example of a title page of a doctoral thesis - unisair...
TRANSCRIPT
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THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
(ICTs) ON DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF
TELECENTRES ON THE EDUCATION OF USERS
by
NTOMBIZANDILE CAROL LESAME
submitted in accordance with the requirements for the
degree of
DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY
in the subject of
COMMUNICATION SCIENCE
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
PROMOTER: PROF PJ FOURIE
JOINT PROMOTER: PROF G MADDEN
PROF E BORNMAN
JUNE 2008
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Student number: 893-232-8
I declare that THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICTs) ON
DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF TELECENTRES ON THE EDUCATION OF
USERS is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated
and acknowledged by means of complete references.
................................... ......................... SIGNATURE DATE (Mrs N C Lesame)
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THESIS SUMMARY
This study investigates the use of telecentres for educational purposes in telecommunications
under-serviced regions of South Africa. The problem addressed by this research has both
equity and efficiency aspects. In particular, the thesis examines the impact of telecentres on
the formal and non-formal education outcomes of recipient communities - four telecentres,
two in townships and two in rural areas. The urban telecentres are Siyabonga in Orange Farm
near Johannesburg and Mamelodi Communication and Information Services (MACIS), in
Mamelodi township, near Pretoria in Gauteng Province. The rural telecentres are Tombo near
Port St Johns in the Eastern Cape Province and Hoxani near Bushbuckridge on the
Mpumalanga-Limpopo Province border.
The main aim of the research is to conduct a quantitative survey of the telecentre users use of
telecentres in the above mentioned locations. On the basis of this, the thesis seeks to come to
some conclusions about the use and effectiveness of the South African telecentre program.
The quantitative analysis of users is supported by a qualitative report and analysis of data
gathered through personal interviews of telecentre operators and employees. The thesis
reports on the outputs of the centres, limitations in their function, inhibitors to their economic
performance, and recommendations for improving their operations.
Some of the findings are that telecentres established through public-private partnership (PPP)
funding are more effective and successful, computer literacy is a major resource offered,
Hoxani telecentre offers outcomes-based education management skills training for local
teachers, while Tombo, MACIS and Siyabonga telecentres offer additional business and
electronic courses. The thesis also reviews the South African telecentre program against the
background of similar programs in selected Asian and Latin American countries, Australia,
Canada, and Europe and against the background of an analysis of South African post-
apartheid telecommunications sector reforms (1996 to 2007). Insights into the unique nature
of challenges facing geographically located telecentres as well as a new model for
understanding telecentre operations in South Africa are offered.
Key terms
:
Telecentres; Formal and non-formal education; Telecentre users; Universal service;
Universal access; Capacity building; Information and Communication Technology; Electronic
communications and broadcasting services; Internet; New media; Electronic education;
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Electronic government; Electronic health; Electronic business or commerce. Computer
literacy skills training; Outcomes-based education; Rural development; Digital divide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank the following people for assisting and supporting me towards the
completion of this thesis and degree:
1. My promoters, Prof P. J. Fourie of UNISA for academic guidance, motivation
and support; and Prof G. Madden, of Curtin University of Technology, Perth,
Australia, for capacity building, academic guidance, motivation and academic
wisdom. Your academic wisdom and vision and teachings are highly
appreciated. Prof E. Bornman of UNISA is also thanked for imparting some of
her knowledge and expertise of research methodology aspects to me.
2. Statisticians and research experts, Prof M. Lesaoana of the Statistics
Department, University of Limpopo, and Prof S. Mmusi, of the Department of
Media Studies, University of Limpopo, Limpopo Province, for assistance
regarding visits to eight telecentres in Limpopo Province and analysis of
quantitative data. Mr Cas Coetzee of the Department of Psychology, UNISA,
also for assistance with quantitative data analysis. A special thanks to Prof
Mmusi, who spent her valuable time and resources taking me on a Limpopo
Province tour, showing me rural areas in Limpopo Province where telecentres
and community radio stations are located, with the purpose of laying the
necessary groundwork for analysing the role of telecentres and ICT in the
development of Limpopo Province;
3. Dr F. G. Netswera, formerly of the National Research Foundation (NRF), now
with UNISAs Research Directorate, who also assisted with analysis of
quantitative data;
4. Colleagues from the Free University of Brussels, Prof L. van Audenhove, Mr
G. Nulens and Mr B. Lievens, who motivated me to undertake the study and
supported me with information upon request;
5. Communication Economics and Electronic Research Centre (CEEM) Staff at
Curtin University of Technology, for support, updated information and ICT
expert knowledge;
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6. Mr D. Levey, of the Department of English, UNISA and my sincerest
gratitude also goes to Dr C. D. Schutte of UNISA Editorial Department, who
finally editing the thesis. I also wish to thank Mr M. Magocha who acted as an
editorial assistant.
7. Mr D. Wigston, of the Department of Communication Science, UNISA, for
his assistance with production of some graphics;
8. Telecentre managers, and their assistants, of Tombo, Siyabonga, MACIS and
Hoxani telecentres for support and help while conducting field research. The
managers are Mrs P. Makoro and Mr Msimango of Siyabonga, Mr Njenge and
Miss Smauza of Tombo, Mr Maako of MACIS and Miss Ndlovu of Hoxani
telecentre. Your help is highly appreciated as this study would not have been
complete without your assistance. I also thank the managers of those
telecentres visited but not selected for research, especially at Limpopo
Province because the information they provided me is also important for South
African rural development and may be useful in future, for other projects;
9. Research assistants, the late Mr Benedict Mnisi (may his soul rest in peace). I
am honoured to have worked with Mr Mnisi, who spent his time and energy
showing me the area of Bushbuckridge and telecommunication services in
Mpumalanga (and some parts of Limpopo) Province. Mr Mnisi also provided
translation services of Shangaan to English and vice versa. Mr Mnisis
untimely death in 2006 in a car accident is tragic and sad. However, he will be
remembered and his work will enlighten the living (as they did myself and
others who will gain some knowledge from this work), about Bushbuckridge,
Tembisa township, as well as Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces;
10. National government Department of Communications and former Universal
Service Agency staff who assisted with documents, information and study-
related interviews;
11. The National Research Foundation for research funds to conduct the field
research in 2005;
12. Special thanks to my extended family, brothers and sisters, brothers-in law and
sisters-in-law, and the rest of the family for mutual love and admiration
throughout the journey of my life. I love you people! Always Bantu bakuthi
abanobubele nokuhle kodwa. Nangomso MaHlubi nani nonke abanye bethu;
Ke a leboga!
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13. My immediate family, husband and children, William, Pepe, Phesana and
Thandoza, for love and support. I love you more;
14. My parents, my late father Mtimkulu Thomas (may your sould rest in peace
Daddy) and my mother, Edith Elda Vuyiswa Mpondwana, for lessons in hard
work and discipline and for love and emotional support. I love you. Siyabulela
ke Mbongwe, Sondisa, Mvemnyama ngako konke osiphe kona!!; Thank you
Mama, these are also the fruits of the foundation you laid when you taught me
education basics at Mapassa Farm School, your school. Thank you very much,
where there is will, there is a way and last but not least
15. Other persons who made some contribution to the production of this thesis in
one way or another, but whose names I may have forgotten as a result of some
pressure, stress or credit crunch, and any other temporary human and social
challenges I endured while compiling this thesis. Ndiyanibulela nonke
ngokundakha nokundinceda. Impumelelo yona inyanzelekile.
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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedication to my late father who was an educator in the Eastern Cape
Province, MR THOMAS THOS MTIMKULU MPONDWANA. Your discipline
and dedication to serving humanity and developing other persons shines through us.
We will always honour your memory through our work and lives, Rhadebe,
Mthimkhulu, Ndlebentle zombini!. Siphumle phantsi kwaloo mthumnzi wothi omkhulu.
Zonke zihamba ngendlela, kuba kaloku wasibonisa indlela. Unethamsanqa lowo
afumane isisekelo esisiso kwangethuba, kuba wophila ngaso ebomini.
Tribute is also paid to my research assistant Mr Benedict Mnisi of Bushbuckridge
who passed away in 2006. May your souls rest in peace and God be with you.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 The purpose of this chapter 1
1.2 The need for this study 1
1.3 Background to the study 11
1.4 A brief explanation of formal and non-formal education 23
1.5 Telecentres role in formal and non-formal education 25
1.6 South Africas telecommunications socio-economic
background and telecentre development 29
1.7 Theoretical approaches to the study 65
1.8 The aim of the study 66
1.9 The research question 67
1.10 Research methodology 68
1.11 Summary and outline of chapters 69
CHAPTER 2
CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTS 72
2.1 ICT 73
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2.2 Telecentres 75
2.3 Information 75
2.4 Public-Private-Partnerships 76
2.5 Telecommunications 78
2.6 Formal and non-formal education 79
2.7 Development 81
2.8 Universal access 84
2.9 Universal service 87
2.10 Teledensity 97
2.11 Digital divide 101
2.12 Technology transfer 110
2.13 Globalisation 111
2.14 Reconstruction and Development Programme and
the GEAR Strategy 114
2.15 Summary and outline of Chapter 3 121
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CHAPTER 3
THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN
DEVELOPMENT 123
3.1 Telecommunications and development 123
3.2 Theoretical frameworks regarding the role of ICT in
development 131
3.3 Theories of development communication 139
3.4 Summary and outline of Chapter 4 151
CHAPTER 4
THE ROLE OF TELECENTRES IN
DEVELOPMENT - AN INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE 153
4.1 Introduction 153
4.2 Telecentres in MDCs 153
4.3 UN and ITU-established telecentres 155
4.4 Telecentres in Latin America and the Caribbean 156
4.5 Asian telecentres 159
4.6 Telecentres in other African countries 159
4.7 Research on South African telecentres 166
4.8 Keys to South African telecentre success 177
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4.9 Summary and outline of Chapter 5 178
CHAPTER 5
TELECOMMUNICATIONS REFORMS
IN SOUTH AFRICA - AN ANALYTIC FRAMEWORK 180
5.1 Introduction 180
5.2 Meaning and goals of policy 182
5.3 Theories of telecommunications regulation 184
5.4 Stage One (Late -1980s to 1993): Pre-democracy 187
5.5 Stage Two (1994 to 1998): Democratic process that led
to the 1996 Telecommunications Act 188
5.6 Stage Three (1997 to 2000): Further liberalisation,
privatisation of Telkom and the ICASA Act 189
5.7 Stage Four (2001 to 2006): More liberalisation, changes
to the 1996 Act, introduction of the Second National Operator,
the third and fourth mobile phone operators, the ICT Charter
and the ICASA Amendment Act 192
5.8 Further critique of the South African telecommunications
Policy formulation and implementation 200
5.9 Impact of convergence on South African communications 221
5.10 Summary and outline of Chapter 6 234
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CHAPTER 6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 237
6.1 Introduction 237
6.2 The research aim and the research question 237
6.3 Selection of telecentres 239
6.4 Research design 259
6.5 Data capturing, coding and analysis 279
6.6 Ethical issues 280
6.7 Reliability and validity 280
6.8 Critical evaluation of the research methodology 281
6.9 Summary and outline of Chapter 7 282
CHAPTER 7
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 284
7.1 Introduction 284
7.2 The user demographic characteristics 284
7.3 User telecentre access, transport and cost 299
7.4 Communication services and equipment use 310
7.5 Educational services 328
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7.6 User unmet needs 383
7.7 Rating of the telecentres by users 407
7.8 Telecentre impact on community development 417
7.9 Summary and outline of Chapter 8 425
Preamble 425
CHAPTER 8
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 426
8.1 Introduction 426
8.2 Data gained from personal interviews 427
8.3 Summary and outline of Chapter 9 446
CHAPTER 9
FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 447
9.1 Introduction 447
9.2 Findings 447
9.3 Conclusions 458
9.4 A summary of the impact of the telecentres on users:
educational, economic and social aspects 465
9.5 Limitations of the study 491
9.6 Recommendations 491
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Sources consulted 494
Addendum A: List of interview questions 563
Addendum B: The questionnaire 575
Addendum C: List of courses, ICT and costs therefore at
Siyabonga and Tombo telecentres 595
Addendum D: Answers to the open questions 600
Addendum E: Typical telecentre activity, user profile and
impact of centres on community development 612
Addendum F: A comparative analysis of ICT usage by users
(used and unused), and technology use for education, business,
government, health and other services 632
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABET - Adult Basic Education and Training
AD - Another Development
ADB - African Development Bank
Aids - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AISGWG - African Information Society Gender Working Group
ANC - African National Congress
ANOVA - Analysis of variance
ARTA - Australian Rural Telecommunications Association
ASGISA - Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South
Africa
ATI - Agence Tunisienne dInternet,Tunisia
AT&T - American Telephone and Telegraph
ATM - Automatic Teller Machine
ATU - African Telecommunications Union
AU - African Union
B&B - Bed and Breakfast
BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation
BDT - Bureau for Telecommunications Development, ITU
BEE - Black Economic Empowerment
BMCC - Broadcasting Monitoring and Complaints Committee
BOG - Board of Governors
CBO - Community Based Organisation
CBPWP - Community Based Public Works Programme
CCI - Communications Commission of India
CD - Compact Disk
CEE - Central and Eastern Europe
CEO - Chief Executive Officer
CI - Community Informatics
CIC - Communications Information Centre
COL - Commonwealth of Learning
COC - Chipata Chamber of Commerce, Zambia
COE - Centre of Excellence
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COSATU - Congress of South African Trade Unions
CPE - Customer Premise Equipment
CREAD - Caribbean Electronic Distance Education Forum
CRWRC - Christian Reformed World Relief Council
CSIR - Centre for Scientific and Information Research
CSO - Community Service Obligation
CSSA - Computer Society of Southern Africa
CWU - Communications Workers Union
DA - Democratic Alliance
DBSA - Development Bank of Southern Africa
DE - Distance Education
DECT - Digital Enhanced Cordless Technology
DG - Director General
DoC - Department of Communications, South Africa
DOE - Department of Education
DOI - Digital Opportunity Initiative
DotForce - Digital Opportunity Task Force
DSC - Development Support Communication
DP - Democratic Party
DPIE - Department of Primary Industries and Energy,
Western Australia.
DsTV - Digital Satellite Television
DVD - Digital Video Disk
EC - Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
ECA - Economic Commission for Africa
ECLA - Economic Commission for Latin America
E-Citizen - Electronic Citizen
ECA - Electronic Communications Act of South Africa
E-commerce - Electronic Commerce
E-democracy - Electronic Democracy
E-education - Electronic Education or Tele-education
Edu-Net - Education Network
E-government - Electronic Government
ELCT - Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania
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E-learning - Electronic Learning
E-mail - Electronic Mail
EPG - Eminent Persons Group
E-Rate - Education Rate
E-security - Electronic Security
E-shops - Shops on the Internet or Electronic Shops
e-touch - Electronic Touch
EUC - End User Computing
E-voting - Electronic Voting
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organisation
FCC - Federal Communications Commission (American)
FDI - Foreign Direct Investment
FEI - Freedom of Expression Institute
FET - Further Education and Training
FRIENDS - Fast, Reliable, Instant, Efficient Network for Disimbursement
of Services, Kerala Province, India
GATT - General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
G7/G8 - Group of 7 or Group of 8 Developed Countries
GCIS - Government Communication and Information Services
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GEAR - Growth, Economic Advancement and Restructuring
GET - General Education and Training
GII - Global Information Infrastructure
GIS - Global Information System
GP - Gauteng Province, South Africa
GREEN - Greater Edendale Environmental Network
GSM - Groupe Speciale Mobile
HBU - Historically Black University
HDI - Historically Disadvantaged Institution or Individual
HE - Higher Education
HIV - Human Immune Virus
HP - Hewlett Packard
HRD - Human Resources Development
HSRC - Human Sciences Research Council
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IBA - Independent Broadcasting Authority
ICASA - Independent Communications Authority of South Africa
IC - Information Centre
ICDL - International Computers Drivers License
ICDL-F - International Computers Drivers License Foundation
ICT - Information and Communication Technology
ICTs - Information and Communication Technologies
IDRC - Independent Development Research Centre
ILO - International Labour Organisation
IMCC - Inter-Ministerial Communications Committee
Info-Lit - Information Literacy
INR - Institute of National Resources
IPO - Initial Public Offering
IRD - Integrated Rural Development
IRDP - Integrated Rural Development Programme (SA)
IS - Information System
ISAD - Information Society and Development
ISC - Internet Software Consortium
ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network
ISP - Internet Service Provider/s
ISRDS - Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy
IT - Information Technology
ITA - Invitation To Apply
IT&T - Information Technology and Telecommunications
ITU - International Telecommunication Union
ITU-T - International Telecommunication Union-Telecom
JSE - Johannesburg Stock Exchange
KZN - KwaZulu-Natal
LAN - Local Area Network
LDC - Less Developed Country
LED - Local Economic Development
LEOs - Low Earth Orbit satellites
LP - Limpopo Province
LSC - Local Steering Committee
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LSF - Labour Force Survey
MACIS - Mamelodi Community Information Services
MAP - Millenium Africa (Recovery) Plan or Programme
MCT - Multipurpose Community Telecentre
MPCC - Multipurpose Community Centre
MDC - More Developed Country
MEO - Middle Earth Orbit Satellite
MFN - Most Favoured Nation
MKMVA - Umkhonto WeSizwe Military Veterans Association, South
Africa
MITE - Modular Interactive Telecommunications Environment
MITT - Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry, Egypt
MMS - Multimedia services
MNC - Multinational Corporation
MOE - Ministry of Education, Egypt
MPCC/s - Multipurpose Community Centre/s
MPC - Multi-User Card
MSC - Multimedia Super Corridor
MTN - Mobile Telephone Networks
NSF - National Skills Fund
NSW - New South Wales, Australia
NEPAD - New Economic Partnership for Africas Development
NFA - National Framework Agreement
NGBT - Negotiating Group on Basic Telecommunications
NGO - Nongovernmental Organisation
NMT - New Media Technology
NP - Northern Province (now Limpopo Province)
NRA - National Regulatory Agency
NRF - National Research Foundation
NQF - National Qualifications Framework
NTF - National Telecommunications Forum
NTIF - National Telecommunications and Information Forum
NTPP - National Telecommunications Policy Project
NTU - National Technological University, United States
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NUTN - National University Teleconferencing Network
NRF - National Research Foundation
NW - Northwest Province, South Africa
NYSE - New York Stock Exchange
OBE - Outcomes-based Education
OFTA - Office of Telecommunications Authority, China
OFTEL - Office of Telecommunications, United Kingdom
O R Tambo - Oliver Reginald Tambo
OSF - Open Society Foundation
OSISA - Open Society Institute for Southern Africa
PBX - Private Branch Exchange
PCM - Please Call Me
PCN - Presidential National Commission
PCO - Public Call Office in India
PE - Port Elizabeth (Technikon)
PIC - Public Investment Commissioners
PIT - Public Information Terminal
PMC - Project Management Committee
POP - Point of Presence
POTS - Plain Old Telephone Service
PPP - Public Private Partnership
PSTN - Public Service Telecommunication Network
PSTS - Public Service Telecommunication System
PTN - Public Telecommunications Network
PTO - Public Telecommunications Operator
PTT - Public Telephone and Telegraph
QoS - Quality of Service
RDP - Reconstruction and Development Programme
Seta - Sectoral Education and Training Authority
SA - South Africa
SABC - South African Broadcasting Corporation
SADC - Southern African Development Community
SAFE - South Africa Far East
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SAIDE - South African Institute for Distance Education
SAITIS - South African Information Technology Industry Strategy
SAPO - South African Post Office
SAPT - South African Posts and Telecommunications
SAQA - South African Qualifications Authority
SAT3 - South Africa Atlantic Telephony
SATRA - South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority
SAVA - South African Vans Association
SBC - Southwestern Bell Corporation (America)
SEIDET - Siyabuswa Education Empowerment and Development
SEP - Strategic Equity Partnership
SETA - Sector Education and Training Authority
SME - Small and Medium Enterprise
SMME - Small, Medium and Micro Enterprise
SMS - Short Message System
SNO - Second National Operator
SOE - State-Owned Enterprise
Sonatel - Senegal Telecommunications Operator
SOTE - State-owned Telecommunications Enterprise
SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
TACC - Technology Access Community Centre in Egypt
TAFE - Technical and Further Education, Australia
TAM - Technology Acceptable Model
TASA - Telecentre Association of South Africa
TDC - Tombo Development Centre
TECD - Tombo Entrepreneurial Development Centre
TRASA - Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Southern Africa
TSCs - Thusong Service Centres, South Africa
TUT - Tshwane University of Technology
TV - Television
TWIB - Technology for Women in Business
UCARC - Umtata Child Abuse Resource Centre
UFH - University of Fort Hare
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UNECA - United Nations Commission for Africa
UK - United Kingdom
UN - United Nations
UNCSTD - United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for
Development
UNDP - United Nations Development Program
UNISA - University of South Africa
UNRISD - United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
UPS - Uninterruptible Power Supply
U.S. - United States of America
USA - Universal Service Agency, South Africa
USAA - Universal Service and Access Agency
USAASA - Universal Service and Access Agency of South Africa
USALs - Under-serviced Area Licenses
USF - Universal Service Fund, South Africa
USO - Universal Service Obligation
UWC - University of the Western Cape, South Africa.
VUDEC - Vista University Distance Education Campus
VANS - Value Added Network Services
WADoT - Western Australia Department of Training
WHO - World Health Organisation
WILs - Wireless Internet Laboratories, South Africa
WSIS - World Summit on the Information Society Wits - University of Witwatersrand
WP - Western Cape Province, South Africa
WST - World Systems Theory
WTO - World Trade Organisation
WWW - World Wide Web
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LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figure 1: USA Telecentre Survey Results at end-2001 171
Figure 2: Some modern houses in Orange Farm informal
settlement near Siyabonga telecentre 243
Figure 3: A shack house in Orange Farm near Siyabonga
telecentre 243
Figure 4: Siyabonga telecentre 246
Figure 5: A computer training class in session at Siyabonga
telecentre 247
Figure 6: Telecentre users (teachers) learning IT and OBE
skills at Hoxani telecentre 256
Figure 7: A newsletter produced by teachers at Hoxani
telecentre 257
Figure 8: Telecentre model 463
Figure 9: A Theoretical Model of Telecentre Impact on the
South African User: A Multi-Dimensional View 488
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LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 1: Access to information and communication technology 31
Table 2: African main telephone lines 1998 2003
(selected countries) 33
Table 3: African cellular subscribers, 1998 and 2003
(selected countries) 34
Table 4: African access to IT in 2003 (selected countries) 35
Table 5: Africa ICT Indicators, 2006 (selected countries) 36
Table 6: Africa Fixed-Line Telephones and Internet Statistics,
2008 (selected countries) 37
Table 7: Comparison of African and Asian start-up and
Monthly costs for mobile and fixed-line phones (selected
developing countries) 50
Table 8: South African Household ICT Penetration, 2008 54
Table 9: South African ICT Indicators, 2008 62
Table 10: South African Public and Community Access Points,
2008 64
Table 11: South African teledensity levels 1996 2004 94
Table 12: Percentage of households with a fixed-line in South
Africa: 1994 2002 95
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Table 13: Mobile prices in $US 99
Table 14: Stages in the digital divide 103
Table 15: IT and related services available at the four telecentres
for individual educational advancement and community
development 258
Table 16: Interview and respondent details 267
Table 17: Respondent profile by gender 285
Table 18: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by gender 286
Table 19: Telecentre user profile by age 287
Table 20: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by age 288
Table 21: Telecentre user profile by marital status 290
Table 22: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by marital status 291
Table 23: Telecentre users profile by highest educational
qualification 292
Table 24: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by educational
status 293
Table 25: Telecentre User Profile by Employment status
and occupation 294
Table 26: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by occupation 296
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Table 27: Telecentre user profile by monthly income 297
Table 28: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by monthly
income 298
Table 29: Distance to a telecentre (in kilometres) 300
Table 30: Chi-square test: Distance to a telecentre 301
Table 31: Transport mode 302
Table 32: Chi-square test: Mode of transport used to reach
telecentre 303
Table 33: Transport costs 304
Table 34: Chi-square test: Cost of getting to the telecentre today 305
Table 35: Visit frequency 306
Table 36: Chi-square test: Visit frequency 307
Table 37: Visit duration 308
Table: 38: Chi-square test: Visit duration 309
Table 39: Mean and Standard Deviation: Visit frequency and
visit duration 310
Table 40: Analysis of Variance: Visit frequency and visit
duration 313
Table 41: Telephone and facsimile use 317
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Table 42: Internet communication computer software use 320
Table 43: Desktop applications 322
Table 44: Computer hardware use 325
Table 45: Mean and Standard deviation: television, radio and
other media 328
Table 46: Use of office equipment: 331
Table 47: Educational facility use 335
Table 48: Telecentre ICT for educational use 337
Table 49: Analysis of variance: use of ICT for educational
purposes 338
Table 50: Telecentre impact: Training in computer use 339
Table 51: Chi-square test: User training in computer use 340
Table 52: Analysis of variance: Computer training and technical
assistance 342
Table 53: Extent of improvement of users computer literacy by the
Telecentres 345
Table 54: Telecentre ICT for business use 347
Table 55: Extent to which the telecentres assisted users to obtain
employment 349
Table 56: Extent to which users were assisted by the telecentres
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to start their own businesses 352
Table 57: Telecentre ICT use for medical, political and other
Uses 354
Table 58: Extent to which the telecentres developed users in other
Areas 362
Table 59: Other purposes ICT is used for at the centres 364
Table 60: Mean and Standard deviation: ICT charges 365
Table 61: Respondent feelings about telecentre prices 369
Table 62: ICT or services used by respondents at the telecentres 370
Table 63: Mean and Standard deviation: ICT benefits impact
Of telecentres on non-formal and formal education 371
Table 64: Analysis of variance (ANOVA): Telecentre ICT
Benefits impact of telecentres on non-formal and formal
Education of users 378
Table 65: ANOVA: Telecentre impact on non-formal and
formal education 384
Table 66: Ways in which user formal education was advanced 394
Table 67: Other ways in which the telecentres assisted users 402
Table 68: Unmet needs per telecentre 408
Table 69: Further ICT training required by the respondents 410
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Table 70: Extent of improvement of users non-formal education 412
Table 71: Telecentre rating by users with respect to staff attitude 414
Table 72: Telecentre rating by users with reference to technical
assistance offered 415
Table 73: Telecentre rating by users with respect to ICT training
Received 417
Table 74: Telecentre rating by users with respect to the quality
of services offered 423
Table 75: Telecentre rating by users with respect to staff technical
Competence 473
Table 76: Means and Standard deviations: Telecentre impact
on community development 476
Table 77: Analysis of variance: Telecentre impact on individual
and community development 478
Table 78: Telephone and Facsimile services offered at Siyabonga
Telecentre and costs thereof 593
Table 79: Typing, printing and multi-media service costs
At Siyabonga telecentre 594
Table 80: Photocopying costs at Siyabonga telecentre 595
Table 81: Desktop publishing costs at Siyabonga telecentre 595
Table 82: Computer course and ICT training costs at Siyabonga
telecentre 596
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Table 83: Computer courses and ICT training costs at Siyabonga
Telecentre 597
Table 84: Costs of using ICT facilities at Tombo telecentre 597
Table 85: Telecentre user demographic profile, access and cost
issues: a comparative analysis 613
Table 86: A comparative analysis of ICT usage by users
(used and unused), and technology use for education, business,
government, health and other services 632
-
Student number: 893-232-8
I declare that THE IMPACT OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICTs) ON
DEVELOPMENT: A CASE STUDY OF THE INFLUENCE OF TELECENTRES ON THE EDUCATION OF
USERS is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated
and acknowledged by means of complete references.
................................... ......................... SIGNATURE DATE (Mrs N C Lesame)
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THESIS SUMMARY
This study investigates the use of telecentres for educational purposes in telecommunications
under-serviced regions of South Africa. The problem addressed by this research has both
equity and efficiency aspects. In particular, the thesis examines the impact of telecentres on
the formal and non-formal education outcomes of recipient communities - four telecentres,
two in townships and two in rural areas. The urban telecentres are Siyabonga in Orange Farm
near Johannesburg and Mamelodi Communication and Information Services (MACIS), in
Mamelodi township, near Pretoria in Gauteng Province. The rural telecentres are Tombo near
Port St Johns in the Eastern Cape Province and Hoxani near Bushbuckridge on the
Mpumalanga-Limpopo Province border.
The main aim of the research is to conduct a quantitative survey of the telecentre users use of
telecentres in the above mentioned locations. On the basis of this, the thesis seeks to come to
some conclusions about the use and effectiveness of the South African telecentre program.
The quantitative analysis of users is supported by a qualitative report and analysis of data
gathered through personal interviews of telecentre operators and employees. The thesis
reports on the outputs of the centres, limitations in their function, inhibitors to their economic
performance, and recommendations for improving their operations.
Some of the findings are that telecentres established through public-private partnership (PPP)
funding are more effective and successful, computer literacy is a major resource offered,
Hoxani telecentre offers outcomes-based education management skills training for local
teachers, while Tombo, MACIS and Siyabonga telecentres offer additional business and
electronic courses. The thesis also reviews the South African telecentre program against the
background of similar programs in selected Asian and Latin American countries, Australia,
Canada, and Europe and against the background of an analysis of South African post-
apartheid telecommunications sector reforms (1996 to 2007). Insights into the unique nature
of challenges facing geographically located telecentres as well as a new model for
understanding telecentre operations in South Africa are offered.
Key terms
:
Telecentres; Formal and non-formal education; Telecentre users; Universal service;
Universal access; Capacity building; Information and Communication Technology; Electronic
communications and broadcasting services; Internet; New media; Electronic education;
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Electronic government; Electronic health; Electronic business or commerce. Computer
literacy skills training; Outcomes-based education; Rural development; Digital divide.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank the following people for assisting and supporting me towards the
completion of this thesis and degree:
1. My promoters, Prof P. J. Fourie of UNISA for academic guidance, motivation
and support; and Prof G. Madden, of Curtin University of Technology, Perth,
Australia, for capacity building, academic guidance, motivation and academic
wisdom. Your academic wisdom and vision and teachings are highly
appreciated. Prof E. Bornman of UNISA is also thanked for imparting some of
her knowledge and expertise of research methodology aspects to me.
2. Statisticians and research experts, Prof M. Lesaoana of the Statistics
Department, University of Limpopo, and Prof S. Mmusi, of the Department of
Media Studies, University of Limpopo, Limpopo Province, for assistance
regarding visits to eight telecentres in Limpopo Province and analysis of
quantitative data. Mr Cas Coetzee of the Department of Psychology, UNISA,
also for assistance with quantitative data analysis. A special thanks to Prof
Mmusi, who spent her valuable time and resources taking me on a Limpopo
Province tour, showing me rural areas in Limpopo Province where telecentres
and community radio stations are located, with the purpose of laying the
necessary groundwork for analysing the role of telecentres and ICT in the
development of Limpopo Province;
3. Dr F. G. Netswera, formerly of the National Research Foundation (NRF), now
with UNISAs Research Directorate, who also assisted with analysis of
quantitative data;
4. Colleagues from the Free University of Brussels, Prof L. van Audenhove, Mr
G. Nulens and Mr B. Lievens, who motivated me to undertake the study and
supported me with information upon request;
5. Communication Economics and Electronic Research Centre (CEEM) Staff at
Curtin University of Technology, for support, updated information and ICT
expert knowledge;
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6. Mr D. Levey, of the Department of English, UNISA and my sincerest
gratitude also goes to Dr C. D. Schutte of UNISA Editorial Department, who
finally editing the thesis. I also wish to thank Mr M. Magocha who acted as an
editorial assistant.
7. Mr D. Wigston, of the Department of Communication Science, UNISA, for
his assistance with production of some graphics;
8. Telecentre managers, and their assistants, of Tombo, Siyabonga, MACIS and
Hoxani telecentres for support and help while conducting field research. The
managers are Mrs P. Makoro and Mr Msimango of Siyabonga, Mr Njenge and
Miss Smauza of Tombo, Mr Maako of MACIS and Miss Ndlovu of Hoxani
telecentre. Your help is highly appreciated as this study would not have been
complete without your assistance. I also thank the managers of those
telecentres visited but not selected for research, especially at Limpopo
Province because the information they provided me is also important for South
African rural development and may be useful in future, for other projects;
9. Research assistants, the late Mr Benedict Mnisi (may his soul rest in peace). I
am honoured to have worked with Mr Mnisi, who spent his time and energy
showing me the area of Bushbuckridge and telecommunication services in
Mpumalanga (and some parts of Limpopo) Province. Mr Mnisi also provided
translation services of Shangaan to English and vice versa. Mr Mnisis
untimely death in 2006 in a car accident is tragic and sad. However, he will be
remembered and his work will enlighten the living (as they did myself and
others who will gain some knowledge from this work), about Bushbuckridge,
Tembisa township, as well as Mpumalanga and Limpopo Provinces;
10. National government Department of Communications and former Universal
Service Agency staff who assisted with documents, information and study-
related interviews;
11. The National Research Foundation for research funds to conduct the field
research in 2005;
12. Special thanks to my extended family, brothers and sisters, brothers-in law and
sisters-in-law, and the rest of the family for mutual love and admiration
throughout the journey of my life. I love you people! Always Bantu bakuthi
abanobubele nokuhle kodwa. Nangomso MaHlubi nani nonke abanye bethu;
Ke a leboga!
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v
13. My immediate family, husband and children, William, Pepe, Phesana and
Thandoza, for love and support. I love you more;
14. My parents, my late father Mtimkulu Thomas (may your sould rest in peace
Daddy) and my mother, Edith Elda Vuyiswa Mpondwana, for lessons in hard
work and discipline and for love and emotional support. I love you. Siyabulela
ke Mbongwe, Sondisa, Mvemnyama ngako konke osiphe kona!!; Thank you
Mama, these are also the fruits of the foundation you laid when you taught me
education basics at Mapassa Farm School, your school. Thank you very much,
where there is will, there is a way and last but not least
15. Other persons who made some contribution to the production of this thesis in
one way or another, but whose names I may have forgotten as a result of some
pressure, stress or credit crunch, and any other temporary human and social
challenges I endured while compiling this thesis. Ndiyanibulela nonke
ngokundakha nokundinceda. Impumelelo yona inyanzelekile.
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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedication to my late father who was an educator in the Eastern Cape
Province, MR THOMAS THOS MTIMKULU MPONDWANA. Your discipline
and dedication to serving humanity and developing other persons shines through us.
We will always honour your memory through our work and lives, Rhadebe,
Mthimkhulu, Ndlebentle zombini!. Siphumle phantsi kwaloo mthumnzi wothi omkhulu.
Zonke zihamba ngendlela, kuba kaloku wasibonisa indlela. Unethamsanqa lowo
afumane isisekelo esisiso kwangethuba, kuba wophila ngaso ebomini.
Tribute is also paid to my research assistant Mr Benedict Mnisi of Bushbuckridge
who passed away in 2006. May your souls rest in peace and God be with you.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 The purpose of this chapter 1
1.2 The need for this study 1
1.3 Background to the study 11
1.4 A brief explanation of formal and non-formal education 23
1.5 Telecentres role in formal and non-formal education 25
1.6 South Africas telecommunications socio-economic
background and telecentre development 29
1.7 Theoretical approaches to the study 65
1.8 The aim of the study 66
1.9 The research question 67
1.10 Research methodology 68
1.11 Summary and outline of chapters 69
CHAPTER 2
CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTS 72
2.1 ICT 73
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2.2 Telecentres 75
2.3 Information 75
2.4 Public-Private-Partnerships 76
2.5 Telecommunications 78
2.6 Formal and non-formal education 79
2.7 Development 81
2.8 Universal access 84
2.9 Universal service 87
2.10 Teledensity 97
2.11 Digital divide 101
2.12 Technology transfer 110
2.13 Globalisation 111
2.14 Reconstruction and Development Programme and
the GEAR Strategy 114
2.15 Summary and outline of Chapter 3 121
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CHAPTER 3
THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN
DEVELOPMENT 123
3.1 Telecommunications and development 123
3.2 Theoretical frameworks regarding the role of ICT in
development 131
3.3 Theories of development communication 139
3.4 Summary and outline of Chapter 4 151
CHAPTER 4
THE ROLE OF TELECENTRES IN
DEVELOPMENT - AN INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE 153
4.1 Introduction 153
4.2 Telecentres in MDCs 153
4.3 UN and ITU-established telecentres 155
4.4 Telecentres in Latin America and the Caribbean 156
4.5 Asian telecentres 159
4.6 Telecentres in other African countries 159
4.7 Research on South African telecentres 166
4.8 Keys to South African telecentre success 177
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4.9 Summary and outline of Chapter 5 178
CHAPTER 5
TELECOMMUNICATIONS REFORMS
IN SOUTH AFRICA - AN ANALYTIC FRAMEWORK 180
5.1 Introduction 180
5.2 Meaning and goals of policy 182
5.3 Theories of telecommunications regulation 184
5.4 Stage One (Late -1980s to 1993): Pre-democracy 187
5.5 Stage Two (1994 to 1998): Democratic process that led
to the 1996 Telecommunications Act 188
5.6 Stage Three (1997 to 2000): Further liberalisation,
privatisation of Telkom and the ICASA Act 189
5.7 Stage Four (2001 to 2006): More liberalisation, changes
to the 1996 Act, introduction of the Second National Operator,
the third and fourth mobile phone operators, the ICT Charter
and the ICASA Amendment Act 192
5.8 Further critique of the South African telecommunications
Policy formulation and implementation 200
5.9 Impact of convergence on South African communications 221
5.10 Summary and outline of Chapter 6 234
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CHAPTER 6
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 237
6.1 Introduction 237
6.2 The research aim and the research question 237
6.3 Selection of telecentres 239
6.4 Research design 259
6.5 Data capturing, coding and analysis 279
6.6 Ethical issues 280
6.7 Reliability and validity 280
6.8 Critical evaluation of the research methodology 281
6.9 Summary and outline of Chapter 7 282
CHAPTER 7
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 284
7.1 Introduction 284
7.2 The user demographic characteristics 284
7.3 User telecentre access, transport and cost 299
7.4 Communication services and equipment use 310
7.5 Educational services 328
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7.6 User unmet needs 383
7.7 Rating of the telecentres by users 407
7.8 Telecentre impact on community development 417
7.9 Summary and outline of Chapter 8 425
Preamble 425
CHAPTER 8
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS 426
8.1 Introduction 426
8.2 Data gained from personal interviews 427
8.3 Summary and outline of Chapter 9 446
CHAPTER 9
FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS 447
9.1 Introduction 447
9.2 Findings 447
9.3 Conclusions 458
9.4 A summary of the impact of the telecentres on users:
educational, economic and social aspects 465
9.5 Limitations of the study 491
9.6 Recommendations 491
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Sources consulted 494
Addendum A: List of interview questions 563
Addendum B: The questionnaire 575
Addendum C: List of courses, ICT and costs therefore at
Siyabonga and Tombo telecentres 595
Addendum D: Answers to the open questions 600
Addendum E: Typical telecentre activity, user profile and
impact of centres on community development 612
Addendum F: A comparative analysis of ICT usage by users
(used and unused), and technology use for education, business,
government, health and other services 632
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABET - Adult Basic Education and Training
AD - Another Development
ADB - African Development Bank
Aids - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
AISGWG - African Information Society Gender Working Group
ANC - African National Congress
ANOVA - Analysis of variance
ARTA - Australian Rural Telecommunications Association
ASGISA - Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South
Africa
ATI - Agence Tunisienne dInternet,Tunisia
AT&T - American Telephone and Telegraph
ATM - Automatic Teller Machine
ATU - African Telecommunications Union
AU - African Union
B&B - Bed and Breakfast
BBC - British Broadcasting Corporation
BDT - Bureau for Telecommunications Development, ITU
BEE - Black Economic Empowerment
BMCC - Broadcasting Monitoring and Complaints Committee
BOG - Board of Governors
CBO - Community Based Organisation
CBPWP - Community Based Public Works Programme
CCI - Communications Commission of India
CD - Compact Disk
CEE - Central and Eastern Europe
CEO - Chief Executive Officer
CI - Community Informatics
CIC - Communications Information Centre
COL - Commonwealth of Learning
COC - Chipata Chamber of Commerce, Zambia
COE - Centre of Excellence
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COSATU - Congress of South African Trade Unions
CPE - Customer Premise Equipment
CREAD - Caribbean Electronic Distance Education Forum
CRWRC - Christian Reformed World Relief Council
CSIR - Centre for Scientific and Information Research
CSO - Community Service Obligation
CSSA - Computer Society of Southern Africa
CWU - Communications Workers Union
DA - Democratic Alliance
DBSA - Development Bank of Southern Africa
DE - Distance Education
DECT - Digital Enhanced Cordless Technology
DG - Director General
DoC - Department of Communications, South Africa
DOE - Department of Education
DOI - Digital Opportunity Initiative
DotForce - Digital Opportunity Task Force
DSC - Development Support Communication
DP - Democratic Party
DPIE - Department of Primary Industries and Energy,
Western Australia.
DsTV - Digital Satellite Television
DVD - Digital Video Disk
EC - Eastern Cape Province, South Africa
ECA - Economic Commission for Africa
ECLA - Economic Commission for Latin America
E-Citizen - Electronic Citizen
ECA - Electronic Communications Act of South Africa
E-commerce - Electronic Commerce
E-democracy - Electronic Democracy
E-education - Electronic Education or Tele-education
Edu-Net - Education Network
E-government - Electronic Government
ELCT - Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania
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E-learning - Electronic Learning
E-mail - Electronic Mail
EPG - Eminent Persons Group
E-Rate - Education Rate
E-security - Electronic Security
E-shops - Shops on the Internet or Electronic Shops
e-touch - Electronic Touch
EUC - End User Computing
E-voting - Electronic Voting
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organisation
FCC - Federal Communications Commission (American)
FDI - Foreign Direct Investment
FEI - Freedom of Expression Institute
FET - Further Education and Training
FRIENDS - Fast, Reliable, Instant, Efficient Network for Disimbursement
of Services, Kerala Province, India
GATT - General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
G7/G8 - Group of 7 or Group of 8 Developed Countries
GCIS - Government Communication and Information Services
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GEAR - Growth, Economic Advancement and Restructuring
GET - General Education and Training
GII - Global Information Infrastructure
GIS - Global Information System
GP - Gauteng Province, South Africa
GREEN - Greater Edendale Environmental Network
GSM - Groupe Speciale Mobile
HBU - Historically Black University
HDI - Historically Disadvantaged Institution or Individual
HE - Higher Education
HIV - Human Immune Virus
HP - Hewlett Packard
HRD - Human Resources Development
HSRC - Human Sciences Research Council
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IBA - Independent Broadcasting Authority
ICASA - Independent Communications Authority of South Africa
IC - Information Centre
ICDL - International Computers Drivers License
ICDL-F - International Computers Drivers License Foundation
ICT - Information and Communication Technology
ICTs - Information and Communication Technologies
IDRC - Independent Development Research Centre
ILO - International Labour Organisation
IMCC - Inter-Ministerial Communications Committee
Info-Lit - Information Literacy
INR - Institute of National Resources
IPO - Initial Public Offering
IRD - Integrated Rural Development
IRDP - Integrated Rural Development Programme (SA)
IS - Information System
ISAD - Information Society and Development
ISC - Internet Software Consortium
ISDN - Integrated Services Digital Network
ISP - Internet Service Provider/s
ISRDS - Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy
IT - Information Technology
ITA - Invitation To Apply
IT&T - Information Technology and Telecommunications
ITU - International Telecommunication Union
ITU-T - International Telecommunication Union-Telecom
JSE - Johannesburg Stock Exchange
KZN - KwaZulu-Natal
LAN - Local Area Network
LDC - Less Developed Country
LED - Local Economic Development
LEOs - Low Earth Orbit satellites
LP - Limpopo Province
LSC - Local Steering Committee
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LSF - Labour Force Survey
MACIS - Mamelodi Community Information Services
MAP - Millenium Africa (Recovery) Plan or Programme
MCT - Multipurpose Community Telecentre
MPCC - Multipurpose Community Centre
MDC - More Developed Country
MEO - Middle Earth Orbit Satellite
MFN - Most Favoured Nation
MKMVA - Umkhonto WeSizwe Military Veterans Association, South
Africa
MITE - Modular Interactive Telecommunications Environment
MITT - Ministry of Tourism, Trade and Industry, Egypt
MMS - Multimedia services
MNC - Multinational Corporation
MOE - Ministry of Education, Egypt
MPCC/s - Multipurpose Community Centre/s
MPC - Multi-User Card
MSC - Multimedia Super Corridor
MTN - Mobile Telephone Networks
NSF - National Skills Fund
NSW - New South Wales, Australia
NEPAD - New Economic Partnership for Africas Development
NFA - National Framework Agreement
NGBT - Negotiating Group on Basic Telecommunications
NGO - Nongovernmental Organisation
NMT - New Media Technology
NP - Northern Province (now Limpopo Province)
NRA - National Regulatory Agency
NRF - National Research Foundation
NQF - National Qualifications Framework
NTF - National Telecommunications Forum
NTIF - National Telecommunications and Information Forum
NTPP - National Telecommunications Policy Project
NTU - National Technological University, United States
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NUTN - National University Teleconferencing Network
NRF - National Research Foundation
NW - Northwest Province, South Africa
NYSE - New York Stock Exchange
OBE - Outcomes-based Education
OFTA - Office of Telecommunications Authority, China
OFTEL - Office of Telecommunications, United Kingdom
O R Tambo - Oliver Reginald Tambo
OSF - Open Society Foundation
OSISA - Open Society Institute for Southern Africa
PBX - Private Branch Exchange
PCM - Please Call Me
PCN - Presidential National Commission
PCO - Public Call Office in India
PE - Port Elizabeth (Technikon)
PIC - Public Investment Commissioners
PIT - Public Information Terminal
PMC - Project Management Committee
POP - Point of Presence
POTS - Plain Old Telephone Service
PPP - Public Private Partnership
PSTN - Public Service Telecommunication Network
PSTS - Public Service Telecommunication System
PTN - Public Telecommunications Network
PTO - Public Telecommunications Operator
PTT - Public Telephone and Telegraph
QoS - Quality of Service
RDP - Reconstruction and Development Programme
Seta - Sectoral Education and Training Authority
SA - South Africa
SABC - South African Broadcasting Corporation
SADC - Southern African Development Community
SAFE - South Africa Far East
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SAIDE - South African Institute for Distance Education
SAITIS - South African Information Technology Industry Strategy
SAPO - South African Post Office
SAPT - South African Posts and Telecommunications
SAQA - South African Qualifications Authority
SAT3 - South Africa Atlantic Telephony
SATRA - South African Telecommunications Regulatory Authority
SAVA - South African Vans Association
SBC - Southwestern Bell Corporation (America)
SEIDET - Siyabuswa Education Empowerment and Development
SEP - Strategic Equity Partnership
SETA - Sector Education and Training Authority
SME - Small and Medium Enterprise
SMME - Small, Medium and Micro Enterprise
SMS - Short Message System
SNO - Second National Operator
SOE - State-Owned Enterprise
Sonatel - Senegal Telecommunications Operator
SOTE - State-owned Telecommunications Enterprise
SPSS - Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
TACC - Technology Access Community Centre in Egypt
TAFE - Technical and Further Education, Australia
TAM - Technology Acceptable Model
TASA - Telecentre Association of South Africa
TDC - Tombo Development Centre
TECD - Tombo Entrepreneurial Development Centre
TRASA - Telecommunications Regulatory Authority of Southern Africa
TSCs - Thusong Service Centres, South Africa
TUT - Tshwane University of Technology
TV - Television
TWIB - Technology for Women in Business
UCARC - Umtata Child Abuse Resource Centre
UFH - University of Fort Hare
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UNECA - United Nations Commission for Africa
UK - United Kingdom
UN - United Nations
UNCSTD - United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for
Development
UNDP - United Nations Development Program
UNISA - University of South Africa
UNRISD - United Nations Research Institute for Social Development
UPS - Uninterruptible Power Supply
U.S. - United States of America
USA - Universal Service Agency, South Africa
USAA - Universal Service and Access Agency
USAASA - Universal Service and Access Agency of South Africa
USALs - Under-serviced Area Licenses
USF - Universal Service Fund, South Africa
USO - Universal Service Obligation
UWC - University of the Western Cape, South Africa.
VUDEC - Vista University Distance Education Campus
VANS - Value Added Network Services
WADoT - Western Australia Department of Training
WHO - World Health Organisation
WILs - Wireless Internet Laboratories, South Africa
WSIS - World Summit on the Information Society Wits - University of Witwatersrand
WP - Western Cape Province, South Africa
WST - World Systems Theory
WTO - World Trade Organisation
WWW - World Wide Web
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LIST OF FIGURES
PAGE
Figure 1: USA Telecentre Survey Results at end-2001 171
Figure 2: Some modern houses in Orange Farm informal
settlement near Siyabonga telecentre 243
Figure 3: A shack house in Orange Farm near Siyabonga
telecentre 243
Figure 4: Siyabonga telecentre 246
Figure 5: A computer training class in session at Siyabonga
telecentre 247
Figure 6: Telecentre users (teachers) learning IT and OBE
skills at Hoxani telecentre 256
Figure 7: A newsletter produced by teachers at Hoxani
telecentre 257
Figure 8: Telecentre model 463
Figure 9: A Theoretical Model of Telecentre Impact on the
South African User: A Multi-Dimensional View 488
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LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 1: Access to information and communication technology 31
Table 2: African main telephone lines 1998 2003
(selected countries) 33
Table 3: African cellular subscribers, 1998 and 2003
(selected countries) 34
Table 4: African access to IT in 2003 (selected countries) 35
Table 5: Africa ICT Indicators, 2006 (selected countries) 36
Table 6: Africa Fixed-Line Telephones and Internet Statistics,
2008 (selected countries) 37
Table 7: Comparison of African and Asian start-up and
Monthly costs for mobile and fixed-line phones (selected
developing countries) 50
Table 8: South African Household ICT Penetration, 2008 54
Table 9: South African ICT Indicators, 2008 62
Table 10: South African Public and Community Access Points,
2008 64
Table 11: South African teledensity levels 1996 2004 94
Table 12: Percentage of households with a fixed-line in South
Africa: 1994 2002 95
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Table 13: Mobile prices in $US 99
Table 14: Stages in the digital divide 103
Table 15: IT and related services available at the four telecentres
for individual educational advancement and community
development 258
Table 16: Interview and respondent details 267
Table 17: Respondent profile by gender 285
Table 18: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by gender 286
Table 19: Telecentre user profile by age 287
Table 20: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by age 288
Table 21: Telecentre user profile by marital status 290
Table 22: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by marital status 291
Table 23: Telecentre users profile by highest educational
qualification 292
Table 24: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by educational
status 293
Table 25: Telecentre User Profile by Employment status
and occupation 294
Table 26: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by occupation 296
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Table 27: Telecentre user profile by monthly income 297
Table 28: Chi-square test: Telecentre user profile by monthly
income 298
Table 29: Distance to a telecentre (in kilometres) 300
Table 30: Chi-square test: Distance to a telecentre 301
Table 31: Transport mode 302
Table 32: Chi-square test: Mode of transport used to reach
telecentre 303
Table 33: Transport costs 304
Table 34: Chi-square test: Cost of getting to the telecentre today 305
Table 35: Visit frequency 306
Table 36: Chi-square test: Visit frequency 307
Table 37: Visit duration 308
Table: 38: Chi-square test: Visit duration 309
Table 39: Mean and Standard Deviation: Visit frequency and
visit duration 310
Table 40: Analysis of Variance: Visit frequency and visit
duration 313
Table 41: Telephone and facsimile use 317
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Table 42: Internet communication computer software use 320
Table 43: Desktop applications 322
Table 44: Computer hardware use 325
Table 45: Mean and Standard deviation: television, radio and
other media 328
Table 46: Use of office equipment: 331
Table 47: Educational facility use 335
Table 48: Telecentre ICT for educational use 337
Table 49: Analysis of variance: use of ICT for educational
purposes 338
Table 50: Telecentre impact: Training in computer use 339
Table 51: Chi-square test: User training in computer use 340
Table 52: Analysis of variance: Computer training and technical
assistance 342
Table 53: Extent of improvement of users computer literacy by the
Telecentres 345
Table 54: Telecentre ICT for business use 347
Table 55: Extent to which the telecentres assisted users to obtain
employment 349
Table 56: Extent to which users were assisted by the telecentres
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to start their own businesses 352
Table 57: Telecentre ICT use for medical, political and other
Uses 354
Table 58: Extent to which the telecentres developed users in other
Areas 362
Table 59: Other purposes ICT is used for at the centres 364
Table 60: Mean and Standard deviation: ICT charges 365
Table 61: Respondent feelings about telecentre prices 369
Table 62: ICT or services used by respondents at the telecentres 370
Table 63: Mean and Standard deviation: ICT benefits impact
Of telecentres on non-formal and formal education 371
Table 64: Analysis of variance (ANOVA): Telecentre ICT
Benefits impact of telecentres on non-formal and formal
Education of users 378
Table 65: ANOVA: Telecentre impact on non-formal and
formal education 384
Table 66: Ways in which user formal education was advanced 394
Table 67: Other ways in which the telecentres assisted users 402
Table 68: Unmet needs per telecentre 408
Table 69: Further ICT training required by the respondents 410
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Table 70: Extent of improvement of users non-formal education 412
Table 71: Telecentre rating by users with respect to staff attitude 414
Table 72: Telecentre rating by users with reference to technical
assistance offered 415
Table 73: Telecentre rating by users with respect to ICT training
Received 417
Table 74: Telecentre rating by users with respect to the quality
of services offered 423
Table 75: Telecentre rating by users with respect to staff technical
Competence 473
Table 76: Means and Standard deviations: Telecentre impact
on community development 476
Table 77: Analysis of variance: Telecentre impact on individual
and community development 478
Table 78: Telephone and Facsimile services offered at Siyabonga
Telecentre and costs thereof 593
Table 79: Typing, printing and multi-media service costs
At Siyabonga telecentre 594
Table 80: Photocopying costs at Siyabonga telecentre 595
Table 81: Desktop publishing costs at Siyabonga telecentre 595
Table 82: Computer course and ICT training costs at Siyabonga
telecentre 596
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Table 83: Computer courses and ICT training costs at Siyabonga
Telecentre 597
Table 84: Costs of using ICT facilities at Tombo telecentre 597
Table 85: Telecentre user demographic profile, access and cost
issues: a comparative analysis 613
Table 86: A comparative analysis of ICT usage by users
(used and unused), and technology use for education, business,
government, health and other services 632
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE PURPOSE OF THIS CHAPTER
This thesis is aimed at investigating and highlighting the important role played by telecentres in
the improvement of formal and non-formal education of people who use telecentres in South
Africa. The study therefore focuses on how telecentres bridge the digital and information divide
between rural and urban South Africa by teaching telecentre users certain information and
communication technology (ICT) skills. The purpose of this introductory chapter is to explain the
need for the study, against the background of the South African telecommunications (hereafter
telecoms) landscape and socio-economic conditions. This first chapter also states the aim of the
study, poses the research question, and discusses theoretical approaches to the study and the
research methodology. It also explores why telecentres are necessary to bridge the digital divide in
South Africa. The role of telecentres in education, in South Africa and other countries, is briefly
discussed.
A summary of the chapter and an outline of forthcoming chapters are provided. At this point it is
necessary to explain why this study was undertaken in the first instance. This chapter is
expounded mainly because it was necessary to describe the historical background and
development of the telecommunication (hereafter telecom) industry and the education challenge
facing South Africa. It was equally important to define and introduce concepts employed in this
thesis and explain how telecentres can assist local people to address the high illiteracy challenge.
African ICT statistics, among them those of Sub-Saharan Africa, were included as this
background is crucial because of the important political and economic development role played
by South Africa in the rest of Africa.
1.2 THE NEED FOR THIS STUDY
There is a need for this study to assess and understand how information and communication
technology (ICT) in South African telecentres contributes to formal and non-formal education of
telecentre users. The focus falls on telecentres in rural and semi-urban areas. The reason is that
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these areas do not have adequate telecoms services and are in need of shared communication
facilities which makes the services more affordable if they are in public institutions because
connection (to networks) and usage charges are shared amongst the users. Information gathered
from this study aims to provide data on how information and communication technologies (ICTs)
in these telecentres contribute to the improvement of the education of the users, which in turn
contributes to their socio-economic development.
Former South African Minister of Communications, the late Dr Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri (2001a:
2), stated that her government recognised that the ICT sector is at the epicentre of growth and
development of the country, and that this will be achieved through lowering input costs,
increasing efficiency and development of skills. Against this background, and because of other
similar sentiments and statements that have been publicly expressed by government department
representatives to the effect that ICT should be employed to develop people in this country and
improve lives, it is necessary to assess how ICT - in telecentres contributes to this development
of skills and reduces illiteracy.
South Africa has high illiteracy levels and it is believe that telecentres should be employed by
South Africans, especially by government departments such as Education, Science and
Technology and Communications to assist in the reduction of illiteracy by teaching local residents
pertinent issues and courses which are geared towards the improvement of their education and
computer skills. Mail and Guardian (December 2006 to January 2007:5) argued that the
television Learning Channel is attempting to solve South Africas education crisis. The article
stated that South Africa is facing an educational crisis and the sooner the problem is addressed by
institutions such as universities with the assistance of other less formal ones, such as telecentres
and other concerned parties, the better.
According to the same Mail and Guardian (2006-7:5) article, South Africa has a population of 47
million people, 30, 6 million of whom are over the age of 16 which means about 16, 4 million
South Africans are children of 16 or younger. Altogether 35 per cent of South Africans have a
matric exemption and only 9, 9 per cent have a post matric qualification. Research conducted by
the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) on South African education has produced results
which require immediate attention and solutions to the problems identified. In particular, in 2002
only 23, 9 per cent of Africans aged 18-24 had a matric and 3, 8 per cent had tertiary education
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(ibid.). This lost potential can also be seen in the 551 000 youth who drop out of school between
Grades 1 and 11 each year (ibid.).
Furthermore, according to Statistics South Africa (Mail and Guardian 2006-7:5), unemployment
among 20 to 30 year-olds increased significantly between 1995 and 2002 and in 1995
approximately 100 000 20 year olds were unemployed. In 2002 that figure had grown to about
250 000 (ibid.). Stats SA stated that young people find it difficult to find employment, and when
they do, many of them are underemployed. Almost 69 per cent of employed youth work in the
service industry and 24 per cent of employed youth work in temporary jobs. It takes an average of
14, 5 months for young people to become employed after leaving school, 16 months for Africans
and 12 months for white people. Seventy-three per cent of African youths between the ages of 18
and 35 have never had a job, while 20 per cent of young people believe they will never get a job
(ibid.). In view of this reality, the challenge for the education (and business) sector is to reduce
high illiteracy levels. In this regard, telecentres could be employed by educational institutions to
seek to alleviate this problem in a small way but meaningful way. It is reasonable to assume that
young people are prepared to learn. Accordingly educational institutions should manage these
educational challenges effectively by providing society, inter alia, with the necessary information,
digital and strategic skills.
Benjamin (2003:19), who conducted a few studies on South African telecentres that identified
deficiencies (cf. Chapter 4), and concluded that telecentres do have a role to play in educating the
South African public:
A few of the USAs telecentres have been very successful, such as Mamelodi,
Gaseleka and Acornhoek. However, many are struggling with the technology not
finding much local application. From the past few years we have seen how
technology is wasted if there is not sufficient training and infrastructure support
where local applications of the technology are not developed, the technology
serves little purpose. This work must now change in focus. Work should now
focus on exploring ways in which these technologies can be of use in
increasing the capacity of people in poverty.
Much has been written about the success of Gaseleka telecentre (Latchem and Walker 2001;
Hulbert 2006). In his writings about South African telecentres (cf. Chapter 4), Benjamin does not
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suggest the writing-off of South African telecentres as instruments of development, but
acknowledges that these telecentres have sustainability challenges. Benjamin (2003:12) suggests
that new ways should be found to make these telecentres more useful for the communities they
are located in and a large part of this involves providing ICT training. This study concurs with
Benjamins view and further emphasises that working telecentres (e.g., Gaseleka and the four
sampled for this research), should serve as models to establish more telecentres, rather than some
telecom analysts lamenting that the telecentres have failed. Besides, if the communities or
telecentre owners wish to continue running the telecentres, they will continue to operate the
centres regardless of whether some critics regard these centres as failures. This is partly a
consequence of community members positive view about the telecentres role in their
communities and this researchers research observations among local residents, among whom she
conducted research on local telecentres since 2001. Thus local community members often speak
of their telecentres and how they view the centres as having a positive impact on their lives. The
researcher was also intrigued by why published works on telecentres maintained that telecentres
were failing whereas telecentre operators, when interviewed, stated that the telecentres had a
positive impact on the lives of users and communities. This dichotomy of views between
academics and telecentre operators induced this researcher to conduct this study to find out in real
terms what the telecentre impact is, from the users perspective.
Conducting this study was one way of specifying what the impact is in tangible terms, especially
regarding user education. The experience of this researcher with several urban and rural
telecentres in four provinces she visited (Ndevana, Machibini, Ntselamanzi, Tombo, Hoxani,
Modimosana, Botlokwa, Mankweng, Mohodi, Moletji, Moteti, Rustenburg, Siyabonga and
MACIS), is that local community members at the centres were optimistic and enthusiastic about
the positive role played by the centres in their communities and very few were pessimistic.
Therefore, user views and benefits required further research and recording.
This researcher was also mystified by suggestions that telecentres are failed interventions to ICT
problems because telecentres are successful in many countries employed to bring ICT services to
rural areas. Therefore, the question arose why telecentres are failing in South Africa, if indeed
they are, and how this failure could be remedied or avoided in future. Moreover, if telecentres
indeed fail, then how can ICT services be deployed in rural areas as telecentres are a practical and
cheap way of introducing ICT to rural (and poor) areas because they offer affordable (worldwide)
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shared services. Also, an abundance of literature suggests that ICT has been proven to play a
crucial role in developing poor countries, reducing poverty and societal inequality, and bridging
the digital and information divides, e.g., in Latin America and rural China (see Ameriles, Paz,
Russell and Johnson [Sa]; Coward 2008; India, Brazil and South Africa Dialogue Forum 2008;
Fuchs and Horak 2008; Ki-Moon 2007; Sawhney and Jayakar 2005; Xia and Lu 2005, 2008).
Additionally, Coward (2008:1) states there are three reasons that necessitate more research
attention to telecentres despite previous studies leaning to the conclusion that telecentres are not
fulfilling their potential in achieving self-sustainability, reaching disadvantaged populations or
bringing about noticeable socio-economic change (ibid.). Coward states that most previous
research on telecentres is more qualitative in nature and based on perceptions; and that from a
research perspective, this is far from ideal.
Unlike most previous studies on telecentres, this study offers both qualitative and quantitative
investigation of telecentre impact, with impact measured using variables such as use of ICT for
communicating with other human beings in geographically different locations, increase in
telecentre user ICT awareness and use, improved educational qualifications, e.g., diplomas passed
at the centres, improved computer literacy and software usage skill, access to government services
using telecentre building and Internet, access to other Internet services e.g., access to multimedia
services such as music, CDs and movies (as two users were watching movies on earphones at
MACIS), doing school homework and writing (and posting mail) university assignments at the
centre, and gaining business skills (computer related) and other gains. Most of these benefits (in
relation to the four telecentres under study) are stated in Chapters 7 and 8.
The quantitative part of the study add