IDOCUMENT RESUMEED 031 079 EM 006 191Mass Media in the Developing Countries; A Unesco Report to the United Nations. Reports and Papers on

Mass Communication, Number 33.United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Paris (France).Pub Date 61Note-47p,Available from-Mass Communication Ckaring House, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e, France, also, UnescoPubhcations Center, P.O. Box 433, 317 E. 34th St., New York, N. Y. 10016 ($.50)

EDRS Price ME -$0.25 HC-$2.45Descriptors-*Developing Nations, *Economic Development, Educational Needs, Films, *In'oormationDissemination, Information Needs, Information Services, *Mass Media, Publications, Radio, *TechnicalAssistance, Television, World Problems

Identfiers-UNESCO ParisThere is statistical evidence to show that the expansion of a nation's economy is

paralleled by the expansion of its media. Almost 70 per cent of the world'spopulation, spread over 100 countries, does not have basic mass informationfacilities. These areas are always underdeveloped and lack facilities for formaleducation. It is a principle of the United Nations that freedom of information is abasic human right, and that is the reason for this report. It describes past efforts,both by special agencies and by United Nations organs, to develop information media,and sketches the problems of deveoping information media in society, focusing on theproblems as they exist in South East Asia, Latin America, Africa, the Middle Eact, andother areas. It offers recommendations, first in general terms, and then according tomedia: news agencies, press, radio, film, and television. The report concludes with adiscussion about financing a development program. References are provided.(Author/GO)

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This series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication is issued by the Clearing House ofthe Department of Mass Communication of Unesco. Unless otherwise stated, the reports may bereproduced in full or in part, provided credit is given to Unesco. The following reports and papershave so far been issued and are obtainable from National Distributors of Unesco Publications orfrom the Mass Communication Clearing House, Unesco, Place de Fontenoy, Paris- 7e.

REPORTS AND PAPERS ON MASS COMMUNICATION

No. 1 Films and Filmstrips about the work o/ the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies, May 1952 (out of print).No. 2 World Film Directory - Agencies concerned with Edu7ational, Scientific and Cultural Film - Section A : Africa;

Section B: America (North, Central and South); Section C: Asia and Oceania ; Section D: Europe and Section E :International, July 1952 / September 1953'(free on request).

No. 3 Films and Filmstrips about Education. August 1952 (out of print).No. 4 Unesco Publications on Mass Communication - An Annotated Bibliography. October 1952 (out of print) with

Supplement 1954 (out of print).No. 5 Television - An Experiment in Community Reception in French villages. August 1952 (out of print).No. 6 Kerosene Filmstrips and Slide Projectors. November 1952 (free on request) (out of print).No. 7 The Daily Press - A Survey of the World Situation in 1952. December 1953 ($0.40; 2/-(Stg.); 1,00 NF)(out

of print).No. 8 Education lor Journalism - 1953. January 1954 (*0.40; 2/-(Stg.); 1,00 NF) (out of print).No. 9 Bibliography on Filmology as Related to the Social Sciences. February 1954 (*0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF) (out

of print).No. 10 Newsprint Trends 1928-1951. February 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF) (out of print).No. 11 Paper lor Printing (other than N ewsprin t) and Writing - 1929-1951 Trends. March 1954 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No. 12 Paper lor Printing and Writing - Tentative Forecasts of Demand in 1955, 1960 and 1965. April 1954 ($0.40;

2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No. 13 Tentative International Bibliography of Works Dealing with Press Problems (1900-1952). September 1954 ($0.50 ;

3/- (Stg.); 1,50 NF),No. 14 Catalogues of Short Films and Filmstrips - Selected List. February 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No. 15 Catalogue of French Ethnographical Films. May 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No. 16 Television and Tele-Clubs in Rwal Communities. July 1955 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 0,50 NF).No. 17 International Rules lor the Cataloguing of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Films and Filmstrips. Preliminary

edition, May 1956 (*0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No. 18 A Manual for Evaluators ol Films and Filmstrips. May 1956 (*0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No. 19 List of Films Recommended lor Children and Adolescents up to 16 years Following Selections made in 22 Countries.

June 1956 (out of print).No. 20 Catalogue of 50 Popular Science Films. July 1956 (out of print).No. 21 Current Mass Communication Research I - Bibliography ol Books and Articles on Mass Communication published

since 1 January 1955. December 1956 (SI ; 5/- (Stg.); 2,50 NF).No. 22 Periodicals for New Literates: Editorial Methods. June 1957 (*0.75 ; 3/6 (Stg.); 1,50 NF).No. 23 Cultural Radio Broadcasts. Some Experiences, December 1956 ($0.40; 2/- (Stg.); 1,00 NF).No. 24 Periodicals lor New Literates. Seven Case Histories. November 1957 ($1; 5/- (Stg.); 3,00 NF).No. 25 Adult Education Groups and Audio-Visual Techniques. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,00 NF).No. 26 The Kinescope and Adult Education. 1958 ($0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,00 NF).No. 27 Visual Aids in Fundamental Education and Community Development. 1959 (*0.75; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 NF).No. 28 Film Programmes lor the Young. 1959 (*0.75 ; 3/6 (Stg.); 2,50 NF) (out of print).No. 29 Film-making on a Low Budget. 1960 ($0.50; 2/6 (Stg.); 1,75 NF).t,o. 30 Developing Mass Media in Asia. 1960 ($1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 NF).No. 31 The Influence of the Cinema on Children and Adolescants. 4n Annotated International Bibliography. 1961

(*1.50; 7/6 (Stg.); 5,25 NF).No. 32 Film and Television in the Service of Opera and Ballet and of Museums. 1961 ($1.00; 5/-(Stg.); 3,50 NF).

MC. 61. XVII. 33. A

Printed in the Workshops of theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Place de Fontenoy, Paris-7e© UNESCO 1961

U.S. DEPARTMENT Of HEALTH, EDUCATION & WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATION

THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THEPERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS.;TATED DO NOT NECESSARILY

REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE Of EDUCATIONPOSITION OR POLICY.

Mass mediain the

developingcountries

A Unesco reportto the United Nations

i

unesco

FOREWORD

The United Nations has been concerned since its inception with assisting the less developed countriesto develop their press, radio broadcasting, film and television. In order to explore the possibilities of anexpanded programme in this field, the Economic and Social Council in the spring of 1959 requested Unescoto carry out a world survey with suggestions as to the action that might be taken.

Unesco has been conducting the survey by means of a series of meetings in the regions concerned, bringingtogether experts in the information media as well as representatives of governments and of internationalorganizations. Each meeting was to draw up for its region a concrete programme for development of theinformation media.

The first meeting, for South East Asia, was held at Bangkok in January 1960 ; the report of that meetingwas published as No. 30 of the present series of Reports and Papers on Mass Communication. The secondmeeting, for Latin America, was convened at Santiago, Chile, in February 1961 ; its report has been publishedas a separate Unesco document (MC/ 41). The third meeting, for Africa, is to be held at Addis Ababa earlyin 1962.

Unesco was requested by the United Nations to submit a first report, prior even to the completion of theseries of meetings. In submitting the report, the Director-General of Unesco observed that its preparationhad been guided by two premises :

"The first is that a prerequisite to freedom of information is the existence of adequate mass communi-cation facilities. Nearly70 per cent of the total population of the world, living'in more than 100 countries,at present lack these facilities to a degree that denies them full enjoyment of this basic human right.The second premise is that development of the information media forms part of economic development asa whole and therefore may be assisted by resources drawn from technical assistance programmes. Suchassistance in the mass communication field is of growing importance at a time when the underdevelopedcountries are seeking to attain in a matter of years a level of advancement which it has taken thedeveloped countries centuries to achieve."

The Unesco report was considered by the Commission on Human Rights in February-March 1961 and by theEconomic and Social Council in April 1961. On the recommendation of the Commission, the Council adopteda resolution, the full text of which is given on the followiag page.

The report suggests action which could be carried ,.)1.,t ,-;.9t only within the United Nations, but also bygovernments and mass media organizations and enterprises. it is hoped that the present publication will helpto stimulate such action as part of a broad effort to develop the information media in less developed countries.

RESOLUTIONADOPTED BY THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL

(APRIL 1961)

The Economic and Social Council,

Recalling General Assembly resolution 1313(XIII) of 12 December 1958 and Part I of resolution718 (XXVII) of 24 April 1959 which requested theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization to forward its report and recommen-dations to the Commission on Human Rights andth;_=. Economic and Social Council,

1. Expresses its appreciation to the Director-General of the United Nations Educational, Scien-tific and Cultural Organization for the report andrecommendations concerning the development ofinformation media in underdeveloped countries;(1)

2. Commends the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization for the workit is doing in furthering the development of informa-tion media in less developed countries, and inparticular commends it for stressing the importanceof the part played in education and in economic andsocial progress generally by the development ofinformatior media;

3. Requests the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization to continueactively to further this programme, in consultationwith the United Nations and other SpecializedAgencies concerned;

4. Draws the attention of Member States to thepossibilities of action and international co-operationin promoting the development of national informa-tion media in the less developed countries, such asthose dealt with in the report and recommendationsprepared by the United Nations Educational, Scien-tific and Cultural Organization on the establishmentand expansion of national news agencies, news-papers and periodicals, radio broadcasting, filmand television in the less developed countries by:

(a) Programmes for the development of theirnational information media as part of their planningfor economic and social development;

(b) The establishment of national committeesto assist in formulating and carrying out pro-grammes for the development of information media;

(c) The inclusion of appropriate mass com-munication development projects in their technicalassistance programmes and in bilateral and multi-lateral aid irogrammes for economic and socialdevelopmem ,

(d) The establishment of national trainingprogrammes for professional and technical per-sonnel and research in the use of informationmedia;

(e) The consideration of their present andfuture needs for information media in planningtheir communication and transport services;

(f) The examination of the possibility of con-cluding bilateral and multilateral agreements andof the desirability of adopting fiscal, tariff andother measures designed to facilitate the develop-ment of national information media and the freeflow of accurate and undistorted information withinand between countries in the light of the overallfinancial and material resources;

(g) The establishment or extension of nationalprofessional associations as essential elements intheir mass media programmes;

5. Recommends that the governments of themore developed countries co-operate with lessdeveloped countries with a view to meeting theurgent needs of the less developed countries in thedevelopment of independent national informationmedia, with due regard for the culture of eachcountry;

6. Invites the Technical Assistance Board,the Special Fund, the Specialized Agencies con-cerned, the regional economic commissions andother public and private agencies and institutionsto assist, as appropriate, the,less developed coun-tries in developing and strengthening their nationalinformation media;

7. Requests the United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization to prepare, inconsultation with the United Nations and otherSpecialized Agencies concerned, a further reportcontaining specific recommendations to the Com-mission on Human Rights on additional concretemeasures that might be undertaken through interna-tional co-operation to meet difficulties with whichless developed countries are confronted, taking intoaccount the results of the regional meeting held inSantiago in February 1961 and the one to be held inAddis Ababa in 1962 (resolution 819A (XXXI)).

(1) E/3437 and Add.l.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE PAST EFFOR1 10 DEVELOP THEINFORMATION MEDIA

Initial EffortsAction by United Nations OrganeRequest for Development ProgrammeRegional Approach Suggested

7

7-88-99-10

General Assembly Decision 10Aid for The Information Media 10-14

CHAPTER TWO PROBLEMS OF DEVELOPING THEINFORMATION MEDIA

The Media in Society 15-18

Problems, by RegionsSouth East Asia 18-24Latin America 24-28Africa 28-31Middle East 31-33Other Areas 33-34

CHAPTER THREE CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSConclusions 35-37General Recommendations 37-39Recommendations, by Media 39-40

News Agencies 40Newspapers and Periodicals 40-41Radio Droadcasting 41-42Film 42Television 42-43

Financing a Development Programme 43-44

REFERENCES 45

CHAPTER ONE*

PAST EFFOW ro DEVELOP THE INFORMATION MEDIA

INITIAL EFFORTS,

International effort to assist development of theinformation media began some 40 years ago, whenprofessional organizations of the press took up theissue. Their efforts had been prompted by therapid expansion of internatioral reportage and oftelecommunication t chniques during the FirstWorld War. ,

In 1921 the Press Congress of the World, aninternational organization of newspaper editorsand publishers founded in San Francisco in 1915,met at Honolulu and urged the reduction of ratesand the extension of facilities for the transmis-sion of news by cable and radio. Meeting atGeneva in 1926, the Press Congress recordedthat it had succeeded in securing the exchange ofnews at low rates by radio-telegraph between theUnited States of America and East Asia. TheCongress urged the convening of an internationalconference to study the problems of news trans-mission. Turning to problems of professionaltraining,, it recommended an increase in the num-ber of schools of journalism, the improvement oftheir standards and a wider international exchangeof journalists and technicians. In the, same yearthe first Pan-American Congress of Journalists,convened by the Pan-American Union atWashington, D.C., dealt, int !r. alia, with theestablishment of schools of journalism in LatinAmerica and the abolition of import duties onnewsprint.

In 1927 the League of Nations took the firstaction on a broad intergovernmental level in thisfield _when it convened at Geneva a IT aeting ofrepresentatives of news agencies, newspapers,international organizations of journalists andgovernment press services. The purpose of themeeting was to seek ways of assuring the cheaperand more rapid transmission of news with a viewto reducing risks of international misunderstand-ing. Subjects considered by the meeting includedthe lowering of press rates, the improvement ofcommunication and the trnining oi journalists.Subsequent meetings of press experts convened bythe League in 1932 and 1933 dealt largely withmeasures to prevent the diffusion of false and in-accurate news. These issues likewise engagedthe attention of professional organizations, suchas tne International Federation of Journalists andthe International Federation of Associations ofNewspaper Managers and Publishers, in the yearspreceding the Second World War.

ACTION BY UNITED NATIONS ORGANS

During the war, th a news agency, press, radiobroadcasting and tilm enterprises of manycountries in Asia, Europe and Africa sufferedheavy losses of equipment and personnel. Thereconstruction of facilities in these areas becamean urgent concern of the United Nations and itscompetent Specialized Agencies. In December1946 Unesco, by decision of its General Confer-ence, launched a survey of the needs of theinformation media in the war-devastatedcountries(1). The following year, by GeneralConference decision, the survey was broadenedto include countries in Asia and Latin Americawhich were handicapped by inadequate facIlities(2).Subsequently, the survey was expanded to coverthe rest of the world and served as a basis forcertain concrete measures to assist MemberStates in developing their information media.These measures are described in the concludingsection of this chapter. The informationgathered in the course of this survey was pub-lished by Unesco in the form of a series of re-ports entitled Press, Film, Radio (Volumes I-V).

The 'United Nations Conference on Freedomof Information, convened at Geneva in 1948 andattended 1>y, representatives of 54 governments andobservers from eight international organizationshad meanwhile considered possible means ofremedying deficiencies in mas"s communicationfacilities throughout the world. The Conferencenoted that Unesco had already begun to helpcountries handicapped by an insufficiency of in-formation media and urged that all assistance begiven to the Organization in carrying out its task(3).

In addition, the Conference recommendedmeasures to encourage the development of nationalnews agencies, increase the availability of low-cost radio receivers and stimulate the productionand improve the distribution of newsprint(4).

These resolutions were noted in 1949 by theUnited Nations Sub-Commission on Freedom ofInformation and of the Press, established by theCommission on Human Rights. The Sub -Commission recommended that, in consideringthe economic development of underdeveloped

,

* The formal sections of this report have beenabridged for purposes of the present publication.

(1)References to conference resolutions andsources of information are listed on page 45.

7

countries, the Economic and Social Councilshould pay special attention to the development ofdomestic information agencies. The Counciltook note of the Sub-Commission's recommenda-tion in the same year and referred it to the Techni-cal Assistance Committee of the Council (TAC)for consideration(5). In 1950 the TAC discussedthe Council's resolution and decided that govern-mental requests for technical assistance fe i. thedevelopment of information agencies would bc con-sidered in the normal manner by the TeOnicalAssistance Board, which would then report to iheTAC.

Within a few months a mounting shortage ofnewsprint throughout the world stimulated con-certed action by a number of United NationsOrganizations. With the rehabilitation of thepress in devastated areas, the spread of literacyand the expansion of the press in many of theunderdeveloped countries, the demand for news-print had rapidly increased in the post-war years.However, production of this vital commodity waslargely concentrated in a relatively few technicallyadvanced countries, with the underdevelopedcountries relying almost wholly on imports fortheir supplies.

When the post-war shortage became acute inmid-1951, the General Conference of Unesco urgedMember States to examine the question and invitedthe Economic and Social Council to mobilize theresources of the United Nations and the competentSpecialized Agencies in a joint co-operative effortto solve the problem(6). Particular attention wasdrawn to the importance of research in the use ofsubstitute raw materials for newsprint, of the in-creased production of wood pulp and of relatedeconomic and financial questions. In response tothis appeal, the Council in September 1951, calledfor concerted action by producers, consumers,government and United Nations agencies(7).

The Conference of the Food and AgricultureOz ganization, at its sixth session in December1951, unanimously recognized the gravity of thecrisis and urged chat the production of pulp andpaper be increased. The FAO also decided tosend expert missions under the Expanded Pro-gramme of Technical Assistance, at the requestof Member States, to help prepare concrete plansof action. The United Natio: Is General Assemblyin January 1952 noted with satista;.tion the actiontaken by Unesco, by the Council and by the FA0(8).

In mid-1952 the Economic and Social Councilobserved that the short-term situation concerningnewsprint production and distribution had improvedto the extent that immediate international actionwas not necessary(0). Nevertheless, the Councilrequested the Secretary-General of the UnitedNations, together with FAO, Unesco ard the Inter-national Bank, to continue their efforts over along-term period. Accordingly the FAO, as de-scribed in the concluding section of this chapter,urdertook a programme of action, in co-operationwith other United Nations agencies, to stimulate

the production of pulp and paper, particularly inthe underdeveloped countries.

Meanwhile the Sub-Commission on Fr 2edomof Information and of the Press had re-ex; minedthe general problem of development of the informa-tion media. Early in 1952 the Sub-Commissionrecommended that the Economic and SocialCouncil request Unesco to continue its studies andpursue its work on technical assistance for thedevplopment of independent domestic informationagencies. The Sub-Commission also suggestedthat the Secretary-General, in conjunction withthe Technical Assistance Committee of theCouncil and Unesco, report on the question as awhole to the Council. On the basis of this recom-mendation, the Council in mid-1952 invited theSecretary-General, in conjunction with Unesco,to study way3 and means of encouraging and de-veloping independent domestic informationagencies and to report to the Council in 1953(10).

REQUEST FOR DEVELOPMENT PROGaAMME

The General Assembly, at its seventh session latein 1952, also discussed the problem and elaboratedupon the above-mentioned resolution of the Council.In a resolution on information facilities in under-developed regions of the world, the GeneralAssembly invited the Council to consider thedesirability of expanding the area of its study andrequested the Sec,.etary-General in preparing thereport requester:, by the Council, to elaborate "aprogramme of concrete action". The GeneralAssembly cited various possible measures in thisfield and invited the Council to recommend to theorganizations participating in technical assistanceand other aid programmes that they give sympa-thetic consideration to requests from governmentsfor aQsistance in improving informationfacilities% *Li ).

In response to the requests of the Council andthe Assembly, the Secretary-General, in conjunc-tion with Unesco, prepared a report on theEncouragement and Development of IndependentDomestic Information Enterprises. This reportdealt with the main problems of developing newsagencies, the press, radio broadcasting and filmand concluded with what the Secretary-Generaldescribed as "elements on the basiA of which aprogramme might be formulated by the Council it-self". The Secretary-General's suggestions dealtwith such matters as the reduction of tariffs onessential materials, the lowering of press rates,p. ofessional training, the production and thstribu-tion of newsprint and regional P'..,liabor ation in thedevelopment of the information media.

The Secretary-General's report was con-sidered by the Economic and Social Council in1954. The Council also considered the report ofits Rapporteur on Freedom of Information,Mr. Salvador P. Lopez, who had reviewed certainaspects of the development of information media

t

in his survey entitled Freedom of Information,1953.

The Council drew the attention of governmentsto the suggestions for action presented in theSecretary-GeneraPs report,- invited governmentsof underdeveloped countries to study the possi-bility of encouraging the development of existing,and the establishment of new or additional informa-tion media. The Council also drew the attentionof these governments to the possibility of seekingtechnical assistance tor such purposes from theUnited Nations, the Specialized Agencies and otherintergoverninental organizations. It further re-commended that Unesco intensify its activities toencourage the development of information media(12).

At the same time the Council urged increasedaction, under the technical assistance and otherprogrammes, to promote the training of informa-tion personnel, "in view of the importance of ade-quate information as a factor of economic develop-ment"(13). In addition, the Council rPcommendedto the Specialized Agencies and the TechnicalAssistance Administration that they give due con-sideration, under their Regular programmes andunder the Expanded Technical Assistance pro-gramme, to governmental requests for aic w'oichwould be useful in promoting freedom of informa-tion(14). The Council also decided that, subjectto the approval of the General Assembly, theSecretary-General should be authorized to render,at the request of Member States, services whichdid not fall within the scope and objectives ofexisting technical assistance programmes, inorder to assist these States in promoting freedomof information. This recommendation was ap-proved by the General Assembly in the same yea, ,

1954(15).In the meantime Unesco had been giving a

certain amount of aid to Member States to assistthem in building up their information media. Itwas not until 1954, however, that this activity wasformalized by a decision of the General Conferenceof Unesco to provide aid to Member States, attheir request, for the development of their masscommunication services(16). .

In 1955 the Economic and Social Cour-Al, not-ing the General Assembly's resolution re .erred toabove, requested the Secretary-General to takesteps, in collaboration with Unesco, ,to put intooperation a programme to promote freedom ofinformation by providing such services as experts,fellowships and serninars(17). In addition, theCcuncil decided that a further study on the develop-ment of media of information would be highly desir-able. It accordingly requested governments totransmit to the Secretary-Generaf information onmedia of information existing in their territories,information on measures and plans for the develop-ment of the media, and recommendations and sug-gestions for possible action on the internationalplane for the development of the media in under-developed ountries(18). The Council Aso re-quested the Secretary-Genkral, in consultation

with Unesco, to prepare an analysis of informationand recommendations received and to present onthe basis of this analysis "elements necessary forthe formulation by the Council of a programme ofconcrete action and measures on the internationalplane which could be undertaken for the develop-ment cf information enterprises of underdevelopedcountries, with an evaluation of the material,financial and professional requirements and re-sources for the implementation of this programme".

REGIONAL APPROACH SUGGESTED

In a report to the Council early in 1957 on Mediaof Information in Underdeveloped Countries, theSecretary-General stated that he did not believeit was possible, on the basis of replies receivedfrom governments, to present a useful statementon the elements that would be necessary for theformulation of the programme envisaged by theCouncil. However, he observed that sincecountries in a number of main regions have com-mon problems aryl common needs, the inquirymight be effectively pursued by means of a seriesc_ regional meetings of experts in the mass mediaand of representatives of the underdevelopedcountries. Representatives of underdevelopedcountries might be able to present a detailedpicture of their sp;!cial problems and needs; theexperts would be in a position to offer advice onhow to meet such needs. "Jointly, experts andgovernment representatives might be expected todraw up in a practicable and scientific manner"the programme desired.

After considering the Secretary-General'sreport in April 1957, the Council requested Mem-ber States which had not already done so to trans-mit to the Secretary-General the information re-quested of them(19). The Council a.ho invitedthe Secretary-General to complete and submit tothe Council, not later than at its twenty-seventhsession early in 1959, the analysis of elementsneeded for the formulation of a programme, tak-ing into account any recommendations which theCommission on Human Rights might :nake as aresult of its consideration of the problem ofinformation media in underdeveloped countries.

The Commission Oil Human Rights had mean-while established a Committee on Freedom ofInformation which was required, inter alia, toreport to the Commission on action that should betaken to develop the information media and improvetheir utilization(20). Later in 1957 the GeneralAssembly requested the Economic and SocialCouncil to invite the Commission, when examin-.ing the report of its Committee on Freedom ofInformation, "to give special attention to develop-ing media of information in underdevelopedcountries" and to transmit to the General Assemblythe Commission's report on these matters,together with the CounciPs recommendations(21).

The report of the Committee on Freedom of

9

Information, considered by the Human Rights.

Commission early in 1958, contained a series ofsuggestions on the development of informationmedia in underdeveloped countries. These dealtwith such matters as professional and technicaltraining, the production of newsprint, the establish-ment of low press rates, the manufacture of low-cost radii) receivers and technical assistance forspecific development projects.

The CommisFion, after considering its Com-mittee's report, requested the Economic andSocial Council and, through it, Unesco and theother Specialized Agencies concerned, to initiateaction to implement the Committee's suggestionson the granting of ass_stance to the underdevelopedcountries in building up adequate information mediawhich could facilitate the free flow of accurate andundistorted news and information. The Commis-sion asked that reports from Unesco and otherSpecialized Agencies on the work undertaken in re-sponse to this request, and on the problems en-countered, be transmitted to it for considerationat its fifteenth session early in 1959(22).

The Council at its twenty-sixth session in mid-1958 requested Lhe Commission to complete, at itsfifteenth session, its recommendations on freedomof information in the light of its Committee's re-port and the comments of governments,Specialized Agencies and non-governmentalorganizations on that report(23).

GENERAL ASSEMBLY DECISION

The General Assembly at its thirteenth sessionlate in 1958 reviewed the various decisions takenby the Council and the Commission and expressedthe hope that the Council at its twenty-eighth ses-sion in 1959 would formulate a programme of con-crete action and international measures for the de-velopment of information media in underdevelopedcountries. The General Assembly also invitedthe Council to request the Commission on HumanRights to arrange for constant review of the pro-blems of providing technical assistance to under-developed countries in the information field and toreport regularly to the Council on progressachieved. Finally, the General Assembly invitedUnesco and other interested Specialized Agenciesto formulate concrete proposals to assist the de-velopment of information media in the less de-veloped countries and to include an account of theirefforts on this and other aspects of freedom of in-formation in their annual reports to the Council(24).

Concurrently with this action by the GeneralAssembly, the General Conference of Unesco ap-proved the convening of a meeting of governmentrepresentatives and experts of the informationmedia in South East Asia in 1960 to draw up pro-posals for the development of the media in thatregion(25). This action was guided by the regionalapproach suggested by the Secretary-General in1957. "If this first meeting should yield positive

10

results", the Director-General stated in a reporton Development of Media of Information in Under-developed Countries to the Economic and SocialCouncil early in 1959, "similar ones might be heldfor Latin America, Africa and the Middle East.It might thus be possible, in due course, to formu-late for the various regions of the world the typeof development programme which the GeneralAssembly and the Council have requested".

In a concurrent report to the Council onDevelopment of Media of Information in Under-developed Countries, the Secretary-General of theUnited Nations stated that the further replies fromgovernments pursuant to the Council's requests of1955 and 1957 contained a number of interestingideas and complemented the information andsuggestions previously forwarded. The Secretary-General added, however, that he still did not feelthat the body of information, suggestions and ideascontained in the replies permitted him to dischargein a practical and realistic manner the Council'soriginal request to present elements necessary forthe formulation of a development programme. Atthe same time, he drew attention to the GeneralAssembly's decision at its 1958 session invitingthe Council to request the Commission on HumanRights to arrange for constant review of the pro-blems of providing technical assistance to under-developed countries in the information field. Herecalled ,:hat at its twenty-sixth session in mid-1958 the Council had acted to ensure that the Com-mission's report on this problem would be beforethe Council at its twenty-seventh session in April1959.

The Commission on Human Rights in March1959 considered the report of the Secretary-General, the memorandum by the Director-General of Unesco and the report of its Committeeon Freedom of Information, already mentioned.The Commission decided to review developmentsaffecting freedom of information, including theproblems of providing technical assistance tounderdeveloped countries in the information field,as a regular item on its agenda.(26). It also re-commended that the Economic and Social Counciladopt a two-part resolution: Part I proposed thatUnesco be invited to undertaite a survey on theproblems of providing technical assistance tounderdeveloped countries in the field of informa-tion; Part II proposed that the Secretary-Generalbe requested to prepare an annual report on de-velopments affecting freedom of information anda substantive report, for submission to theCouncil in 1961, on developments in that fieldsince 1954. The reports requested of theSecretary-General were to include information onthe development of information media in the under-developed countries. The Econsimic and SocialCouncil adopted this two-part resolution at itstwenty-seventh session in April 1959(27). Sub-sequent action by the Commission and Council in1961 is indicated in the Council resolution, thetext of which appears on page 5 of this publication.

AID FOR THE INFORMATION MEDIA

Paralleling the decisions, described above, whichhave been taken by the United Nations and theinterested Specialized Agencies, a limited pro-gramme of practical action has been carried outto encourage the development of information mediain the underdeveloped countries. An account ofthis programme will provide examples of the typesof assistance which have been rendered throughinternational action, and will also indicate theexisting pattern for concerted effort in this fieldby the United Nations family. It should be notedthat following the General Assembly decision of1958, referred to above, technical assistance re-sources have become generally available for thedevelopment of the mass media, but still only to alimited extent.

United Nations

Following the inauguration in 1949 of the UnitedNations programme of Technical Assistance, theTechnical Assistance Administration administereda number of projects of the International Telecom-munication Union to help the underdevelopedcountries improve and expand their telecommunica-tions services, which are essential to the function-ing of the information media. Under this arrange-ment, ITU experts were sent to advise telecom-munication administrations in these countries andfellowships were awarded to enable their special-ists to study highly developed systems abroad.

Pakistan, for example, received a team ofexperts who advised on the establishment of amodern telecommunication system, with radiocommunication links to Jther countries. Expertsassisted in the establishment of a radio-telephonesystem in Afghanistan; in the expansion of broad-casting in Lebanon; and in reorganizing telegraphand telephone services in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia,United Arab Republic (S,fria) and Yugoslavia.Local staff were trained by missions in Malaya,the Republic of Korea, Ethiopia and El Salvador,and in Ethiopia an ITU mission assisted in settingup a telecommunications institute for training andresearch. Meanwhile telecommunication special-ists were sent from a number of less developedcountries to study in Europe and North America.

Under its programme to encourage industrialdevelopment, the United Nations dispatched expertsto advise on the production of paper, includingnewsprint, in Ceylon, Colombia, India, Israel andPakistan. A TAA-FAO mission assisted inestablishing paper mills in the Philippines, andYugoslavia received advice on the production ofnewsprint and of telephone, radio broadcasting andtelevision equipment.

Unesco has conducted a broad programme to assistin improving mass communication techniques anddeveloping the information media in underdevelopedcountries. This programme has included the dis-

patch of expert missions, the holding of expertmeetings, the conduct of research, the publicationof studies am! assistance in establishing inter-national centres for training in journalism.

During and following its post-war survey ofinformation facilities in underdeveloped areas,Unesco dispatched a number of expert missions toAfrica, Asia and Latin America and awardedfellowships to information specialists in thoseregions for specialized training abroad. Thisassistance has been utilized, for example, in thedevelopment of national news agencies, theimprovement of printing techniques and theorganization of educational broadcasting servicesand film institutes.

Seminars and technical meetings have beenon various subjects, including the production anduse of audio-visual materials for education, theexchange of radio broadcasts and the use of tele-vision for education. In addition, experimentsand pilot projects have been conducted in the useof radio, film and television for education in ruralareas.

In the field of radio, fci example, Unesco in1960 held a regional training course in Khartoumfor Arabic-speaking broadcasting personnel andassisted several African countries in organizingtheir broadcasting services. In the film field,the Organization has helped to stimulate the pro-duction and distribution of documentary films inLatin America and South East Asia, and assistedin establishing at Mexico City the Latin AmericanInstitute for Educational Films (ILCE), which pro-motes the use of audio-visual aids in education.Similarly, the use of television in education hasbeen encouraged through experiments in communityreception in various countries.

Many of these efforts are based on researchin the development and use of the media in areaswhich are less advanced industrially. For ex-ample, Unesco has studied the de%velopment ofradio reception facilities suitable for tropicalcountries; of film equipment that can be used innon-electrified areas; and of composing andprinting machinery suitable for vernacularlanguages and small-circulation newspapers.Unesco's main rôle in research, however, hasbeen to help co-ordinate the rapidly growing ac-tivities undertaken both in the advanced and lessadvanced countries.

Research in this and other fields has beenmade available to specialists in the form of pub-listed studies on various aspects of mass com-munication, such as the organization of newsagencies, the production of newsprint and otherprinting paper, low-cost radio reception, filmproduction and the training of information person-nel. Inequalities in the distribution of mass mediafacilities have been highlighted in a number ofUnesco studies and notably in World Communica-tions which is published periodically and gives acountry-by-country account of the distribution ofsuch facilities throughout he world.

11

In recent years Unesco has devoted increasingattention to training for journalism in all the mediaand particularly to means of improving trainingstandards. To further this objective, theOrganization assisted in establishing an institutefor higher studies in journalism at StrasbourgUniversity, France, to serve Europe and adjacentcountries, and a similar centre for LatinAmerica at the Central University of Ecuador(Quito). For Africa, Unesco held a regionalseminar on teacher training early in 1961 at Dakar,Senegal and will organize a similar seminar forSouth East Asia at Manila later in the year.

Certain current activities stem from the twoUnesco meetings, held at Bangkok in January 1960and at Santiago, Chile in February 1961, on thedevelopment of the media in South East Asia aixiLatin America respectively (see Foreword).During 1961-1962 further study will be made ofpossible measures to promote the development ofnational news agencies, the expansion of news-papers and increased technical co-operation be-tween film, radio and television services in thosetwo regions.

Similar action is being taken in Africa,During 1961-1962 a concerted effort is being madeto develop broadcasting in Tropical Africa as ameans of helping to meet the urgent needs ofeducation. Late in 1961 a meeting will be held atDar-es-Salaam, Tanganyika, of directors ofbroadcasting organizations and of directors ofeaucation b draw up development plans in thisfield. Meanwhile, assistance has been given toTogo through an expert mission which has advisedon the development of the press, radio broadcast-ing and news services of that country.

International Teleedmmunication Union

The International Telecommunication Union hasfor a number of years assisted its membercountries in organizing their telecommunicationdepartments; constructing, operating and main-taining their telegraph, telephone and radio com-munication systems; and training personnel inall branches of telecommunications.

Since 1952. the ITU has intensified thiseffort through participation in the United NationsExpanded Programme of Technical Assistance.Under this programme, the Union has helped toreorganize and improve existing telecommunica-tion systems and build new networks in under-developed countries requesting aid. Many ofthese projects have related to radio communica-tions and reflected a growing desire among theunderdeveloped countries to extend their relationswith other countries and advance their nationaleconomy by means of an efficieri;; and relativelyinexpensive medium. At the same time, the ITUhas assisted in developing communications by landwire and ocean cable.

A number of ITU development projects are re-ferred to in the foregoing account of the work of

12

the United Nations in the telecommunication field.The ITU's activities are further illustrated by thefollowing examples. In Africa, its experts haveadvised on radio frequency usage in Libya. Expertsat the telecommunication institute in Ethiopia,already mentioned, have assisted in training over500 local officials. In South America, the Unionadvised Bolivia on the modernization of its radionetwork and assisted Paraguay in reorganizing itsradio communication and telephone services.

In Asia, ITU experts trained Indian special-ists in microwave communications and gavefurther assistance to Iran and Iraq in modernizingtheir telecommunication systems. Jordan andMalaya received aid in extending their radio andtelephone services and Pakistan in expanding itstelecommunication network. Experts also as-sisted Lebanon in improving its telegraph servicesand Saudi Arabia in establishing a broadcastingcentre. At the same time, specialists from anumber of countries in Africa, Asia and Northand South America were granted fellowships foradvanced study abroad.

The ITU has also co-operated in planningregional projects for telecommunication develop-ment. A major scheme, involving both the ITUand the ECAFE, seeks to connect countries in thoMiddle East and South East Asia with the inter-national telecommunication network in Europe andthe Mediterranean basin. In 1958, ITU expertssurveyed telecommunication services in Asia andthe Far East and in 1959 an international meetingconvened by the ECAFE at Tokyo examined theirreport. This meeting recommended action at thenational, regional and international levels fortelecommunication development. In addition, theITU is collaborating with the Organization ofAmerican States in the preparation of plans forthe development of an Inter-American Telecom-munication Netk ark. These Asian and LatinAmerican projects, incidentally, represent thefirst attempt to study the improvement of telecom-munications in the light of its influence on theeconomic development of individual regions.

A joint effort by the ITU and Unesco concernsthe production of low-cost receivers for use in theunderdeveloped countries. On the basis of aUnesco proposal, the last Administrative RadioConference of the ITU (Geneva 1959) invited theUnion's International Consultative Radio Commit-tee to draw up specifications for one or moretypes of receivers suitable for production in largequantities at the lowest possible cost(28). TheSecretary-General of the ITU was requested tocommunicate the results of this study, withsuggestions as to the action to be taken,. to theDirector-General of Unesco. Unesco is examin-ing with the Economic Commissions of the UnitedNations, other interested organizations and theradio industry, the possibility of pooling marketsto encourage large-scale product.on. In responseto a request of the Unesco meetii,g on the develop-ment of information media in South East Asia

(Bangkok 1960), the ECAFE is already studyingthe possibility of establishing receiver manufactur-ing industries in countries of the region.

Food and Agriculture Orgaxiizion

As mentioned earlier in this chapter, the Foodand Agriculture Organization, pursuant to a re-quest of the Economic and Social Council, in 1952undertook a programme of long-term action, inco-operation with other United Nations organiza-tions, to stimulate the production of pulp andpaper, particularly in the underdevelopedcountries.

The FAO programme consists of three phases;first, a world survey of potentialities for increas-ing pulp and paper output, of which newsprintrepresents approximitely 40 per cent; second,advice in planning new mills, with due regard tosuitability and continuity of raw material supplies;and technical assistance in building and operatingthem.

By 1954 the FAO had completed its world sur-vey, which covered major as well as incipient and

potential producing countries. A meeting ofexperts in late 1952 had meanwhile examined pro-cesses for pulping tropical and sub-tropical fibres.In South and Central America, the FAO was as-sisted by the Economic Commission for LatinAmerica and other United Nations organizations,culminating in a conference -..'ointly convened atBuenos Aires in 1954 by the FAO, ECLA and theTechnical Assistance Administration. The re-port of this conference, together with a study onWorld Pulp and Paper Resources and Prospects,prepared by the FAO in co-operation with Unesco,the Economic Commission for Europe and ECLA,was submitted to the Economic and Social Councilin May 1965. In transmitting these two reports toMember States and the Specialized Agencies, theCouncil recommended that sympathetic considera-tion be given to governmental requests for techni-cal assistance for the orderly development of pulpand paper industries; invited the FAO to continueits efforts to promote pulp and paper production;and expressed the hope that, whenever appropriateprivate capital would be given a reasonable oppor-tunity to participate in any necessary developmentof pulp and paper resources(29).

Acting on the Council's request, the FAOassigned a group of technical assistance experts tothe Latin American region to help countries co-ordinate their pulp and paper production on a soundtechnical and economic baes. Subsequently theFAO, in co-operation with the ECLA and the TAA,established the Latin American Advisory Group onPulp and Paper. Many Latin American countrieshave availed themselves of the services of thisgroup. Meanwhile, the FAO had sent expert mis-sions to some 30 coulitries in Africa, Asia, Northand South America and Europe to study problemsof forestry and forest products. In addition, FAOfellowships have enabled specialists from the under

developed countries to study paper productionabroad.

The expansion of paper production in SouthEast Asia was considered at the Unesco meeting onthe development of information media in that region(Bangkok, January 1960). The meeting urged thatincreased technical and financial assistance begiven to Asian cnuntries wishing to establish andincrease production. It also suggested that thepossibility of establishing one or more regionalproduction centres in South East Asia might beexamined by the Conference on Pulp and PaperDevelopment then being convened jointly by theECAFE, the Bureau of Technical AssistanceOperations (formerly the TAA) and the FAO atTokyo. This suggestion was considered inOctober 1960 by the Tokyo Conference, which re-commended that the possibilities of establishingregional production centres be fully explored.

Universal Postal Union

In the development of the information media, thepost, the oldest of the world's public services,remains an essential channel for disseminatinginformation in the form of news reports, articlesand photographs, as well as newspapers and otherpublications. As in pre-war years, the UniversalPostal Union has in the past decade constantlysought to promote the wider use of the post forthese purposes.

Acting on suggestions inspired by Unenco,Congresses of the UPU in 1952 and 1957 granteda number of new facilities for the dispatch of news-papers, periodicals and certain other publications.Such publications weze permitted to travel betweencouatries at half the ordinary rate for printedmatter, regardless of sender. A further decisionwas the virtual abolition of customs clearancecharges on newspapers and other yublications notliable to import duties. In addition, the UPUsimplified its newspaper subscription scheme,which permits payment in national currency, atlocal post offices, for subscriptions to foreignnewspapers and periodicals, and their dispatch atreduced rates.

Various regional postal uaions have followedthe example of the UPU in the information field.At the suggestion of Unesco, the Postal Union ofthe Americas and Spain in 1955 and the ArabPostal Union in 1956 urged their member adminis-trations to grant to newspapers, periodicals andbooks the rate reductions and other facilities per-mitted by the UPU.

Althnugh the UPU does not participatedirectly in the Expnded Programme of TechnicalAssistance, it collaborates closely with the UnitedNations in recruiting a.id briefing experts to assistthe underdeveloped countries in improving andexpanding their postal services. The UPU alsoadvises on the award of fellowships to enablepersonnel in these countries to study abroad.Moreowtr, the UPU encourages the exchange of

13

direct technical assistance between postal ad-ministrations.

International Labour Organisation

The International Labour Organisation has beenfollowing the social and economic problems ofjournalists for some considerable time. Studieson certain aspects of these problems, in particu-lar on collective agreements for journalists, weremade before the Second World War.

At present, and subsequent to repeated re-quests by its Advisory Committee on SalariedEmployees and Professional Workers, the ILOcontemplates the possibility of convening an expertmeeting, in 1962 or loon afterwards, to considerthe social and economic problems of journalistsand, in particular, their conditions of work andemployment. It is felt that the organization of

the proposed meeting would constitute, from thesocial and economic points of view, a timely con-tribution by the ILO to the work carried out by theUnited Nations in the field of freedom of informa-tion and by Unesco with regard to the training ofjournalists.

Regional Agencies

Regional intergovernmental organizations havealso contributed to the development of the informa-tion media in underdeveloped countries. Underthe Colombo Plan, for example, experts from non-Asian as well as Asian member countries haveadvised on the development of radio broadcasting,film production and printing in South East Asia.Meanwhile, specialists from South East Asia havebeen given advanced training in non-Asian membercountries.

At the same time, government and other in-formation services within the South East Asianregion have made increasing use of the mass mediato explain the objectives of the Colombo Plan tothe South East Asian peoples and enlist their sup-port for development projects.

14

Similarly, the Organization of AmericanStates (OAS) and the South Pacific Commission aremaking greater use of the mass media to eradicateilliteracy and provide better vocational trainingwithin their respective regions. The OAS has alsoparticipated in the project (already mentioned inthe account of the work of the ITU) for an Inter-American Telecommunication Network by provid-ing the machinery enabling its Member States todraw up an inter-American convention establishingthe proposed network.

Professional Associations

Like their pre-war predecessors, internationalprofessional associations of the mass media havebeen active in promoting development in theirvarious fields. For example, the efforts of theITU and Unesco to secure lower rates aixl improvedfacilities for the dispatch of press messages havebeen strongly supported by the InternationalFederation of Newspaper Publishers, the Common-wealth Press Union, the International Press Insti-tute and the European Alliance of News Agencies.The International Federation of Newspaper Pub-lishers, the International Federation of thePeriodical Press and the Inter-American PressAssociation 'have stressed the need for a morestable supply and equitable distribution of news-print. It was in response to the appeal of theprofessional associations that the long-term pro-gramme for paper production, already mentioned,)was launched by United Nations organizations in1952.

A number of international associations, suchas the International Federation of NewspaperPublishers, the International Federation ofJournalists and the International Organization ofJournalists, conduct or participate in trainingschemes for journalists and have associated them-selves with Unesco's work in this field. In addi-tion, the International Press Institute has launcheda programme to help raise editorial and technicalstandards of the Asian press.

CHAPTER TWO

PROBLEMS OF DEVELOPING THE INFORMATION MEDIA

THE MEDIA IN SOCIETY

Information is disseminated through a multiplicityof sources - through the written and spoken word

and the visual image, presented in a variety offorms, both traditional and of modern origin.The present survey is concerned with the problemsof assisting the underdeveloped countries to de-velop the media of information - the press, radiobroadcasting, film and television - which are usedto reach people on a mass scale.

These media are a variation on a theme olderthan civilization itself. Modern communicationsare the direct successors of the signal fire on thehill, the drum in the forest, the pigeon in the air,the dispatch sent by ship, coach or train; of allthose means, indeed, by which people have sought,since time began, to satisfy the need to communi-cate rapidly with each other.

The mass media of information are uluallyconsidered to have begun wiith the development ofmechanical printing in the fifteenth century.However, it may equally be maintained that they

are a social outgrowth of the industrial revolutionwhich changed the face of Europe and a large partof North America a century ago but is only nowhaving its broad effect in the underdevelopedcountries of Africa, Asia and Latin America.

A leading specialist in the mass communicationfield has made the following observation on thegrowth of the media: "The importance of the print-ing development in the fifteenth century is that the

balance was swung from the long centuries of spoken,first-hand communication tovard visual and second-hand communication on a la-ge scale. The import-ance of the developments in the nineteenth centuryis that some of the limits were taken off communica-

tion; it was extended, over the heads of the pecLil/privilf.?ged and the specially able, to the masses whohad need of it. And the importance of the recentelectronic developments is that the balance of thecommunication channels is again swung back to-ward spoken and seemingly first-hand communica-tion, although to fantastically large audiences."(30)

The information media today serve the evidentpurpose of keeping people informed of the world inwhich they live. The media have a second function,

which has perhaps been insufficienav recognized -that is, as an instrument of education. This func-tion is of growing importance, particularly in the

underdeveloped countries.It is not easy to decide where information stops

and education begins. In this report, informatioris interpreted in its widest possible sense as is infact now being done in Africa, Asia and LatinAmerica, where the crucial r8le of the massmedia in education is receiving increasing recogni-tion.

Factor in Freedom of Information

This broad definition of information is one whichhas also been adopted by the United Nations itself.In the first place, the development of the informa-tion media has been considered as a prerequisiteto the full enjoyment of freedom of information asa basic human right. This right, it was recog-nized, could not be effectively enjoyed in countriesor communities where the media of informationwere inadequate. As early as 1948, the UnitedNations Conference on Freedom of Informationhad proclaimed that freedom of information "isthe touchstone of all the freedoms to which theUnited Nations is dedicated" and that it "dependsfor its validity upon the availability to the peopleof a diversity of sources of news and of opinion"(31).In the following year, the General Assembly ex-pressed its conviction that "freedom of infc:ma-tion is one of the basic freedoms and that it isessential to the furtherance and protection of allother freedoms"(32).

Role in Economic and Social Progress

The second aspect of the development of the in-formation media has also been given increasingrecognition by the United Nations - that is, theimportant role of the media in education and ineconomic and social development generally.

It is self-evident that the faising of educa-tional standards in the underdeveloped countriescalls for the uissemination of knowledge of farmingand industrial techniques, health and communitydevelopment, among other things. But when oneis attempting to accomplish in a matter of years atask which it has taken centuries to complete inthe advanced countries, the traditional means ofeducation alone prove inadequate. It is here thatthe mass media, unsurpassed in speed, range andforce of impact, offer the greatest possibilitiesfor effective action.

Experience has shown that the development ofthese media stands in reciprocal relationship toeconomic development. On the one hand, acertain level of wealth must be reached in any

15

society before it can sustain the development ofservices not as immediately essential as food andshelter. On the other hand, the information mediacan markedly stimulate the capacity to createfurther wealth by enlisting the "human" or "non-physical" factors, such as improved skills andbetter education, more direcVy in efforts foreconomic development.

The media can thus serve effectively in win-ning public support an :. participation in thoseefforts. The feeling, or knowledge among thegeneral population of being part of a developingeconomy is an invaluable incentive to a country'seconomic and social expansion. This, in turn,facilitates more effective planning by governments,as well as by financial, industrial and otheragencies. In the long run, this development formspart of the transformation of a primitive agricultur-al economy into a largely industrial economycharacteristic of the modern State.

Planning for the development of the informa-tion media must of course form part of any over-all programme for economic and social expansion,taking into account the multiplicity of other nation-al needs. However, there is evidence that de-velopment of the media, possibly because its ef-fects are more indirect than direct, has not beengiven the place it should logically occupy. Forexample, while problems of developing transportand telecommunication services have recently re-ceived increasing attention, limited considerationhas been given to problems of deeloping the in-formation media in programmes 'Cor economic ex-pansion. Similarly, while a "service" functionsuch as formal education is now generally acceptedas a basic factor in ec:onomy and social expansionjustifying heavy investment, the development ofthe mass media has often been regarded solely asII consumption", with the primary emphasis on itscultural significance. Yet, in a broaci sense, de-velopment of the media may itself be treated as anessential element in pre-investment, and thusforms an integral part of any general programmefor economic and social progress.

Dearth of Facilities

Both for education arid kformation generally, thereis a striking dearth of mass media facilities overthe greater part of the world. In certain of theadvanced countries, there are for every 100 peopleas many as 58 copies of daily newspapers, 94 radioreceivers, 13 cinema seats and 32 television re-ceivers. Elsewhere the distribution of facilitiesfalls sharply below this level. In order to measurethe insufficiency of facilities in the underdevelopedcountries, a general yardstick has been established.

Unesco has suggested, as an immediate target,that a cciuntry should aim to provide for every 100of its inhabitants at least the following facilities:

Ten copies of daily newspapers;Five radio receivers;Two cinema seats;

16

Two television receivers.As many as 100 States and territories in Africa,

Asia and Latin America fall below this very low"minimum" levc-i in all four of the mass media.These counLries have a combined population of1,91C millions, or 66 per cent of the world total.

n additional 19 countries, representing two percent of the world population, fall below the"Unesco minimum" in respect of three of themedia. In short, nearly 70 per cent of the worlc4peoples lack the barest means of being informed ofdevelopments at home, let alone in other countries.

In point of fact, the actual situation is evenworse because the above criteria do not take intoaccount the distribution of facilities withincountries. In many underdeveloped countries,over 60 per cent of the population live in ruraldistricts, whereas the facilities for informationare concentrated in a relatively few urban areas.Consequently, the above very general analysisdoes not fully reflect the dearth of facilities in therural areas of most underdeveloped countries, andeven of some semi-developed countries whichotherwise stand above the "Unesco minimum"level.

Another striking fact is that some 40 sovereignStates in the underdeveloped regions have nonational news agencies and must rely for much oftheir domestic news on the five world agencies -Associated Press and United Press International(U.S.A.), Reuters (British Commonwealth),Agence France-Presse (France) and Tass (USSR).Moreover, news about these countries is sentabroad largely through the world adencies - thatis, through services which are not their own.

Link with Income, Literacy and Other Factors

The above evaluation of development of the massmedia in some 120 countries corresponds veryclosely with the United Nations designation ofcountries which are generally underdeveloped.With due regard for the limitations of the methodof classification used, the United Nations considersthat a country is underdeveloped if the average percapita income is less than $300 annually. Onehundred and one countries are found to be belowthis income level and an additional 16 countriesfall within the $300 to $400 range(33). Thecountries in these two groups are, with few ex-ceptions, those which fall below the "Unescominimum" for information facilities or whichstand only slightly above that level.

Any realistic approach to the problems ofdeveloping the information media must clearlyinclude an examination of the relationship betweenunderdevelopment of the media and underdevelopmentgenerally. As part of the present survey, Unescoundertook an initial study which attempted to cor-relate, on the one hand, various indices of the useof information facilities and, on the other, variousfactors in economic, social and educational de-velopment(34).

The analysis included all uruerdevelopedcountries in Africat, Latin America, the MiddleEast and South East Asia, with a population of atleast 500,000, for which relevant data wereavailable. Data used were for the period 1957-] 959.

The results for all of the underdevelopedregions combined showed the following degrees ofcorrelation:

Newsprintconsumption

per capita

Daily newspapercirculation

per 100 persons

Cinema seatingcapacity

per 100 persons

Number of radioreceivers

per 100 persons .86 .78 .72

(a) Literrcy: percentage of adult population able to read and write.

DO Urbanization: percentage of population living in localities of 2,000 andmore hibabitants.

(c) Industrialization: percentage of gainfully employed males in non-agricultural activities.

Per capitaincome Literacy(a) Urbanization(b)

Iniaistrialc)lization

.83 .82 69 .68

Per capitaincome Literacy Urbanization

Industria-lization

.83 .79 .75 .51

Urbanize- Industrie- Per cap:tation lization income Literacy.86 .80 .613

Per capita Industrie-income lization 1.iteracy Urbanization

.71

It will be evident from the above that there isvery high correlation indeed of development of themass media with economic factors in general de-velopment, particularly income. This applieseven to development of the press, to which literacymight have been expected to have the closest re-lationship. This provides statistical confirmationof the evident fact that in the underdevelopedcountries there are many literate persons who can-not afford to buy newspapers. The study alsoshows that literacy correlptes Triore closely withradio than with the cinema. This may suggestthat audio-visual communications are more easilyunderstood than auditory ones alone, at least bypeople of limited education.

Data for Latin America (excluding Argentina)wereiparticulary comprehensive. An independentstudy undertaken for that region confirmed theconclusions already drawn for all the regions com-bined. Moreover, it was possible also to includetelevision reception for Latin America, correla-tion results being as follows:

Number of tele-vision receiversper 100 persons

Industria-lization

.92

Pet capitaincome

.83Urbanization

.R0Literacy

.60

Finally, the general analysis, which alsoembraced comparisons with a number of advancedcountries, confirmed that as income rises, thedemand for the mass media increases in com-paratively greater proportion in the underdevelopedthan in the developed countries. It thus becomesapparent that as the- economy of an underdevelopedcountry expands, one may expect a commensurate

increase in expansion of the mass media. Indeed,the two processes interact because developmentof the media in turn spurs economic growth.

Future Demand for the Media

It may be anticipated that the future will bring asharp increase in demand for the informationmedia in the underdeveloped countries. It isbelieved that the Economic and Social Council, noless than the underdeveloped countries concerned,would wish to assess the extent of that probableincrease in planning a programme for c welopmentof the media.

It may reasonably be assumed that the futurz.--

level of demand for the media can be related tothree major factors:

(a) growth c population;(b) increasing per capita income;(c) the comparatively higher demand for the

media which a given rise in per capita incomestimulates in the underdeveloped countries, ascompared with developed countries (i.e incomeelasticity of demand).

In assessing the higher demand for the massmedia, newsprint was singled out because it hasbeen the subject of special study by the FAO andUnesco and offers a reliable point of reference forestimating growing requirements for information.The most recent estimate by the FA0(36) showsthat, assuming a moderate increase in per capitaincome of two per cent annually, newsprint de- -mand for all the underdeveloped regions combinedwill increase from 750,000 metric tons in 1955 to2,658,000 tons in 1975(36). If the 1955 figure isindexed at 100, the 1975 figure corresponds to 354.

Although this expected increase in demand isvery considerable, the forecast is highly plausible.All the determinants of future demand work in thesame direction. Populations in the underdevelopedregions are rapidly increasieg; per capita incomesare rising; the demand for information media inthe underdeveloped regions is highly sensitive togrowth of either of these two factors. Conse-quently, the resultant estimated increases infuture demand for the mass media are greater thanis commonly realized.

Demand for all of the media is expected toshow the following increases by 1375, placing thedemand in 1955 at 100:

Africa 338Latin America (excludingArgentina) 341Near and Middle East 384Far East (excluding Japanand mainland China) 382The striking conclusion emerges that by 1975

the demand for the mass media in all four regionscombined will in all likelihood be three and a halftimes that in 1955. The above figures are all themore striking in view of the fact that they exceedby far the increases which would be attributed togrowth in population alone. Thus, the increases

in per capita demand wou]d be 242 in Africa, 200in Latin America, ',29 in 'he Near and Middle Eastand 256 in the Far Eaet.

High as these estimate:3 may appear, they maywell err on the conservative side. They do riot,notaui , allow for the eife:ts of spreading literacy,whicn during the rext 15 yi:ars is expected to in-crease more rapidly than alight be expected fromthe increase of income alone. It is not at thisstage feasible to make zipecial quantitative allow-ance for this 'autonomous" :actor of literacy. Indue course it may have to be taken into account inestimates of regional, and particularly of nationaldemand, as a further factor in the growth of themass media.

PROBLEMS, BY REGIONS

These broad economic and social factors shouldbe borne in mind in examining the present lack ofinformation facilities and in considering the prob-lems of providing assistance for the developmentof the information media. Following is an ex-amination of problems of development, by regionsand by media.

SOUTH EAST ASIA

For the purposes of this survey, "south East Asia"is defined as the region 31 the Economic C immis-sion .:or Asia and the Far East, ext,nding fromIran to Japan(37). At the outset it may be notedthat Japan is the only country in the region withhighly developed information media. Japan is, infact, able to claim 77 per cent of the total daily news-paper circulation, 73 per cent of the total of radio re-ceivers, 40 per cent of the cinema seating capacityand 97 per cent of the total of television receivers inthe region. To give a more accurate picture of thegeneral level of development in South East Asia,Japan is therefore excluded from this account.

The remaining 27 States and territories in theregion have a combined population of 767,000,000or 26.4 per cent of the world total(38). In mostof these countries the level of development of themedia is below the minimum, suggested by Unesco,of ten copie-1 of daily newspapers, five radio re-ceivers, two cinema seats and two television re-ceivers per 100 inhabitants.

Newspapers and Periodicals

The 27 countries are served by as many as 919

dailies. However, their combined circulation isno more than 10,810,400, or an average of 1.4copies for every 100 persons. Most of these news-papers have circulations of about 5,000 copies andonly a relative few exceed 25,000. Countrieswith the largest number of dailies are India, 420;Indonesia, 95; and Pakistan, 80.

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In 24 countries, including the most populousin the region, the circulation level is well belowthe "Unesco minimum". Two of them, Bruneiand Portuguese Timor, have no daily newspapersat all. Countries with a very low distributioninclude Afghanistan and Netherlands New Guinea,with 0.2 copies per 100 inhabitants; Cambodiaand Iran, 0.5; Nepal, 0.08; and Laos, 0.06. Thecirculation level in Burma, India, Indonesia andPakistan and Thailand is slightly higher, at around1.0 copies, and is a little higher again in theRepublic of China, Ceylon, Malaya, Korea,Philippines and the Republic of Viet-Nam. Incontrast, the "city States" of Singapore and HongKong have fairly high circulations (21.0 and 22.6respectively) while the level in the Ryuku Islands(34.8) is close to that of Japan or the UnitedStates of America.

In addition, there are 801 non-daily news-papers, including weeklies, and 10,403 periodicals.Owing to insufficiency of data, no estimate of totalcirculation of these publications can at present bemade. Most of them apparently have circulationsof a few thousand copies or even less. It may benoted that India maintains as many as 6,737periodicals. Several hundred publications of thistype appear in Ceylon, China, Pakistan and thePhilippines. In contrast, Cambodia has only 17such publications, Sarawak 7, and Laos none.

Inadequacies in newspaper circulation arereflected in the extremely low consumption ofnewsprint. Total annual consumption is 270,000metr4A, tons, or 0.3 kg. per person, comparedwith 10 kg. per person in Western Europe and 36

in North America. Most of the countries dependon imports for all of their newsprint supplies,limited quantities being produced only in China,Republic of Korea, India and Pakistan.

Two of the greatest obstacles to the develop-ment of the press in South East Asia is therelatively low level of literacy and low purchasingpower. No more than 40 per cent of adults in theregion are literate; about 90 pev cent have anaverage income of less than US $100 a year, andthe remainder, -between $100 and $400 a year(39).Nevertheless, it appears that there is a largereading public which could be reached if news-papers and periodicals, of popular appeal, couldbe made more readily available to the people.

In most of the countries, there is a dearthof newspapers in rural areas and an excessiveconcentration of newspapers anti of newspaperadvertising, in the larger cities. To meet therising demand for newspapers in Asian languages,national and local language newspapers need to bedeveloped not only in the larger communities, butin smaller towns and villages. This aim could beachieved by the expansion of existing newspapersand the establishment of new ones in rural andsemi-rural areas.

A primary obstacle, however, is the lack ofcapital for press development. The managementof newspapers is fraught with more than the

normal business risk and it may require three tofive years for a new, well-managed daily news-paper to pay its way. As a result, directors of

smaller papers have great difficulty in obtainingloans through normal credit channels. Neitherhas the advantage of advertising in these news-papers been adequately recognized by governments,municipalities and other advertisers.

Another basic problem is the widespread lackof even moderately up-to-date composing andprinting machinery. It may be noted, in passing,that no such machinery is manufactured anywherein Africa, Latin America, or Asia (except Japan).Vast regions are dependent on a relatively fewcountries in Europe, such as the United Kingdom,France, Germany, Italy, SwitzerlatO and theScandinavian countries, or on the U.S.A. or USSR.

Newsprint presents a similar problem, mostof the countries in the region being dependent onEurope and Canada for their supplies. In addition,since most of the newspapers are of small circula-tion, they are able to order only in relativelysmall quantities. This makes it difficult for themto obtain supplies under favourable market condi-tions.

It is estimated that, with the spread of literacy,the expansion of the press and general economicdevelopment, the demand for newsprint and otherprinting paper in the region will nearly double by1965 and increase fourfold by 975. However, itis extremely doubtful whether the world's export-ing countries will be able to satisfy the expectedincreases in demand, or whether the South EastAsian countries will be able to finance imports onsuch a greatly extended scale. An increase in theproduction of printing paper within the region is,if only for that reason, an urgent necessity.

Obstacles affecting the supply of machineryand newsprint are incfeased by shortages offoreign exchange and, in many cases, by high im-port duties on the3e materials. In addition, in-adequate distribution facilities and heavy transportand postal charges impede the circulation and in-crease the cost of newspapers.

Other problems peculiar to the region concernprinting in non-ideographic scripts, used widely inSouth East Asia, and in ideographic scripts(Chinese characters, which are employed in China,Japan, Korea, etc.). In countries using non-ideographic scripts, a widespread difficulty isthat printing is industrially little developed. Mostpresses are small and inadequately maintained,composing and binding equipment is outdated andthere is little designingfor scripts in variouslanguages. The result is an acute shortage ofprinted material in the many scripts used in theregion. With regard to printing in ideographicscripts, the main difficulty is that Chinese-language papers use between 2,000 and 3,000characters regularly, compared to the 1,850 usedby the Japanese press. The problem here is toshorten the time required for newspaper production.

A w:despread obstacle, which is dealt with

separately below, is the shortage of trainededitorial and technical staff. If these variousdifficulties could be overcome, it should be pos-sible to develop daily p-pers in towns of 50,000or more inhabitants and news weeklies in townsof 25,000 or more inhabitants. A newspapermight be started as a weekly and, after circula-tion has been built up. converted into a daily.Support from "job printing" orders would be de-sirable to help these new enterprises pay theirway.

In the development of periodicals, similarproblems of financing, equipment, printing paper,techniques and personnel prevail. A specialdifficulty is that the price of periodicals isrelatively high in the light of the low per capitaincome. Readers of limited means consequentlychoose first to buy newspapers rather thanperiodicals. The best prospects of success ap-pear to lie in the publication of illustrated maga-zines for groups of workers, rural communitiesand women readers. Research is required ineach country to determine the type of periodicalsbest suited to its audiences.

News Agencies and Telecommunications

Thirteen of the countries maintain a total of 2 4domestic news agencies. In Afghanistan,Cambodia and frail, there is a single government-controlled agency; Burma, Ceylon, Hong Kong,Philippims and Viet-Nam each have a privately-owned agency; India and Indonesia have two pri-vate agencies and the Republic of Korea andPakistan three; while China possesses onegovernment agency and five private services. Incertain countries, such as Burma, Ceylon, India,Indonesia, Pakistan ar-I the Philippines, the news-paper industry participates in the control andmanagement of news agencies.

States without national Agencies are Laos,Malaya, Nepal, Singapore and Thailand.

Most of the existing national agencies arelimited in scope, their main activity being thecollection and distribution of news within theirown countries. Even within this range, littleeffort has apparently been made to draw on thenews resources of member newspapers or agencysubscribers. Most agencies organize their newssources independently and provide subscriberswith a basic service. Few agencies attempt tosend out news about their own countries and stillfewer maintain correspondents abroad.

The flow of news between countries in theregion, as well as the exchange of news betweenSouth East Asia and the rest of the world, islargely in the hands of the world news ;Agencies(Associated Press, United Press International,Reuters, Agence Fran e-Presse and Tess). A

number of the national agencies distribute inter--national news from these agencies. Although theworld agencies have recently erdeavoured to pro-vide more news about Asia in general, the South

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East Asian countries still do not receive sufficientnews about one another or about the rest of theworld, from an Asian point of view. On the otherhand, insufficieiit effort has been made to cultivatean interest in Asian news among readers in otherregions, unless the news is of a sensational nature.This interest could be developed not only throughcabled "spot news" reports but through airmailednews articles giving an interpretative backgroi rito current events.

Arrangements for the exchange of Asian newsare in force between various agencies in the regionand could be greatly extended, as, for example, inthe exchange of airmailed news articles and pressphotos. The exchange of press photos is, however,frequently limited by high import duties and othercharges. Moreover, agencies are often hinderedfrom carrying more foreign news because of theeconomic position of their member newspapers.Most Asian newspapers have a limited number ofpages, with little space for foreign news, and can-not afford to pay increased agency subscriptionsfor wider news coverage. In short, the develop-ment of news agencies is closely linked to de-velopment of the press generally.

Major obstacles to news agency developmentare lack of capital for expansion, lack of equip-ment and lack of experienced staff. However, thegreatest difficulty arises from the inadequacy oftelecommunication services and disparities incommunication charges, which differ by as muchas 700 per cent for similar services. Chargesalso vary for messages sent in reverse directions.

In most South East Asian countries, inlandtrunk networks are poorly developed and little ef-fort is made to co-ordinate the use of telecommuni-cation channels. As a result, one service may beoverloaded while other circuits are not fully oc-cupied throughout the day. Although there is agrowing demand for telex, leased circuits andtelephoto services, traffic is limited owing to highcosts, insufficiency of radio circuits, and limitationson hours of transmission. Telegraph services ingeneral are slow and underdeveloped and despiteefforts to improve the telephone services, thenumber of telephones in proportion to population(0.1 for every 100 persons) is one of the lowest inthe world. Telephone services require expansion,particularly in the rural areas, so that there willbe at least one telephone within a radius of everyten miles in all South East Asian countries. Thetelegraph services, which are now often beatenby the airmail, need to be improved through theintroduction of teleprinters and speedier handlingand delivery of messages. Present deficiencieswork to the particular disadvantage of the nationalnews agencies, since the world agencies canutilize tele -Jmmunication services from pointsoutside the region.

The press rates problem is particularly acutein South East Asia, where costs range from theBritish Commonwealth penny-a-word rate tocharges which are among the highest in the world.

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These disparities are due largely to differencesin methods of fixing costs, to the vagaries ofexchange rates and to the fact that the samecharges are usually made for dispatches sent byradio, even when no intermediate handling is in-volved, as for those sent by cable and requiringthe payment of extra transit fees to one or moreintermediate stations. In addition, many adminis-trations do not permit users to receive radionewscasts direct; reception is consequently handledby external communication agencies, with a re-sultant increase in costs. A further obstacle isthe imposition on communications of fiscal taxes,in some cases as high as 50 per cent of the cost.The establishment of lower and more uniformrates in all communication services is essentialto the wider flow of information within the region,and between the region and the rest of the world.

Radio Broadcasting

Many of the problems encountered in the field ofthe press do not arise, or are less acute, inradio broadcasting and col:ntries in the region aregiving priority to this medium in expanding theirinformation facilities. All of them now maintainbroadcasting services,

In most of the countries, including Afghanistan,Burma, India; Ceylon, Indonesia, Iran, Malaya,Nepal, Pakistan, Thailand, and Viet-Nam, broad-casting is a State monopoly and is largely financedthrough license fees and/or government subsidies.In Macao and the Ryuku Islands, only privateservices, maintained by advertising, are conducted;in China, Hong Kong, Korea and the Philippines,both public and private services operate.

The 27 countries are served by 450 transmit-ters and 5,416,000 receivers, representing 0.7receivers for every 100 persons. The largestbroadcasting organizations, in terms of transmit-ters and power, , are those of Burma, Ceylon,China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Korea andPakistan. India, for example, has 56 transmit-ters with a total of 1,214 kw. and China 127 transmitters with a total of 588 kw. In contrast, cer-tain territories such as Macao and PortugueseTimor maintain one or two transmitters of lowpower.

Only Brunei, Hong Kong and Singapore exceedthe Unesco minimum of five receivers per 100inhabitants. All three countries maintain a wired-diffusion system. Eleven countries, includingCeylon, China, Korea, Iran, Malaya and thePhilippines, have between one and four sets per 10people. Among countries with less than one setper 100 persons are Afghanistan, Burma,Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Nepal,Pakistan, Thailand and Viet-Nam. A number ofcountries use community receivers in an attemptto increase coverage.

Despite the multiplicity of languages, the pre-valence of common languages in various neighbour-ing countries enables domestic programmes to be

understood across frontiers. Thus, Phushtulinks Afghanistan and Pakistan; Urdu linksPakistan and India; Tamil links India and Ceylon;Malay links Ceylon, Indonesia and Malaya;Chinese links China, Indonesia and Malaya and"international" languages such as English andFrench link almost all of the countries of theregion. These links are supplemented by theexternal services undertaken by most SouthEast Asian countries in which programmes arebroadcast in the language of the target area.

Obstacles to the development of radio in theregion concern both transmission and reception.Although South East Asian broadcasting organiza-tions rely on a small number of industrializedcountries for transmitting equipment, the costmay not often be a major factor. Greaterobsta".1e0 to national coverage are inadequateelectrification or the lack of programme lines todiffuse programmes from central studios to otherpoints. Another deficiency is the considerableoverlapping of frequencies used by countries inthe region and the lack of regional planning, or atleast of negotiation, to assure the more effectiveuse of frequencies allocated.

A problem of a different nature is that, inconirast to Western countries, Asian countries donot need merely two or three separate channelscatering for different tasts, but separate servicesdifferent in character and addressed to differentaudiences. One service must be addressed to afairly literate urban minority who, on the otherhand, own most of the receivers in the country.Another service must be devoted to a less literaterural majority who not only must be provided withprogrammes, but with means of listening to them.

This rural audience needs radio for instructionas well as entertainment and should be given someincentive to take advantage of the services provided.The farm forums conducted jointly by All-IndiaRadio and Unesco, in which village discussiongroups listen and comment on agricultural ques-tions, are an example of social education and train-ing in the radio field. Country dwellers oftenreceive such programmes through community setsand programmes should, therefore, not be addres-sed to them as individuals.

In providing reception services, the problemuf equipment is much greater than in transmission.Most South East Asian countries depend on a fewproducing countries outside th., .! region for suppliesof receivers and the cost of a set to an individuallistener may be prohibitive. The manufacture oflow-cost transistorized sets is now feasible, butsince this is dependent on mass production, anassurance of large-scale markets is necessary.Shortages of foreign currency and heavy importduties also limit the availability of sets to Asianaudiences. The apparent solution would be themanufacture within South East Asian countries ofreceivers suited to community listening, andbattery operated where electricity is not available,to be supplied to rural areas. Attention should be

given to the design of more powerful transistorsets for classroom use.

Other problems concern the lack of trainingfacilities, the lack of facilitie5 for audience re-search, and the need for more Pollaboration andexchange of programme material b.Aween broad-rasting organizations of the region. Althoughprogrammes in English and French are easilyinterchangeable, it might also be possible to ex-change programmes originally prepared in Asianlanguages. Another method of exchange mightbe the pooling of resources by two or morecountries to produce common programmes. Inthe same way, countries could make regionalarrangements for the beaming of daily news bul-letins to each other and provide better facilities,such as the "press collect" system, for the trans-missions of news by radio journalists.

Film

Some 13 countries produce feature films and theirtotal output is increasing. India, which produced295 such films in 1958, and Hong Kong which pro-duced 246 in 1959, stand second and fourth in theworld 11.-zt respectively. China and Korea makeover 100 features yearly; the Philippines made97 in 1958 and Pakistan and Burma between 40 and80. Smaller numbers of features are producedin Viet-Nam, Singapore, Iran, Ceylon. Indonesiaand Thailand.

All of these countries, as well as Cambodia,Malaya and Netherlands New Guinea, make docu-mentary films, in many cases through the agencyof government film units. Newsreels are pro-duced in Burma, Ceylon, China, India, Indonesia,Iran, Korea, Pakistan, Ryuku Islands, Singapore,Thailand and Viet-Nam. There is no film pro-duction of any kind in Afghanistan, Brunei, Laos,Nepal, North Borneo and Sarawak.

Films from Europe, Japan, the U.S.A. andUSSR circulate fairly widely in the region.

The 27 countries are served by 7,673 fixedcinemas (35 and 16 mm.) with a total of 5,202,000seats, representing 0.7 seats for every 100 people.Cinemas are generally located in the larger citiesand thousands of small towr.s and vir ges lackscreening facilities.

Only nine countries exceed the Unesco mini-mum of two seats for every 100 inhabitants -Brunei, Cambodia, China, Hong Kong, Macao,North Borneo, Philippines, Ryuku Islands and

Singapore. Although India has as many as 3,400cinemas and Indonesia 655, the average cf seatsin these countries is less than one per 100 persons.Countries with even more limited facilities in-clude Afghanistan, Iran, Laos, Pakistan andThailand.

Although most governments use mobile uniisto bring films to outlying communities, manyhundreds of thousands of Asians have yet to seetheir fiist film. Throughout the region, theaverage cinema attendance per person is 2.8 times

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a year. The ratio is higher than this in Brunei,Cambodia, China, Malaya, Hong Kong, India,Indonesia, Korea, Macao, Ryuku Islands andSingapore. In contrast, attendance in Laos,Netherlands New Guinea, North Borneo, Pakistan,the Philippines and Portuguese Timor averagesless than once a year.

Numerous problems of production, distribu-tion and exhibition limit the role of the film as avehicle for cultural exchange and the flow of in-formation between the countries of the region, andbetween the region and the rest of the world. Allraw film and equipment for producing and exhibit-ing films are imported from Europe, North Americaor Japan, except that in the case of India, someminor items of equipment are made locally. Im-port duties and foreign currency shortages increasethe difficulty of obtaining these materials.

Due largely to the lack of trained personnel,technical and artistic standards of production aregenerally not very high and films are not effective-ly used. The great potentialities of the film foreducation, instruction and training in agriculture,industry and other fields are still to be fully ap-preciated and exploited in South East Asia.

In the field of legislation, little has been doneto encourage the production and exhibition of qual-ity films, particularly documentary and other in-formation films, by such means as subsidies andthe reduction of taxes on distribution. Measuresof tnis kind have proved effective in a number oftechnically advanced countries.

In most South East Asian countries, produc-tion equipment and laboratory facilities are in-adequate and there is little co-ordination for theuse of facilities within individual countries or be-tween neighbouring ones with similar needs andambitions in film production.

The lack of well-organized distributing systemsis a major obstacle to the effective use of features,documentaries and newsreels alike. Distributionactivities are scattered among various governmentor private agencies and in few countries has a col-lective list been established of educational, scient-ific and cultural films locally available. Littleeffort is made to promote the interchange of Asianfilms or of Asian newsreel items between Asiancountries through such means as the establishmentof co-operative arrangements for adapting filmsinto various Asian languages. In contrast, facilitiesfor the distribution of European, American andother non-Asian films are relatively extensive andwell organized. The result is to limit understand-ing among the Asian people of each other's livesand problems and to create an imbalance in the ex-diange of films between East and West.

The exhibition of films in rural areas is, asalready mentioned, re,-"icted by an insufficiencyof fixed cinemas as well as of mobile units. Fewschools and community centres are equipped with16 mm. projectors. There is a widespread needof low-cost projectors for use both in urban andrural areas. In a region where individual purchasing

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power is extremely low, the imposition of dutieson imported information films and of taxes oncinema admissions further restricts the circulationof such films. In view of the advent of televisionin South East Asia, it is highly desirable thatcountries of the region take co-operative measuresto encourage the production and interchange of in-formation films for diffusion through this newmedium.

Television

Television is in its infancy in South East Asia.Only five countries - Hong Kong, Iran, the Republicof Korea, the Philippines and ThaiJand - maintainregular services. These services, with a totalof eight transmitters and 113,000 receivers, aredeveloped to a very limited extent, thz bulk of thefacilities being concentrated in major cities.India is conducting an experimental station andPakistan and Singapore are planning to establishservices.

A number of other South East Asian countriesare reported to be considering the introduction oftelevision, but information on their aims, needsand resources is lacking. If such informationwere secured through a comprehensive survey ofthe region, television could be developed in anorderly and efficient manner for the benefit ofthe peoples concerned. Without this initial plan-ning, television is likely to fail in its reile as apotent medium for bringing information and in-struction both to city and rural audiences.

Expe-ience has shown that powerful socialforces can compel the introduction of televisionbefore a country may be economically ready for it.It is therefore desirable that governments of theregion include television in their plans for the de-velopment of telecommunications so that they maybe prepared for the extraordinary rapidity withwhich the medium can develop.

Whether television is to be operated for com-mercial or non-commerical purposes is a matterfor each country to decide. But even though tele-vision services may be privately owned and com-mercially operated, they continue to use publiclyowned broadcasting frequencies and should there-fore observe adequate educational and culturalstandards in the public interest.

There are a number of major obstacles to beovercome if television is to be effectively de-veloped in South East Asia. Most countries ofthe region have insufficient financial resources furthe establishment and operation of televisionstations. Neighbouring countries with culturalor other links might therefore consider the estab-lishment of services on a group basis, taking intoaccount the need for agreement on uniform trans-mission standards.

A related problem is the lack of qualified techni-cal personnel for the operation of stations and main-tenance of receivers. This calls for the provisionof training facilities within or outside the region.

Another major question is the lack of pro-gramme resources produced locally and suited tothe needs of the countries concerned. Such re-sources should include live programmes, normallyusing local artists or events; television filmsmade within the country; and films obtainablefrom abroad.

The allocation and effective use of frequenciesmust also be considered. A related question isthat television signals have a limited range, whichis likely to confine a service for the time being tourban centres.

Moreover since few countries of the regionhave adequate electrification, television wouldneed to be developed in stages until national cover-age is achieved. Linked with this problem is thedifficulty, in the face of currency shortages, ofobtaining transmitting and receiving equipmentfrom abroad. In a region of low individual pur-chasing power, the cost of receivers will doubt-less present a greater problem than that of trans-mitters. However, this obstacle might.be re-duced by organizing community viewing servicesthrough teleclubs. In addition, the developmentof transistorized television sets, as in Japan, forexample, may further facilitate the spread oftelevision in the region.

Careful planning is necessary at all stages topreclude the introduction of television where it isnot viable. Countries of the region should beable to benefit from the experience of other SouthEast Asian countries which have begun operatingservices. For this purpose, the impact of tele-vision on Asian audiences and its use as an instru-ment for educational and economic developmentshould be assessed through careful research.

Training and Research

The lack of qualified professional and technicalpersonnel is one of the most formidable obstaclesto the development of the mass media in SouthEast Asia. An information enterprise withlimited facilities but well qualified staff will be atleast moderately effective. On the other hand,an enterprise with extensive facilities but insuf-ficiently trained personnel will have little prospectof success.

A major aspect of the problem is the profes-sional training of journalists in the various media.Only a limited number of journalists in the regionhave received systematic training which combinestechnical instruction with wide general educationand an understanding of professional ethics. Thedevelopment and operation of the mass media inSouth East Asia will call for the services of manythousands of fully-trained journalists.

Nine of the countries - China, India, Indonesia,Iran, Korea, Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand andViet-Nam - offer professional courses, most ofthem at schools of journalism or university depart-ments of journalism. In the other countries of theregion, journalists receive only "on-the-job"

instruction, except that in Burma and Malayacertain newspaper editors have organized generalclasses as well. Some ,.,f these countries haveprepared adequate plans for training but lack thefinancial resources, equipment and technicalknowledge to implement them.

A widespread difficulty is the dearth ofqualified teachers of journalism and insufficiencyof fellowships and other facilities for the trainingof teachers either within the region or abroad.There is also a lack of suitable textbooks onediting and newspaper management, as well asof library material and training equipment. Afurther obstacle is the reluctance of many massmedia enterprises to accept graduates in journal-ism or to provide sufficient financial inducementto retain them in the profession.

Similar deficiencies prevail in other fields.In the technical side of the press, there is adearth of facilities for training in the management,supervision and printing of newspapers andperiodicals. In the news agency field, there is awidespread need for the exchange of journalistsby national agencies as a means of giving thembroader experience and promoting understandingamong the peoples of the region.

Schools for the training of radio techniciansare maintained in a number of countries but needto be extended to provide for the expansion ofbroadcasting in the area. Closer liaison is alsorequired between broadcasting organizations andtelecommunication administrations so that train-ing facilities may be provided on a national basiswith a minimum of cost.

In the film field, the lack of facilities fortraining professional and technical personnel isparticularly acute. Most countries in the regionhave no formal facilities of any kind and relysolely on "on-the-job" instruction. In India andthe Philippines, limited technical courses in filmand television are provided but there are noadvanced facilities for training in production.Among obstacles to the development of trainingfacilities in the region are a dearth of financialresources, the lack of established standards forthe recruitment of film apprentices and techniciansand a failure among employers to appreciate theneed for organized training. These deficienciesseriously impair efforts to improve the qualityeither of features or information films.

Closely related to the question of training isthat of research in the mass media. One con-clusion of the Bangkok meeting on the developmentof the media in South East Asia was that researchwas urgently needed to assess the precise ways inwhich modern techniques and equipment could beemployed to advantage in particular developmentprojects. Research is required, for example,In the promotion of techniques suitable for produc-ing national and local language newspapers; inthe types of periodicals becit suited to variousaudiences; in the use of radio, film and televis-sion for education in different countries or areas;

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and in the response of audiences to different radioand television programmes. Such research isessential as the basis for effective development ofthe media in any region.

LATIN AMERICA

For the purposes of this survey, "Latin America"includes all of the countries of South America andCentral America, as well as Mexico and theCaribbean. The region embraces 34 States andterritories, with a total of 200million people, or6.9 per cent of the world total.

Five of those countrieE, with a total of 13million inhabitants, fall below the "Unesco mini-mum" with regard to all four of the mass media.An additional five countries, with a population of17 million, fall below the minimum with regardto three of the media; eleven countries, with91 million inhabitants, fall below the minimum withregard to two of the media; and ten countries, with67 million inhabitants, fall below the minimum withregard to one of the media. Possibilities for ex-pansion of the media throughout the region are,therefore, manifold. Such development mustnecessarily be affected by the levels of purchasingpower, which vary considerably in this area.About four per cent of the Latin American popula-tion have an average annual income of less than$100; 52 per cent, between $100 and $200; 20 percent, between $200 and $300; and the remaining24 per cent, between $300 and $600. Anotherfactor is the level of literacy, which is now about57 per cent among adults.

Three additional observations might be maderegarding the status of the media in the region.Firstly, the great majority of the Latin Americanpopulation proper is Spanish-speaking, the onlyother widely-spoken language being Portuguese.Language barriers in Latin America are thus farless important than in most of the other under-developed regions. Secondly, there is, on theother hand, a clearly defined population group ccm-posed in the main of Andean Indians, most of whomspeak vernacular languages, have special needs andare as yet barely affected by the mass media.This is a problem requiring special research andaction. Finally, there is in general a strikingdisparity in the availability of mass media facili-ties as between urban and rural communities. Adevelopment programme should therefore makeadequate provision for rural groups.

Newspapers and Periodicals

The region is served by 1,154 daily newspaperswith a total circulation of some 14.7 million. Ineach country, a few major newspapers, publishedin the capital and sometimes also in a few pro-vincial cities, account for most of the circulation.Few of the newspapers in the larger cities publishspecial editions for outlying areas. Consequently,

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there is considerable scope for expansion of theprovincial press.

The general total of 1,154 daily newspapers,however, may be considered as sufficient for theregion. Only four countries have one daily.Moreover, the existing dailies can be expected,provided they can obtain the necessary staff, sup-plies of materials and capital, to expand theircirculations in step with current growth in popula-tion, literacy and per capita income.

Daily newspaper circulation is, however, farfrom adequate, considered on a per capita basis.The regional average is 7.4 copies per 100inhabitants. Of the 32 countries for which dataare available, 12 possess up to five copies per100 persons, eleven have five to ten copies, fivepossess ten to fifteen copies and two have 15 to 20

copies per 100 inhabitants. The remaining twocountries, the Bahamas and Bermuda, have asmany as 35 copies per 100 persons. Amongcountries at the bottom of the scale are Haiti(0.3 copies), Windward Islands (0.6), Martinique(1.1), Guadeloupe (1.2), Guatemala (2.2) andHonduras (2.5).

In addition, there are 1,630 non-daily news-papers and 7,862 periodicals in the region. About85 per cent of these publications appear in sevencountries - Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia,Mexico, Peru and Venezuela. Most of theperiodicals are published in the main centres,usually on presses which they do not own. A

small number have considerable circulations andare sold in other Latin American countries.Most periodical publications, however, print onlya few thousand copies or even less. In general,the periodical, technical, specialized and ruralpress is still in its infancy. The region has, forexample, few effective agricultural journals orschool newspapers. Assistance is needed in es-tablishing specialized professional associations(e.g. to promote the rural press) or in organizingjointly-owned printing services and the co-operativepurchase of materials.

Moreover, only tentative efforts have beenmade to produce reading material for adults who,having acquired literacy, need instruction in newfarming and industrial techniques, housing, hygiene,and similar subjects. Governments might con-sider establishing educational publications of thiskind or promote their development in other ways.

The supply of printing paper has been a long-standing problem both in regard to price and theexpenditure of foreign currency. This is particu-larly true of the smaller newspapers printed onpresses requiring sheet paper. Action has beentaken by FAO and ECLA to stimulate local paperproduction, not only as a means of furthering in-dustrial development but also to facilitate contactbetween producer and consumer and ease thebalance of payments. Demand for newsprint inthe 20 Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countriestotalled 495,000 metric tons in 1956. It is ex-pected to rise, according to the FAO, to 970,000

1

tons in 1965 and 1,790,000 tons inAlthough production in the region is increasing,there will still remain, by 1965, an ex 'ess ofdemand of some 500,000 tons to be met by imports.

The estimated increase in newsprint consump-tion reflects the rapid expansion of the presswhich can be expected to take place in the next fewyears. However, there are customs and financialobstacles to the importation of printing paper andother supplies which need to be reduced. The ex-pansion of the press and improvement of existingnewspapers will also c-ill for many more trainededitorial and technical personnel, a problem whichis dealt with below.

News Agencies and Telecommunications

Argentina and Brazil have private4-owned agencieswhich exchange news between the main cities orsupply it to the provinces. Cuba is the onlycountry possessing a news agency which distributesnews regularly to other countries in the region.Smaller agencies, all private, exist in Chile,Uruguay and Venezuela. None of these servicesdistributes news from the world news agencies.Moreover, no Latin American agency, with thepossible exception of one in Brazil, is of the co-operative, non-profit making type, like theAssociated Press (U.S.A.) or various agencies inEurope. Expansion of national news agenciesmight be given special attention in a developmentprogramme for the region.

A number of factors favour news agency de-velopment in Latin America. The first is theeconomic element. News agency development inthe region, as elsewhere, would normally be basedon the existence of newspapers and broadcastingstations able to subscribe to agency services. Onthe basis of total newspaper circulation and totalsof radio and television receivers, the mass mediaare more highly developed in Latin America thanin South East Asia or Africa It appears para-doxical, on economic grounds, that there shouldbe fewer national news agencies in Latin Americathan in either of these two other regions.

A second favourable factor is the trend towardseconomic and social integration in Latin America.Indeed, such integration may well depend largelyupon a greater flow of news among the countries ofthe region. Economic and social unity may inturn strengthen the development of a Latin Americanoutlook on world events, thus facilitating the es-tablishment of joint arrangements for coveringworld news.

Three negative factors offset these positiveones. Most important, perhaps, is the fact thatthe extensive services of the world news agenciesare distributed directly in Spanish and Portuguese.This would diminish, for Latin American agencies,the "translation" function which is impertant amongnews agencies in South East Asia. There is, inaddition, a severe lack of trained Latin Americansenior news agency staff, particularly in

management and administration. The thirdobstacle arises from the high or disparate ratescharged for transmitting news within the area andto other regions.

The problem of training is considered laterin this section. A possible solution to the com-munication problem may derive from the project,initiated by Mexico, for an Inter-American Tele-communication Network, which would link allcountries in the Americas and be jointly owned byparticipating governments. A meeting of tele-communication experts, convened in Mexico City,in April 1960 by the Organization of AmericanStates, pointed out that such a network could per-mit the exchange of news within the region atoperating costs comparable to those in Europe.The network could also be an inexpensive channelfor the distribution, throughout Latin America, ofnews from other regions, as well as for the dis-patch of Latin American news abroad. The ex-istence of a telecommunication network could, itwas also stated, greatly facilitate the exchangeof radio and television programmes.

It therefore appears that the most importantimmediate step to promote the flow of informationwithin the region would be to build up adequatetelecommunication facilities for the western hemi-sphere. Apart from this "internal" problem,however, there would remain the problem of im-proving the inward flow of news of special interestto Latin America from other regions, throughservices operated and controlled directly by LatinAmerican information enterprises. It wouldclearly be impossible for Latin American enter-prises, any more than for Asian ones, to attemptat this stage to build up a news file of the scopeof those now provided by the world news agencies.However, useful arrangements, even if limitedin scope, could now be made to deal with thisproblem.

The technical obstacles to remedial action ofthis kind are not insurmountable. A scheme toimprove foreign news coverage could be put intooperation by a group of information enterprisesrepresenting countries within the region, or itcould be a sequel to the establishment of nationalnews agencies in a number of Latin Americancountries. Arrangements would need to be madefor the economic transmission of news from oneor more points in North America or Europe tothe countries where subscribers to the schemewere located. The proposed Inter-AmericanTelecommunication Network could contribute tolowering distribution costs throughout the Americas.

A final point is that the development of nationalnews agencies, and even more of regional newsagencies, would be very difficult without govern-ment encouragement. Such assistance need notnecessarily take the form of direct financialparticipation. Substantial indirect contributionsmight take the form of tax exemptions or of re-duced telecommunication rates, comparable, forexample, to the Commonwealth penny press rate.

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Radio Broadcasting

Technically speaking, Latin America is betterserved with radio than with press facilities.Radio is playing an increasingly important role inthe dissemination of news within the region since,unlike the press, it has no problems of physicaltransport to outlying areas. However, thegeneral technical and programme level of LatinAmerican radio is perhaps lower than that of thepress.

Some 19.5 million receivers are in use in thearea, the average per 100 people being 9.8 sets.Density of distribution varies widely within theregion. For example, Bermuda has some 40 setsper 100 persons, whereas Haiti has 0.6. Elevencountries possess less than five sets per 100 in-habitants (British Honduras, Dominican Republic,El Salvador, Guadaloupe, Guatemala, Haiti,Honduras, Ecuador, French Guiana, Nicaragua,ani Surinam). A further eight countries have be-tween five and 10 receivers per 100 people.

Numerically speaking, the regional total of2,378 broadcasting stations would seem to be morethan sufficient for Latin America's needs. Many

of these stations are, however, of low power andlimited range. A number operate on short-waveto cover larger areas, but with a consequent lossin quality of reception.

Although nearly all of the stations are privatelyowned, there is at least one State-operated stationin almost every country. Many stations subsidizedby the State play a useful rOle in providing educa-tional and cultural programmes. The multiplicityof commercial stations is the major obstacle totheir own development, since the potential numberof listeners and the available budget per programmeare inevitably reduced. Several stations are ownedby newspapers, an arrangement which helps to reduceoperating costs through pooling of information ser-vices and other means.

The development of radio broadcasting in theregion would therefore call for improvement in thevariety and quality of programmes, and an increasein audiences, rather than an expansion of transmis-sion facilities. The provision of low-cost re-ceivers would greatly contribute to expanding theaudience, particularly in rural areas. An increasein audiences would in turn facilitate the financingof better programmes, provided the number ofstations did not further increase.

The problem of the multiplicity of stations thusappears as a central one. Clearly, however, thisis a matter for legislation which can only be solvedat the national level. There is, in fact, a generalneed to modernize and improve radio broadcastingand television legislation in the region. Anotherproblem is the lack of qualified programme staff,a subject which is discussed separately below.

Film

About ten countries produce feature films. Mexico,

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the largest producer, made 114 features in 1958.Argentina and Es-azil produce about 30 features;Chile four; and Cuba, Guatemala, Uruguay andVenezuela, one or two annually. All featurefilms are made on a commerical basis.

Only a few countries produce documentaryand other short films regularly. State agenciesand universities play an important part in theseactivities. Although exact data are not available,Mexico is probably the largest producer of shortfilms, followed by Brazil and Argentina. Smallerproducers include Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Cuba,El Salvador, Haiti, Jamaica, Peru, Puerto Rico,Uruguay and Venezuela.

Six countries produce two or more newsreels:Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Venezuela, Colombiaand Cuba. One newsreel each is produced byBolivia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador,Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama,Paraguay and Peru.

Films are occasionally produced in countriesother than those mentioned above. The wide-spread introduction of television may in due coursecreate a demand for local films in these countries.

Mexico has a natural market for its films,particularly features, in other countries of theregion. Other exporters are Argentina andBrazil. Films from the United States, andEuropean countries, circulate widely. A fewfilms are imported from other countries, usuallythrough film festivals held in the region, and filmclubs, which are becoming increasingly popular. .

The region is served by 12,847 cinemas, witha total seating capacity of nearly seven million,or 3.5 seats per 100 people. While most middle-sized communities have at least one cinema, manysmaller centres lack facilities of any kind.Governments have little mobile equipment.

Nine countries have two seats or less per 100

inhabitants (the Bahamas, Bolivia, DominicanRepublic, El Salvador, Guaten-ala, Haiti,Honduras, Paraguay and Peru); 14 have from twoto six seats; six have from six to seven seats;and three have over seven seats per 100 persons(Bermuda, British Guiana and the Falkland Islands).

Annual average cinema attendance in the regionis 4.9 times per person. Attendance is highestin the Caribbean area, with rates ranging fromeight to 13 times per person. In Mexico, Uruguayand Venezuela, the rate is between seven and nine,and between four and six in Argentina and Brazil.

In contrast, attendance per person is lessthan three times a year in Barbados, the DominicanRepublic, Ecuador, the Falkland Islands,Guadaloupe, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras and theWindward Islands.

A major obstacle to development of the filmindustry is the lack of qualified staff. With better-trained personnel, more and better films couldundoubtedly be produced in the well-equippedstudios and laboratories in Mexico, Argentina andBrazil. Many other countries, however, lackadequate film production facilities. As a result,

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the Central American countries at present havetheir newsreels processed in Mexico. Similarly,Bolivia and Paraguay utilize facilities in Argentina.Regional schemes to assist countries where filmproduction is limited might be envisaged. Anotherpossibility is the development of co-productionarrangements.

Indeed, the main possibilities for expandingfilm output generally, even in countries with anestablished film industry, seem to lie in regionalaction. The development of free trade zones andcommon markets in Latin America will probablyinvolve the revision of film legislation concerningimport quotas, import duties and internal taxes.

The revision of legislation would need to bematched by increased co-operation between LatinAmerican film producers, distributors and exhibi-tors, with a view to making better use of presentresources. This objective might be furtheredthrough the establishment of regional professionalfilm associations.

Television

Television in Latin America has three distinctaspects. Firstly, almost all countries have trans-mitting facilities, generally maintained in themajor cities. Secondly, television does not yetreach provincial populations in a number of countries;much, in fact, must yet be done to extend receptionin urban areas already served. Thirdly, the localproduction of programmes is extremely limited.

Seventeen countries have at least one station,there being 100 stations throughout the region. Inaddition, Chile has an experimental service andthe Bahamas, British Guiana, Costa Rica, Ecuadorand the Netherlands Antilles are planning to estab-lish services.

There are some 2.9 million receivers in theregion, givingan average of 1.5 per 100 people.Apart 'from Bermuda, which averages 19.3 re-ceivers per 100 persons, Cuba has the most highlydeveloped service, with 5.6 sets per 100 inhabitants.Audiences are limited in all the other countries.For example, Mexico and Argentina both average1.9; Brazil, 1.5; and Colombia, 1.1.

In general, television is privately operated.Programmes are mainly directed to city dwellers,the sector with the highest purchasing power andadvertising interest. An exception is Colombia,where all stations are owned by the State, althoughprogrammes are partly under commercial sponsor-ship.

Since Latin America's television audiences aresmall, the fees paid by sponsors are very limitedand it is difficult, consequently, to produce goodquality programmes. Local tele-newsreels areproduced in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba,Mexico and Venezuela. International newsmaterial and many other programmes are imported,already dubbed, from the United States. EvenMexico, with its well-developed film industry, hasnot yet been able to compete in the television field.

This, together with a shortage of technical andartistic staff, is the main obstacle to more effect-ive television in the region.

Television audiences might be enlarged bytwo principal means: the provision of receivers,including battery-operated sets, at low cost; andsimultaneous telecasts, from several stations, toaudiences in wide areas. Such telecasts wouldrequire telecommunication links between stations.Development of the proposed Inter-AmericanTelecommunication Network might contribute tothe solution of this problem, thus facilitating theformation of a Latin American counterpart to"Eurovision". However, the problem is notsolely an international one. It is important thatadequate provision for television be made fromthe outset, when national telecommunication net-works are being installed or modernized. Thishas already been done in Colombia, where theState-operated television service reaches 45 percent of the population through use of satellitestations hooked up to the central station in Bogotavia the national telecommunications network.

Training and research

A number of Latin American countries now haveschools of journalism attached to universities orcolleges. Most of these schools, however, needassistance in improving their courses. For thispurpose and particularly to meet the shortage oftrained journalism teachers, Unesco recentlyassisted in creating the Latin American Centrefor Advanced Studies in Journalism, with head-quarters at Quito. This Centre, now in its secondyear, held its first three-months training coursein late 1960. Its future success will dependlargely on the extent of aid available from nationalas well as international sources. However, theprovision of teacher-training facilities is only oneof many possible types of action to further the de-velopment of journalism education in Latin America.Other measures might include the provision offellowships for study in other regions, the holdingof seminars on specialized subjects under theauspices of schools of journalism or professionalorganizations in various countries, the translation,adaptation and publication of textbooks, and theprovision of expert advice. A parallel effortneeds to be made for the training of printing andmechanical staff.

As mentioned earlier, the lack of qualifiednews agency staff is a problem of major import-ance in itself. In view of the limited developrrentof national news agencies in the area, advancedtraining cannot be provided within the region.As an alternative, fellowships might be awardedfor one or two years' study abroad, to a selectednumber of Latin American journalists wishing tospecialize in agency work.

In the field of radio broadcasting, the numberof trained technicians is generally adequate. Onthe other hand, there is a shortage of trained

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programme staff and of facilities for training.In the television field, there is a shortage of

technicians and particularly of programme staff.Training facilities need to be developed throughthe establishment of centres at institutions ofhigher learning. Plans for such training centreshave, in fact, been drawn up in Mexico. Seminarsand fellowships would be essential elements oftelevision training programmes.

Universities in several Latin Americancountries, including Argentina, Chile, andMexico, have established film training centres.Universities in Uruguay and certain other countriesmaintain experimental or scientific film institutes.In addition, various commercial schools in theregion offer training in film making. However,these facilities are in the main inadequate, due tolack of modern equipment and qualified teachers.As a result, there is a shortage of well-trainedfilm technicians throughout the region. Trainingmight be promoted through fellowships and seminars,as well as by lecture and demonstration tours byspecialists in film production, distribution and ex-hibition.

Mass communication research has been limitedmainly to historical studies and public opinion polls.The various institutions now providing training inpress, film, radio and television in the region couldgive invaluable service in research if they weremade aware of the usefulness of such work and ofthe advantages of a joint programme of action.Subjects for study throughout the region mightrange from legislation on the mass media to an ex-amination of the requirements of the Andean Indianpopulation. Here again, remedial action is greatlyneeded.

AFRICA

With the lowest level of literacy, Africa is likewisepoorer in information facilities than the other majorregions. For every 100 persons there are only1.2 copies of daily newspapers, 1.8 radio receiversand ('.5 seats in permanent cinemas. Moreover,no single country in Africa reaches the Unescominimum for information facilities, cited above.

The 60 States and territories in the region havea combined population of 236,000,000 or 8.1 percent of the world total. The general level of pur-chasir:g power, slightly higher than in South EastAsia but lower than in Latin America or the MiddleEast, is a major obstacle to expansion of the massir!ed.:a. About 70 per cent of the population have anaverage income of less than $100; 25 per cent, be-tween $100 and $200; and the remainder between$200 and $400. Development of the press is particu-larly impeded by the low level of literacy - between15 and 20 per cent among adults.

A problem affecting development oi all themedia in Africa is the great multiplicity oflanguages and dialects. Thesc: number nearly 800and relatively few of them are spoken 1.7 enough

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people to encourage their development as nationalor even written languages. Governments and in-formation enterprises, particularly in the newlyindependent States, are faced with the difficultdecision as to which of their various locallanguages should be employed in the mass mediaand whether major European tongues, such asEnglish and French, should continue to be usedsimultaneously as languages of wide diffusion.

Newspapers and Periodicals

The African press is marked by wide variety intypes of ownership, audience and stages of de-velopment. In northern Africa, a large part ofthe press is nationally owned and is devoted toArabic language audiences in that area and, tosome extent, in the Middle East. In the southern ,eastern and to a considerable extent the westernparts of the continent, the most effective publica-tions are "European owned" and were publishedoriginally for European audiences. In West Africa,particularly in the English-speaking countries,African enterprise has lately come to the fore withpublications in European as well as Africanlanguages. The press of East and West Africa isalso characterized by the large number of publica-tions directed by governments, political parties,church and missionary groups.

The continent is served by 221 daily news-papers with a total circulation of 2,900,000.Circulation levels range from between six andseven copies per 100 persons in Reunion, Mauritius,Melilla and the Union of South Africa to between twoand five in Algeria, Ghana, Morocco, SouthernRhodesia, the Seychelles and the United ArabRepublic (Egyptian Province) and to between 0.01and 0.9 in 36 countries, including many of largepopulation. In seven of these countries, the dailypress co-mists of roneotyped bulletins. Fifteencouniries, with a total population of 12 millions,have no dailies of any kind - Basutoland, Bechuana-land, Cameroons, Cape Verde Islands, Comoros,Gabon, Ifni, Mauretania, Nyasaland, Ruanda Urundi,St. Helena, Sao Tome and Principe, Somaliland,Spanish Sahara and Swaziland.

There are also 835 non-dailies and 1,382periodicals, most of which are concentrated innine countries.

Newsprint consumption for the whole regionis less than 137,000 tons annually, representing0.6 kg. per person. Africa depends wholly onimports for its supplies of printing paper.

Among the many obstacles to expansion of thepress in Tropical Afria are a dearth of develop-ment capital and an insufficiency of advertisingsupport, due largely to the lack of major industries.This insufficiency could be in part overcome ifgovernment printing contracts were placed withdomestic rather than non-African firms. In addi-tion, newspaper operations are heavily taxed in anumber of countries and the imposition of importduties on equipment and materials, all of which are

imported, constitutes a further difficulty. As inSouth East Asia, there is a widespread lack ofreasonably up-to-date composing and printingmachinery, and smaller publishers have difficultyin obtaining newsprint under favourable marketconditions.

Distribution problems are probably greaterthan in any other region, with the result that presscirculation is concentrated mainly in the largercentres. Surface transport services are generallypoor and the smaller publishers find it almost im-possible to organize their own distributing services(even by bicycle) in wide areas with scatteredpopulations. Under these conditions, use of theairmail has become almost obligatory in manyareas. However, airmail surcharges impose anexcessive burden on the precarious budgets ofmany press enterprises. Remedial action onthis problem might be taken through the AfricanPostal Union. It is significant that the most suc-cessful press groups are generally well capitalizedenterprises with links outside the continent.

Attempts have been made to provide newssheets and other publications for newly literatepersons with the aim of continuing their interestin reading. Many of these publications, thoughwell subsidized, have not had the impact envisagedby their planners because they are too didactic intone. The apparent solution would be to havethem deal with much the same subjects as ordinarynewspapers, but with the material presented in amore easily understandable form.

News Agencies and Telecommunications

National news agencies are maintained in 13 Africancountries - Cameroon Republic, Central AfricanRepublic, Congo (Leopoldville), Gabon, Ghana,Guinea, Morocco, Nigeria, Senegal, Sudan, Tunisia,Union of South Africa and United Arab Republic.Ethiopia, the Ivory Coast, Mali and Togo are pre-preparing to establish news agencies. A numberof the existing agencies have been established withgovernment support. Countries without nationaltiews agencies rely for their supply of news on theworld news agencies, or in the case of non-self-governing territories, on the national news agenciesof the administering States. In general, the ex-change of news between Africa and other continentsis in the hands of the world agencies.

Almost all of the national agencies in TropicalAfrica are of recent establishment and require con-siderable development. The main obstacle to newsagency expansion is lack of managerial experienceand the need to simplify the problems involved. A

common error in establishing news agencies in anyregion is the tendency to mix thc _3traightforwardwork of collecting and distributing news with mis-cellaneous activities such as publishing, advertis-ing and propaganda. In addition, there is the needto make a clear distinction between a national newsagency and a government information department,even if the news agency is government sponsored.

Since in most of the African countries sub-scriptions from newspapers, broadcasting servicesand other sour ces would not meet the cost of run-ning a news agency, government assistance wouldprobably be necessary. In that event, conditionsfor the establishment of an agency should providethat it does not become an organ of the governmentitself or of any single interest.

To assure a comprehensive flow cf news be-tween the countries of Africa, co-operation be-tween national news agencies would need to beencouraged. This objective might be furtheredthrough an association of national agencies which,while enjoying complete autonomy, would exchangenews, promote technical improvements, safe-guard their common interests and assist in the de-velopment of new news agencies. In Europe, anassociation of this kind, the European Alliance ofNews Agencies, has functioned effectively since itsestablishment in 1957.

With the exception of the southern part ofAfrica, telecommunications are inadequately de-veloped, particularly between countries within theregion. As a result, messages being sent betweentwo points in Tropical Africa must often be routedthrough Paris or London, instead of being trans-mitted direct. Direct links are in fact, generallynon-existent. Telegraph services are rudimentaryand telephone services little developed, if at ail .In addition, the transmission of news is hinderedby high or discrepant communication charges, withrates for similar services varying by as much as600 per cent.

An effective and economic means of overcom-ing these deficiencies would be the provision ofscheduled radio communication services, with thenews agencies leasing transmitters and receivers,or time on these facilities, at reasonable rates.The possibility of organizing a co-operative newsexchange service using these channels might bestudied, in consultation with the African Telecom-munication Union. The development of telecom-munication services for the mass media could beconsiderably encouraged if telecommunicationadministrations or their concessionaires wouldallow news agencies to make direct use of theirradio communication facilities. Direct use ofsuch facilities is permitted under the InternationalTelegraph Regulations and adequate safeguardsagainst abuse are provided (Article 85, GenevaRevision, 1958). At the same time, the wideruse of the airmail for the dispatch of newsarticles, features and photos should not be over-looked.

Radio Broadcasting

Radio broadcasting has advanced more rapidlythan the press in Africa and in recent years thetotal of receivers has increasingly exceeded thatof copies of daily newspapers. In most of thecouatries, broadcasting services are under publiccontrol and their expansion has been actively

29

encouraged by governments. Nevertheless, manygaps remain to be filled, particularly in the pro-vision of programmes suited to local audiences.

Throughout the region, there is wide diversityin the stages of development reached. Countriesin the southern part and most of the northern partof Africa have achieved the highest level of ex-pansion. In Tropical Africa, a number ofcountries have made moderate progress. On theother hand, various territories, including Gambia,Ceuta, Ifni, Melilla, Ruanda Urundi and St.Helena,still lack broadcasting facilities of any kind. TheCameroons do not produce programmes hut areserved by Nigeria. Basutoland, Bechuanaland,South West Africa and Swaziland are similarlyserved by the Union of South Africa.

There are no more than 309 transmitters forthe whole continent, most of them being concen-trated in nine countries. Radio receivers total4,344,000, giving an average of 1.8 for every 100inhabitants. Only four countries have more thanfive sets per 100 persons - Mauritius, Sao Tomeand Principe, Somaliland and the Union of SouthAfrica. Countries with the lowest distributionlevel are Ruanda Urundi, Upper Volta, Niger andthe Sudan.

A number of countries maintain internationalbroadcasting services and also conduct domesticprogrammes in one or more local languages.Most of the non-self-governing territories broad-cast programmes supplied by the administeringStates.

In developing their services, the countries ofTropical Africa are confronted first with theproblem of assuring national coverage with thelimited resources at their disposal in terms offinance and trained personnel. Circumstancesmay dictate a beginning with the more concen-trated urban areas where services can be moreeasily and economically established. But it isessential that planning should, from the start,provide for the larger operation. Such decisionsaffct the choice of transmission systems and thetypes of receivers suitable for use in areas withinadequate electrification.

A major transmission problem in TropicalAfrica arises from the fact that, for reasons ofeconomy, short-wave broadcasting is widely usedfor domestic services. Short-wave transmissionsin the tropics are, however, severely affected bysolar interference from October to April and im-provement can only be realized if funds are madeavailable for the introduction of frequency modula-tion broadcasting, combined with medium-wave"booster" services. The solution to the receiverproblem may lie in the provision of low-cost transis-tor sets, ideally available to every family andschool. Communal listening may help to meet theshortage of sets'but should be regarded as a tem-porary and insufficient device. It is to be noted that,with one or two exceptions, the countries of Africarely on imported equipment and that duties increasethe cost of receivers by as much as 50 per cent.

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Organization of the exchange of programmesis particularly difficult in Tropical Africa, duelargely to the multiplicity of local languages andthe widely differing cultural backgrounds of localaudiences. The problem is much more acute inthis region than in South East Asia, the MiddleEast or Latin America, where large populationgroups have linguistic or cultural affinities. Forthose audiences in Africa whose common languageis English or French, the larder is not so emptyas for others. But the programmes availableto them through exchanges or transcriptions arerarely produced with African audiences in mind.

Film

Only the United Arab Republic and Tunisia pro-duce feature films regularly. In 1959 the UnitedArab Republic made 60 features and Tunisia one(in co-production with France). Newsreels areproduced, generally by government agencies, inAngola, Ghana, Mauritius, Morocco, Mozambique,Tunisia, and the United Arab Republic. Docu-mentary films are made in Algeria, Congo(Leopoldville), Ghana, Morocco, Nigeria,Northern and Southern Rhodesia, Sudan, Swaziland,Tunisia, Uganda, Union of South Africa and theUnited Arab Republic. Features and newsreelsfrom Europe and North America circulate fairlywidely.

There are 2,400 cinemas with a total of1,300,000 seats. Only Algeria, Mauritius,Melilla and St. Helena possess more than twoseats per 100 inhabitants. Although mobile unitsare being increasingly used in rural areas, theaverage attendance per person for the whole regionremains at a level of once a year. Countries withan attendance rate of more than twice a year areAlgeria, Libya, Mauritius, St. Helena, SierraLeone, Union of South Africa and the United ArabRepublic.

As will be seen from the foregoing summary,most of the countries of Tropical Africa lackproduction facilities of any kind. Existing pro-duction units are hampered by a dearth of develop-ment capital and of trained personnel, the highcost of importing raw film and equipment generallysubject to import duties, and difficulties inorganizing adequate distribution systems. Incountries with linguistic or othe affinities, theproduction of films, at least of newsreels anddocumentaries, might be encouraged by poolingstudio and other facilities. Co-operativearrangements might also be made by groups ofcountries for the purchase of materials.

In a number of countries, existing arrange-ments for distribution do not favour the exhibi-tion of information films in commercial cinemasgenerally committed to "double feature" program-mes. Alternative outlets for information filmsmight be provided through the formation of com-munity cinema clubs which could also serve asteleclubs eventually. As in the other regions,

there is a widespread need of low-cost projectorsfor use in schools and community centres, and ofmobile units for screenings in non-electrified areas.

Television

Although television is in its infancy in Africa,both external and internal forces are stimulatingits expansion in a region rich in visual, oral andceremonial tradition but with a limited level oi'literacy. On the one hand, European commercialinterests, working in conjunction with localinterests, are underwriting a number of develop-ment projects. On the other hand, many Africangovernments view television as a potent instrumentfor education on the school, vocational and adultl'euels and, hence, as a means of aiding transitionfrom primitive tribalism to modern civilization.

Regular services are now being conducted inAlgeria, Nigeria, Southern Rhodesia and theUnited Arab Republic. There is a total of sixtransmitters and 84,000 receivers in the region.Eight additional countries are preparing to intro-duce television - Congo (Brazzaville), Ghana,Kenya, Mauritius, Morocco, Northern Rhodesia,Sudan and Tunisia.

ln all four "television" countries, programmesare conducted under public supervision. In Algeriaand the United Arab Republic, the services are agovernment enterprise and in Nigeria and SouthernRhodesia they are conducted by British commercialinterests under contract to the State. It is signifi-cant that in Nigeria, news broadcasts and pro-grammes of African music and dances are far morepopular than the imported serials favoured invarious Western countries.

Problems affecting development of televisionin Africa are similar to those in Asia. Failure torealize the significance of television may lead insome countries to the drawing up of plans whichmay be out of date by the time they are put intoforce. Careful planning and research, preferablyon a regional basis, is necessary to ensure thatthe medium is developed in an efficient and orderlymanner. Countries without television should beable to benefit from the experience of those whichhave established services, particularly with regardto the maintenance of educational and culturalstandards.

Since most of the countries possess very limit-ed resources for the development of television,services might best be established by groups ofcountries, taking into account the need for agree-ment on uniform standards of transmission. ' Co-operative arrangements of this kind might also beeffective in overcoming such major problems asthe provision of programmes suited to Africanaudiences, the allocation and use of frequencies,the acquisition of equipment from abroad and thetraining of personnel.

In a number of African countries, televisionwill necessarily be limited to urban centres untiloutlying areas are electrified. Another obstacle

to national coverage is the cost of providingreceivers in a region of low individual purchasingpower. This difficulty might be overcome byorganizing community viewing through teleclubs,which could also be used for discussion groups onprogrammes of special interest.

Training and Research

Africa suffeis more acutely from a dearth oftrained personnel than any other major region.Some countries, for example, cannot claim asingle qualified journalist and in a number ofothers, journalists and radio broadcasters workonly on a part-time ba3is. Journalism coursesare conducted at university level in Congo(Leopoldville), Ghana and the United Arab Republic;a similar course is being established in Nigeria.In the other African countries, journalists andnewspaper executives receive only "on-the-job"instruction and have little opportunity of acquiringan understanding of their professional responsibili-ties. In addition, there is a general need for text-books on editing and newspaper management andother training material.

In the news agency field, the lack of managerialexperience is a basic difficulty. This problemmight be overcome by sending prospective execu-tives to major news centres abroad for training.Alternatively, younger executives from newsagencies overseas might be engaged to set upagencies in African countries and train local staffin their functions. Provision should also be madefor the exchange of news agency staff within theregion.

There are no organized fLicilities in Africafor training radio personnel. Although techni-cians from English-speaking and French-speakingzountries are able to obtain training in the UnitedKingdom and France respectively, there is a needfcr training centres within the region, where in-struction could be given within an African context.

In the fields of film and television, there areno facilities for training professional and techni-cal staff, apart from "on-the-job" instruction.Fellowships might be provided for instruction out-side the region, until such time as training centresare established in Africa.

There are no facilities for mass communica-tion research which, as in other regions, is es-sential for the effective development of the media.

MIDDLE EAST

In this region, Israel is the only country with welldeveloped information media and is in fact able toclaim 52 per cent of the total daily newspaper circula-tion, 40 per cent of the total of radio rece iv ers and42 per cent of cinema seating capacity in the MiddleEast. To give a more accurate picture of thegeneral level of development in the Middle East,Israel is therefore excluded from this account.

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The remaining 13 countries in the region havea combined population of 27,000,000 or 0.9 percent of the world total. Lebanon is the only countrythat meets the Unesco minimum for informationfacilities.

As in the other regions covered in this survey,the low level of purchasing power ,xmsiderablyhinders development of the information media.About 50 per cent of the population in the regicrhave an average annual income of less than $100;40 per cent, between $100 and $200; and five percent between $300 and $400. The generally lowlevel of literacy (25 per cent among adults)particularly hampers expansion of the press.

On the other hand, the prevalence of a com-mon language, Arabic, and of a common printingscript is a factor favouring development of themedia. Since certain countries in North Africalikewise use the Arabic language and script, com-mon solutions might be sought for problems affect-ing the Arabic-speaking peoples of the two regions.It is also noteworthy that certain South East Asiancountries have cultural links with the Arabcountries. In the formulation of a programmefor the development of the media in the MiddleEast, the relationship of this region to Africa andSouth East Asia should be taken into account.

Newspapers and Periodicals

One hundred and eighteen daily newspapers, allof small circulation, are published in the 13countries. There total circulation is 378,000,representing 1.4 copies for every 100 people.Lebanon possesses as many as 46 dailies, theUnited Arab Republic (Syrian Province) 40 and Iraq16. On the other hand, Yemen, Bhutan, Muscatand Oman, Trucial Oman and Qatar have no dailypress.

Lebanon, with ten copies of dailies per 100persons, and Bahrein (5.8) have the highest circula-tion levels; in the other countries, the averageranges from less than one copy in Aden (Colonyand Protert:zate), Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to 1.9in Jordan and the United Arab Republic. It is note-worthy that the metropolitan press of Cairo coversa large part of the region.

The countries are also served by 59 non-dailiesand weeklies and 154 periodicals, most of which arepublished in Lebanon and Iraq.

The total annual consumption of newsprint is8,400 tons, giving an average of 0.3 kg. per person -a level as low as in Scuth East Asia. AU of the 13countries depend cri imports for their supplies ofprinting paper.

A general characteristic of the Middle Easternpress is the concentration of publications in thecapital cities. The few small town newspapers andperiodicals are of ..imited interest and are techni-cally not well produced. Country dwellers there-fore depend on the urban papers, which in generalreach them only after long delays. Newspapercirculatiun could be considerably increased if rural

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publications were expanded and distribution ser-vices improved.

Among obstacles hindering press expansionare lack of development capital and cu equipment,particularly in the rural areas. The smaller news-papers also have particular difficulty in obtainingprinting paper at favourable prices. Rationingof newsprint is generally maintained because print-ing capacity far exceeds available supplies. Im-port duties and foreign currency shortages alsomake it difficult for publishers to obtain essentialmaterials.

News Agencies and Telecommunications

Only two countries, the United Arab Republic andIraq, have national news agencies, both of thembeing maintained with government support.Several of the larger Middle Eastern newspapersmaintain foreign correspondents within the regionand abroad. However, the flow of news betweencentres of the region, as well as between theMiddle East and the rest of the world, remains inthe hands of the world news agencies. Althoughcertain agencies have reduced their subscriptionrates, most of the smaller papers cannot affordto pay for services sufficient to assure a wide newscoverage.

Over a large part of the region, the flow ofnewt is hindered by high or discrepant costs oftransmitting news and, in some countries, in-adequacies in telecommunication services orfacilities. Remedial action in this field might betaken through the recently established Arab Tele-communication Union. In general, the level oftelecommunication development is higher in theMiddle East than in South East Asia and the pre-valence of a common language is an additionalfactor favouring the flow of information. Muchcould be done to develop regional teleprinter andteletype-setting services to facilitate publicationof identical or modified editions and features invarious Middle Eastern centres.

RadioBroadcasting

Radio broadcasting has developed rapidly undergovernment sponsorship in a number of MiddleEastern countries. Expansion has been facilitatedby the linguistic and cultural unity of the region,which permits individual countries to benefit fromthe experience of c 'hers.

The countries are served by a total of 37transmittars and 590,000 receivers, representing2.2 sets for every 100 people. This average,though below the Unesco minimum of five receivers,is higher than that in South East Asia and Africa.

Country averages range from 22.8 receiversin Kuait to over five in Lebanon and the UnitedArab Republic and 0.3 in Saudi Arabia. Commun-ity receivers are increasingly used in rural areasand a number of countries maintain internationalservices.

While certain broadcasting organizationstransmit special programmes for rural and otheraudiences, others do not yet have adequate meansof varying their programmes to meet the needsof different groups. The exchange o; programmeswithin the region has not been very considerablydeveloped, due partly to the fact that listeners ineach country can readily receive programmes fromother countries shar'-g the same language.

Throughout the region, there is an acute needfor 'ow-cost receivers. N.) sets are manufacturedin the Middle East and import duties ade to thecost of all radio equipment. Another obstacle isthe cost of transmitting information required fornews broadcasts, which figure prominently inMiddle Eastern programmes.

Film

Development of the film has bean retarded in theMiddle East due to economic and other reasons.No feature films have recently been made in theregion and no documentaries except in Kuwait.Newsreels are produced in Kuwait and the UnitedArab Republic (Syrian Province). Features fromthe United Arab Republic (Egyptian Province),which has extensive production facilities, circulatein the Middle East, as well as in South East Asia.

Several Middle Eastern countries have begunadapting imported educational films for localexhibition and are preparing to produce films ofthis kind. As these countries share a commonlanguage, the pooling of facilities would be apractical means of aiding the production of informa-tion films both for the cinema and for t'.:levision.Since all raw film and equipment is imported, co-operative arrangements might likewise be madeto secure these materials at lower cost.

The 13 countries are served by 340 fixedcinemas (35 and 16 mm.) with a total of 165,000seeJs, representing 0.6 seats for every 100 people.The average attendance per person is 1.7 timesa 3,4.a.r. Both of these averages are lower than inSwth East Asia. Only Lebanon meets the Unescominimum of two seats per 100 people. An in-crease in the number of mobile units and of 16 mm.is particularly needed in rural areas. Projectorsare also required for schools, few of which are asyet equipped. With these exhibition facilities,educational films could reinforce efforts undertakenin the radio field to instruct children and adults inrural areas.

Television

Television is developed to a limited extent. Iraq,Lebanon and Saudi Arabia conduct regular servicesand Kuwait maintains an experimental station.There is a total of five transmitters and 49,000receivers in the region.

Since the countries of the Middle East possessvery limited resources for the development oftelevision, the establishment of a co-operative

regional service might be advisable. Basicproblems of television development are the sameas in the other underdeveloped regions - a dearthof trained personnel and of programme resources,difficulties in assuring national coverage, arid theproblem of providing reception facilities in areasof low individual purchasing power.

Training and Research

Lack of training facilities in all the media repre-sents a major problem. There are no schoolsof journalism within the region, instruction innewspaper editing and management being pro-vided only through "on-the-job" training. Thereare no organized facilities for training film techni-cians. In the fields of radio and television,training facilities are provided only in Iraq. Thegeneral problem might be most effectively solvedthrough the organization of regional training ser-vices.

There are no facilitifes for research in thedevelopment and use of tne mass media. Theprovision of such facilities, particularly inaudience research, would be an essential elementof any development programme.

OTHER AREAS

Oceania

Within this region, Australia, New Zealand andGuam have well developed information media.French Polynesia and Norfolk Island have suffi-cient radio and cinema, but insufficient pressfacilities. The other dependencies are lackingin respect of all or most of the media.

The island groups have a total population of2,889,000 and in most of them literacy is at ahigh or fairly high level; cinly in the SolomonIslands, North East New Guinea and Papua is thelevel 20 per cent or less among adults. A morewidespread obstacle to development of the mediais the level of purchasing power. In general,the average income per person ranges from lessthan $100 to between $200 and $300 annually.

The press is very little developed and thedistribution of daily newspapers averages only0.3 copies per 100 persons. The Fiji Islandsand New Caledonia each possess a daily newspaper,with a circulation of a few thousand copies.Daily bulletins appear in American Samoa, theCook Islands and French Polynesia, and weekliesand periodicals in most of the other areas. TheNew Hebrides and Tonga have no press facilities.Australian and New Zealand newspapers circulatein areas south of the equator.

Radio broadcasting services, directed bygovernments, are more widely developed thanthe press and have become the main source ofnews and other information. Transmitters aremaintained in American Samoa, the Solomo:

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Islands, Cook Island:, Fiji, French Polynesia,Gilbert and Ellice Islands, New Caledonia, Niue,Pacific Islands, Papua and Western Samoa. Theremaining groups have no transmission servicesand rely on broadcasts from other Pacific areas.Although community sets are increasingly used,only Fiji, French Polynesia, Nauru, NewCaledonia and Norfolk Island exceed the Unescominimum for receivers.

No films are produced in the islands. Of 13groups for which data are available, only AmericanSamoa, Cook Islands, French Polynesia, NewHebrides, Norfolk Island, and the Pacific Islandshave more than two cinema seats per 100 persons.Mobile units are used to a fair extent. The aver-age attendance per person is 1.4 times a year butis considerably higher than this in American Samoa,"Fiji and French Polynesia. There are no tele-vision tran _aission or reception services in anyof the dependencies.

Scattered over a vast ocean area, and withsmall populations, the island groups face formid-able obstacles of transport and finance in the de-velopment of their press and cinema facilities. Inthe radio field, distance is less of a problem thanthat of finance, which bears upon the improvement

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of broadcasting services under tropical con-ditions. There is a general need of low-costfilm projectors and radio receivers.

Europe

Among European countries, Albania and Turkeyare underdeveloped in press, radio and film, andPortugal, Spain and Yugoslavia in press facilities.

Daily newspaper circulation in the fivecountries ranges from 4.5 to 7.1 copies per 100persons and per capita consumption of newsprintfrom 0.7 to 2.6 kg. annually. Portugal, Spainand Yugoslavia produce newsprint but not insufficient quantities to meet their needs. All fivecountries maintain national news agencies.

Albania has 2.8 radio receivers per 100 per-sons and Turkey 4.4. Both countries maintaininternational as well as domestic programmes anduse community receivers in outlying areas.

Feature films are regularly produced in Turkeyand occasionally in Albania (in co-production withthe USSR). Both countries produce newsreels.Albania possesses 1.3 cinema seats per 100 per-sons and Turkey 0.8. Turkey has introduced televi-sion and Albania is planning to establish a service.

CHAPTER THREE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSIONS

The information media, it may first be noted,serve the dual purpose of keeping people informedof the world in which they live and as an instrumentof education in the broadest sense. This secondaspect, which has perhaps been insufficiently re-cognized, is of growing importance, particularlyin the developing countries. Illustrating thistrend is the fact that radio broadcasting and visualaids are being increasingly used in these countriesto bypass the barrier of illiteracy and even, insome cases, to attack illiteracy itself ,

The dual function of the information media hasbeen fully recognized by the United Nations andthe Specialized Agencies. In the first place, de-velopment of the media has been considered as aprerequisite to the full enjoyment of freedom ofinformation. If adequate facilities for informationare lacking, that basic human right manifestly can-not be enjoyed. As recalled earlier in this re-port, the United iNations Conference on Freedomof Information in 1948 proclaimed that freedom ofinformation "depends for its validity upon theavailability to the people of a diversity of sourcesof news and of opinion". The Conference alsodeclared that freedom of information "is thetouchstcne of all the f.z ':edoms to which the UnitedNations is dedicated"(41).

On the other hand, a dearth of facilities overwide regions of the globe prevents hundreds ofmillions of people from effectively enjoying free-dom of information. Unesco has suggested thateach country should aim to provide for every 100of its inhabitants at least ten copies of daily news-papers, five radio receivers, two cinema seatsand two television receivers. On this basis, itappears that nearly 70 per cent of the world'speoples, living in over 100 countries, lack thebarest means of being informed of events in theirown lands, let alone in others. Such poverty of in-formation facilities is particularly acute in the ruralareas of many underdeveloped countries. It issuch areas, moreover, that are generally mostlacking in facilities for formal education.

This factor further emphasizes the secondaspect of development of the information media -that is, their crucial role in education and ineconomic and social development generally. Itis being increasingly recognized that the massmedia, unsurpassed in speed, range and force ofimpact, offer unlimited possibilities of providing

technical instruction and training, as well asgeneral education, on a broad scale. This con-sideration is of primary importance to communi-ties which are seeking to achieve, in a matter ofyears, what it has taken the advanced countriescenturies to accomplish.

There is, in fact, a reciprocal relationshipbetween development of the media and economicand technical development. On the one hand, asociety must reach a certain level of wealth andtechnological advancement before it can establishand maintain the services of the mass media.On the other hand, the media can markedly stimu-late the capacity to create further wealth and canspur technical progress by enlisting the humanfactors, such as improved skills and better educa-tion, more directly in efforts for economic andsocial expansion. The mass media can thus serveeffectively in winning public support and participa-tion in those efforts. This active public participa-tion in turn facilitates more effective planning bygovernments and other agencies, and thus becomesa key element in the industrialization of under-developed countries.

It is accordingly apparent that the mass mediagrow with and contribute to the general economicdevelopment of a nation. For a country'sindustrial planners, it thus becomes necessary toconsider what part of the national resources mightbest be devoted to development of the media so asto contribute most effectively to the general expan-sion of the economy. Planning for developmentof the media must of course take account of themultiplicity of other national needs in economicexpansion. However, it would appear that de-velopment of the media, possibly because its ef-fects are more indirect than direct, has notgenerally been given the place it should logicallyoccupy. Yet an accelerated development of themedia may justifiably be considered as an essen-tial element in pre-investment, along with theexpansion of education and of such services ascommunications and transport, and, therefore,as an integral part of any general programme foreconomic and social progress.

The close relationship between developmentof the media ard general economic and social de-velopment may be demonstrated statistically. Astudy initiated by Unesco as part of the presentsurvey shows that in all of the underdevelopedcountries of Africa, Asia and Latin America, de-velopment of the media correlates very highlywith other factors in national growth, such as

35

average per capita income and levels of literacy,urbanization and industrialization. The study alsodemonstrates that as per capita income rises, thedemand for the media increases more rapidly inthe underdeveloped than in the developed countries.In other words, expansion of a nation's economy isparalleled by the expansion of its media. Indeed,the two processes interact because, as alreadyobserved, development of the media in turn spurseconomic growth.

It may therefore be anticipated that currenteconomic and social expansion in the underdevelopedcountries will bring a progressive increase in thedemand for the media in those areas. An assess-ment of that probable increase would manifestly benecessary in planning a programme for developmentof the media. A tentative forecast by Unesco,based on estimates of future increases in the de-mand for newsprint resulting from increases inpr capita incomeoshows that total demand for themedia in Africa, Asia and Latin America is likelyto more than triple by 1975. High as this estimateappears, it may well err on the conservative side.It does not, notably, allow for the effects of spread-ing literacy, which is expected to increase duringthe next 15 years more rapidly than might be ex-pected from the increase in income alone. Thisperiod, it may be noted, will also witness furthertechnological advances which are already transforming communications in the advanced countries andare expected, before long, to make their influencefelt in all parts of the world. Of the multiplicityof advances in this field, it suffices to mention thepossibilities of transmitting press dispatches andradio and television programmes over wide areasby means of satellites in outer space; of usingteleprinter and teletype-setting services for thesimultaneous publication of newspaper editionsand features throughout whole regions; and ofemp]oying television and facsimile services totransmit a newspaper direct into the home. Theseadvances have opc..ied not only a new era in worldcommunications, but also a new approach to inter-national co-operation.

Meanwhile, however, the underdevelopedcountries are impeded by a maze of technical andeconomic obstacles in their efforts to developtheir information media For example, many ofthese countries lack accurate data as to the extentand distribution of mass media facilities, and asto the transport. communication and other ser-vices needed to support a programme for massmedia development. In most of them, moreover,expansion of the media is further h impered by thehigh cost and inadequacy of telecommunication,postal and transport services. Machinery andessential materials, such as newsprint, are inshort supply and scarcities of foreign exchangelimit their importation. A number of countries,again, have special problems such as those aris-ing from a multiplicity of languages or fromclimatic and other natural difficulties encountered,for example, in tropical broadcasting.

36

Restrictive legislation and administrative -

practices constitute another common obstacle.Quantitative limitations are a hampering factor insuch fields as the co-production or exhibition offilms. Import duties increase the cost of sup-plies and, for some mat-rials, such as radio re-ceivers, may make the cost almost prohibitive.In addition, internal taxes on the operation ofinformation enterprises may seriously impedetheir growth, particularly in the press and filmfields.

In many cases, restrictions in the form ofnational legislation and administrative practiceshave arisen with the general growth of trade re-striction and have been only fortuitously appliedto the information media. Indeed,there now ap-pears to be a growing willingness on the part ofgovernments to grant dispensations favouring de-velopment of the media,provided that themeasures to be taken are drawn to their noticeand the mechanism for applying them is not un-duly cumbersome.

Of key importance, of course, is -the lack ofdevelopment capital in the lesy advanced countries.It has been found that in plans for the economicdevelopment of such countries, expenditure oncommunications and transport is usually aboutone-sixth of total public development expenditure.Within this total, communications represent abouttwo to three per cent, most of which, however, isinvested in the development of telegraph and tele-phone services. Of the total of public developmentexpenditure, slightly under one per cent is, ingeneral, devoted to development of the informationmedia - mainly in the broadcasting fi,21d. Tothis, should be added recurrent experditure on theoperation and maintenance of information enter-prises. Ira many countries, moreover, much ofthe expenditure on development of th ;.. media isprivate, particularly in, the establishment andoperation of newspapers, the production or im-portation of radio receivers and films, and thebuilding of cinemas.

AlthoUgh national initiatives for developmentof the media have been at best sporadic, on theinternational level there has for a number of yearsbeen increasing recognition of the need for actionin this field. As far back as 1948 the UnitedNations Conference on Freedom of Information re-commended specific measures to encourage de-velopment of the media(42). The following yearthe United Nations Sub-Commission on Freedomof Information and of the Press, set up by the Com-mission on Human Rights, concluded that specialattention should be paid to the development ofdomestic information enterprises as part of theeconomic development of the less advancedcountries. In 1952, the General Assembly calledfor a programme of concrete action for develop-ment, of the media(43) and in 1955 the Economicand Social Council requested the Secretary-General of the United Nations to present elementsfor the formulation of such a programme (44).

,

A special Committee on Freedom of Information,set up in 1957 by the Commission on Human Rights,gave its main attention to the development of themedia and the Commission itself decided in 1959to review on a continuing basis the problem of

,. providing technical assistance to the underdevelopedcountries in the information field(45).

Parallel with the recognition of the need todevelop the information media, there has been ahistory of international effort which, althoughlimited in scope, has none the less demonstratedthe feasibility of such action. The work of theUnited Nations and the Specialized Agencies hasmoreover shown that, in the advanced countries,there exists a vast fund of knowledge and techniqueswhich could be effectively channelled to the under-developed countries if the necessary resourceswere to be made available.

What appears to be needed is an impetus whichonly the underdeveloped countries themselves canprovide. As was emphasized at the Bangkokmeeting on development of the media in South EastAsia, national development should be the basis ofany programme in this fieid . While the technicalassistance required is available in the developedcountries, the demand for the programme, nridthe accompanying national measures, rest withthe underdeveloped countries.

The principal value of the present report may,in fact, reside in its possible stimulus to broadnational initiative in an international setting.Indeed, the following recommendations mightideally have been based on an examination, farmore detailed than could have been made througha regional analysis, of the problems of eachcountry concerned. This kind of national surveymay well become the logical sequel to the preaentreport.

RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations set forth below fall into twogroups - those of a general nature and those con-cerning each of the media. Each recommendationis followed by a note on its motivation whicli is, ingeneral, a recapitulation of the relevant observa-tions contained in this report.

(A) GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS

(i) Governments of the underdevelopedcountries might consider the possibilityof formulating national prpgrammes fordevelopment of the information media asas part of their planning for economicdevelopment. 1

This recommendation is basic to the effective de-velopment of the information media in underdevelopedcountries. As has emerged from the present

,

report, national development of the informationmedia would constitute the basis of any generaldevelopment programme. Such expansion, inturn, would form an integral part of plans foreconomic and social development. The actiontaken by the United Nations in this field mayprovide the impetus for corresponding nationalinitiatives by the countries concerned.

Long-term planning for development of themedia may well follow individual patterns accord-ing to each country. Certain common elementswill, however, mark the initial phase of suchplanning. These would include the drawing up ofan inventory of existing information facilities andan assessment of national needs, the definitionof priorities for the various media axxl the co-ordination of the mass media programme withplans for the expansion of communications, trans-port and other services. Such preparatory workwould be needed in order to estimate the proportionof the national resources, in both the public andprivate sectors, required for the mass mediaprogramme and for integrating it with generalplans for economic development.

(ii) Governments of the underdevelopedcountries might consider the possi-bility of establishing national com-mittees to assist in formulating andcarrying out programmes for de-velopment of the information media .

'the variety and complexity of the tasks involvedin drawing up and carrying out a developmentprogramme would seem to require some kind ofco-ordinating machinery in each of the countriesconcerned. This might take the form of anational comrnAtee, which could gather togetherrepresentatives of all the interested institutionsand governmental agencies, including those con-cerned with economic development, education,telecommunication and transport and which couldalso enlist the participation of the informationprofessions.

A national committee of this kind could be thefocal point for carrying out 1/105t of the presentrecommendations of a general nature and, inparticular, the foregoing centrk\l recommendationon the formulation of a national programme fordevelopment of the information media. It mightestablish national plans, including a suggesteddefinition of priorities for expansion of the variousmedia, and also determine the phasing of the plansand the budgets needed. It would, finally, ensurethe integration of the plans with the country'sgeneral programme for economic and social de-velopment.

(iii) Governments of the underdevelopedcountries might consider the inclu-sion of appropriate mass communi-cation development projects in theirrequests for technical assistance or

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in their bilateral or multilateral aidprogrammes for economic and socialdevelopment.

This recommendation reflects a propciard whichthe Bangkok meeting fai- South-East Asia madeto governments of that area and which might wellbe applicable to other regions. It attests to thegrowing importance attached to mass communica-tion projects in requests for technical assistance,as exemplified in the mounting number of suchrequests received from the newly independentcountries of Africa. Such requests might be de-voted to drawing up long-term developmentmeasures, assessing how modern techniques andequipment might be most effectively employed,defining the resources required and carrying outtraining programmes for mass communicationpersonnel. To this end, teams of experts mightbe requested to conduct national surveys and on-the-spot studies. Meetings might also beorganized to help governments and the massmedia associations carry out specific developmentprojects.

(iv) Governments of the underdevelopedcountries might consider the possi-bility of assisting the establishmentof national tr aining progr amme s forprofessional and technical personneland of encouraging research in theuse of the information media.

As already observed, the lack of qualified pro-fessional and technical staff is one of the mostformidable obstacles to development of the in-formation media in all the regions concerned.The provision of trained staff is essential notonly to the effective operation of informationenterprises but also to the improvement of stan-dards which would enable the mass media to playtheir full role in programmes for economic andsocial development.

Governments might therefore consider thepossibility of assisting the establishment ofnational training programmes. To this end,assistance might be given in establishing trainingschools or courses; in providing training fellow-ships, study grants and expert aid; in organizingthe production of textbooks for training; and inequipping libraries and laboratories at schools ofjournalism. Consideration might also be givento the possibility of creating, in each region, acouncil o direct a long-term programme ofseminars on teacher training, courses for workingjournalists and the exchange of experience amongprofessionals in all the media. A pattern forsuch training programmes exists in the internation-al institutes for higher studies in journalism estab-lished at the University of Strasbourg, Fra.Ace, andthe Central University of Ecuador, Quito.

Closely related to the question of training isthat of mass communication research, which would

38

be necessary both for the planning of a develop-ment programme and in determining how the massmedia might best be employed as instruments forinformation and education. Research would berequired, for example, in making a nationalinventory of needs and resources in the informa-tion field, in improving the management of in-formation enterprises, in applying new communi-cation techniques and in studying the response ofaudiences to the various media. Another fieldior study, particularly in the newly independentcountries, would be the problem faced by govern-ments in the preparation of legislation applicableto the establishment of information enterprises.This problem has arisen in varying ways in thedevelopment of press, broadcasting and filmenterprises throughout the world. The consider-able body of experience thus acquired might beplaced at the disposal of the developing countries.

(v) In planning the development of theircommunication and transport services,governments of the underdevelopedcountries might give due considerationto the present and future needs of theinformation media.

The effective development of the media dependsto a very large extent upon the availability oftelecommunication facilities for news agencies,newspapers and radio and television services.Such development is frequently hampered by highor disparate communication charges; by the in-adequacy of telecommunication facilities; and bytechnical limitations on their use. In planningthe development of telecommunication services,governments might give special consideration tothe particular problems of the media and especiallyto the new opportunities offered by recent techno-logical advances for the enhanced use of the mediafor information and education.

The importance of the development of com-munications in the underdeveloped countries hasbeen emphasized by the International Telecom-munication Union. In 1958 the Union's Admini-strative Council drew the attention of Membercountries, particularly in Africa, Latin Americaand the Middle East, to the usefulness of jointaction on the regional level as exemplified by thatundertaken in Asia and the Far East under theExpanded Programme of Technical Assistance(46).Such regional co-operation, with particular re-ference to the use of telecommunications by the'mass media, was recommended by the meetingof experts on the Inter-American Telecommunica-tion Network (Mexico City, April 1960)(47).

Another major factor in development of themedia is the provision of adequate air and surfacetransport services for the distribution of informa-tion materials. Problems of the media in thetransport field might be examined within the frame-work of the international and regional organizationsconcerned.

The broad problem of the effective use of com-munications and transport services in developmentof the media was examined in 1953 by the Rapporteuron Freedom of Information appointed by the Economicand Social Council. The Rapporteur concludedthat decisions of administrative conferences inthe telecommunication and postal fields "have themost immediate implications for the free flow ofinformation". He also observed that "if govern-ments were prepared to appropriate relativelysmall additional sums of money, the potentialitiesin these fields would be better exploited"(48).

(vi) Governments of the underdevelopedcountries might consider reviewingtheir tariff and fiscal policies witha view to facilitating the developmentof the information media and the freeflow of information within and betweencountries.

A maze of tariff and trade obstacles and mount-ing costs impedes the development of the massmedia and the free flow of infOrmation bothwithin and between countries. In some cases,tariffs have been imposed for the protection ofdomestic industry and, in others, as a means ofraising revenue. However, these considerationsmight well be offset by the advantages offered inpromoting educational progress and developmentof the information media. Consideration mighttherefore be given to the elimination or reductionof such obstacles.

A wide variety of possibilities exists forinternational action to reduce tariff and fiscalobstacles to development of the information media.One such possibility is offered by the Agreementon the Importation of Educational, Scientific andCultural Materials(49), which grants exemptionfrom import duties to publications and, under cer-tain conditions, to newsreels, educational filmsand sound recordings. It would assist develop-ment of the media if the underdeveloped countrieswere to adhere to the Agreement and, in accord-ance with its spirit, provide for tariff exemptionof such articles as newsprint; printing and com-posing machinery; news-transmitting equipment;raw film and film projectors; and radio and tele-vision receivers and equipment in finished or semi-finished form.

Other obstacles are the levying of internal taxeson press, film and other information enterprises,shortages of foreign currency required for thepurchase of essential materials and the impositionof fiscal taxes on press dispatches. Considerationmight be given to the possibility of reducing taxeson information enterprises to the extent permittedby national revenue requirements. Bilateralagreements might be concluded between governmentsof exporting and importing countries to enable in-tending importers to purchase needed materialswith local currency. With regard to the levying offiscal taxes on press dispatches, it may be noted

that successive Plenipotentiary Conferences ofthe International Telecommunication Union haveadopted an opinion in which Member countriesIIrecognize the desirability of avoiding the im-position of fiscal taxes on any international com-munications"(50).

(vii) Encouragement might be given to theestablishment or expansion in theunderdeveloped countries of profes-sional associations of the mass media,as essential elements in a developmentprogramme.

Essential to the operation and growth of the massmedia are the men and women whose vital task itis to inform the world's people through thosemedia. Any development programme woulddepend considerably for its success on the closeassociation of the information professions. Aneffective way of enlisting such co-operation isthrough the professional organizations of press,film, radio and television, of which there areover 1,000 in some 93 countries(51).

In the advanced countries, professional as-sociations of the mass media have helped theirmembers to serve the public interest betterthrough such activities as the improvement offacilities for professional training, the establish-ment of professional standards, and the promo-tion of the free flow of information. At the sametime, international professional associations haveco-ordinated the efforts of national organizationsand have sought to assist the establishment ofsimilar groups in the underdeveloped countries.The professional organizations thus constitute aninvaluable source of talent and co-operation forthe implementation of a development programme.

In most of the underdeveloped countries, pro-fessional associations have not had an opportunityas yet to take root and are limited at best to localsocieties of slender scope and resources. Theopportunities offered for professionals to gathertogether at the seminars and meetings forming partof a development programme would stimulate thegrowth of professional associations in the under-developed countries. The growth in thosecountries of well-knit organizations of publishers,journalists, broadcasters and other informationpersonnel would be of invaluable assistance tonational development programmes. Such associa-tions could effectively serve the immediate pur-pose of advising on the formulation of requestsfor technical assistance for mass communicationdevelopment projects.

(B) RECOMMENDATIONS, BY MEDIA

As already observed, measures of a nationalcharacter would constitute the main elements ofthe development programme recommended for im-plementation with the help of the United Nations.

39

All such measures would, of course, be determinedaccording to the needs of each country and in fullco-operation with the information professions.Nevertheless, certain features of the developmentof the individual media would appear to be commonto all countries.

The present recommendations deal with thegeneral measures which might be taken to developnews agencies, newspapers and periodicals, radiobroadcasting, films and television. The back-ground to the recommendations will be found in thereview of the problems of developing the informa-tion media, given in Chapter II of this report.The recommendations outline the broad action in-volved in the development of each of the media;more detailed suggestions in the case of South EastAsia and Latin America will be found in the re-ports for those regions, published separately byUnesco(52).

Measures might be taken to encourage and assistthe establishment and expansion in the under-Jeveloped countries of news agencies, newspapers

3eriodicals,. radio broadcasting, film andtelevision

(i) News Agencies

National news agencies are the basis of an adequatesystem for disseminating news. Experience hasproved that they provide essential services notonly for newspapers but for radio broadcasting and

other media. They, in turn, depend upon themedia for revenue necessary for their maintenanceand expansion.

A primary measure, therefore, would be thefurnishing of assistance for the expansion of exist-ing national news agencies, and for their creationwhere there are none. Such assistance might be

given by means of expert missions to advise onthe establishment, equipment and operation ofnational news agencies, and also by the extensiveprovision of fellowships ;or the training of person-nel. Another requirement would be long-termloans, from domestic or other sources, for thepurchase or lease of equipment.

As telecommunication networks are expandedin the underdeveloped countries, due attentionwould need to be paid to the requirements of theinformation media, and to the vast new possibilitiesoffered by recent technological advances for ex-pansion of news agencies. In addition, actionwould be needed to increase the flow of news ontelecommunication channels, since cheap and ade-quate technical facilities are a prerequisite toeffective operation of national news agencies. The

Economic and Social Council, it will be recalled,itself re-examined this problem in 1959 and ex-pressed the hope that, as one measure, effortswould be continued to introduce reduced inter-national rates for the transmission of press dis-patches as expeditiously as possible(5J).

40

Paralleling assistance for the developmentof the national news agencies would be measuresto encourage co-operative arrangements betweenthem to increase the flow of news. Such arrange-ments might be facilitated by meetings of repre-sentatives of the mass media in each region.These meetings might consider such matters asthe provision of a summarized news service at

reduced cost to newly established newspapersor broadcasting services during their early yearsof operation; the promotion of news exchangeagreements among existing agencies; and thepossibility of pooling correspondents of agenciesor individual newspapers or broadcasting servicesin world news centres.

(ii) Newspapers and Periodicals

The primary objective here would be the effectiveestablishment of the press in each country, withparticular emphasis on development in rural andsemi-rural areas. The expansion of provincialpublications adapted to the language and interestsof rural population would be a basic measure in adevelopment programme.

First steps might be the provision of expertmissions to advise on the financing, capitalequipment, location, business management andproduction of newspapers and periodicals. Once

the blueprints have been drawn up, there wouldremain the major problem of financing newspapersand periodicals vhich, particularly in the case ofsmaller enterprises, frequently have great diffi-culty in obtaining loans through normal cr.editchannels. Governments might consider meansof helping such enterprises to obtain credits frompublic or private sources, a possible channelbeing the "development banks" now established invarious countries. In the entire programme forthe development of newspapers and periodicals,the granting of liberal fellowships to press per-sonnel would also play a key role.

Of equal importance is the availability ofnewsprint and other printing paper in greaterquantities and at lowest possible cost. Technicaland financial assistance might be furnished tocountries wishiAg to undertake or increase theproduction of printing paper; the possibility ofestablishing regional centres for paper productionmight also be explored. In addition, governmentsmight encourage the formation of national news-print purchasing co-operatives to enable publishersto obtain supplies at lower prices through long-term contracts. The possibility might be exam-ined of supplying newsprint to newly establishedpublications at reduced cost during their earlyyears of operation. As noted under the generalrecommendations, relief from customs duties isalso an important factor in the distribution of news-print supplies.

Another widespread problem, due largely tolack of capital, is the dearth of even moderatelyup-to-date printing and composing machinery.

Attention might be given to the application of newprinting techniques, particularly for the publica-lion of newspapers in national or local languages.In addition, the immediate equipment problemmight be alleviated by governments and professionalorganizations in assisting the transfer from the de-veloped countries of idle equipment which could bereconditioned for use in the underdeveloped areas.

Continuing advice and assistance in the pro-duction of newspapers and periodicals might beoffered through the establishment in main regionsof a Press and Graphic Arts Institute. Such in-stitutes might afford training in the managerial,editorial, financial and technical aspects of theproduction of newspapers and periodicals; theycould also assist in conducting training programmesfor the printing trades. In addition, they mightassist the eventual formation of national press andgraphic arts centres. In the meantime, seminarsconducted in the various regions, wherever possiblein co-operation with the professional organizationsconcerned, might provide certain limited trainingfacilities anti permit the exchange of experienceimmediately needed for development of newspapersand periodicals.

(iii) Radio Broadcasting

Unsurpassed in speed, range and economy, radiobroadcasting is particularly sui .,?d as an instrumentfor information and education i-i the less developedcountries. However, if radio is to serve thesecountries to the extent of their special requirements,two objectives would need to be met: firstly, broad-casting services should be made very wiJely avail-able; secondly, the programmes produced shouldserve educational purposes particularly a3 well asthe special needs and interests of rural audiences.In attempting to accomplish in a matter of years atask which has been the work of centuries in theadvanced countries, the underdeveloped regionscannot rely on the traditional means of educationalone but are turning to radio broadcasting which,like film and television, offers immense possi-bilities for instruction through the media of masscommunication.

In developing their broadcasting services, theunderdeveloped countries are confronted with thebasic problem of assuring nation-wide coveragewith the limited resources at their disposal interms of finance, equipment and personnel. In ad-dition, most of these countries have inadequateelectrification and are located in the tropical zonewhere conditions of radio transmission and recep-tion are difficult.

The last Administrative Radio Conference ofthe International Telecommunication Union (Geneva,1959) examined the technical problems of broad-casting in less developed countries and adopted twoimportant recommendations. Firstly, the confer-ence recommended that governments use frequencymodulation transmiss ions in their national broadcastingservices as a means of assuring improved reception

and eliminating many of the difficulties of trans-mission, particularl ri the tropical zone.Secondly, the conk, 2e requested a study on theproduction of low-cL,,,t, receivers for use in theunderdeveloped countries. This study is beingcarried out by the International TelecommunicationUnion, in co-operation with Unesco and the Region-al Economic Commissions of the United Nations.

A large-scale increase in the production oflow-cost receivers, as the Radio Confereice em-phasized, is essential for the expansion of broad-casting in less developed countries. An immedi-ate target for those countries might be theachievement of the "Unesco minimum" of fivereceivers per 100 persons, and ultimately, thetarget might be one receiver for every family.Governments of the underdeveloped camtriesmight accordingly examine with the RegionalEconomic Commissions the possibility of encourag-ing the domestic manufacture of receivers.Special attention might be given to the productionof battery-operated, transistorized sets for use innon-electrified areas and the establishment ofservicing centres to maintain them.

In the development of national broadcastingservices, expert missions might be of considerableassistance in advising on the planning of servicesand on the equipment, installation and operation ofbroadcasting stations. Within the framework ofthe ITU and particularly of its International Con-sultative Radio Committee, many opportunitiesexist for the co-ordination of national plans forthe development of broadcasting and the better useof frequency allocations.

While an increase in both transmission andreception facilities is essential, the very con-siderable present development of broadcasting inmany of the underdeveloped countries lends import-ance to the more affective use of existing services.Essential elements are the improvement of pro-.gramme standards and the use of radio for informa-tion and education. Regional seminars might beheld at which the broadcasting profession couldwork out methods of achieving these objectives,as well as the greater exchange of programmesbetween countries. Such seminars might alsostudy the pc ssibility of pooling resources for theproduction of programmes. All of these formsof co-operation might be promoted by the establish-ment of regional exchange centres.

Training would be a key factor both in the im-provement of programming and_the development ofbroadcasting techniques. Liberal provision offellowships and study grants might accordingly bemade for the training of professional and technicalpersonnel, both within each region and in the ad-vanced countries. Encouragement might also begiven to thr, eztablishment of national and regionaltraining centres and to the expansion of bilateralarrangements between countries for the tr!..iningof broadcasting personnel. In the promotion ofthe use of radio in education, special attentionmight be given to the production of programmes

41

designed for rural audiences, such as the farmflrums which enable village groups to listen toarid comment on discussions on agricultural andn' her questions. In areas where large-scaleliteracy programmes and general educationalfacilities are lacking, radio broadcasting may wellserve as a direct training tool at all levels.

Professional associations can play a vitalrole in the development of radio broadcasting aswell as pf television in the underdevelopedcountriea. Some national professional associa-tions have already formed regional bodies whichmight now assume additional functions in the train-ing of personnel and the exchange of programmes.Elsewhere the establishment of national associa-tions and regional co-operative bodies might beencouraged so that they can play their full part inthe development programme.

(iv) Film

The powerful impact of the visual media makesfilm, particularly in view of the spread of television,an increasingly important means of information andeducation. Full account should be taken of itspotentialities in any programme for developmentof the information media in the less developedcountries.

A first measure would be to encourage thedevelopment of existing organizations for theproduction, distribution and use of films and toassist the establishment of these facilities inareas where they do not exist. Governmentsmight consider the possibility of participatingdirectly in these activities through the setting upof governmental agencies or, alternatively, oflending assistance by means of development loans,tax exemptions and other initial concessions.

Encouragement might be given partici larly tothe production and distribution of docun-ientaries,newsreels and educational films for use in theatri-cal and non-theatrical circuits, as well as for tele-vision. Special attention might be given to theuse of such films for education in rural areas andto educational films in general. Technical andfinancial assistance might be extended to countrieswishing to develop their film services in this way.

The training of professional and technicalpersonnel is a key element in the effective develop-ment of film. Governments of the underdevelopedcountries might accordingly examine the possibilityof establishing or assisting the establishment ofnational or regional training centres. Thesemeasures could be combined with an internationallyassisted programme including training fellowships,missions of experts and arrangements for the ex-chauge of students and teachers, as well as re-fresher courses for professionals in the film andtelevision fields. Emphasis would need to beplaced on training not only in production, but alsoin the distribution and use of films, particularlyin rural areas. Such centres might also providefor the training of television personnel.

42

The production and distribution of films inthe less developed areas is generally marked bya lack of mutual knowledge of what is being doneby the countries of each region. Encouragementmight accordingly be given to the establishmentof arrangements to co-ordinate the productionand use of films and to exchange information andmaterials. Some action of this kind has beentaken in certain regions with regard to newsreels,but very little with regard to documentary oreducational films. Such arrangements could bemade through existing production or distributionservices or through regional training ntres.Differences of language in certain regi s couldbe overcome through the production of variouslanguage versions of the films exchanged. Co-operation between countries might be fur ther ad-vanced through regular regional meetings of keypersonml in the production and use of films.Such regional meetings may well provide the basisfor establishing and maintaining systematic ex-change arrangements.

A widespread problem is the lack of equipmentand materials for film production and exhibition,due largely to shortages of foreign currenéy neededfor their importation. As already suggested underthe general recommendations in this chapter,governments might consider making bilateral orother arrangements so that essential purchasescould be made with local currencies. In addition,groups of countries might consider sharing studioand laboratory facilities or undertaking the co-production of films. Regional co-operation mightalso be enlisted in the production of basic mater ialssuch as raw stock and certain types of equipment.In particular, a study'might be made of the possi-bility of stimulating the production of low-cost pro-jectors for use in schools and rural areas.

(v) Television A

The extraordinarily rapid spread of television inalmost every region of the world and the boundlessopportunities thus offered for popular education andenlightenment makes this medium a key factor ina courory's planning the mass communication field.Such planning would need to foresee the introduc-tion of television at the proper juncture in thenation's technical and economic deNielopment.Many decisions are entailed as to the timing andcharacter of a national television service, and,while these will vary from country to country,much can be gained from international co-operationand an exchange of experience at the eirliest stage.The development programme foreseen by theUnited Nations may help to provide these oppor-tunities and thus be of . ,rticular assistance in thetelevision field. In view of television's potential-ities as an instrument for teaching, educationalprogramming should be given very high priorityfrom the start.

Foremost among the problems faced in estab-lishing television in the less developed countries

are the lack of financial resources; shortages ofqualified technical personnel and maintenancefacilities; absence of suitable programme material;limited range of television signals; and inadequacyof electricity, communications and other resourcesneeded to develop reception. Careful planning istherefore required to avoid the introduction uftelevision where it is not viable. There shouldbe assurance that it will reach the bulk of thepeople in the country, including those in ruralareas. Any assistance to help develop televisionwould also need to be directed towards program-ming and the use of the medium generally in away that is consistent with the cultural roots andneeds of the people.

When the decision has been taken to establisha national television service, various forms ofassistance could be made available. Fellowshipscould be provided for the training of engineers,programme personnel and specialists in manage-ment, educational television and audience relation-ships. Missions of experts might advise on thesetting up of experimental stations and the trainingoi audience research teams on a national basis.Instructors and research workers might be pro-vided to staff national and regional training centres,seminars and workshops. In addition, informa-tion could be continually :61.nplied on research anddevelppmen4s in the programming anti technicalfields.

A major requirement would be the availabilityof receivers suitable for local conditions of re-ception. A study might therefore be made of thepossibility of encouraging the production or as-sembly, on a regional basis, of low-cost receivers.The spread of television could be considerablystimulated by community viewing, based on theorganiza ion of teleclubs which afford opportunitiesfor disculsion on programme topics of specialinterest. The immediate target in a country triehtbe the "Unesco minimum" of two sets per 100persons, which would be the barest requirementsfor effective community viewing.

Training is another basic element in the de-velopment of television. Fellowships could beprovided for the training of senior engineers, pro-gramme staff and management personnel incountries where television is in varying stages ofdevelopment. Training for technicians, junior

,-gramrne. and management staff could be pro-videa locally or regionally. Initial instructioncould be given by experts at experimental televisionstations. Subsequently, groups of countries mightset up regional centres for training in managementand engineering programme techniques, and educa-tional television, including comm.nity viewing.These cen'res might also provide facilities forresear ch .

Regional co-operation could also be enlistedin achieving agreement on such matters as techni-cal standards, frequency allocations and the availa-bility of television channels. Another field forsuch co-operation would be the promotion of the

exchange of filmed and, eventually, live pro-grammes between the countries of a region.

FINANCING A DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

The survey aarried out by Unesco on "the problemsof providing technical assistance" has thrownlight on certain aspects of the financing of meas-ures for development of the information media.The following observations have been included soas to complement the foregoing conclusions andrecommendations and to allow for their realisticassessment in the light of existing possibilitiesfor financing a development programme.

It might first be noted that, in the initialphase of a developmeni programme, the emphasiswould presumably be on pre-investment surveys,the preparation of "blueprints" for mass com-munication projects, training of journalists andtechnicians and, as a corollary, the establishmentor expansion of professional associations of themass media. Succeeding phases of the programmewould involve the long-term investment of capitaland the extension of commercial credits for theestablishment, expansion and maintenance of news-papers, news agencies, radio broadcasting andtelevision services, as well as for the productionand exhibition of films.

Financial assistance during the initial orplanning phase of the development programmemight be sought through channels ir the pre-investment field. Internationally, these channelsinclude the United Nations Expanded Programmeof Technical Assistance and the United NationsSpecial Fund and, bilaterally, the correspondingfacilities provided by the technical assistance orpre-investment programmes of governments or ofregional agencies such as the Colombo Plan. Ina number of cases, such as`that of the SpecialFund, it would appear necessary to link individualmass communication projects fairly closely withsubsequent investment and the development ofeconomic productivity, as distinct from the moresocia3 or cultural aspects of information.

For the succeeding or investment phases ofthe programme, investment capital and commercialcredits might be obtained from a number of sources,private and public. In both the private and publicsectors, domestic and foreign channels might beutilized.

Since development of the information mediain general requires normal profit-making invest-ment, the natural primary source of finance wouldbe private capital, whether domestic or foreign.Private capital might be involved, for example,in the domestic production of radio receivers ornewsprint, although the possibilities of jointparticipation by government and private capital insuch enterprises should not be overlooked.

In the case of newspapers and films, foreignprivate capital may be invited to invest side-by-side

43

with domestic capital in certain underdevelopedcount-ies. In certain other countries, govern-ments may be inclined to reserve investment inthese media to domestic sources, and, in thecase of documentary films and newsreels, tosponsor production directly. It may be noted thatin some of the underdeveloped countries, smallernewspaper enterprises find it extremely difficultto raise credits through normal financial channels,since the domestic commerical banks grant loanson a short-term basis only. A possible means ofarranging long-term loans for such enterprisesmight be to enlist the aid of the "DevelopmentBanks", such as those recently established in anumber of Asian countries with the assistance ofthe International Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment.

As for public foreign capital, there is apossibility of loans of the type which the Inter-national Bank makes to governments or on govern-ment guarantee. Similar loans are also availablebilaterally from various governmental institutionsand by direct access to the major capital marketsof the world. One difficulty is that the develop-ment of the information media, being part of thegeneral "social infrastructure" of the economy,may not be directly profit-making and hence a loanmight not be justified on a direct project basis.However, in the case of the International Bank thiswould not necessarily preclude a loan, since theeffect of development of the media on the economyas a whole would be taken into account rather thanthe profits directly recoverable.

A second difficulty with loans from the abovesources is that they must, in general, be repaidin foreign currency. Development of the informa-tion media is not generally a means of earningforeign exchange, although it may help to saveforeign exchange by reducing imports of newsprintand other materials. The primary factor in thiscase would be whether the general foreign exchangesituation of the country concerned is sufficientlysecure to assure the repayment of loans in foreigncurrency.

Another possibility, especially for loans toprivate enterprises, is the International FinanceCorporation (IFC), the smaller affiliate of theInternational Bank, which makes loans to industry

44

without gov2rnment guarantees. Loans from theInternational Bank, the IFC and similar financialsources have been strongly concentrated on theeconomic infrastructure, especially transport andpower. This has facilitated the development ofthe media indirectly, since improved power sup-plies facilitate the expansion of radio broadcastingand television, while improved transport eases thedistribution of newspapers, films and othermaterials. The International Bank has also madeloans directly towards the expansion of telecom-munications and might therefore be a source fordevelopment of the broadcasting media.

More recently, increasing attention has beengiven to the financing of the type of project to whichdevelopment of the media normally belongs. Thatis, projects which belong in part to the social in-frastructure (such as education, health andinformation) rather than the economic infrastructure,and which may not be directly paying propositionson an individual project basis or on their individualforeign exchange accounting. Such loans may begranted on very long term (up to 50 years), and atinterest rates as low as two per cent. Above all,they do not necessarily have to he repaid in foreigncurrency.

Loans of this kind are particularly suitablefor development of the media. They are nowavailable on a multilateral basis through theInternational Development Association, the largeraffiliate of the International Bank. On a bilateralbasis they are available through various govern-ment institutions. On a regional basis they areavailable through institutions such as the Inter-American Development Bank. It may be expectedthat much of the future foreign financing of massmedia development would be channelled throughinstitutions of this kind.

These possibilities for financing a develop-ment programme might appropriately be examinedfollowing upon the completion of "blueprints" forthe national expansion of the mass media.Governments might at that stage afford a certainpriority to mass communication projects in thenational financing of new enterprises or in theirrequests for long-term loans or other financialassistance under bilateral or multilateral aidprogrammes.

REFERENCES

(1) First Session, Mass CommunicationProject 1

(36) Latin America (excluding Argentina), Africa,Near and Middle East and the Far East (ex-

(2) Second Session, Resolution 2.2.1 cluding Japan and Mainland China)(3) Final Act, Resolution 32 (37) This region does not include Mainland China,(4) Final Act, Resolutions 20, 30, 33 North Korea, North Viet-Nam and the(5) Resolution 240 D (IX) Mongolian People's Reput ic(6) Sixth Session, Resolution 9.6 (38) Population figures cited here and elsewhere(7) Resolution 374 (XIII) in this report are for mid-1959(8) Resohtion 528 (VI) (39) Annual Average Per Capita National Income,(9) Resolution 423 (XIV) 1956-1958 : United Nations Statistical Office,(10) Resolution 442 E (XIV) New York, 1960(11) Resolution 633 (VII) (40) World Demand for Paper to 1975 : FAO,(12) Resolution 522 K (XVII) Rome, 1960, p.51(13) Resolution 522 F (XVII) (41) Final Act, Resolution 1(14) Resolution 522 J (XVII) (42) Final Act, Resolutions 20, 30, 32, 33(15) Resolution 839 (IX) (43) Resolution 633 (VII)(16) Eighth Session, Resolution IV. 1.5. 6 (44) Resolution 574 D (XIX)(17) Resolution 574 A (XIX) (45) Resolution 1 (XV)(18) Resolution 574 D (XDC) (46) Resolution 383 (13th session)(19) Resolution 643 (XXIII) (47) Resolution VII(20) Thirteenth Session, Resolutiqn IX (48) Freedom of Information 1953 : Economic(21) Resolution 1189 B (XII) and Social Council, New York P. 14(22) Resolution 6 (XIV) (49) This Agreement is now applied by the(23) Resolution 683 C (XXVI) following 33 States : Afghanistan, Austria,(24) Resolution 1313 A (XIII) Belgium, Cambodia, Ceylon, Cuba,(25) Tenth Session, Resolution 5.21 Denmark, El Salvador, Finland, France,(26) Resolution 1 (XV) Germany (Federal Republic of), Ghana,(27) Resolution 718 I and II (XXVII) Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Israel, Jordan,(28)

(29)

ITU - Radio Regulations (Geneva 1959) :Recommendation No. 7Resolution 569 (XIX)

Laos, Luxembourg, Malaya (Federation of),Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Pakistan,Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,

(30) Mass Communications, Wilbur Schramm,

(50)

Thailand, United Arab Republic (Egypt),United Kingdom, Viet-Nam, YugoslaviaSee International Telecommunication

editor : University of Illinois Press, Urbana,Ill. U.S.A., 1949, p.3

(31) Final Act, Resolution 1 Convention, 1947, 1952, 1959(32) Resolution 313 (IV) (51) Professional Association in the Mass Media :(33) Annual Average Per Capita National Income, Unesco, Paris 1959

1956-1958 : Statistical Office of the United (52) Developing_ Mass Media in Asia, UnesroNations, New York 1960 Paris, 1960

(34)

(35)

Spearman's coefficient of rank correlationwas used in this analysisWorld Demand for Paper to 1975 : FAO,

Meeting of Experts on Development ofInformation Media in Latin America,Unesco 1961

Rome 1960 (53) Resolution 719 (XXVII)

45

Vie should like to draw the attention of our readersto the Unesco Coupon Scheme,

which may enable them to purchase materialslisted in this periodical.

Because it is often difficult to sead moneyfrom country to country for the purchase of books,

films, laboratory equipment, etc.,Unescu has created a sort of international currency,

the UNESCO COUPON.These coupons enable schools,

universities, teachers and studentsin many parts of the worldto buy freely the materials

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UNESCO COUPONS are on salein most Member States

which have currency restrictions.If you do not know where to obtain coupons,

please consultyour National Commission for Unesco

or write to Jnesco, Paris,for the information.

The TRAVEL COUPON SCHEME,which is designed

to overcome the currency barriersto educational and cultural travel,

is an extension of the Unesco Coupon Schemedescribed above.

Travel Coupons are a formof international travellers cheqee.'hey provide the foreign exchange

needed to rnable travellers such as students,teachers and research workers

to spend trnt abroad for study or research.

For lull details,please reler to the following explanatory leallets:

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with separate addenda on BOOK COUPONS, FILM COU"ONS

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books, periodicals,ptocopies,microfilm copies,art reproductions,charts, globes, maps,sheet music,gramophone records,the following categories ofeducational films :(a) screening prints and

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the above categories of films;various categories of scientificmaterial for education andresearch, such as :optical isauments,balances and weights,laborator- glass-ware,electrical measuring instruments,analytical and clinical testingapparatus, etc.

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PHNOM-PENH.Canada : TheQueen's Printer, OTTAWA (Ont.).Ceylon: Lake House Bookshop, P.O. Box 244,

Lady Lochore Building, 100 Parsons Road, COLOMBO 2.Ch.le : Editorial Universaaria S.A., avenida B. O'lliggins 1058,

casilla 10220, SANTIAGO.For The Courier: Comisiim Nacional de la Unesco en Chile,calle San Antonio 255, 79 piso, SANTIAGO.

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Ethiopia : International Press Agency, P.O. Box 120,ADDIS ABABA.

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FORT-DF-FRANCE (Martinique)Germany (r Rep.): R. Oldenbourg Verlag, Unesco-Vertrieb

fiir Deutschland, Rosenheimerstrasse 145, MUNCHEN 8.Greece : Librairie H. Kauffman, 28, Rue du Stade, ATHENES.Guatemala: ComisiOn Nacional de la Unesco, Calle 6-79,

zona 1 (Altos), GUATEMALA.Haiti : Librairie «A Ia Caravelle*, 36, rue Ruax, B.P. 111,

PORT-AU-PRINCE.Hong-Kong: Swindon Book Co., 25 Nathan Road, KOWLOON.Hungary : Kultura, P.O. Box 149, BUDAPEST 62.India : Orient Longmans Ltd.: r7 Chittaranjan Avenue,

CALCUTTA 13; Indian Mercantile Chamber, Nicol Road,BOMBAY 1 ; 36a Mount Road, MADRAS 7 ; Gunfoundry Road,HYDERABAD I; Kanson House, 24/1 Asaf Ali Road,P. 0. Box 386, NEW DELHI 1,Sub-Depots : Oxford Book & Stationery Co., 17 Park Street,CALCUTTA 16; andScindia House, NEW DELHI.

Indonesia: Bappit Pusar «PERMATA., Djl. Nusantara 22,DJAKARTA.

Iran: Comission nationale iranienne pour l'Unesco,avenue du Musee, TEHERAN.

Iraq : McKenzie's Bookshop, BAGHDAD.Ireland : The National Press, 2 Wellington Road, Ballsbridge,

DUBLIN.Israel : Blumstein's i3oo;,stores Ltd., 35 Allenby Road and

48 Nahlat Benjamin Street, TEL AVIV.Italy: Libreria Commissionaria Sansoni, via Gino Capponi 26,

casella postale 552, FIRENZE.Jamaica : Sangster's Book Room, 91 Harbour Street, KINGSTON;

Knox Educational Services, SPALDINGS.Japan: Maruzen Co., Ltd., 6, Tori-Nichome, Nihonbashi,

P.O. Box 605, Tokyo Central, TOKYO.

Jordan: Joseph I. Bahous & Co., Dar-ul-Kutub, Salt Road,P.O. Box 66, AMMAN.

Korea : Korean National Commission for Unesco,P.O. Box Central 64, SEOUL.

Lebanon : Librairie Antoine, A. Naufal et Freres, B.P. 656,BEYROUTH.

Liberia : J. Momolu Kamara, 69 Front and Gurley Streets,MONROVIA.

Luxembourg : Librairie Paul Bruck, 22, Grand-Rue,LUXEMBOURG.

Malaya (Federation of) & Singapore: Federal Publications Ltd.,Times House, River Valley Road, SINGAPORE.

Malta : Sapienza's Library, 26 Kingsway, VALLETTA.Mouri ti us : Nalanda Co. Ltd., 30, Bourbon Street, I-ORT-LOUIS.Mexico : Editorial Hermes, Ignacio Mariscal, 41, Mexico D.F.,

ME XICO.Monaco: British Library, 30, Boulevard des Moulins,

MONTE CARLO.Morocco: Centre de diffusion documentaire du 13.E.P.I., B.P. 211,

RABAT.Netherlands: N.V. Martinus Nijhoff, Lange Voorhout 9,

's -GRAVENHAGE.Netherlands Antilles: G.C.T. Van Dorp & Co., (Ned. Ant.) N.V.,

WILLEMSTAD (Curacao, N.A.).New Zealand: Unesco Publications Centre, 100 Hackthorne Road,

CHRISTCHURCH.Nicaragua: Libreria Cultural Nicaragiiense,

calk 15 de Septiembre n9 115, MANAGUA.Nigeria : C.M.S. (Nigeria) Bookshops, P.O. Box 174, LAGOS.Norway: A.S. Bokhjrfrnet, Lille Grensen 7, OSLO.Pakistan : The West-Pak Publishing Co. Ltd.,

Unesco Publications House, P.O. Box 374,56-N Gulberg Industrial Colony, LAHORE.

Panama : Cultural Panameiia, Avenida 7? n9 TI-49,apartado de correos 2018. PANAMA.

Paraguay: Avncia de Librerias de Salvackr Nizza, Yegros,entre 25 de Mayo y Mcal. Estigarribia, ASUNCION.

Peru: «ESEDAL - Oficina de Servicioss, Dpta de Venta dePublicaciones, Jirim Huancavelica (calle Ortiz) 368, LIMA.

Philippines : Philippine Education Co. Inc., I1154 Castillejos,Quiapo, P.O. Box 520, MANILA.

Poland : Osrodek Rozpowszechniania Wydawnictw NaukowychPAN. FaYac Kultury i Nauki, WARZAWA.

Portugal: Dias & Andrade Ltda, Livraria Portugal,rua do Carmo 70, LISBOA.

Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland: The Book Centre,First Street, SALISBURY (Southern Rhodesia).

Rumania : Cartimex, Str. Aristide Briand 14-18, P.O. Box 134-135,BUCURESTI.

Singapore : see Malaya (Federation of).Spain: Libreria Cicntifica Medinacel , Duque de Medinaceli 4,

MADRID 14,For The Courier: Ediciones Iberoamericanas S.A. Pizarro 19,MADRID.

Sweden: A/ B.C.E. Fritzes Kungl. Hovbokhandel, Fredsgatan 2,STOCKHOLM 16.For The Courier: Svenska Unescoridet, Vasagatan 15-17,STOCKHOLM C.

Switzerland : Europa Verla$, Rgrnistrasse 5, ZURICH.Payot, 40, rue du Marche, GENEVE.

Thailand : Suksapan Panit, Mansion 9, Rajdamnern Avenue,BANGKOK.

Turkey: Librairie Hachette, 469, Istiklal Caddesi, Beyoglu,ISTANBUL.

Union of South Africa : Van Schaik's Bookstore (Pty) Ltd.,Libri Building, Church Street, P.O. Box 724, PRETORIA.

United Arab Republic : La Renaissance d'Egypte,9 Sh. Adly- Pasha, CAIRO (Egypt).

United Kingdom: H.M. Stationery Office, P.O. Box 569;LONDON S.E. 1.

United States of America : Unesco Publications Center,801 Third Avenue, NEW YORK 22. N.Y.,and except for periodi7als : Columbia University Press,2960, Broadway, NEW YORK 27, N.Y.

Uruguay : Unesco Centro de CooperaciOn Cientifica rara AmericaLatina, Bulevar Artigas 1320-24, casilla de con eo, 859,MONTEVIDEO.Oficina de RepresentaciOn de Editoriales, plaza Cagancha 1342,iFt piso, MONTEVIDEO.

USSR: Meihdunarodnaja Kniga, MOSKVA G-200.Viet-Nam: Librairie papeterie Xuan-Thu, 185-193, rue Tu-Do,

B.P. 283, SAIGON.Yugoslavia: Jugoslovenska Knjiga, Terazije 27, BEOGRAD.

wilio .44 4 4,

17061 $0.50 ; 2/6 (stg.); 1,75 NF