experimenting with possible selves in professional preparation · experimenting with possible...

Matthew Ronfeldt & Pam Grossman

41

Teacher Education Quarterly, Summer 2008

Becoming a Professional:Experimenting with Possible Selves

in Professional Preparation

By Matthew Ronfeldt & Pam Grossman

Introduction Enteringprofessionalpracticerequiresthatnovicesconstructidentitiesthatfitintothatworld;partoftheroleofprofessionaleducationistohelpnovicescrafttheseprofessionalidentities.Duringthetransitionaltimerepresentedbyprofessionaleduca-tion,studentsnegotiatetheirimagesofthemselvesasprofessionalswiththeimagesreflectedtothembytheirprograms.Thisprocessofnegotiationcanbefraughtwithdifficulty,especiallywhentheseimagesconflict(Britzman,1990;Cole&Knowles,1993).Astheyadapttonewroles,novicesmustalsolearntonegotiatetheirpersonalidentitywiththeprofessionalrole,evenastheynavigateamongthedifferentimagesofprofessionalidentityofferedbytheirprogramsandpractitionersinthefield.InthisarticlewedrawontheworkofHazelMarkusandothersonthedevelopmentofpossibleselvestoinvestigatetheopportunitiesnoviceshavetoencounter,tryout,and

Matthew Ronfeldt is a doctoral candidate and Pam Grossman is a professors in the School of Education at Stanford University, Stanford, California.

evaluatepossibleselvesintheprocessofconstructingprofessionalidentities.Weusedatafromastudyofthepreparationofteachers,clergy,andclinicalpsycholo-giststoillustratetherelationshipofpossibleselvesandprofessional identity, and the role that professionaleducationmightplayinsupportingthedevelopmentofprofessionalidentity.

Becoming a Professional

42

Background Theliteratureonnoviceteachers’transitionsintostudentteachingandthefirstyeardescribesthisexperienceasplaguedbydisillusionment,failure,loneliness,andinsecurity(Britzman,1990;Cole&Knowles,1993;Hargreaves&Jacka,1995;Rust,1994).Leftunresolved,suchtransitionalissuescandiscouragenewteachersfromremainingintheprofessionandmaycontributetothelowretentionratesofteachersinthefirstfiveyearsofteaching(c.f.Darling-Hammond&Schlan,1996;Ingersoll,2001).However,thesechallengestoearlyprofessionalsocializationarenotuniquetoteaching.Kaslow&Rice(1985),forexample,describeclinicalpsy-chologyinternshipsasatimeof“professionaladolescence”markedbypersonalandprofessionalstressandidentitytransition.Acentralissueacrossprofessionsisthatnovicesareexpectedtoactthepartbeforetheyfullygrasporidentifywithnewroles,whichhasimportantimplicationsforprofessionalacceptanceandef-fectiveness(Goffman,1959;Ibarra,1999). Givenhowpervasivethechallengesare,onewouldexpectprofessionaleduca-tiontoplayanintegralpartinhelpingnovicestotransitionintotheirnewroles.However,literatureonteachersocializationgenerallycharacterizescourseworkashavingrelativelylittleinfluenceoversocializationatbest(Zeichner&Gore,1990),andascounterproductiveatworst(Hargreaves&Jacka,1995).Fieldworkisoftenconsideredthemostinfluentialcomponentofprofessionalsocializationinteachereducation.Yetfieldworktendstoperpetuatethestatusquowithintheplacementsites(Britzman,1990),andoftenrunscountertothegoalsthatprofessionaleducationprogramsmayhave,heighteningthedissonanceexperiencedbynovices(Wideenet.al.,1998;Feiman-Nemser&Buchmann,1985).

Conceptual FrameworkBuildingontheworkofHazelMarkusandcolleagues(Cross&Markus,1991;Markus&Nurius,1986;Markus,Mullaly,&Kitayama,1997),weexploretheroleofpossibleselvesinthecraftingofprofessionalidentity.Asindividualsengagewiththepractices,people,androleexpectationsthatcomposeagivenculture,theydevelopwhatMarkus&Nurius(1986)deem“possibleselves.”Possibleselvesare“theidealselvesthatwewouldverymuchliketobecome.Theyarealsotheselveswecouldbecome,andtheselvesweareafraidofbecoming”(Markus&Nurius,1986,p.954).Withinthisframework,possibleselvesserveasincentivesforchangeandastouchstonesforevaluatingcurrentselves. Developingthislineofresearchfurther,Ibarra(1999)introduced“provisionalselves”toelaboratehowspecificpossibleselvesmaybeappropriatedandrejectedaspeopletransitionintomoreseniorroleswithinabusinessculture.Shefoundthatnovicesadapt tonewrolesthroughaniterativeprocessofobservation,ex-perimentation,andevaluation.Aspeopleobserveothersintheprofessionalrole,theygeneratearepertoireofpotentialidentities;theyexperimentwithprovisional


43

selvesbyputtingthemtopracticaltests;theythenevaluatetheeffectivenessoftheirenactmentsbasedontheirownandothers’perceptions. WhileIbarra’sworkconcernsroletransitionsamongin-serviceprofessionalsinbusiness,hermodelmayalsoapplytopre-serviceprofessionaleducationsinceittooinvolvesroletransitions—frombeingastudenttobecomingaprofessional.ViewedthroughIbarra’sframework,professionaleducationisaplacetobegintheiterativecycleofadaptationbyprovidingopportunitiestoobserve,experimentwith,andevalu-ateprovisionalselvesasanexplicitpartofcraftinganewprofessionalidentity. Becauseoftheirrelationshiptooneanother,weusethetermspossibleselves,provisionalselves,andprofessionalidentitysomewhatinterchangeably.InMarkus&Nurius’s (1986)original framing,possible selves refer to futureself-concepts.Onlysomeoftheseself-conceptsareactuallytriedout.Forourpurposes,wedefineprovisionalselvesasthosepossibleselvesthatareactuallytriedoutinprofessionaleducation.InlinewithIbarra’sfindings,wearguethat,throughexperimentationwithprovisionalselvesinprofessionaleducation,novicesdeterminewhichpossibleandprovisionalselvesarehelpfulinadaptingtonewroles.Initiallytheseprovisionalselvesare temporary solutions formeeting theexpectations that comewithnewroles;overtime,somebecomeintegratedintoprofessionalidentity.Inthisdefinition,weborrowfromIbarra,whodescribesprofessionalidentityasthe“relativelystableandenduringconstellationofattributes,beliefs,values,motives,andexperiencesintermsofwhichpeopledefinethemselvesinaprofessionalrole”(pp.764-765). Wealsoemphasizethecentralityof“practices”toprofessionalidentity.AsMillerandGoodnowcontend,“Theconceptofpractice recognizesthattheacquisitionofknowledgeorskillispartoftheconstructionofanidentityoraperson”(1995,p.


44

9).Novicesdonottakeupallstrategiesthattheyencounter.Someways of doinginclassroomscanrepresentways of beingthatruncountertowhotheywanttobecomeasprofessionals.Assuch,novicesmaydefinetheirpossibleselvesintermsofthepracticesinwhichtheywanttoengage.Inthissense,thechoiceofwhichpracticestoappropriateandwhichtorejecthelpsdefineprofessionalidentity. Manypeople,includingsomefacultyandstudentsweinterviewed,assumethatsomeaspectsofprofessionalidentitycannotbedeveloped,butratherinhereinthepersonalitiesofindividuals,leadingtoclaimsthatteachers,clergy,ortherapists‘areborn,notmade.’Whileweacknowledgethatpersonalandprofessionalidentitiesareinterwoven,wesuggestthatprofessionaleducation—bystructuringopportunitiestoencounter,experimentwith,andevaluatepossibleselves—cansupportnovicesincraftingandsustainingprofessionalidentities.

Study Design and Methods Thedatainthisarticlearedrawnfromalargerstudyoftheteachingofpracticeinthepreparationofclergy,teachers,andclinicalpsychologists(c.f.Grossman,Compton, Igra,Ronfeldt,Shahan,&Williamson,2009).Ourdata includecasestudiesof two teachereducationprograms, three seminaries, and threeclinicalpsychologyprograms.Wesampledprogramsthathadstrongreputationsforthequalityoftheirprofessionalpreparationprograms.Alleightprogramswereatthegraduatelevel;attheteachereducationinstitutions,weobservedbothelementaryand secondary teacherpreparationprograms.Wevisited eachprogramat leasttwice,observinginclasses,interviewingstudents,facultyandadministrators,andrunningfocusgroups.Acrossvisits,wespokewith120instructors,269students,and16administrators.Becauseourfocuswasontheteachingofpractice,weover-sampledwhataregenerallycalled“methods”ormorepracticalcoursework,includ-ingsubject-mattermethodsclassesinteachereducation,homileticsintheclergy,andclinical interviewingandassessmentclasses inclinicalpsychology.Again,wesampledcourseinstructorsthathadstrongreputationasteachers,accordingtobothstudentsandotherfacultymembers.Wealsofollowedstudentsintotheirfieldexperiences,wheneverpossible.Morerecently,wefocusedinontheexperiencesoffourclinicalpsychologyandfourteachereducationstudents,conductingongo-ingobservationsandinterviewsthroughouttheirfirstyearofpreparation,probingspecificallytheissueofprofessionalidentity(Ronfeldt,2006). Thisanalysisfocusesprimarilyondatafromstudentfocusgroupsandinter-viewswithstudents,butalsodrawsonfacultyinterviewsandfieldobservationsof courseworkandfieldwork.Across themultiple focusgroups and interviewsincludedinthisanalysis,wespokewith29studentsinclinicalpsychology,42stu-dentsinteachereducation,and15studentsintheclergy.Infocusgroups,weaskedstudentsexplicitlyaboutthekindofprofessionaltheyhopedtobecomeandaboutthekindofprofessionaltheybelievedtheirprogramswantedtoprepare.Wealso


45

askedthemaboutsomeofthemostsignificantinfluencesontheirdevelopmentasaprofessional.Withregardtotheeightnovicesthatwefocusedonmorerecently,eachquarterweaskedthemtospecificallydiscussthekindofprofessionaltheyhopedtobecomeandfearedbecoming.Ateachsite,wetriedtotalkwithstudentswhowerebothatthebeginningandtowardstheendoftheirpreparationprogram.Weanalyzedfocusgroupsandinterviewsforinsightsintothekindsofpossibleandprovisionalselvesthatstudentswereconstructinginprofessionaleducation,andhowthesemightbelinkedtoexperienceswithinprograms.Wecategorizedsuchcommentsaccordingtowhethertheyrepresenteddesiredorfearedpossibleselves.Wealsoexaminedthedataforevidenceofthesourcesofthesepossibleselves. Wealso analyzedfieldnotes of our observationsof courses andfieldwork.Ouranalysesofthesedatafocusedonexplicitopportunitiestoexperimentwithprovisionalselves.Inouranalysesofcoursework,wefocusedprimarilyonwhatwearecalling“approximationsofpractice”(Grossmanet.al.,2009)inwhichnovicesenactedfacetsofpractice.Theseincludedsimulationsofpractice,roleplays,etc.Finally,weexaminedwhatnovicessaidabouttheiropportunitiestoexperimentwithprovisionalselvesduringfieldexperiences. Webeginourdiscussionoffindingsbyexploringtherepertoireofpossibleselvesthatnovicesdevelopedandthedimensionsofprofessionalpreparationthatmayhavecontributedtothisrepertoire.Wethenexamineopportunitiesfornovicestotryonandevaluateprovisionalselves,andwhattheseopportunitiesmaymeanforthedevelopmentofprofessionalidentity.

A Repertoire of Possible Selves Studentsenterprofessionaleducationwithatentativesetofpossibleselvesfromwhichtodraw.Asworkonthe“apprenticeshipofobservation”inteaching(Lortie,1975)suggests,prospectiveteachersenterteachereducationwithmultiple,albeitpartial,imagesofteachers.Thesameistrueforprospectiveclergy,whogenerallyhavehadpriorexperiencewithclergymembersthroughouttheirlives.Thosewhoplantobecometherapistsmayalsousetheirexperiencesintherapytoimaginethekindoftherapisttheywanttobecome.Theseimagesprovideaninitialtouchstoneforthedevelopmentofprofessionalidentity.Manyoftheparticipantsinourstudyexplicitlyidentifiedpriorteachers,clergy,ortherapistswhoinspiredthemtoentertheprofessioninthefirstplace. Oncetheyenterprofessionaleducation,however,novicesencounteramuchwider rangeofpossible selves throughboth coursework andfield experiences.Thoseinourstudypaidcarefulattentiontothemodelsofprofessionalidentitytheyencounteredintheirprograms,includingtheirinstructors,supervisors,andmentorsinthefield.Asonerabbinicalstudentcommentedabouttheplethoraofpossiblemodels:

IthinkthemostpowerfulthingI’velearnedisthattherearesomanypossible


46

waystobearabbi,andtobeagoodrabbi.AndIthinkthatcomesfromawholenumberofdifferentthingswe’vebeenexposedtoatschool.Oneisjusttherab-bisthatwegetexposedtointermsoftheinstructorsthatwedogetexposedto.…Ourfieldworkofvariouskindsallreallygiveusthatkindofexposurethatyoucanseemodels incongregationsofdifferent rabbis thataresuccessful inverydifferentsizes,differentpopulation,differenteconomicstructures…(FocusGroup,KRS,2/2004)

Studentsencounteredpossibleselves—bothfearedanddesired—whenobserv-ingandinteractingwithdifferentpeopleandcontextsduringtheirprofessionaledu-cation.Theymentioneduniversityinstructors,practitionersinclinicalplacements,andevencommunityleadersaspresentingbothdesiredandfearedpossibilities.Studentsalsoreferredtocourseworkactivities,presentations,discussions,readings,andvideosaspresentingimagesofpossibleselves.Whenaskedaboutpeoplethatrepresentthekindofprofessionaltheyhopetobecome,studentsoftenidentifiedcourseinstructorsandadvisorsaspositivemodels.Indescribingwhattheyadmiredabout their instructors, students primarily attended to disposition, manner, andvalues.Theyhighlightedtheirinstructors’compassion,charisma,integrity,nurtur-ing,humor,openness,commandingpresence,commitment,andcare.Allofthesemightbeseenasaspectsofpersonalidentity,asmuchasprofessionalidentity,andinfact,novicessawtheirinstructorsasexamplesofhowpersonalidentitycanbeatthecoreofprofessionalidentity:

IthinkoneofthestrongestlessonsthatI’velearned…isthatwearethetextthatweteach,andthatthefirstthingthat—andprobablytheprimarything—thatpeoplewilltakeawayfromtheirinteractionswithusisus,andhowweinteractwiththem.Andtheintegrity,theconsistency,thevaluesthatweportrayandthatwelivearethemostpotentlessonthatwehave.(FocusGroup,KRS,2/2004)

Whilestudentsarticulatedaspectsofmanner,disposition,andvaluesasfoun-dationaltotheprofessionalidentitiesoftheinstructorstheyadmired,theyfocusedlessonhowthesequalitieswereusedasinstrumentsforprofessionalpractice.Theyexpressedadmirationforaninstructor’scharisma,forexample,withoutidentifyinghowitwasusedtocaptivateandinspirelearninginothers.Inconcentratingsointentlyonpersonalmanner,studentsoftenconflatedprofessionalidentityandpersonality.Aspectsofmanner,forexample,areanimportantpartofprofessionalidentity,asatoolforprofessionalpractice,butarenotsufficient.Beingcharismatic,forinstance,canhelpmotivatelearners,butcharismaalonewillnotensurethatstudentslearn. Thatstudentsfailedtomaketheconnectionbetweenthesepersonalqualitiesandprofessionalpracticemayreflectthefactthattheygenerallyhadfewopportunitiestoobservefacultyintheroleofpractitioner.Forexample,Quise,aclinicalpsychologystudent,viewedheradvisorandinstructor,Dr.Winetraub,asrepresentingthekindofclinicalpsychologistshehopestobecome.Sheexplained,“Ithinkpartofitisthatsheisareallygoodbalancebetweenbeingconfidentinherabilitytowork,inhercompetenceasatherapist,butalsosheisveryself-disclosingabouthervulnerabili-


47

tiesandherperceivedweaknesses”(Interview,CPP,5/2007).WhenaskedifshehadobservedDr.Winetraubduringatherapysession,Quiseadmittedshehadnot,adding,“She’sgoodabout[balancingconfidenceandvulnerability]withtheclass.AndIseeherasbeinggoodaboutthatinsupervisiontoo.Theproblemwiththerapyisthatyoudon’tgettoseealotofrealtherapydone.Itisweirdtryingtolearnaskillandnoteverreallywatchingexperiencedpeopledoingit”(Interview,CPP,5/2007). Whennovicesdonotactuallyseeinstructorsinpractitionerroles,thepossibleselvestheyencounterarealwayspartial.Thus,clinicalpsychologystudentswhoclaimed their instructors were “fabulous psychologists” were often making aninferencebasedonwhattheyimaginedratherthanwhattheyobserved.Eveninteachereducation,wherestudentsobservedcourseinstructorsinateachingrole,itwasquiteadifferentrolethanK-12publicschoolteaching.Whatprofessionaleducationstudentsdidnotnecessarilyencounterintheiruniversityinstructors,then,wereimagesofprofessionalidentityatworkintheactualrolestheywillenter. However,whenstudentsacrossprofessionsdidhaveopportunitiestoobservetheirinstructorsenactpractitionerroles,theydescribedsuchexperiencesasexcep-tionallyuseful.AtGraceSeminary,forexample,studentshadtheopportunitytoplandailyworshipservicesfortheseminarywithexperiencedinstructors/ministers.Thisexperiencegavestudentsanopportunitytoobservetheirinstructorsenacttherolesandresponsibilitiesofministerswhileworkinginpartnershipwiththem.Oneofthestudentscommentedabouttheseinstructors:

Forme,bothof[theinstructors]arereal,inwhattheyteach;andwhattheyteachisexactlywhotheyareineverycontextthatthey’rein.Andsothey’remodel-ingeverythingthattheyteach,andthat’swhat,asapastorandapersonthat’sinministry,that’swhatyou’regoingtobeaskedtodoalso.(FocusGroup,GraceSeminary,3/2004)

Inthisinstance,studentswereabletoseetheirinstructorsbothas“pastors”andas“apersonthat’sinministry;”becausetheywereabletoworkalongsidetheirinstructors,therelationshipbetweenpersonalandprofessionalidentitywasmoretransparent. Inteachereducation,ourfieldnotesandinterviewsincludedmanyexamplesofinstructorsdemonstratingmodellessonsduringuniversitycoursework,generallywithteachereducationstudentsenactingtheroleofK-12pupils.Animportantadvantagetothesemodellessonswasthattheyallowedinstructorstomodelprin-ciplesandpracticesadvocatedbytheprogram,includingonesrarelyencounteredinfieldwork.Furthermore,studentsappreciatedthatinstructorscouldpausemodellessonstoexplicatetheirchoices,intheirroleasteacher,andtoanswerquestionsalongtheway.Theseopportunitiestoobserveinstructorsinthepractitionerrolehadgreatpotentialforexposingnovicestodesiredpossibleselves,aslongasnovicesperceivedtheexperiencesasauthenticrepresentationsofpractice.However,studentssometimescomplainedthatthesemodelsfeltstagedorinauthentic.Someteachereducationstudents,forexample,suspectedthatdemonstratedpracticesthatwere


48

possiblewithmotivatedgraduatestudentswouldnotworkintheirK-12classrooms.Hence,manystudentsturnedtofieldworkopportunitiestoobservepractitionersatworkwith‘real’clients,pupils,andcongregants. Duringinterviews,noviceteachersfrequentlymentionedcooperatingteachersassourcesofpossibleselves.Sometimes,theseweredesiredselves.AsMegexplained:

Likewehadsummerfieldplacements,andIwasinagroupwithateacher,aleader,whothekidslovedandtrustedsomuch.AndIwaslike,‘Okay,Iknowthatshe’swhatIwanttodo[sic].’I’mgoingtowatchthisperson…andseewhatshedoesandhowshespeakstothem,andIamgoingtodothat.Imean,notexactlythesameway,butI’mgoingtousewhatshedoes.AndsoIwouldsitandIwouldlistentohertalktothestudents,andwhatshesaid,andhowsheaddressedthem.(FocusGroup,Riverdale,8/2006)

Because Meg wanted to become a teacher that establishes trusting and caringrelationshipswithherownstudents,shewasdrawntoandstudiedsomeonewhoembodiedthistypeofteacher.ForMeg,developingone’sownprofessionalidentitywaspartlyaprocessofobservingotherswhorepresenteddesiredselveswhiletheywereengagedinprofessionalwork.Inthisway,Megconstruedacaringpossibleselfnotjustintermsofdispositionbutintermsofhowsuchaselfisexpressedthroughinteractionandcommunicationinclassroompractice. Inreflectingontheirobservationsofcooperatingteachers,noviceteachersre-countedsomedesiredpossibleselves.Moreoften,however,theydescribedencounterswithfearedpossibleselves.Theyspokeofteacherswhoseemeduncaring,burntout,mean,rigid,robotic,disrespectful,andauthoritarian.Oftentheirdispleasurewithcooperatingteachersexisted,atleastinpart,becauseofthedisparitybetweentheirprogram’svisionforthekindofteachertheyshouldbecomeandwhattheyobservedinthefield.Evenamidstthemorepositiveexamplestheyencountered,novicesrarelydescribedcooperatingteacherswhoexemplifiedthekindsofprac-ticesandwaysofbeingpromotedintheircoursework.AsMelaniedescribed,“[Ourprogram]wantsustohavedemocraticclassroomsanddemocratickids.InwatchingtheteacherthatI’mwitheveryday…shereadskids’gradesoutloud,andshecalls[on]thesmartkids,andshesays,‘Oh,whodowethinkhastheanswer?WeknowElliehastheanswer.’AndI’mcringing”(FocusGroup,Riverdale,8/2006). Markus and Nurius (1986) argue that identifying feared possible selves ishelpful;byworkingtoavoidthem,peopleareabletomoveclosertotheirhoped-forselves.Assemblingawiderepertoireofpossibleselvescanthensupportthedevelopmentofprofessionalidentity.Infact,someresearchhasdemonstratedthatitcanbedevelopmentallyhelpfultohavecounter-veilingfearedselvestooffsetexpectedselvesinaparticulardomain(Cross&Markus,1991;Oyserman&Markus,1990).Inthisspirit,onenovicerabbidescribedhowheusedbothfearedandhopedforselvesthatheencounteredinconstructinghisownprofessionalidentity:

I’mkindofbeginningtomodelmyrabbinate…onwhatI’veseen—thegood,


49

butalsothebad…Itold[mymentor]thatIwantedtobecomearabbibasedontherabbiIdidn’tlike,fromonecongregation…Partofitisyoudoseewhat’soutthere,andyouanalyzewhat’soutthereandyoureallytakewhatyouwant.Andthat’sthegoodofsaying,‘ThisiswhatIdon’twanttobeandthisiswhatIdowanttobe.’(FocusGroup,KRS,2/2004)

Whileawideandbalancedrepertoireofpossibleselvesmaybedesirable,noviceteachersdescribedasomewhatlopsidedrepertoire.Encounterswithfearedselvesduringfieldworkpervadedthedatafromteachereducation,incontrasttoourothertwoprofessions.Moreover,studentteachersreportedrelativelyfewencounterswithdesiredselvesinthefield,especiallyonesthatreflectedtheimagespromotedbytheircoursework.Thisimbalancerepresentsanon-goingchallengeforteachereducationthatisfocusedonpreparingteachersaschangeagents. Asnovicesencounteredarangeofpractitioners,theybegantocataloguebothdesiredandfearedselvestopiecetogetheramakeshiftimageofthekindofprofes-sionaltheyhopedtobecome.Butuntestedimagesofwhatmaybepossiblewerenotenoughtopreparenovicesfornewroles,evenwhentheseimagesincludedspecificstrategiesandwaysofinteractingwithothers.Itisonethingtohaveaclearandelaboratedvisionofapossibleselfandquiteanothertoactuallyenactthatvision.Thenovicesweintervieweddescribedopportunitiestoactuallytryoutandevaluateprovisionalselvesascriticaltotheirdevelopmentofprofessionalidentity.

Provisional Selves: Experimentation and EvaluationAndIthinkthatoneofthebestwaystolearnhowtogainthetrust[ofstudents]istowatchotherpeopledoit,andthendoityourselfandnotjustobservebutactuallythenputitintopractice.(Meg,FocusGroup,Riverdale,8/2006)

AsMegexplained,novicesneededmorethanobservationstodevelopasenseofprofessionalidentity,theyneededopportunitiestoenacttheroleofprofessional,to“actuallyputitintopractice.”ThiswasconsistentwithIbarra’sdescriptionofearlyprofessionalidentityas“provisionalconstructionsthatmustberevisedwithexperience”(p.783).Theseprovisionalselvesallowednovicestofunction—oftenclumsily—innewroles,astheytestedouttheiremergingconceptionsofthepro-fessionaltheyhopedtobecome. Acrosstheprofessionsweobserved,universitycourseworkprovidedrelativelylimitedopportunitiestoexperimentwithnewrolesandtotryonversionsofprofes-sionalidentity.Ironically,inprofessionsthatarecharacterizedbyongoinginteractionwithotherpeople,opportunitiestoexperimentwithandreceivefeedbackonthemoreinteractiveaspectsofpracticewereespeciallyrare.Whenstudentsdidhavecourseworkopportunitiestotryontheroleoftheprofessional,theseweregenerallyintheareasofplanningorassessment,suchasplanningasermoninseminaries,doingasamplediagnosticassessmentinclinicalpsychology,orplanninglessonsandassessingexamplesofstudentworkinteachereducation.Whiletheseactivi-


50

tiesdidrequirestudentstoenactpartsofprofessionalrole,theyprovidedlimitedchancesfornovicestoreacttotheuncertaintiesinherentininteractivepractice. Inteachereducationweobservedanumberofmodellessonsthatincludedmoreinteractivedimensionsofteaching,buttheinstructorsgenerallytaughtthelesson,whilenovicesenactedtheroleofK-12pupils(c.f.Williamson,2006).Whilesomenovicesfoundvalueinbeinginthepupilrole,theyrarelyhadopportuni-tiesduringcourseworktoexperimentwithenactingtheteacherrolethemselves.Andwheretheydidhavesuchopportunities,therewasexperimentationbutlittleevaluation.Inoneliteracymethodsclass,forexample,studentsusedread-aloudstrategiestoteachtheirpeerswhoservedaspupils.Intheselessons,noviceshadachancetotryoutprovisionalselves;however,theyreceivedminimalfeedbackfromtheirpeers.Withoutmeaningfulfeedback,novicescouldnotbesurethattheprovisionalselvestheyintendedtoenactwereactuallyconveyedtoothers.Thismaybeespeciallyimportantinrelationalpracticeswhereprofessionalsuccessdependsupontheresponseofclients,congregants,orstudentstotheprofessional.Insomecases,instructorsdidincludeassignmentsfornoviceteacherstotryoutprogram-endorsedpracticesandprinciplesintheirfieldsettings.Butinstructorsgenerallydidnotgettoobservestudentsdirectlyastheyperformedsotheirevaluationswereconstrainedbywhatnoviceslaterchoseandfailedtorepresent. Compared with teaching, we observed more coursework opportunities fornovicestoexperimentwith—andreceivefeedbackon—provisionalselvesduringinteractivepracticeinclinicalpsychologyandtheclergy.IntheworshipplanningseminaratGraceSeminary,mentionedabove,studentshadongoingopportunitiestohelpplanandleadservicesfortheseminarycommunitywithanexperiencedteamofministers/instructors.Students,faculty,andassortedguestsservedinvariousroles—aspreacher,liturgist,scripturereader,etc.—andeachchaplain’sassistanttookprimaryresponsibilityfortheplanningandschedulingofoneweekofservicesatatime.Theworshipteammetonceaweektoreflectuponthestrengthsandweak-nessesofthemostrecentservicesandtorefinetheirplansforupcomingservices.This“approximationofpractice”(Grossmanetal.,2009)providedopportunitiesforstudentstoenactthedifferentcomponentsofthechaplain’sroleinasettingthatwasquiteauthentic.Yetbecausethiswasdesignedasalearningopportunity,studentswerealsoallowedtoexperimentwithwaysofenactingtherolethatmaynothavebeenpossibleinchurchsettings.Asonestudentcommented,

Ithinkformeithasbeenareallygoodexperiencetobecreativewithworshipandtohavetheflexibility.IknowwheneverIwentbacktomyhomechurchoverChristmasbreak,IwantedtodoallthesenewandinventivethingsthatI’mabletodohere,andyettherealityof‘thisiswhatwealwaysdo,thisiswhatweneedtodo,weneedtosingthistypeofstuff.’(FocusGroup,GraceSeminary,3/2004)

Thisstudentdescribedtheabilitytotryonaprovisionalselfthatmightbeimpos-sibleinthecontextofhishomechurch.


51

While theyappreciated theapproximationofpracticeasanopportunity toexperimentwithprovisionalselves,studentsalsoappreciatedtheopportunitiesforimmediatefeedbackbuiltintotheworshipexperience.Onestudentusedtheoppor-tunitytofocusonwritinghisownliturgy,explaining,“Andtheotherthingisthatbecauseit’sinpartnershipwithPaulandRichardandMarie,Imaywritesomething,andthere’smaybeaphrasethat’salittlefunkyandIgetfeedbackonthat”(FocusGroup,GraceSeminary,3/2004).Asherealized,thiskindoffeedbackonpracticewillbelessfrequentasheenterssolopractice.Beingabletoencounter,enact,andevaluateprovisionalselvesallwithinthesamesettingwasaspecialopportunityfordevelopingprofessionalidentity.Thesameexpertsthatintroducedspecificdesiredselvesweretherealsotoobserveandevaluatethisstudent’seffortstoenactthemalongtheway.Sincetheywerefamiliarwithhowaneffectiveperformancelooks,theycouldprovideespeciallyusefulfeedback. Acrossoursites,clinicalpsychologyincorporatedthegreatestnumberofop-portunitiesforstudentstoexperimentwithandevaluateprovisionalselvesduringinteractive dimensions of practice. In one clinical psychology course, studentsfrequentlyengagedinrole-playswithpeers—onestudentactingastherapist,theotherasclient.Theywererequiredtovideotapethese“sessions”andthenstudythevideotapes,aloneandtogetherinclass.Whileroleplaysprovidedmultipleop-portunitiestoenacttheroleoftherapist,theyalsoprovidedopportunitiesforself-evaluationandfeedbackfromothers.Anadvantagetothispedagogywasthat,astheystudiedtheprinciplesandpracticestogether,instructorandstudentswereabletoprovideinformedandmoreconsistentfeedbackononeanother’senactments. Manystudentsfocusedonthesevideorole-playsasimportantexperiencesfortryingonandrevisinganewprofessionalself.Forexample,watchingvideoofroleplaystaughtonefirstyearstudenttheimportanceofmatchingaclient’saffect:“Fromwatching[thevideo],thebiggestthingIprobablylearnedisthatIsmileanawfullot.AndI’msmilingnow.ButIjustdidn’trealizeitandIjustrealizedhowinappropri-atethatcanbeincertaintimes”(Interview,CPP,1/2006).Anotherstudentfromthisprogramcommentedthatshelearnedto“sitwithsilenceinatherapysession”fromherexperiencedoingvideoroleplays:“IthinkIfeltanxiousinthebeginningandfeltlikeIhadtorushtokindoffillspaceorfillavoice,oraskaquestion,whenmaybeitwasokaytojustkindofrelaxanddoanotherreflectionstatementorjustsitwiththesilence”(FocusGroup,CPP,6/2004).Dealingwiththissamechallenge,anotherstudentsaidshehadtointentionallyabandonaspectsofherpriorprofessionalidentityinordertodevelopanewone.Sheexplained,“I’mcomingoutof10yearsofsales,soforme,quietisdeadtime,andmygoalisn’ttoletyoucomeupwithyourideasbuttotellyouwhatIwantyoutodo…Andsothat’ssomethingI’mhavingtolearnisthequietandthelettingthemtalk”(FocusGroup,CPP,6/2004).Whenaskedhowshelearnedtodothis,sheagainidentifiedthevideorole-playsasanopportunitytoexperimentwithadifferentprofessionalself,onethatiscomfortablewithsilence. Role-playsalsoofferedopportunitiestoexperimentwitharangeofprovisional


52

selves.Inoneroleplayexercise,theinstructoraskedstudentstoexperimentwithbeingaconfrontationaltherapist,apossibleselfthatisoftenfearedbynewtherapists.Beforehavingstudentstryoutthisapproach,shehadthemobservevideoexamplesofmoreconfrontationaltherapistsinaction,includingonethatdemonstratedthetherapeuticvalueofbeingconfrontational.Afterwards,studentstriedonamoreconfrontationalpersonawithoneanother.Asaresult,studentswerepushedtoexperimentwithandtodevelopdimensionsofprofessionalidentitythatmightotherwisebeleftunexplored.Astheinstructorexplained,thisroleplay“givespeoplewhoareniceasanctionedreasontonotbenice”(ObservationalFieldnotes,CPP,10/2005). The novice clinical psychologists we observed had many opportunities toexperimentwithinteractivedimensionsofroleinavarietyofrole-playsduringcoursework.Mostrole-playswerestructuredtoincorporateevaluation,includingself-evaluationofvideotapedsessionsandfeedbackfrompeers.Asaresult,noviceshavehadanopportunitytotryoutandrefineprovisionalselvesintheseinteractiverolesevenbeforetheybegantoworkwithrealclients.However,asweexplorenext,clinicalplacementsweretheprimarysiteforexperimentationandthuscrucialinthedevelopmentofprofessionalidentity.

From the Classroom to the Field:Experimenting with Professional Identity

Manystudentsdescribedtheirfieldworkashavingthemostinfluenceonpro-fessionalidentitydevelopmentbecauseoftheextensiveopportunitiestoexperimentwithprofessionalrole, includingnumerousopportunitiestoengageininteractivedimensionsofpractice.Forexample,fromearlyinthefirstyearofherclinicalpsy-chologyprogram,Amandaanticipatedthatshemightstrugglewithbeingjudgmentalasatherapist.Shecommented,“Ifyouhavesomeonecomeinand[she]says,‘I’mpregnantbutcan’tstopdrinking,’Imeanhowdoyousitthereand[not]say,‘Howthehelldidyoubecomeamother?’”(Interview,CPP,10/2006).Inoneofherveryfirstcourses,Amandaacknowledgedfeelingsomewhatjudgmentalduringarole-playwhenapeerinthe“client”rolediscussedusingdrugs.Evenso,Amandaexplainedthatitisimportanttoacknowledgethatothershavedifferentmoralsand“therapyisnotwhereIshouldbestandingonmysoapbox”(Interview,CPP,10/2006). ForAmanda,herpracticumworkwithsubstanceabusepatientswasanimportantsettingforputtingherfearedselftoapracticaltest:“WhatI’velearnedthemostregardingjustworkingwiththattypeofpopulationisjusthavinglikeempathyandwhentheytellyousomethingreallydisturbing,kindofjustlikerollingwithitandnothavingthislookofshockonyourfacewhentheytellyousomething”(Interview,CPP,4/2007).HerexperimentationinrolegaveAmandapracticewithandconfidenceinbeinganon-judgmentalandempathictherapist. Amanda’scasedemonstrates thepowerofsuccessfulexperimentationwithprovisional selves in developing professional identity. However, there are many


53

expectationsandconstraintswithinclinicalsettingsthatmakeitdifficulttoexperi-mentwitharangeofprovisionalselvesatall,letalonetodososuccessfully.Suchroadblocks in clinical settings seem especially problematic in the preparation ofteachers.Duringfieldworkinbothclinicalpsychologyandclergy,novicesgenerallyfeltcomfortableexperimentingwithprovisionalselvesadvocatedbytheirprograms.Inteachereducation,however,studentsoftenstruggledintheireffortstoenactpro-gram-endorsedprovisionalselves,particularlywithregardtotheiridentitiesassocialjusticeeducatorsorchangeagents.Onestudentexplained,“Soit’sveryhard.Iseeaverylargegapbetweenwhatweseeastheroleoftheteacherinour[university]classestowhattheroleoftheteacherisintheactualclassroomsofthehighschoolshere”(FocusGroup,Riverdale,9/2005).Anotherstudentcommented:

Butmostofthetimeintheclassroom,IfeellikeeverythingthatI’mlearningat[theuniversity],it’sacompletelydifferentworld.LikeI’mintheclassroomandI’mtellingkidsto‘sitdown,’andyouknow‘youcansharpenyourpencilonlyinthemorning.’AndIthink,‘AmIteaching[for]understanding?’(FocusGroup,Riverdale,9/2005)

Studentsinbothteachereducationprogramstalkedaboutthedifficultyofreconcil-ingtheidentitiestheyarebeingencouragedtotakeonattheuniversity,withtherealitiesoftheschoolsinwhichthey’replaced.Asonestudentsaid,

They’reveryprogressiveinthewaythatthisprogramfunctions,soIfeellikewhenIgointomyclassroom,likeintoanurbanpublicschool,Ifeellikesometimesthatit’sverydisconnectedfromwhatactuallyhappens…Andyouseehowthingsactuallyareandthat’snottosaythatit’snotgreattolearnmoreabouteducationalphilosophiesandfeelbettereducatedaboutwhatyou’redoingsothatyoucanspeakintelligentlyaboutit…Butintermsofwhatwe’reactuallygoingtobedoing,it’saniceframeworkfromwhichtolookatit,butthestudentteachingisjustsomuchmoreimportantandsomuchmoreattachedtoreality,Ithink,thanwhatwedoinclass.(FocusGroup,Riverdale,9/2005)

Anotherstudentadded,“We’vebeensentoutonamissiontogooutandchangetheworldwithteaching,but…theprogramisnotreallyteaching[me]tobethatrealteacherandactuallydealingwiththeissuesathandintheseurbanpublicschools”(FocusGroup,Riverdale,9/2005).Thesestudentsseemedtosuggestthatthepossibleselvestheydevelopinteachereducationmaybeusefulforviewing,understanding,andcritiquing,butnotworkingin,actualclassrooms.Perhapsevenmoreworrisomewastheirtendencytodichotomizethepossibleselvesimaginedbytheprogramfromtheimageofthe“realteacher”whomustfunctioninurbanclassrooms. Buthowdoencounterswiththesecontradictorypossibleselvesintheuniversityandfieldinfluencethedevelopmentofprofessionalidentity?Andhowisthisten-sionnegotiatedduringstudentteaching?Toexplorethesequestionsmoredeeply,wedescribetheexperiencesofAlfredandJohnny,twoteachereducationstudentsfromthesameprogram.


54

Alfred and Johnny:Negotiating Desired and Feared Selves in Student Teaching

Alfred,afirstyearteachereducationstudent,articulatedtheconflictheex-periencedbetweentheprofessionalidentityasagentofchange,advocatedbyhisprogram,andtherealitiesofhisschoolplacement.Asheexplained:“Imean,there’salotofgoodstuffthat[ourcourseinstructors]areshowingusbutitseemstoconflictwithwhatI’mseeingintheclassroom.Idon’tknow.TheclassroomwhereI’minrightnow,forinstance,they’reusingthe[mandated]basalreading…Soit’sprettymuchjustyouopenabookandyoujustleadthelessons”(Interview,Oceanside,1/2007).Althoughoneofhispossibleselveswasthatofasocialjusticeeducatorwhowaswillingtobecriticalofthestatusquoandtoworkforsocialchange,alargepartofhisexperimentationduringstudentteachinginvolved“playingbytherules”especiallyintermsofstickingtothedistrict-mandatedcurriculaandpacingplan:“Honestly,likethistimearound,tomeit’sjusttogetfamiliarwithbeingintheclassroomandbeingidentifiedasateacher.Youknow,beinghereinthemorn-ing,followingascriptedcurriculum,soIjustwantmyselftobefamiliarwiththat”(Interview,Oceanside,2/2007). Alfredwassensitivetothefactthathewasavisitorinsomeoneelse’sclassroom,andfeltitwasimportanttohonortheestablishednormsandproceduresofhiscoop-eratingteachers,especiallygiventhathispupilswouldseekconsistency.Moreover,Alfredviewedstickingtothemandatedcurriculaandpacingplanasanopportunitytolearnaboutthe“reality”inschoolssohecouldhelphisstudentssucceedwithinit.EvenasAlfredtriedoutandsucceededwithwhathecalledan“adequate”or“nofrills”provisionalself,healwaysmaintainedastrongidentificationwithhisprogram’ssocialjusticestance.Heviewedstudentteachingandthefirstcoupleofyearsofteach-ingas“probationary”where“Iwilldowhattheytellme,andjustthat.”Afterwards,Alfredsaidheplansto“whipoutthesocialjusticeagenda”(Interview,Oceanside,11/2006).Withmoreexperienceandjobsecurity,Alfredplanstoinstitutemoreoftheprinciplesandpracticespromotedbyhisprogram,butinawaythatworkswithinthesystem:“Thereisadifferenttakeonreality[inthisprogram],andadifferentrealityinthe[local]schools.Wecan’tgointheretochangetheworld.Weareacoginthesystem,butcaneffectchangeasacog.Weneedtokeepanopenmindtotheserealitiesinschools”(Fieldnotes,Oceanside,11/2006). Inordertonegotiatethesetensionsinstudentteaching,Alfredmostlyplayedbytheruleswhileexperimentinginthemargins.Duringourobservations,forex-ample,heincorporatedsomeprogram-endorsedstrategies,includingamathactivityinfluencedbysocio-culturalapproacheshelearnedinmathmethods,andasciencelessoninfluencedbyinquiryapproachesfromsciencemethods.Inbothcases,hehaddoubtsthathehadsuccessfullyenactedthepracticesthatheandhisprogramenvisioned.Furthermore,ashiscooperatingteachersdidnotthemselvesutilizeorspecializeinmanyofthesealternativeapproaches,Alfredwaslefttoexperimentprimarilyonhisown.Inbothinstancesthatweobserved,Alfredreceivedlittletono


55

feedbackorguidanceonhiseffortstotryoutthesemorealternativeapproaches.Towardstheendofhisstudentteaching,weaskedAlfredwhathefeltmostpreparedforasheenteredfull-timeprofessionalwork.Alfredreturnedagaintothethemethatseemedtoframehisentirefirstyearofprofessionalpreparation:

Ifeelverypreparedinmaking,inteachingthecurriculumandnotnecessarilymakingitmyownyetbutthat’ssomethingthatIwanttodolateron.Butdefinitely,ifIjustcameinandIgrabbedthe[mandatedtextbook]teacher’smanual…IfeelfairlyconfidentthatIcouldfollowwhatIseeinthebookandhavenoproblemwhatsoever.But,youknow,it’swithtimethatIwanttomoveawayfromthereandjustputintoplayeverythingthatI’vebeenseeingthepastyear.SoIguessasastandardteacher,youknow,uh…(pause)nofrills,justgoinanddowhatIhavetodo.Yeah,IthinkI’mtherenowbuttoreallyfullybecomethesocialjusticeeducatorthattheywerepreparingustobe,that’sgoingtocomewithsometime.(Interview,Oceanside,4/2007)

Innegotiatingtheseconflictingpossibleselves,Alfredspentmostofhisstudentteachingexperienceenactingtheteacherexpectedofhiminhisplacementschoolsrather than the teacher expected by his program. He had practiced, succeeded,andbecomeconfidentinaprovisionalselfasa“nofrills”or“adequate”teacherwhocandeliverthemandatedcurriculaandfollowtherulesinschools.Whileheunderstoodthelimitationsofthisprofessionalidentity,andstillhopedtoenacthisprogram-endorsedsocialjusticeidentitydowntheroad,thisremainedapossibleratherthanaprovisionalselfasheenteredhisfirstyearoffull-timeteaching. ThecriticalimportanceoffindingopportunitiestoenactthepossibleselvesdevelopedattheuniversitywasillustratedbytheexperiencesofJohnny.Johnnyhadtwoverydifferentstudentteachingplacements.Fromveryearlyinhispro-gram,Johnnyviewedhisemergingprofessionalidentityintermsofrelationshipbuilding.Hebelievedifstudentsdidnotrelatetohimasteacherthentheywouldnotrelatetothematerial.Beingabletorelatetostudentsestablishes“credibilityinwhat[teachers]areteachingandpreaching”(FocusGroup,Oceanside,10/2006).This,heargued,requirestakingthetimetogettoknowallstudentspersonally. Whilehiscourseworkandsomeearlyfieldobservationhelpedhimtodevelopthispossibleself,hisfirststudentteachingplacementchallengedthisemergingprofessionalidentity.Hewasplacedinaclassroomwherehefelthiscooperatingteacherdidnotalwaystreathisstudentswithrespectandoftenhadcontentiousrelationshipswiththem.Johnnyfounditdifficulttobuildcaringrelationshipsinthisenvironment,asstudentsseemedtoresisthisefforts.Infact,hefoundhimselfbecomingmoreconfrontationalwithstudentsthanheliked. Later,Johnnyreflected,“Iexperiencedsomuchconflictduringthosetimes.ItwasbecauseIwasconfrontedwiththisthingthatIdidn’twanttobecomeandyetIfeltmyselfinthatenvironment,thistoxicenvironment,becomingthatperson”(Interview, Oceanside, 5/2007).The powerful context of student teaching hadJohnnyenactingand,intheprocess,becominganexplicitlyfearedself.Because


56

oftheseinitiallypainfulstudentteachingexperiences,Johnnyhadbeguntodoubttheviabilityoftheteacherhe,andhisprogram,hopedhecouldbecome—onethatbuildsmutuallyrespectfulandcaringrelationshipswithstudents. Johnnywasnextplacedwithacooperatingteacherwhospecializedinbuildingclassroomcommunity.Bybeingabletoobserveandthenexperimentwithbuildingpositiveprofessionalrelationships-inwaysendorsedbyhisprogram-Johnnyhadmoresuccessinenactinghisdesiredself.Asaresult,hecametoidentifymorestronglywithandtoembodythisdesiredself:

IthinkinmyapproachtoclassroommanagementthatIamgettingclosertothatideal.IntherelationshipsthatI’mcreatingwithmystudents,andthatIcontinuetocreateonaday-by-daybasis,isbringingmeclosertothatideal—wheretherereallyisthatmutualrespect.WheretheyreallyunderstandwhereIamcomingfromtothepointwherewecanreallydigintolearningandbeingexcitedaboutthat.(Interview,Oceanside,5/2007)

Lookingbackonthefirstyearofhisprogram,Johnnyhighlightedtheimpor-tanceoftheseopportunitiestotryoutdesiredandfearedselvesindevelopinghisprofessionalidentity:

IthinktherearetimeswhenIhavehadtoreconsiderwhatitmeanstobeanau-thorityfigureintheclassrooms.Yeah,youcan’tcomeinandbetheirbestfriend.Atthesametimeyoucan’tcomeinandbeatyrant.Butstudentsneedtoknowthattherearethoseboundariesandlimitations.WhichI’dknownbefore,butit’sthesamethingaswatchingsomethingdoneonvideotapeorreadingitinabookversusactuallyseeingitmodeledforyouanddoingityourself.So,beforehavinggonethroughtheexperiences,I’donlyheardaboutitorseenitonTV.Ihadn’texperienceditmyself.(Interview,Oceanside,5/2007)

Johnny’scaseillustratedtheimportanceofopportunities,particularlysuccessfulones,toexperimentwithdesiredpossibleselvesinthecontextofprofessionaledu-cation.Whileultimatelyhisfirstplacementhelpedhimbetterunderstandthekindofteacherhewantedtobe,byexperiencinghisfearedself,withoutthesubsequentopportunitytoexperimentwithadesiredself,hemayhaveconcludedthatthispro-fessionalidentitywasnotpossible;Johnnymayhaveoptedtoleavetheprofession,ratherthanriskevolvingintothe“tyrant”hefearedbecoming.

Implications Studentsencountermultiplepossibleselvesintheirprofessionalpreparation,manyofwhichtheyexperienceascontradictory.Fromprofessors,fieldsupervisors,practitioners,andotherexperiences,theybegintoconstructarepertoireofpossibleselves—bothfearedanddesired—thatmightcontributetotheirprofessionalidenti-ties.Courseworkprovidessomeopportunitiestograpplewithandexperimentwiththesepossibleselves,inpartthroughopportunitiestotryontheprofessionalroleinapproximationsofpractice.Thebestexampleofthiswasintheroleplayswe


57

observedinclinicalpsychology,wherenoviceshadregularandsustainedopportuni-tiestoexperimentwiththeroleoftherapistandtoreceivefeedbackontheirefforts.However,muchofthisexperimentationnecessarilyoccursinthemoreauthenticsettingsofthefieldplacements.Unfortunately,realconstraintsincongregations,schools,orclinicsmakeenactingsomepossibleselvesmoredifficultthanothersandmayevencausenovicestoenactversionsoftheirfearedselves.Asaresultofthesecontradictionsandtensions,noviceprofessionalsmusttrytoreconcilewhotheywanttobecomewithwhotheyareexpectedtobecomeinparticularsettings.Weargue thatprofessionaleducationcouldplayamorecentral role inhelpingnovicesnavigatethesecontradictionsandtensionsinconstructing,experimentingwith,andevaluatingprovisionalprofessionalidentities. Asmentionedabove,thesetensionsweregreatestinteachereducation,inwhichtheuniversitywasexplicitlytryingtopreparenovicestoserveaschangeagents.Sincetheprogramsarepreparingprofessionalsforvisionsofschoolingthatarerarelyfoundinmosturbansettings,studentsmaydevelopimagesofpossibleselvesthataredifficulttoenactintheirstudentteachingplacements.Giventhebleakrealitiesofmanyurbanschools,encouragingalternativevisionsofteachingcanbehelpful.Oneteachereducationstudentcommentedthatencounteringmoretheoreticaland“radical”imagesofwhatispossibleinteachereducationisnotnecessarily“falsepreparation”because,“Ithinkthetheoreticalapproachisencouragingyoutobeamotivatedandprincipledteacher.”Atthesametime,novicesdidnothavemanyopportunitiestoactuallyenact thesealternativevisionsofprofessional identity,limitingthechancethattheseidentitieswilltakerootanddevelop.AsHargreavesandJacka(1995)argue,“Initialteachereducationmayincreasinglybeaprocessofsoftseductionintoimagesandpracticesofteachingthatpreparenewteachersneithertoadjusttotheunchangedrealitiesoftheschoolsinwhichtheywillbegintheirpaidteachingcareers,nortodeveloptheintellectualunderstandingandpoliticalskillswhichwouldenablethemtocritiqueandchallengethoserealities“(p.58). Noviceteachersmayindeedexperimentwithalternativeprovisionalselvesdowntheroad,perhaps—asAlfredanticipated—aftertheyhavetheirownclassrooms,moreexperience,andjobsecurity.However,manystudiessuggestthatthestatusquoinschoolsmayoverpowersucheffortsatexperimentationandinsteadpromoteaccommodation(Britzman,1990;Hargreaves&Jacka,1995;Hoy&Woolfolk,1990;Rust,1994).Moreover,findingaworkcontextthatsimplyallowsexperimentationmaynotbeenoughforapossibleselftobecomeapartofprofessionalidentity.Ourstudysuggeststhatsuccessfulexperimentationmaybenecessary,andthatthisgenerallyrequiresmodeling,guidance,andfeedbackfromothers. Weargueformoreintentionalstructuringofopportunitiestoobserve,experi-mentwith,andevaluatepossibleselvesduringteachereducationthatspecificallysupportnovicesinnegotiatingthechasmbetweentheidealandthereal.Intryingtohelpnovicesadapt tonew roles, teachereducationcouldgivenovicesmoreopportunities toobserveexperiencedprofessionalswhoembodythealternative


58

imagespromotedinuniversitycourseworkwhilesuccessfullynavigatingthecon-straintsintoday’sschools,usingbothrealandvirtualclassroomsasexamples(c.f.Cochran-Smith,1991;Coleman,2006,gallery.carnegiefoundation.org/collections/quest/collections/sites/coleman_amelia/). Teacher educators could also providemoreconcreteopportunitiesforstudentstoexperimentwithwhatitmightmeantoenactthepracticesadvocatedbyteachereducationunderlessthanoptimalcondi-tions.Inonemathmethodscourseweobserved,forinstance,thematheducatorhadstudentsexaminethedistrictpacingplanandlookforopportunitiestoprobeforstudentthinkingwithinthoseconstraints. Throughapproximationsofpractice,suchastheworkshopplanningseminaratGraceSeminary,teachereducationcancreateopportunitiesthatmaynototherwiseexistin“real”practicesettings—onesfortryingon,evaluating,revising,andsuc-ceedingwithalternativeprovisionalselves.GeorgeHillocks’sworkshopapproachtopreparingEnglishteachers(Hillocks,1995),inwhichheandhisstudentsessentiallytookoveranurbanclassroomforamonthtoco-planandco-teachwriting,representsanexcellentexampleofanapproximationthatallowsstudentstoexperimentwithprovisionalselvesadvocatedbytheprogramwhilegettingimmediatefeedbackinanauthenticschoolsetting.Suchapproximationsofpracticecanalsobedesignedtoprovideimmediatefeedbackfromexperiencedprofessionalsandtoencourageandevenrequiresomeformsofexperimentationthatnovicesmayotherwiseneglect,aswasthecasewithroleplayingconfrontationaltherapistsinclinicalpsychology. Finally,asthecasesofAlfredandJohnnysuggest,teachereducatorscouldbetterutilizefieldworkasacontexttoexperimentwithandevaluateprogram-endorsedpro-visionalselvesinwaysthatsuccessfullyadapttorealconstraintsinschools.Develop-ingassignmentsthatrequirenovicestotryoutcertainpracticesinthefieldandthenbringtheresultsoftheseexperimentsbacktotheuniversitiescanprovidesnoviceswithastrongandcontinuoussupportsystemfortryingonandrefiningprovisionalselves.Teachereducationcouldcontinuetodevelopitseffortstorequirestudentstovideotape,orotherwisedocumenttheirexperimentationinwaysthatallowongoingfeedbackfrominstructors,supervisors,andpeerswhocanencourageandtunefutureexperimentationsothatitmayleadtosuccess.Thisisparticularlyimportantbecausewesuspectthatearlysuccessesinenactingprovisionalselvesprovidetheconditionsunderwhichprofessionalidentitycantakeholdandflourish.Byintentionallysup-portingnoviceteachersintryingoutandevaluatingtheiremergingidentitiesinbothcourseworkandfieldwork,professionaleducationcanprovideearlyopportunitiestocraftidentitiesbasedontheimagesoftheteachertheywanttobecome,inwaysthatcanfunctiongiventherealitiesofurbanschools.

Acknowledgments WewouldliketothanktheSpencerFoundationforitsgeneroussupportofthisresearch,boththroughaMajorGrantandthroughtheResearchTrainingGrantprogram.Wewouldalsoliketothankourcolleagues,ChristaCompton,DanielleIgra,EmilyShahan,andPeter


59

Williamsonfortheircontributionstothison-goingresearchproject,aswellasTeshaSen-guptaIrving,SarahFreedman,andDeborahApplemanfortheirinsightfulcommentsonthismanuscript.ThesecondauthorwouldalsoliketothanktheCenterforAdvancedStudyintheBehavioralSciencesforprovidingthetimeandspaceforthiswork.Finally,wewouldliketothankthefaculty,staffandstudentsoftheprogramswevisitedfortheirgenerosityinallowingusintotheirclassrooms.Wehavelearnedfromallofyou,andourownpracticeasteachereducatorshasbeenenrichedenormouslybyourinteractions.

ReferencesBritzman,D.P.(1990).Practice makes practice: A critical study of learning to teach.Albany,

NY:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.Cochran-Smith,Marilyn.(1991).Reinventingstudentteaching.Journal of Teacher Educa-

tion,42(2),104-118.Cole,A.L.,&Knowles,J.G.(1993).Shatteredimages:Understandingexpectationsand

realitiesoffieldexperiences.Teaching and Teacher Education,9(5/6),457-471.Coleman,A.(2006).Teachingwithinandbeyondthemandatedcurriculuminafifthgrade

language arts classroom. http://gallery.carnegiefoundation.org/collections/quest/col-lections/sites/coleman_amelia

Cross,S.,&Markus,H.(1991).Possibleselvesacrossthelifespan.Human Development, 34, 230-255.

Darling-Hammond,L.,&Schlan,E.(1996).Whoteachesandwhy:Dilemmasofbuildingaprofessionfortwenty-firstcenturyschools.InJ.Sikula(Ed.),Handbook of research on teacher education,2nded.(pp.67-101).NewYork:Macmillan.

Feiman-Nemser,S.,&Buchmann,M.(1985).Pitfallsofexperienceinteacherpreparation.Teachers College Record,87(1),53-65.

Goffman,E.(1959).The presentation of self in everyday life.GardenCity,NY:Double-day.

Grossman,P.L.(2002).TeachingPractice.AproposaltoTheSpencerFoundation.Unpub-lishedmanuscript.

Grossman,P.,Compton,C.,Igra,D.,Ronfeldt,M,Shahan,E.,&Williamson,P.(2009).Teach-ingpractice:Across-professionalperspective.Teachers College Record, 111(9).

Hansen,D.T.(1995).The call to teach.NewYork:TeachersCollegePress.Hargreaves,A.&Jacka,N.(1995).Inductionorseduction?Postmodernpatternsofpreparing

toteach.Peabody Journal of Education,70(3),41-63.Hillocks,G.(1995)Teaching writing as reflective practice.NewYork:TeachersCollege

Press.Hoy,W.K.,&Woolfolk,A.E.(1990).Socializationofstudentteachers.American Educa-

tional Research Journal,27(2),279-300.Ibarra,H.(1999).Provisionalselves:Experimentingwithimageandidentityinprofessional

adaptation.Administrative Science Quarterly,44(1999),764-791.Igra,D.,&Ronfeldt,M.(2005).Youarethetextyouteach:integratingthepersonaland

professionalinthehelpingprofessions.PapersubmittedattheAmericanEducationalResearchAssociation,Montreal.

Ingersoll,R.(2001).Teacherturnoverandteachershortages:Anorganizationalanalysis.American Educational Research Journal. 38(3),499–534.

Kaslow,N.J.,Rice,D.G.(1985).Developmentalstressesofpsychologyinternshiptraining:


60

Whattrainingstaffcandotohelp.Professional Psychology: Research and Practice,16(2),253-261.

Lampert,M.(1985).Howdoteachersmanagetoteach?Perspectivesonproblemsinpractice.Harvard Educational Review,55(2),178-194.

Lortie,D. (1975).Schoolteacher: A sociological study.Chicago:University ofChicagoPress

Oyserman,D.,&Markus,H.(1990).Possibleselvesindelinquency.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,59,112-125.

Markus,H.R.,&Kitayama,S.(1992).Cultureandtheself:Implicationsforcognition,emotion,andmotivation.Psychological Review,98,224-253.

Markus,H.R.,Mullally,P.,&Kitayama,S.(1997).Selfways:Diversityinmodesofculturalparticipation.InU.Neisser&D.Jopling(Eds.),The conceptual self in context: Culture, experience, self-understanding.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.

Markus,H.R.,&Nurius,P.(1986).Possibleselves.American Psychologist,41(9),954-969.

Miller,P.G.,&Goodnow,J.J.(1995).Culturalpractices:towardsanintegrationofcultureanddevelopment.InJ.Goodnow,P.J.Miller,&F.Kessel(Eds.),Cultural practices as contexts for development. SanFrancisco:JosseyBass.

Ronfeldt,M.(2006).Roleadaptationinprofessionaleducation.Dissertationproposalsub-mittedtotheStanfordSchoolofEducation.

Rust,F.O.(1994).Thefirstyearofteaching:It’snotwhattheyexpected.Teaching & Teacher Education,10(2),205-217.

Wideen,M.,Mayer-Smith, J.&Moon,B. (1998).Acriticalanalysisof the researchonlearningtoTeach:Makingthecaseforecologicalperspectiveoninquiry.Review of Educational Research, 68(2),130-178.

Williamson.(2006).Learningtoteachwithdiscussion:Investigationsofnoviceteachers’practice. Unpublisheddoctoraldissertation,StanfordUniversity.

Wilson,S.M.,Floden,R.E.,&Ferrini-Mundy,J.(2001).Teacherpreparationresearch:Cur-rentknowledge,gaps,andrecommendations.AresearchreportpreparedfortheU.S.DepartmentofEducationandtheOfficeforEducationalResearchandImprovement.

Zeichner,K.M.,&Gore,J.M.(1990).Teachersocialization.InW.R.Huston(Ed.),Handbook of research on teacher education(pp.329-348).NewYork:Macmillan.

experimenting with possible selves in professional preparation · experimenting with possible...

Documents