p 1014 :PUT C 1015 ;IOT C ;.
016 :HAL017 ,PUT P 14
110 ,400
120 :180
001 ;PUT A 20002 :IOT A 154003 ;PUT A 1004 :IOT A 100005 ;PUT A 201006 :5'1'0 A 199
007 ;PUT A 0008 :5'1'0 A 200009 :LOA B 199 (PICK)
010 :RAN AQ1'! IS'!! A R~
012 :5'1'0 A 8B013 :INC B014 :RAN A015 :SHI A R8016 ;5'1'0 A is017 :INC B)18 :5'1'0 B 199019 :LOA B 200020 :LOh' A 200021 :INC A022 ;5'1'0 A 200023 :JUM B LINE024 : PUT P PICK025 :PUT A 2 (LINE)026 :5'1'0 A195027 :LOA B 200028 :SUB B 197029 :LOA A.199030 :5U8 A 199031 :PUT C 5032 ;IOT C 100)33 :PUT C 25
034 :Iar C fA035 ;JUH B .+2036 : PUT P PICt<
037 :PUT C 4038:10'1' C 100039 :SUB A 196040 :PUT C 25041 ,lOT C @A
042 :LOA C 198043 ,ADD C 196044 sSTO C 196045 :PUT P LINE+)
150 :324151 IPUT A 18 (STOP)152 :10'1' A 100153 ;HAL
154 :25
_TO TUTE.,0 PRINT "TlTO.POZA.JR.·.ENDTOTE DEFINED_ TUTETI'l'O.POZA.JR.
i~~ ~~~Nr"MARY.JO.POZA.".ENDMOM DEFINED
i;~ ~~~NT "FAUSTO.POZA.SR.".ENDDAD DEFINED
TO ME"0 PRINT ·KAREN.S.POZA.·tENDME DEFINED
iig ;i~; "LUIS.H.POZA..ENDBIRDS DEFINED
ii~ .~~i:iH2QUINCHa".ENDQUINCHO DEFINED_TO US810 DAD&20 HOM830 ME840 'l'UTE'50 BIRDStENDOS-DEFINED_USFAUS'l'O.POZA.SR.HARY.JO.,PQZA.KAREN.S~POZA.
'lITO. POZA. JR.LUIS.H.POZA.
TO FOUR; IP;810 RETURN TKO SF ;IP;IENDM.FOUR DEFINED
P FOUR "TRAIN"I
TO FIVE t INPt810 RETURN FOUR BF :INP;08"0FPIVE DEFINED
P FIVE "RETURN·R_EDIT FIVE@EDL 10'0 RETURN BF FOUR : INP.END
~;V;I~f~~URN·
_P FIVE "MONOLCGUE"
_LIST FIVE
TO FIVE :INP;10 RETURN BUTFIRST POUR : INP:END
_EDIT FIVE8EDL 1010 RETURN FOUR BUT:E'IRST :IMP;.END
F;V:I~:F!~OLOGUE"L_TO ST.36:PL:01 a RETUR..~ WORD woRD WORD WORD WORD
L ;PL: TRD ;PL;tENDST.36 DEFINED_P 5'1'.36 "SEASON"SESONA
TO JKL1 BELL11 BELL111 BELL1111 BELL11111 PRINT "HA,HA,ALEX1·11119 JKLENO
F :PL: SEC :PL: FOUR ;2Ll FIVE :PL:
TO PAY
~g ::i:i :::::::::~::::::~::~~#~:~'~~~:~!:':~~~~~~~*~::~!MAY 4,2000·30 PRINT """6""t','##1", WE DEMAND TOPLESS CHEERLEADERS""""'"40 PRINT "THE HotTEST STORY OF THE WEEK IS THE STORY OF THE rOPLESS
CHEERLFADERS. THE TERJ~N BOY REQUESTED THAT THE CHEERLEADER DETOPLESS WHEN PEFORMING AT A GAME. THEY COMPLAIN THAI' 'litE GIRLStlNIFORM. WERE FLOA'rING OVER THEIR K..'1EES. THEY SAID THIS WAS BECAUSETHE CHEERLEADERS WERE FLAT CHESTED GIRLS. TREY ALSO SAID THECHEERLEADERS UNIFORM WERE ALWAYS LONG. SO THEY DEMAND TOPLESSCHEERLEADERS. THEY SAID THAT THE OFFICIALS (OLDMEN) DID NOT CHOSE THERIGHT KIND OF GIRLS FOR CHEERLEADERS. THEY SAID THAT THEY BE ALLOW TO
. 50 ;~~~i ~E~~~:A~i~~;A~~~ST~ETOPLESS CHEERLEADERS. THE SCHOOLBOARD CHOSE 200 BOYS FROM CERTAIN CLASSES (HOI1E ECONOMICS). THESE ARETHE RE 50LTS;#',#II'##I"OI,Ol"il##,#',IIOI'6#'#6#####I"'""',lliN,,,"," ",#,##"Q",,#IIU#II,B#dl'HU"',H,HH##NIK#HHdNU###H#1,##'""'INI##I# "6111 6'# DO WE NEBDTOPLESS CHEERLEAD~RS? ALL THE ~OYS
SAID YES. SHOULD THE BOYS BE' ALLOW TO JUDGE OR PICK THEIR OWNCHEERLEADERS? ALL SAIDYES.I#I##HUI"II""1'6111I"HH"I"III"HI'HUHUHNUDII",u",a",##,#U", THE GIRLA WERE ASK WHAT THEY THOUGHT ABOUT THa IDEA? SHAao~
SHAFER: I TnIN~ IT IS A GOOD IDEA. ELIXA WEON; I BErT~R OReEK SOME OfTHOSE MARD EDEtl' FOR BIGGER AND ATTRACIVE BREAST. 'EERESE BLANCH:WONDERFULII '1ERY WONDERFUL I I ANOTHER ,POOL WAS -TAKEN WITH THE MENTEACHERS. THIS IS HTEIR kESULTS; MR. VERNON: I COACH EvERY GAME FREE.MR. TROLl; I BETTER BUY ME A SUPER DUPER WAY our CAMERA. THERE WE~E
NOT VERY MUCH REACTION FROM THE WOMEN. aUT THEY LIKZ THE IuEA VERYMUCH so THEY THOUGHT TnEY BECOME CIiEERLEADERS (FOR THE SENORCITIZENS)"
END
TO FIG ;N: :GUESS,5 TESl' IS IN: :GUESS:10 IFfRUE PRINT -IF YOU THINK YOUR SO SMART WHY DON'T YOU TRY
TO EGG10 PRINT ·WELCOME TQ E~. WOULD YOU CARE FOR THE RULES?·20 TEST IS REQUEST YES21 IFTRUE PRINT "I AM GOING TO RANDOMLY CHOOSE A NUMBER BETWEEN 1 AND 1000t~~O YOU WILL HAVE 10 CHANCES TO GUESS MY NUMBER. BUT TO HAKE IT eASIERFOR yOU I WILL GIVE YOU THE FOLLOWING HINTS, GUESS HIGHER,GUESS ~OWERAND
IF yOU ME SUCCESSFUL I WIL.L REWARD YOU WITH A FOR'l'UNE.·22 IFTRUE FIG ~~D 1 1000 REQUEST23 IFFALSE FIG RAND 1 1000 REQUEST24 ENDEND
"''l'HIS IS DRAW,IT WILL DRAW It i'IGURE WITH ANY NUMBER OF SlD&S 'l'HATYOU WANT. HOW MANY 00 Y:JU WANn·
TOE1 PENUP2 ASETXY ( - 200 ) ( ~ 200 l6 PENDOWN1 0 MAKE ·x W REQUEST12 IF ZEROP IXI 'l'HEN DONE ELSE A IXI tXIEND
TO A IX: :Y:10 TEST ZEROP tXI12 IFrRUE J)
14 IFFALsg FRONT QUOTIENT 1200 IYI16 IFFALSE LEFT QUOTIENT 360 IYI18 IFFALSE A DIFFERENCE IXI 1 IYIEND
oro CRAP :XI5 TEST ZEROP IXI7 IFTRUE DONE10 IFFALSE PENUP15 IFFALSE BACK 5020 tFFALSE SHOWSNAP 125 IFFALSE CRAP DIFFERENCE :X. 1END
oro 'rP2 WIPE3 CLFARS PENUP6 PRoNT 20010 PRINT "HOW MANY TP'S DO YOU WANT?"'5 ZEND
TO Z10 MAKE ·X·REQUEST25 tF ZEROP IX. THEN DONE ELSE CltAP IXIEND
'l'P.DRAW2 WIPE3 CLEAR10 PaINT
15 EEND
TO 010 PRINT "'AIN'T If B~U'l'IPUL?· • ..12 IF IS REQUEST YES THEN PRINT.WELL,THANK YOU VERY MUCH. ELSE PRINT •
! WOULD LIKE TO SEE YOU DO SETTER TOOTS14 PRINT °00 YOO WX~H Tg TRY AGAIN?16 TEST ISREQUBST YES18 IFl'RUE WIPE20 IFTRUE CLEAR22 IFl'RUE PRINT ·GOOD,HOW MANY SIDES DO yOU WANT?·24 IFTRUE E26 IFFALSE PRINT ·GOODBYE"END
TO RECTANGLE IL: :WI tCI5 IF GREATERP aCI 1 THEN DOl10 FRON'!' :L:20 RIGHT 9030 FRoN-r· IWt45 RIGHT 9050 RECTANGLE ILl IWI SUM IC,END
TO RECTANGLE ILl IVI10 FRONT ILl20 RIGHT 9030 FRONT IW:40 SENTENCE • 045 RIGHT 9050 SENTENCE =SENTENCE ~ 160 IF SENTENCE • 2 THEN 8070 RECTANGLE :LI tWa80 ENDEND
TO RECTANGLE :LI tWI10 FRONT aLI20 RIGHT 9030 FRONT ,W:40 0 <l X45 RIGHT 90SO X "" X + 160 IF X a 2 THEN BO70 RECTANGLE tLI IWI60 ENDEND
~~~~~DN~~:~~; ..NUMBER AND SECOND NUMBER
AGAI~ ••• 00 ••••••••••••••••• 0.' 0 •••• 0 •••••••• 0 ••••• , •••• • • •••• •• •• • •••• ••• "
......................................... 1111 Illllllllllllllll15 TEST GREATERP rGUESSI ;N:20 IFtRUE PRI~l' -GUESS LOWER"
~~ ~~i;~S§W~~~Nis"~g~~SN~i~H~~;SS?·35 TEST GREATER? :N: :GUESS~
40 IFrRUE PRIN~ "GUESS HIGHER"45 If"fALSE PRINT "GUESS LOWER"50 n-;"R\JS FIG RAND 1 1 000 REQUESTSS IF'FALSE FIG RAND 1 1000 REQUESTEND
i~~ ~B"WHAT IS '{OUR@20 P ~WHAT IS YOUR~ 30 P SUM OF' FIRSTIittlDAM DEFINED_AS""H,.\T IS YOUR FIRST NUMBER?WhAT Is YOUR SECOND NUMBER?~UMBErt NEEDS A MEANING.I WAS AT LINE 30 IN AB_TO AC • •ij 10 PRINT WHAT IS YOUR FIRST NOMnER?
:2~ w~~~i i~RY~~:S;E~g~~UMBER?WHAT IS YOUR SECOND NUMBER?i WAIT FOR SECO~ NUMBERFOR t,EEDS A .!'tEAMING.@P SUM OF FIRST NUMBER AND SECOND NUMBERNU~BER NEEDS A MEANING.@nwAC DEFINED_ACWHAT IS YOUR FIRST NUMBER?FOR NEEDS A MEANING.I WAS AT LINE 20 IN AC_12LINE 12 OF WHAT PROCEDURE_'2 Is MY FIRST NUMBERLINE 12 OF WIIAT PROCEDURE?
TO PONG10 HAKE ..~. SO11 lo'.AKE " " ( - SO12 "'J\.KE "0" SO
~~ ~~~ :~~,,(O- SO15 ~IAKE "S2" 020 WIPESNAPS30 BOUNDERIES40 PADlJLE45 SCORING47 WIPE55 SHOWS NAP 260 START80 CHECKEND
TO BOUNDERIES3 SN.:..P 24 PENUP6 ASETXY ( - 400 ) ( - 350 )7 PEN-DOWN9 FRONT 80012 LEFT 9015 FRONT 7001 B LEE'l' 9021 FRWT 80024 LEI:"T 9027 FRONT 70030 ENDSNAPEND
TO PADDLE1 SNAP 15 FRONT 107 LEfT 909 FROt-i-T 7011 LE~'T 9013 :moNT 1015 LEfT 9017 FRONT 7019 ENDSNAPEND
TO SCORING1 SNAP 32 FRONT 503 LEFT 904 FRONT 1005 LEFl' 906 FRONT 507 LEFT 908 FRONT 1009 ENDSNAP10 SNAP 511 FRONT 2412 LEfT 18013 FRONT 1214 RIGHT 9015 FRO~T 10016 LEFT 13517 FRONT 2S18 ENDSNAP19 SNAP 6
20 FRONT SO21 LEF'I' 18022 FRONT 5023 RIGHT 13524 FRONT 5025 LEF'l' 4526 FRONT 7S27 LEFT 9028 FRONT 4029 LEFT 4530 1:'RONT 1031 ENDSNAP32 SNAP 733 FRONT 5034 LEFT 9035 FRONT 5036 LE~"1' 9037 FRONT 3638 LEFT 18039 FRONT 3540 LE1:''1' 9041 FRONT 5042 LEFT 9043 FRONT so44 ENDSNAP45 SNAP 846 PEtmp47 FRONT 5048 PENDOWN49 LEFT 9050 FRONT 10051 LEFT lao52 FRONT 5053 LEFT 9054 FRONT 2555 LEFT 18056 FRONT 7557 RIGHT 9058 FRONT 5059 ENDSNAP60 SNAP 961 FRONT 5062 LEF'l' 9063 FRONT· 5064 LEFT 9065 FRONT 5066 RIGHT 9067 FRONT 5068 RIGHT 9069 FRONT 5070 ENDSNAP71 SNAP 1072 LEFT 9073 FRONT 10074 LEFT' 18075 FRONT 5076 LEFT 9077 FRONT 5078 RIGHT 9079 FRONT 5080 RIGHT 9081 FRONT 5082 ENDSNAP83 SNAP 1184 PENUP85 FRONT S~1
86 PENDOWN97 LEFT 9088 FRONT 100&9 LEFT 9090 FRON'! 5091· ENDSNAP92 SNAP 1293 FRONT 5094 LEFT 9095 l"RONT 10096 tEl''T 9097 FRONT 5098 LEFT 9099 FRONT 100100 LEFT 1801 01 FRONT 50102 RIGHT ,90103 FRONT 501 04 ENDSNAP105 SNAP 13106 PENUP107 FRONT 50108 L£1:'T 90109 PENDOWN110 FRONT 100111 LEFT 90112,'FRONT 50113 LEFT 90114 FRONT so115 LEFT 90116 FRONT 50117 nlOSNAPf:ND
.':1.'0 START2 UNPOKE3 PENUP4 MAKE "Yl" ( - 1 )5 MAKE "Y2" ( - 1 ) •6 IG~ORE fUTSNAP'.' 1 1 2- "350 0 -350 O·"I MAKE "X 0a MAKE· "Y" a9 MAKE.'"JtX" WORD FIND RAND 1 2 -t --..so10 HAKE. DY" WORD .FIND RAND 1 2 + - 3011 WRAP "-400 400" "-350 350"12 SHOWSNAP 213 SCOREP lSi,14 SCORE .S2115 CLEAR
. END
'1'0 CHECK1 MOVE ASKCHAR 03 CLEAR~ WALLHIT6 MOVE ASKCHAR a7 IF EITHER LESSP IX, ( - 349 ) GREATERP .Xz 349 THEN PADDLEHIT10 RSETXY 'ox, tDYa11 MOVE ASKCHAR a12 MAKE :Y: SUM I¥t ,DV,20 MAKE X SUM ,X, 'ox,40 CHECKEND
TO FIND ;NOI ;YESI2 IF EQUALP INO: 1 THEN RETURN FIRST ,YES; ELSE RETU~~ ~~ND DIF~E~~C& :N~:
t &UTFIRST IYES:END
TO SCOREP IRI1 IF ZEROP ;R; THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP ·3 4· ·,50 300·2 IF EQUALP ;RI , THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP "5 •••'.' .::'~5g0 ~3g0g0.:4 IF EQUALP IR I 2 THEN lGi~ORE PUTSNAP :.6
76 IF EQUALP ;RI 3 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAPa IF EQUALP :R; 4 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP 8•••••••••151°5033°0°0•••10 IF EQUALP sR: 5 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP .12 IF EQUALP IR: 6 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP .10 4••150300.14 IF EQUALP ;R, 7 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP 11 4 150 30016 IF EQUALP ,R; 8 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP :"32 .4: :,'550° 330000:18 IF EQUALP ;R: 9 T.dEN IGNORE PUTSNAP
~~ ~~ igg:i:: ::: ~g ~: ~ii;St,lI,lPSEND
~OI;C~~:O~O:OI THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP ·3 3· .1-150) 300·.2 IF EQUALP :0: 1 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP "5 3 -150 300
4 IF EQUALP :0: 2 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP :'867 ~3.: '::-:'555g0i3000g0.:6 IF EQUALP:O: 3 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP8 IF EQUALP :0:4 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP10 IF EQUALP ;0; 5 THEN IG.~ORE PUTSNAP "9 3" --150 300·12 IF EQUALP :0: 6 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP "10 3· "-150 300·14 IF EQUALP :0: 7 THEN IGNORE PU'l'SNAP ·,1 3- ·-150 300~
16 IF EOUALP :0: 8 THEN IGl.KIRE PUTSNAP :,'23
33: :-_"550° 330000.:
18 IF EQUALP :0; 9 THEN IGNORE PUTSNAP .
~~ i; ~gg:~ :g: ~g :: ~ii;S~~SEND
TO MOVE :z;10 IF MP ;Zz -\ ...~ THEN PAODLEMOVE "'Y1- THING ;Z: ELSE IF MP ;Z: -A O-THEN
PADDLEMOV,E "Y2· THING ;Z:END
TO WALLHI'l'10 IF EITHER LES5P :Y; ( - 350 ) GREATERP ;Y; 350 THEN-REFLECT -DYEND
TO PADDLEHIT1 TEST GREATERP IX: 05 IFTRUE IF BOTH LESSP ;Y; SUH :Y1: 70 GREATERP ;Y; ~Y1: 'l'HELIi REELECT -DX·10 IFFALSE IF Bora LESSP ;Y; SUM ;Y2; 70 GREATER? :Y; :Y2; THEN REFLECT
"DX·15 TEST GREATERP ;X: 35017 IFTRUE MAKE- -52" SUM :52:18 IFTRUE WIPE19 IFFALSE IF LES5P ;X; ( - 350 ) THEN MAKE ·51" SUM_;S1: 120 IFFALSE IF LESSP IX: ( - 350 ) THEN WIPE21 IF EITHER LESSP ;X; ( - 350 ) GREATERP :X; 350 THEN STARTEND
TO MP :R; :E:5 IF EMPTYP :E; THEN RETURN -FALSE·10 IF IS :R; FIRST ;E; THEN RETURN "'TRUE- ELSE -RETURN ttP :R: I1UTFIRST;E;END
TO PADDLEMOVE ;WHICH: :HOWMUCH20 MAKE :WHICH; LAST MOVESNAP LAST ;WHICH; SENTENCE ;HOWHUC1U 90END
TO REFLECT :P:10 MAKE :P: DIFFERENCE 0 THING :P:END
TO CLAP IX;10 SAY "APPLAUSE',,-15 IF EQUALP :X, 1 THEN DONE ELSE CLAP DIFFERENCE ;X: 1END
'I'O CHOOSE :Dex;; :CAT:5 TEST EQUALP R~~ 1 2 110 IFTRUE RsrURN PRODUCT ;DOG: :CAT;11 IFFALSE RE'rURN QUOTIENT ;DCX;: ; CAT:END