excerpt from "age of acquiescence" by steve fraser
TRANSCRIPT
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Copyright © 2015 by Steve Fraser
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Fraser$ Steve.
,he age o ac;%iescence the lie and death o A'erican resistance to
organi1!35? 2. Social conlict>
United States>/istory. 7. 9rotest 'ove'ents>United States>/istory. 3.
Inco'e distrib%tion>United States>/istory. 5. 4lite )Social sciences*>
United States>/istory. #. 9ower )Social sciences*>United States> /istory. ". Ac;%iescence )9sychology*>/istory. 6. Social
psychology>United States>/istory. I. ,itle.
41#!.@6F"7 2015
!"7.!1>dc27 20130203##
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9rinted in the United States o A'erica
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Introduction
Occ%py Ball Street$ a 'ove'ent that began as a s'all enca'p'ento yo%ng people in lower anhattan$ beca'e a riveting p%blic spectacle
in the all o 2011. A 'ere 'onth ater the irst sleeping bags were
%nrolled in @%ccotti 9ar&$ a stone(s throw away ro' the ew or& Stoc&
4Dchange on Ball Street$ 'illions o Eocc%piers in a tho%8sand cities
aro%nd the world all on the sa'e day echoed the plaint o those ew
or& rebels that the whole planet had been hiGac&ed and then r%ined by a
inancial elite and its political enablers. E,he !!H who were its victi's
had had eno%gh. othing o this scope and speed had ever happened
beore$ ever. It was testi'ony not only to the 'agical powers o the
internet$ b%t 'ore i'portant to the proo%nd rev%lsion inspired by
instit%tions that G%st a ew short years earlier had co''anded great
a%thority and respect. ow they see'ed illegiti'ate and disgraced.
9eering bac& into the past at a largely orgotten terrain o str%ggle against
Ethe Street and the do'ination o e'powered econo'ic elites o all
sorts$ a historian eels co'pelled to as& a si'ple ;%estion Bhy didn(t
cc%py Ball Street )BS* happen '%ch sooner than it didJ :%ring
those three years ater the global inancial 'eltdown and reat
ecession$ an eerie silence blan&eted the co%ntry. Stories acc%'%lated o
Ball Street greed and arrogance$ astonishing tales o inco'petence and
larceny. 9eople lost their ho'es and Gobs. 9overty reached levels not
seen or a generation. ,he political syste' proved as ban&r%pt as the big ban&s. ipartisan consens%s e'erged$ b%t only aro%nd the eort to save
Etoo big to ail goliaths > not
the legions let destit%te in the wa&e o
their inancial wilding. ,he political class prescribed what people already
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had eno%gh o yet another dose o a%sterity$ pl%s a aith8based belie
in a Erecovery that or the !!H o A'ericans wo%ld never be '%ch'ore than an optical ill%sion. In those years$ the hopes o ordinary
people or a chance at a decent %t%re waned and bitterness set in.
Strangely$ however$ pop%lar resistance was hard to ind. r rather it was
invisible where it had always been 'ost conspic%o%s on the let. ight8wing
pop%lis'$ the ,ea 9arty especially$ lo%rished$ eDcoriating Eli'o%sine
liberals and &now-it-all govern'ent b%rea%crats. 4stablish'ents in both
parties ran ro' or tried to c%rry avor with this %pwelling o hot political
e'otions. %t the ani'%s o the ,ea 9arty was 'ainly ai'ed at biggovern'ent and social liberalis'. ,o be s%re$ it wasn(t ond o inancial
titans collecting hando%ts ro' the Federal eserve. Still$ ,ea 9arty partisans
were waging war on behal o capitalis'$ not against it. ,hat 'ission had
always belonged to the let.
Bhat letJ In the light o A'erican history$ its vanishing$ or at least
its railty and passivity$ was s%rpassingly odd. Fro' decades beore
the ilded Age o the late nineteenth cent%ry thro%gh the reat
:epres8sion$ again and again landed gentry$ slave owners$ ind%strialrobber barons$ 'onopolists$ Ball Street$ the 4stablish'ent$ and
assorted other oligarchs had o%nd the'selves in the crosshairs o an
o%traged citi and even
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Introduction
then all the so%nd and %ry spent itsel ;%ic&ly > what else is newJ Arg%8
ably$ A'erica is and always has been a b%siness civili the
rest wo%ld ta&e care o itsel.
ne version o the A'erican story has it that the abrasions o class
ine;%ities get reg%larly soothed away in the bathwater o ab%ndance.
ancoro%s conlicts$ which anybody wo%ld ac&nowledge there have
been plenty o$ are$ in this telling$ 'ore oten abo%t c%lt%ral and social
ani'osities than abo%t Eclass str%ggle.
Class warare$ however > so'ething
that beca'e virt%ally %nspea&8able
d%ring the last generation > was a co''onplace o everyday lie d%ring
what 'ight be called the long nineteenth cent%ry. It was part o o%r ling%a
ranca ro' the days when Leerson and his de'ocratic ol8lowers
deno%nced co%nterrevol%tionary E'oneycrats thro%gh the gri' decade o
the 1!70s$ when Fran&lin oosevelt eDcoriated Eecono'ic royalists$
E,ories o ind%stry$ and pillagers o Eother people(s 'oney.
9residents once elt entirely co'ortable %sing this vocab%lary. Andrew
Lac&son waged war against Ethe onster an& )the second an& o the
United States$ which he and his :e'ocratic 9arty s%pporters drove to
eDtinction$ clai'ing in a it o de'agog%ery that it was an aristocratic
'onopoly o the co%ntry(s credit reso%rces r%n by the politically privileged*.
Abraha' -incoln$ when inor'ed that Ball Street traders in govern'ent
bonds were bearing the 'ar&et$ hoping or Union Ar'y deeats$ s%ggested
these spec%lators be shot. ,heodore oosevelt interdicted E'aleactors o
great wealth in one o his re;%ent 'oods o 'oral high d%dgeon$ not shy
abo%t voicing his disdain or those
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pl%tocrats who tho%ght they deserved the deerence o their ellow citi in s%'$ the pathways to econo'ic opport%nity > b%t %sed that
enor'o%s econo'ic throw weight to s%b8vert the de'ocratic instit%tions o
the rep%blic.
Bere these 'en > not
to 'ention F:$ whose ene'ies insin%atedhe was a Co''%nist ellow traveler > closet
arDistsJ ,o thin& so
wo%ld do a disservice to both Marl arD and these presidents. It is
rather their %se o the class8inlected$ e'otionally charged lang%age
o a bygone A'erica that is noteworthy. It is hard to i'agine any
president o the last hal cent%ry or so having resort to s%ch rhetoric.
arD once described high inance as Ethe Natican o capitalis'$ its
di&tat to be obeyed witho%t ;%estion. Several decades have co'e and
gone d%ring which we(ve learned not to 'ention arD in politeco'pany. %r vocab%lary went thro%gh a &ind o ling%istic cleansing$
eDiling s%spect and nasty phrases li&e Eclass warare or Ethe reserve
ar'y o labor or even so'ething as apparently innoc%o%s as Ewor&ing
class. In ti'es past$ however$ s%ch lang%age and the ideas they conG%red
%p str%c& o%r orebears as %se%l$ even so'eti'es as acc%rate depictions
o reality. ,hey %sed the' reg%larly along with words and phrases li&e
Epl%tocracy$ Erobber baron$ and Er%ling class to identiy the so%rces o
econo'ic eDploitation and ine;%ality that oppressed the'$ as well as to
describe the political disenranchise'ent they s%ered and the
s%bversion o de'ocracy they eDperienced. ever beore$ however$ has
the Natican o capitalis' capt%red ;%ite so perectly the speciic nat%re o
the oligarchy that recently ran the co%ntry or a long generation and
ended %p r%nning it into the gro%nd. 4ven political cons%ltant and p%ndit
La'es Carville )no arDist he*$ conessed as '%ch d%ring the Clinton
years$ when he said the bond 'ar&et Einti'idates everybody.1
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Introduction
cc%py Ball Street$ even beret o strategy$ progra'$ and speciic
de'ands as 'any la'ented when it was a newborn$ nonethelessopened %p space again or o%r political i'agination by conronting
this ele'en8tal$ deter'ining eat%re o o%r society(s predica'ent. It
rediscovered so'ething that$ beneath thic&ets o political verbiage
abo%t taD this and c%t that$ abo%t end-o -theworld deicits and 8
'issionary8'inded EGob creators$ had been hiding in plain sight
na'ely$ what o%r ancestors once called Ethe street o tor'ents. It
achieved a giant leap bac&ward$ so to spea&$ s%''oning %p a history
o opposition that had 'ysterio%sly withered away.,r%e t%rning points in A'erican political history are rare. ,his 'ight
see' co%nterint%itive once we recogni
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A do%ble 'ystery then is the s%bGect o this boo&. Spea&ing generally$ one
'ight as& why people s%b'it or so long to vario%s or's o eDploitation$oppression$ and do'ination. And then$ e;%ally 'ysterio%s$ why they ever
stop giving in. Bhy ac;%iesceJ Bhy resistJ -oo&ing bac&8ward$ the
indignities and inG%stices$ the hypocrisies and lies$ the corr%ption and cr%elty
'ay see' ins%pportable. et they are tolerated. -oo&ing bac&ward$ the
dangers to lie$ li'b$ and livelihood entailed in rebelling 'ay see' too dire
to conte'plate. et in the teeth o all that$ rebellion happens. ,he world is
%ll o recent and long8ago eDa'ples o both.
A'erica(s history is 'ysterio%s in G%st this way. ,his boo& is anatte'pt to eDplore the enig'a o resistance and ac;%iescence as those
eDperiences %nolded in the late nineteenth and again in the late
twenti8eth cent%ry.
Be have grown acc%sto'ed or so'e years now to reerring to A'erica(s
two gilded ages. ,he irst one was bapti
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Introduction
acco'plish'ent$ especially o st%nning econo'ic growth and techno8
logical transor'ation and the a'assing o st%pendo%s wealth. ,his isthe age o the stea' engine and transcontinental railroads$ o the
'echanical reaper and the telephone$ o cities o 'ore than a 'illion
and steel 'ills larger than any on earth$ o A'erica(s %ll i''ersion
in the Ind%strial evol%tion. A once %nderdeveloped$ inant nation
beca'e a power to be rec&oned with.
For people living bac& then$ however '%ch they were aware o and too&
pride in these 'arvels$ the ilded Age was also a ti'e o proo%nd social
%nease and chronic conrontations. Citi
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'issing were the ins%rrections and all those %topian longings or a world p%t
together dierently so as to escape the ravages o ind%strial capitalis'. Itwas this social che'istry o apocalyptic doo' 'iDed with visionary
eDpectation that had lent the irst ilded Age its distinctive risson. ,he
absence o all that d%ring the second ilded Age$ despite the obvio%s
si'ilarities it shares with the original$ is a re'inder that the past is indeed$ at
least in so'e respects$ a oreign co%ntry. Bhy$ %ntil the s%dden er%ption o 8
BS>a
lare-%p that died down rather ;%ic&ly > was the second ilded
Age one o ac;%iescence rather than resistanceJ
I the irst ilded Age was %ll o so%nd and %ry$ the second see'ed tota&e place in a padded cell. ight that stri&ing contrast originate in the act
that the capitalist society o the ay ineties was nothing li&e the capitalis'
o o%r own ti'eJ r to p%t it another way :id the %tter strangeness o
capitalis' when it was irst ta&ing shape in A'erica > beginning decades
beore the ay ineties > so deeply dist%rb traditional ways o lie that or
several generations it see'ed intolerable to 'any o those violently %prooted
by its onr%shJ :id that shattering eDperience elicit responses$ radical yet
proportionate to the lie-or -death threat to earlier$ cherished ways o lie and
c%sto'ary beliesJ
And on the contrary$ did a society li&e o%r own long ago grow
acc%sto'ed to all the %nda'entals o capitalis'$ not 'erely as a way
o con8d%cting econo'ic aairs$ b%t as a way o being in the worldJ
:id we co'e to treat those %nda'entals as part o the nat%ral order
o things$ beyond real challenge$ li&e the weatherJ Bhat were the
'echanis's at wor& in o%r own distinctive political econo'y$ in the
;%otidian eDperiences o wor& and a'ily lie$ in the interior o o%r
i'aginations$ that prod%ced a sensibility o irony and even cynical
disengage'ent rather than a 'orally charged %niverse o %topian
yearnings and dystopian orebodingsJ
ilded ages are$ by deinition$ hiding so'ethingO what spar&les li&e gold
is not. %t what they(re hiding 'ay dier$ %nda'entally. Ind%s8trial
capitalis' constit%ted the %nderstr%ct%re o the irst ilded Age. ,he second
rested on inance capitalis'. -ate8nineteenth8cent%ry A'erican
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Introduction
capitalis' gave birth to the Etr%st and other or's o corporate
consolidation at the eDpense o s'aller b%sinesses. -ate8twentieth8cent%ry capitalis'$ notwithstanding its 'ania or 'ergers and
ac;%isitions$ is &nown or its EleDibility$ 'eaning its penchant or
o8loading corporate %nctions to a world o reelancers$ contractors$
s%bcontractors$ and n%'berless petty enterprises. ,he irst ilded Age$
despite its glaring ine;%ities$ was acco'panied by a grad%al rise in the
standard o livingO the second by a grad%al erosion.
:%ring the irst ilded Age 'illions o ar'ers$ handicrats'en$
shop&eepers$ isher'en$ and other s'all property8owners > not
to 'ention'illions o eD-slaves and dispossessed peasants ro' the steppes and
parched ields o eastern and so%thern 4%rope > beca'e the co%ntry(s
original wor&ing class. ,hey were swept %p$ oten eno%gh against their will
or with little other choice$ into the process o capital acc%'%lation
happening at the orges and o%ndries and engine ho%ses and pac&ing plants
and 'ills and 'ines and bridges and t%nnels and wharves and the actories
in the ields that were transor'ing the ace o A'erica. ,his reprocessing o
h%'an raw 'aterial into wage labor eDtended well beyond the ay ineties
and was still going on when the whole econo'y ell to its &nees in 1!2!. y
the late twentieth cent%ry$ however$ the descendants o these ind%strial
pioneers were being eDpelled ro' that sa'e ind%strial heartland as it
%nderwent a reverse process o disacc%'%lation and deind%striali into
'ar&etable co''odities prod%ced by wage laborers who
had lost or were losing their access to alternative 'eans o staying alive.
9roitability d%ring the second ilded Age relied instead on cannibali everywhere ro'
icarag%a to angladesh > where deep reservoirs o %ntapped labor$ li&e
newly discovered oil reserves$ gave ind%strial
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capital acc%'%lation a resh start. 9rosperity$ once driven by cost8
c%tting 'echani
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Introduction
acc%'%lation were or that very reason both psychologically and
politi8cally 'ore eDistentially desperate$ 'ore capable$ and 'orea%dacio%s in envisioning a noncapitalist %t%re than those who had
co'e o age &nowing nothing elseJ
And does the global eDplosion o BS 'ar& the end o the Age o
Ac;%iescenceJ Is it a t%rning point in o%r co%ntry(s historyJ /ave we
reached the li'its o a%to8cannibalis'J Is capitalis' any longer co'patible
with de'ocracyJ Bas it everJ :%ring the irst ilded Age 'illions were
convinced it was not. :%ring the second ilded Age$ conventional wisdo'
had it that they went together li&e love and 'arriage. Indeed$ it beca'e ani'perial boast as the United States ass%'ed the b%rden o t%toring other
nations on how they too 'ight conect this perect %nion. %t then BS
artic%lated what 'any had long since concl%ded that the !!H have or all
practical p%rposes been banned ro' any eective say-so when it co'es to
deter'ining how the reso%rces o the co%ntry are to be deployed and
distrib%ted. Is there then a %t%re or de'ocracy beyond capitalis'J An old
;%estion is being as&ed anew.
,o ta&e the 'eas%re o how we are now entails irst getting a senseo how we once were. 9art I will eDa'ine the Elong nineteenth
cent%ry$ when capitalis' Ered in tooth and claw 'et ierce ene'ies
ro' every wal& o lie. 9art II will probe or the so%rces o o%r
re'ar&able silence in the 'odern era.
,his boo& hardly pretends to be a new history o the United States.
,he A'erican evol%tion$ the Civil Bar$ presidential elections$ wars$
and '%ch else show %p briely$ indirectly$ or not at all. %t it is
nonetheless an atte'pt to say so'ething essential abo%t the nat%re
and evol%tion o A'erican society. /ow well we 'anage the grave
dile''as con8ronting %s now and in the %t%re 'ay depend on how
well we grasp the b%ried tr%ths o o%r past.
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Part I
C'(ss )(rf(re in A*eric(:
"#e +ong,ineteent# Centur-
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ead bodies hardly in the gro%nd$ 'e'ories o the Civil Bar(scarnage still raw$ 'illions o A'ericans wo&e %p one s%''er(s day in
16"" to discover the nation verging on atal division all over again. In
L%ly o that year a co%ntrywide railroad stri&e > soon
to beco'e ina8
'o%s as the Ereat Uprising > let
co''erce paraly
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" # e A g e o f A c q u i e s c e n c e
aristocracies see'ed now li&e a pre'onition. :read o a second civil war
beca'e a pervasive Go%rnalistic co''onplace$ echoed by pro'inent b%siness'en. In Chicago at the height o the ("" ins%rrection$ the city(s
ind%strial elders > 'en li&e eorge 9%ll'an$ 9hilip Ar'o%r$ and arshall
Field > were
convinced that Ethe co''%nists were in their second heaven$
the canaille was at the very s%''it o its glory$ that li&e 9aris a ew years
earlier d%ring the Co''%ne$ Chicago now was in the hands o Ethe
revol%tionary ele'ent. ,hey lent horses$ wagons$ and atling g%ns to the
police$ or'ed vigilante gro%ps and the -aw and rder -eag%e$ ar'ed or
battle.-ess 'inatory voices$ li&e that o the preacher -y'an Abbott$ noted that
Ethe low growl o th%nder is already to be heard in great cities where the
wor&ing class harbored Ea great discontent in its heart which a great disaster
'ight easily convert into bitter wrath. In the panic that ollowed the
Chicago /ay'ar&et bo'bing in 166#$ the Chicago Tribune and other
'etropolitan papers li&ened the 'o'ent to the iring on Fort S%'ter$
observing that altho%gh the ep%blic see'ed on ir'er o%ndations than it
had been in 16#1$ still the specter o anarchy was E'enacing law$ property$
govern'ent$ the p%lpit$ the ho'e$ and p%blic and private rights. 4. -.
od&in$ o%nder o The Nation 'aga
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Class Warfare in America
o the sheri ro' enorcing oreclos%res$ it was the police who were
cri'inals$ the law that was lawless$ order act%ally disorder$ Ecivili
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" # e A g e o f A c q u i e s c e n c e
entire b%siness o the co%ntry. 4ven the 'ost privileged > the
gilded
E300 > spied
a retro %topian escape hatch. ,hey h%n&ered down insidetheir i'ported castles and rei'agined the'selves as so'e ew Borld
e%dal aristocracy$ rather than the no%vea% riche they really were.7
ac& when the irst ilded Age was G%st pic&ing %p stea' in the late
16"0s$ a wayaring Go%rnalist na'ed /enry eorge prophesied that the great
A'erican rep%blic was headed to hell$ that li&e o'e$ Eso power8%l in
ar's$ so advanced in the arts$ it 'ight too be done in by the orces o
econo'ic and social division and 'oral decline at loose in the land.
Progress and Poverty, eorge(s a'o%s boo&$ was in part inspired by theastonishing railroad ins%rrection o 16"". It electriied the co%ntry )there
were one h%ndred printings in twenty years and it had sold two 'illion
copies by 1!05* and beca'e the bible o a reor' 'ove'ent that lasted or
decades. EStrong as it 'ay see'$ he warned$ Eo%r civili a
single taD on landed wealth > went
down a political dead end$
winding %p as little 'ore than a historical c%riosity. %t it is the
;%estion he as&ed$ not his answer$ that end%res.3
-ong beore /enry eorge entered the scene$ his ;%estion already had. It
was there at the creation o the ep%blic. Ferocio%s arg%'ents between
/a'ilton and Leerson and their legions o ollowers bro&e o%t i''ediately
ater the adoption o the Constit%tion. ,hey didn(t co'e to blows over
ind%strial capitalis'$ which in an %nderdeveloped co%ntry
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Class Warfare in America
li&e the United States was at 'ost a aint proposition. %t 9rogress
and what it 'ight entail were very '%ch at iss%e.AleDander /a'ilton envisioned a vigoro%s co''ercial civili
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" # e A g e o f A c q u i e s c e n c e
spawned l%D%ry and c%lt%ral reine'ent$ b%t also poverty$ disease$ beggary$
and cri'e. ,he slavish dependency o people c%t o ro' their own 'eanso sel8s%pport$ de'orali
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Class Warfare in America
ot every year or decade or that 'atter was as ra%ght as 16""$ to be s%re.
%t the epoch that enco'passed the transor'ation o a sliver o coastalvillages$ s'all ar's$ slave plantations$ and a ew port cities into a
transcontinental co''ercial$ agric%lt%ral$ and ind%strial pree'inence was a
wrenching one. For those generations that lived thro%gh it$ it oten called
orth a cri de coe%r$ rec%rring waves o resistance to the ineDorable$ a
st%bborn$ '%ltiario%s insistence that the 'arch o 9rogress was too
spendthrit in h%'an lives$ that there were alternatives. ,hat long nineteenth
cent%ry o class against class cli'aDed in the labor ins%rgency that ollowed
in the wa&e o the syste'(s reat Crash o 1!2!. It see'ed to resolve itsel in the ew :eal. %t the ;%estions it raised have end%red$ res%raced$ and
grown 'ore pressing o late.
4cono'ic and 'oral ;%estions were$ or o%r ilded Age orebears$
Goined at the hip. In o%r own day$ the antiseptic$ 'athe'atical
lang%age o ris& assess'ent and probability analysis 'ade that see'
overly senti'ental. For well 'ore than a cent%ry$ however$ anDio%s
A'ericans as&ed i the panting ater 'oney and social distinction
'ight corr%pt the co%ntry(s so%l. For o%r Nictorian ancestors$Eparasite was both a 'oral category and an econo'ic one. :id
wealth carry with it a 'oral dile''a$ a conrontation with odJ r
was it the royal road to social har'onyJ r was it bothJ Bas
a'assing wealth the to%chstone o 9rogress$ b%t also its atal lawJ
Aristocracy and de'ocracy$ slavery and reedo'$ e;%ality and indi8
vid%alis'$ labor and capital$ god and 'a''on$ progress and poverty these
are the antino'ies that helped deine the conto%rs o the long nineteenth
cent%ry$ and especially the decades between the Civil Bar and the reat
:epression. ,hat is why this boo& begins there.
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rogress
)hen the railroad threatened to co'e to -ancaster$ hio$ bac& inthe 'id81630s$ the local school board greeted the prospect as a loo'ing
'oral disaster. ,he board re%sed to 'a&e its b%ilding available to
disc%ss the co'ing o the iron horse. Citi
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or all the other thirteen acres o 'achines ho%sed at achinery /all$
capt%red the 'ost attention. It was 35 eet high$ e;%ipped with two10-oot pistons and a lywheel weighing 5# tons rotating at the
astonish8ing rate o siD ti'es a 'in%te. assive$ silent yet e'anating
an %nearthly orce$ the engine str%c& the writer Billia' :ean /owells
as Ean athlete o steel and iron with not a s%perl%o%s o%nce o 'etal
on it. A Go%rnalist ro' Bisconsin was there when it sprang to lie$
'anned by only a single attendant
in obedience to the si'ple to%ch o a wheel and a lever$ the cross8bea'roc&ed high and lowO the cran& revolvedO the pistons shot in and o%t o
their cylinders$ and nearly eight 'iles o steel shating gave 'otive power
to 17 acres o 'achinery si'%ltaneo%sly A tho%sand dierent noises
assailed the ear$ so'e in short$ staccato notesO others in a d%ll$ draining
h%'O others still in the bris& rattle o '%s&etryO and 'any in a spite%l hiss
and spl%tter. -ong bands o leather writhed and crac&led over ly8wheels
. . . .an(s
power over 'atter never received so co'plete an
eDe'pliication beore. ,he terriic orce adapted by his hand to his will$
the ertility o his inventions$ the delicacy o his to%ch$ and his
ineDha%stible '%sc%larity$ appeared at once in cohesion and in contrast.
eside the engine itsel$ a '%ltit%de o other 'echanical 'arvels da
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s%'er devices and delicacies were also eDhibited incl%ding rerigerators and
the irst bottles o /ein< &etch%p and /ires root beer./owells$ who wo%ld later go on to beco'e a cor%scating critic o
A'erican ind%strial capitalis'$ was reverential. /e noted the Corliss
engine(s Evast and al'ost silent grande%r$ its E%nerring intelligence.
So'ething i''aterial$ so'ething eDalted$ lodged deep within the ani8
'ated 'ass o energi
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s%ch as the Corliss engine. ,he wonders o scientiic discovery$ the a'a all this was evidence o
so'e 'ore proo%nd tr%th abo%t 'an(s ate.
Faith in econo'ic growth soon enveloped and e'bodied all other
airborne hopes or reedo' and e;%ality. It was not only providential$ b%t
inevitable. ilded Age A'ericans$ a lot o the' anyway$ ervently believed
in econo'ic progress and ab%ndance as the pathway to reedo'O indeed its
cha'pions conlated the 'etaphysics o reedo' with the 'echanics o 'aterial ab%ndance$ believing that was how the ew Borld wo%ld escape
the sorry ate o the ld$ weighed down as it was by those scarcities and
ine;%ities that let it plag%ed with bitter social Gealo%sies$ resent'ents$ and
incipient violence.
4ver since the days o the Corliss engine$ A'erica has worshipped
at the altar o 9rogress and Ab%ndance. At the height o the Cold Bar$
Nice 9resident ichard iDon visited %ssia$ where he aced o
against Soviet pre'ier i&ita Mhr%shchev in what thereater beca'e&nown as the E&itchen debate. Standing in the 'iddle o a 'odel
&itchen on dis8play at the A'erican ational 4Dhibition in oscow$
iDon eDtolled A'erican reedo' and the A'erican way o lie by
pointing to the eDhibit(s array o electric ranges$ washing 'achines$
and television sets. I a bellicose Mhr%shchev had once prophesied
that co''%nis' wo%ld inevitably Eb%ry capitalis'$ the vice
president retorted by pro'ising that an avalanche o A'erican
cons%'ables wo%ld do the sa'e to the Soviet Union. 4ven now this
a'alga' o reedo'$ ree enterprise$ and 'aterial plenty constit%tes
the aDio'atic hard core o the A'erican credo.
et discontent so proo%nd it wo%ld sha&e the o%ndations o A'erican
lie rose %p alongside this 'iracle o 9rogress$ li&e a co%nter'iracle. ,o
grasp how astonishing that was we '%st irst rec&on with G%st how
st%pendo%s were the acco'plish'ents o the A'erican tri%'ph.
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There at the CreationAll this irst too& shape d%ring the ilded Age. o nation in history )now
with the possible eDception o China* ind%striali at least with respect to their 'aterial
s%rro%ndings > than the world their parents grew %p in$ -incoln(s world.
4very era has had its signat%re ind%stry big boD retailing$ inor'a8
tion technology$ and inance today$ cars in the 'id8twentieth cent%ry$steel beore the reat :epression. ailroads irst ass%'ed that
position in postCivil Bar A'erica. ,hey were the engine ho%se o the
econ8o'y$ &nitting together ro' ocean to ocean the irst national
'ar&et8place$ thereby sp%rring the growth o actory8based 'ass
prod%ction$ speeding %p co''%nications and the transer o
inor'ation between ar8l%ng regions$ 'idwiing new towns$
pop%lating the wilderness$ and opening %p its nat%ral reso%rces to
econo'ic eDploitation. o terrain > no 'atter how 'o%ntaino%s$
arid$ or re'ote > and
no weather > no
'atter how hot$ ree co%ld stop the iron horse.
Already in the decades beore the Civil Bar$ the transportation revol%tion
had c%t a trip ro' the 4ast Coast to the hio valley ro' ity days by
wagon to twenty8ive days by stea'boat. ,hirty years later it too& a wee& by
train. y the t%rn o the cent%ry a trip ro' ew or& to San Francisco$
which beore the Civil Bar too& 'onths$ co%ld be
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done in three and a hal days. oreover$ the railroad %eled a nearly
insatiable de'and or the o%tp%t o basic ind%stries li&e coal$ iron$and steel$ as well as 'achine 'a&ing o vario%s sorts. Shipping costs
pl%'8'eted irst$ than&s to canals and then the iron horse$ ro' thirty
to sev8enty cents a ton='ile to seven cents or '%ch less. And this is
not to 'ention the way this transor'ation inspired ancillary
technological innovations and the growth and co'pleDity o trade and
inance. ne observer ro' the 16#0s described the iron horse as Ethe
'ost tre'en8do%s and ar8reaching engine o social revol%tion which
has ever either blessed or c%rsed the earth.7
y 16!1$ the 9ennsylvania ailroad )the U.S. Steel or eneral otors or
Balart o its day* e'ployed 110$000 people$ 'ore than the co'bined
ar'ed services o the United States. Altho%gh A'erica acco%nted or a 'ere
# percent o the earth(s land 'ass )and an even tinier percent8age o its
pop%lation*$ by the end o the cent%ry its rail networ& acco%nted or 32
percent o the world(s total trac&age$ or nearly 200$000 'iles. ,he railroads
e'ployed nearly a 'illion people and spent 'ore than all govern'ents >
local$ state$ and ederal > p%t
together. etween 1660 and 1!00$ reight and
passenger traic nearly ;%adr%pled.
,han&s in part to the i'pet%s provided by the railways$ steel
prod%c8tion eDpanded eDponentially. y 1660 three8o%rths o all steel
'an%8act%red in the United States was cons%'ed by the railroads. A
good portion o the re'ainder o%nd its way into the I bea'
s&yscraper$ steel ships$ steel cable and piping$ and all varieties o
'achinery and ar'a'ents.3
4verywhere one 'ight loo& the iron horse had let its i'print. Along with
the telegraph whose wires paralleled the trac&s$ it beca'e the inor'ation
s%perhighway o the nineteenth cent%ry. It accelerated transactions and 8
co''%nications > irst
co''ercial and then private ones > so
rapidly as to
constit%te a tri%'ph over ti'e and space at least as dra'atic as the one we
now associate with co'p%ters$ the internet$ and the tele8co''%nications
ind%stry. oreover$ the relationship between new ways o traveling and
co''%nicating was sy'biotic the telegraph acil8
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itated the railroad revol%tion by 'a&ing instantaneo%sly available
inor'ation abo%t train ti'es$ eDpediting the sae ship'ent o prod%cts and people. As a conse;%ence the costs o prod%ction and
transportation or all &inds o goods and services ell dra'atically.
%ral A'erica wo%ld never be the sa'e. ,he railroad co''erciali
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spread over 7 'illion acres s%rro%nded by #00 'iles o barbed wire$
was the largest* and sheepherders Goined grain ar'ers in t%rning theEiddle order > all
that newly opened land west o the
ississippi and north o isso%ri > into
a ood 'achine.
irac%lo%s is a air way to characteri threshers$
binders$ reapers$ harvesters$ the steel plow$ corn h%s&ers$ s%gar 'ills$
cotton presses$ and 'ore > and
witho%t the railroad which connectedthe agric%lt%ral bac&co%ntry to do'estic and worldwide %rban
'ar&ets$ that agrarian 'iracle was inconceivable. So$ or eDa'ple$ one
'an %sing a 'achine to harvest wheat in 1!00 co%ld do the wor& that
not long beore re;%ired twenty. An acre o wheat that in antebell%'
A'erica too& siDty ho%rs to c%ltivate re;%ired only o%r by the end o
the cent%ry. ,he Scott and Chisol' pea sheller co%ld re'ove as 'any
peas ro' a pod as it once too& #00 wor&ers to do by hand. In 1661 a
new 'achine t%rned o%t "0$000 cigarettes every day$ co'pared with
the 7000 a s&illed wor&er co%ld 'anage. ,he telegraph )or Elightening
wire* tri''ed the ti'e to trans'it inor'ation ro' wee&s or
'onths to days or ho%rs. EBhat has beco'e o spaceJ an astonished
New York Herald as&ed.#
S%''oning powers once %ndrea'ed o 'ade all this happen. Fro'
ti'e i''e'orial h%'an and ani'al '%scle$ wind$ the tides$
wateralls$ and wood provided the energy 'a&ing settled society
possible. ew godli&e so%rces o energy s%ddenly changed all that.
Stea'$ coal$ oil$ gas$ and electricity revol%tioni
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as the s%''a o ind%strial lie EIt speeds the loco'otive across the con8
tinent . . . QandR the 'ighty stea'ship on the seasO it grinds o%r grainO it
weaves o%r clothO it prints o%r boo&sO it orges o%r steel$ and in every
depart'ent o lie it is the %bi;%ito%s$ tireless$ potent agency o o%r civi8
li
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" # e A g e o f A c q u i e s c e n c e
spectac%lar. ,he director o the 16!0 Cens%s esti'ated private
cons%'er debt at 11 trillion$ three h%ndred ti'es 'ore than anyecono'ist or social observer had predicted.!
Bhether or not yo% were a'ong the ort%nate able to aord a phone or
so'e other 'odern gi a greater and aster increase than in any other nation in the world.
%tp%t per capita in 16!! was 250 percent greater than a hal cent%ry earlier.4Dtraordinary prod%ctivity and intense co'8petition lowered prices or all
goods$ agric%lt%ral and ind%strial$ so that real wages i'proved and average
ho%rs o wor& declined ro' eleven a day to nine and a hal.
,ogether with the agric%lt%ral revol%tion$ this 'ade city lie
possible or 'illionsO the co%ntry(s %rban pop%lation tripled between
16"0 and 1!00. 9%blic ed%cation beca'e widely accessible. ,han&s to
i'proved n%trition$ 'odern 'edicine(s assa%lt on bacterial disease$
and innova8tions in p%blic sanitation > especially
as piped water
began to replace cisterns$ and incinerators$ sewers$ and paved roads
beca'e 'ore co'8'on eat%res o %rban living > lie
eDpectancy
rose by siD years as the ilded Age drew to a close.10
Soon eno%gh this corn%copia beca'e the envy o the world and a avorite
A'erican boast. Bhy notJ ,ri%'phalis' li&e this was abetted by the
re'ar&able and growing dierential between the pace o ind%strial progress
in the United States as co'pared with 4%rope(s. Already by 166# A'erica
t%rned o%t 'ore steel than ritainO by the end o the cent%ry its steel o%tp%t
eDceeded that o the United Mingdo' and er'any co'bined. roader
co'parisons were even 'ore stri&ing. ,he val%e o what A'erican
'an%act%rers prod%ced was twice that o the United Mingdo' and hal as
great as that o the whole 4%ropean continent. etween 1650 and 1660
actory o%tp%t in ritain rose by 100 percentO in A'erica by #00 percent.
,here were 'ore 'iles o railroads and tele8
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graph lines than in all o 4%rope. ,he United States led the world in
the prod%ction o virt%ally every strategic ind%strial co''odity$incl%ding steel$ coal$ gold$ ti'ber$ silver$ oil$ telephone$ telegraph$
electric light8ing$ 'achine tools$ hardware$ and loco'otives. ne
historian s%'s %p this eDtraordinary ascent EA'erican
ind%striali
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private property. eanwhile$ the ederal G%diciary warded o eorts
by local a%thorities to enc%'ber b%siness with r%les and reg%lationsregarding their pricing$ labor$ and co'petitive practices. othing was
allowed to d%ll the appetite or private capital acc%'%lationO the rate
o personal savings and reinvest'ent o co'pany proits was higher
in the United States than anywhere else$ behavior enco%raged by the
govern'ent(s rigid adherence to the gold standard that helped
stabili
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other$ an ense'ble o %nctions that together created the national 'ar8
&etplace. And they did this in the teeth o a 'ercilessly co'petitiveecono'y that drove 'any o their co''ercial rivals %nder.
,he 'odern corporation$ which e'erged as the econo'y(s do'inant
instit%tion by the end o the ilded Age$ was born o%t o this ierce str%ggle
to s%rvive &illing panics and depressions. S%ch econo'ic disr%ptions
occ%rred every iteen years or so$ beginning in 167" and contin%ing thro%gh
to the end o the cent%ry. For eDa'ple$ Fric& )he o the oten noted riveting
Egrey8eyed ga
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" # e A g e o f A c q u i e s c e n c e
peaceable and 'odest$ 'ethodical$ calc%lating$ and pr%dential > in a word$
%nro'antic to the bone. Its tr%e and only hero is the ac;%isitive individ%al writ
large the b%siness'an as warrior. ,he larger8than8lie inancial titans$ coal and
steel barons$ and railroad apoleons who lit %p the stage o ilded Age
ind%strialis' were the heroes o 'iddle8class society. As the architects o
9rogress$ they absorbed into their otherwise %nprepossessing lives all the
honorari%'s that once attached to the soldier$ the aristocrat$ the &night errant$ the
con;%istador$ the advent%rer$ the eDplorer > the doers who t%rned a society(s
'ost cherished drea'$ its 'ost val%ed val%e$ into reality$ a reality so grand and
transor'ative it ta&es the breath away.
et a ;%estion re'ains. I 9rogress was$ as this acco%nt wo%ld have it$ a
benign o%tco'e o indigeno%s talents and nat%ral endow'ents$ a perect %nion o
te'pera'ent$ instit%tional geni%s$ and elicito%s political invention$ then why allthe deep 'isgivings and %proar it incitedJ Bhere was the devil hiding in the
weeds that wo%ld di' or 'illions the inat%ation with 9rogress everlastingJ