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Temple Israel

Introduction to Judaism

JEWISH CALENDAR

PART 2

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Jewish Holiday Calendar

NOTE: Each holiday begins and ends at sundown on the days listed.

Jewish Year 5772 5773 5774 5775 5776

Secular Year Sep '11 - Sep '12

Sep '12 - Sep '13

Sep '13 - Sep '14

Sep '14 - Sep '15

Sep '15 - Sep '16

S'LICHOT SERVICE Sep 24 Sep 8 Aug 31 Sep 20 Sep 5

ROSH HASHANAH Sep 28-30 Sep 16-18 Sep 4-6 Sep 24-26 Sep 13-15

YOM KIPPUR Oct 7-8 Sep 25-26 Sep 13-14 Oct 3-4 Sep 22-23

SUKKOT Oct 12-19 Sep 30-Oct 7 Sep 18-25 Oct 8-15 Sep 27-Oct 4

ATZERET - SIMCHAT TORAH

Oct 19-20 Oct 7-8 Sep 25-26 Oct 16-17 Oct 4-5

HANUKKAH Dec 20-28 Dec 8-16 Nov 27-Dec 5 Dec 16-24 Dec 6-14

TU BISH'VAT Feb 7-8 Jan 25-26 Jan 15-16 Feb 3-4 Jan 24-25

PURIM Mar 7-8 Feb 23-24 Mar 15-16 Mar 4-5 Mar 23-24

PASSOVER Apr 6-13 Mar 25-Apr 1 Apr 14-21 Apr 3-10 Apr 22-29

YOM HASHOAH Apr 18-19 Apr 6-7 Apr 26-27 Apr 15-16 May 4-5

YOM HAZIKARON Apr 24-25 Apr 14-15 May 4-5 Apr 21-22 May 10-11

YOM HAATZMA-UT Apr 25-26 Apr 15-16 May 5-6 Apr 22-23 May 11-12

LAG BA'OMER May 9-10 Apr 27-28 May 17-18 May 6-7 May 25-26

SHAVUOT May 26-27 May 14-15 Jun 3-4 May 23-24 Jun 11-12

TISHAH B'AV Jul 28-29 Jul 15-16 Aug 5-6 Jul 25-26 Aug 13-14

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December 14, 2010 | 7 Tevet 5771 | Week 370, Day 2

The Jewish Calendar—And Reform Options-Part One

Rabbi Richard Sarason

The Jewish calendar in use today is a rabbinic elaboration of the biblical calendar. That calendar is lunisolar. While the

months are determined by the cycles of the moon (and particularly by the appearance of the new moon), the year is

determined by the cycle of the sun.1 Specifically, Pesach must fall out each year in the spring, so the year is intercalated

(that is, extra days are added) before the month of Nisan in which Pesach occurs.2

The lunar month—astronomically speaking, the period between one conjunction of the moon with the sun (during which

the moon is not visible) and the next—is twenty-nine days plus a remainder (12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 ½ seconds).

Since only full days are counted in the calendar, this means that some months in the Jewish year will have 30 days

(Nisan, Sivan, Av, Tishrei, Shevat, Adar [1]), while the rest will have 29 (Iyar, Tammuz, Elul, Tevet, Adar [2]). The

months of Marcheshvan and Kislev can vary in this regard from year to year.

Because the orbit of the earth around the sun is elliptical rather than circular, the exact length of the solar year is 365

days plus a remainder (48 minutes and 46 seconds). Since the solar year is about 11 days longer than the lunar year, an

additional month (Adar 2) is added in each of seven out of the nineteen years that constitute the lunar cycle. While some

of the mathematical principles and calculations involved in the periodic intercalation of the calendar were already worked

out by the Rabbis of the Talmud, the full regularization of the Jewish calendar, as we know it today, did not take place

until the tenth century.3

The festivals of the Jewish year are all agricultural in origin; they are tied to the phases of the sun. The vernal

equinox4 marks the beginning of spring. In the land of Israel, this is the end of the rainy season and the period of the

wheat and barley harvests as well as the birthing season for flocks and herds. The spring festival cycle begins with

Pesach, at the full moon of the spring month (Nisan 15). Agriculturally speaking, Pesach celebrates the new grain crop

(hence the requirement to remove anything leavened—fermented—in order to begin the year with new, unsullied grain

produce) as well as the new life among domesticated animals. The first sheaf (‘omer) of the grain and the firstborn of the

flocks and herds are offered up to God, who owns the land and governs its fertility, as an act of gratitude and in order to

insure future fertility. Barley matures approximately seven weeks later than wheat---so seven weeks are counted before

bringing in the barley harvest and other first fruits of the crops (Shavu’ot).

The autumnal equinox5 marks the beginning of autumn. In the land of Israel, this is the beginning of the rainy season

and the time of harvest for late summer crops. The festival of Sukkot, which begins at the full moon of the biblical

seventh month (rabbinic first month) is the time of ingathering, when the rains are eagerly anticipated and fervently

prayed for. Booths are put up in the fields so that the harvesters may stay out with the crops. The priestly festival

calendars of Leviticus 23 and Numbers 28-29 also mark out the first and tenth days of the (biblical) seventh month for

ritual attention. The first day of the month is the time for blowing loud blasts (teru’ot), presumably in order to call God’s

attention to the plight of the Israelite people, whose lives and livelihoods depend at this time of year on adequate rainfall

and an abundant harvest. The tenth day of the month is when the sanctuary must be purged of all impurities—and the

people purified from their sins that defile the land and the sanctuary—in advance of the harvest ingathering and the onset

of the rains.

Already in the biblical literature, these agricultural festivals come to be interpreted with reference to primal events in the

mythic history of Israel. Pesach is identified with the archetypal redemption of Israel from Egypt: the requirement to eat

only new, unleavened bread is explained in terms of the Exodus narrative (the Israelites left Egypt in such haste that they

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had no time to let their dough leaven), as is the offering to God of the firstborn among the flocks and herds and the

redemption of the firstborn sons (God struck down all the firstborn Egyptian males in the tenth plague). Sukkot, too, is

tied to the Exodus narrative (the festival booths are a reminder of the booths our ancestors inhabited on their journey

through the wilderness after leaving Egypt). Shavuot, on the other hand, is first identified in rabbinic literature as the

time of the giving of the Torah at Sinai.

The winter solstice is marked by the lighting of lights during Hanukkah. The summer solstice is no longer marked on the

Jewish festival calendar (although Ezekiel 8:14 refers disparagingly to the women’s rite of weeping for Tammuz, the

Babylonian fertility god, as vegetation died in the intense midsummer heat). Instead, fasts connected with the

destruction of the Temple (17th of Tammuz, 9th of Av) are observed.

The major seasonal festivals of spring (Pesach) and fall (Sukkot) each last a week, with an eighth-day concluding festival

(called by the Rabbis, Shemini Atzeret) at the end of Sukkot. Hanukkah, too, lasts eight days (it is modeled in this regard

after Sukkot). Shavuot, on the other hand, is observed for a single day, as are Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur. In the

Babylonian Diaspora, certainly by the time of the Talmud, it became customary to add an additional day to the

observance of all of the biblical festivals (except, of course, for the fast of Yom Kippur, so as not to cause undue physical

distress). The reason for this two- day observance was that the beginning of each festival was set in the land of Israel

and proclaimed by the rabbinical courts in the land. It could take as long as a second day for the proclamation to be

received in Babylonia---so a second day was observed as a precautionary measure (one of the two days observed was

certainly the festival day). By the time that the calendar came to be set according to foolproof mathematical calculations

rather than fallible empirical astronomical observation, the second-day observance (yom tov sheni shel galuyyot) had

become a longstanding and hallowed custom in Babylonia (and the Mediterranean diaspora under its influence)—and thus

the custom was retained. In the land of Israel only a single festival day was observed, and that remains customary today

in the State of Israel.

The custom of observing two days of Rosh Hashanah has a different basis that obtains even in the land of Israel: namely,

doubt as to when the new moon of Tishrei actually occurs—particularly when this was dependent on the testimony of

eyewitnesses. The theoretical possibility of observing two days of Rosh Hashanah for this reason is raised in the Mishnah

(Rosh Hashanah 4:4),6 but the list of festival Torah readings given at Mishnah Megillah 3:5 and Tosefta Megillah 3:6

suggests that, in fact, the mishnaic custom was to observe only a single day of Rosh Hashanah (no reading is listed in

either Mishnah or Tosefta for a second day of Rosh Hashanah). The present custom of observing two days of Rosh

Hashanah in the land of Israel as well dates from the twelfth century, when Jews from Provence settled there and

instituted the custom.

Dr. Sarason is Professor of Rabbinic Literature and Thought and the Associate Editor of the Hebrew Union College

Annual. He was ordained at HUC-JIR.

1. By contrast, the Islamic calendar is fully lunar—that is why the major, month-long observance of Ramadan travels

around the solar calendar, never at the same solar time each year. The Gregorian calendar in use in western countries is

a solar calendar—that is why the holidays of the Jewish year can fall out on it with as much as a month’s variance over a

period of several years. A 364-day schematic solar calendar was used by the Jewish sectarians at Qumran during the late

Second Temple period. It is attested in the calendrical scrolls found there. This calendar is also known from the Enochic

Astronomical Book (1 Enoch 72-82) and the Book of Jubilees, both texts from the late Second Temple period. See the

article, “Calendars,” in John J. Collins and Daniel C. Harlow, The Eerdmans Dictionary of Early Judaism (Grand Rapids, MI:

William B. Eerdmans, 2010) 457-460.

2. The names of the Hebrew months in use today—Tishrei, Marcheshvan, Kislev, etc.—are actually Babylonian. The old

Hebrew/Canaanite names are found in the older sections of the biblical narrative—Aviv, Bul, Ziv, Eitanim (only these four

are mentioned by name). Before the Babylonian exile, the Hebrew year began in the spring (cf. Ex. 12:1---“This month

[Aviv, during which Pesach falls] shall mark for you the beginning of the months; it shall be the first of the months of the

year for you”). The Babylonian year began in the fall—this custom is preserved in the post-exilic and rabbinic calendars.

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In the rabbinic calendar, Rosh Hashanah, the beginning of the year, is the first day of Tishrei---while in the biblical

calendar, this day, referred to as the day of loud blasts (yom teru’ah; zikhron teru’ah) falls on the first day of the

seventh month, seven months after Aviv.

3. For a fuller account, see the article “Calendar,” in the Encyclopaedia Judaica(Jerusalem: Keter, 1971) 5:43ff.

4. The vernal equinox is the point at which days and nights are the same length while the days are getting longer.

5. The autumnal equinox is the point at which days and nights are the same length, while the days are getting shorter.

6. But the situation envisaged here, during Temple times, is quite specific. See the discussion on this entire issue by

Charles L. Arian and Clifford E. Librach, “The ‘Second Day’ of Rosh Hashanah: History, Law, and Practice,” in Journal of

Reform Judaism[=CCAR Journal] 32:3, Summer, 1985, 7-83.

December 21, 2010 | 14 Tevet 5771 | Week 371, Day 2

The Jewish Calendar—And Reform Options-Part Two

Rabbi Richard Sarason

In the modern Reform movement, the question of whether it was necessary or desirable to observe the second day of the

festivals—since their rationale was perceived to be artificial and outdated--was taken up in Germany in the 1840’s.1 As

early as 1846, the Reform rabbis in the German states assembled in conference in Breslau declared that the Diaspora

second-day observance of the festivals “have lost their meaning for our time. Congregations are therefore fully justified in

abolishing the second-day holidays if they are inclined to do so” (cited in CCAR Yearbook 1 [1890], p. 96). North American

Reform congregations routinely opted not to observe the second festival day. The second day of Rosh Hashanah, on the

other hand, was observed in most German Reform congregations and in some North American Reform congregations as

well. But it was not observed in the Union Prayer Book (vol. 2) of 1894 or its significant predecessors (Leo Merzbacher’s

prayer book [1855] for Temple Emanuel in New York, David Einhorn’s Olat Tamid [1858]), or Isaac Mayer Wise’s Minhag

America (vol. 2; 1866). On the other hand, the more recent Gates of Repentance (1978) provides two sets of services for

Rosh Hashanah, allowing for the possibility of a second-day observance.

The decision of virtually all Reform congregations not to observe the diasporan second day of the festivals (including the

eighth day of Pesach and Simchat Torah as the second day of Shemini Atseret)2 leads to some interesting complications

for the weekly cycle of Torah readings when the traditional eighth day of Pesach or the second day of Shavuot fall on a

Shabbat. Traditional congregations on these days read special Torah portions for these festivals. Reform congregations,

on the other hand, resume the regular Torah-reading cycle of the year (usually Parashat Shemini after Pesach

and Parashat Naso after Shavuot). In this, they concur with all congregations in the land of Israel. If the decision is made

to simply conform the weekly Torah reading schedule at this point to the schedule used in Israel, it will diverge from the

diasporan reading schedule for anywhere between six and fifteen weeks, depending on the length and type of the

year.3 That is why the calendar published each year by the Women of Reform Judaism has opted in these cases to split

the first parashah after the holiday into two halves and to distribute them over two weeks: during the second week, the

reading is back in sync with the diasporan Torah reading cycle.4

A similar decision needs to be made by Reform congregations regarding the observance of Rosh Chodesh during those

months that have 30 days. Traditionally in these circumstances, both the 30th day of the month and the first day of the

next month are observed as Rosh Chodesh, since there is doubt as to when the actual new month begins. Some Reform

congregations decide to observe only a single day of Rosh Chodesh, namely the first day of the new month (so that,

ironically, it is the traditional second day that is observed). This has additional liturgical consequences with regard to the

Shabbat Haftarah that might be read on the day before Rosh Chodesh (Machar Chodesh, 1 Sam. 20:18-42) or on the day

of Rosh Chodesh itself when it falls on Shabbat (Isaiah 66:1-13, 23): if the 30th day of the month is not observed as Rosh

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Chodesh, then, if it falls out on Shabbat, one would read Machar Chodesh instead of the reading for Shabbat Rosh

Chodesh. If the 30th day of the month falls on a Sunday, one would not read Machar Chodesh. (Some Reform

congregations choose not to read either of these Haftarot in any case, but simply read the regular weekly Haftarah.) Any

of these decisions can be validly grounded. As we consider these issues, we should not wonder that calendar has so often

been a source and a marker of sectarian/social divisions in Jewish history.

Dr. Sarason is Professor of Rabbinic Literature and Thought and the Associate Editor of the Hebrew Union College

Annual. He was ordained at HUC-JIR.

1. The earliest German Reform congregational prayer books (from the Hamburg Tempelverein, 1819; rev. 1841) retained

the second-day festival observance.

2. Although it is increasingly common for Reform Jews and Reform congregations to observe the second Seder during

Pesach.

3. For a full account of this issue, see Arthur Spier, The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar, third revised edition (New York:

Philip Feldheim, 1986), 12.

4. For a full discussion of this issue (including different opinions on how to resolve it), see the exchange between Rabbi

Eric Wisnia and myself on Eilu v’eilu, August 7 and August 14, 2006.

Take your study of 10 Minutes of Torah to the next level. Sign up for Eilu V'Eilu. Each month, two scholars debate an issue and

answer questions raised by you, the learner.

© Union for Reform Judaism

212.650.4000 633 Third Avenue • New York, NY • 10017

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THE JEWISH CALENDAR

The Jewish calendar was established in 359 C.E. and is based primarily on a lunar cycle with adjustments over the

years to correct for the solar cycle.

Spring - Nisan, Iyar, Sivan

Summer - Tamuz, Av, Elul

Fall – Tishri, Chesvan, Kislev

Winter – Tevet, Shevat, Adar

A lunar month is approximately 29 ½ days. Obviously, months must consist of whole days so, in a regular year, 6

months are 29 days and 6 months are 30 days. Rosh Hodesh typically begins on the first day of each month.

However, if the month has 30 days, Rosh Hodesh would actually begin during the 30th

day. Therefore, for months

that are 30 days, Rosh Hodesh is celebrated for 2 days (although essentially ONE Rosh Hodesh), the 30th

day being

Day #1 and the first day of the next month being Day #2. Rosh Hodesh is especially a women’s holiday. They may

refrain from a number of chores as God’s reward for refusing to give their earrings to help build the golden calf.

Since 12 lunar months only add up to about 354 days, they will be 11 days short of a full solar year (365 days). To

compensate for this, an extra month (Adar II) is added seven times during each 19 year cycle. These are added

during years 3,6,8,11,14,17 and 19.

In addition Yom Kippur cannot fall on a Friday or Sunday, and the first day of Rosh Hashana cannot fall on a

Sunday, Wednesday or Friday. If this is possible, then during the prior year, either one day is added to Heshvan

(making it 30 days) or subtracted from Kislev (making it 29 days)

Therefore, depending on whether there is a Adar II, or whether a day as been added or subtracted, the Jewish year

can be 6 possible lengths - 353,354,355 or 383,384,385 days.

One problem is that even with all the adjustments, the Jewish year averages 7 minutes more that the solar year.

Therefore, every 216 years our calendar advances one day. Since 359 C.E. (1644 years) our calendar has advanced

7 days on the seasons. Thus Passover gradually moves towards summer.

Introduction to the Jewish Calendar www.jewishgen.org/InfoFiles/m_calint.htm

Days and Weeks The Jewish day begins at sunset. The status of the period between sunset (the disappearance of the sun behind the

horizon) and nightfall (the emergence of three medium-sized stars) is doubtful. For some purposes, it is treated as

part of the previous day, e.g. at the end of Shabbat, when the prohibition of creative activities (melacha) remains in

force until nightfall.

Books and computer programs for conversions between the Jewish and Gregorian (civil) calendars are based on the

daylight portion of the Jewish day. For instance, if you know that one of your ancestors was born on 26 Nissan

5580, you will find that this corresponds to 10 April 1820 - but the actual birthday may have been 9 April 1820 (in

the evening).

With the exception of the Shabbat, the weekdays have no names. They are simply numbered:

1. yom rishon (Sunday)

2. yom sheni (Monday)

3. yom sh'lishi (Tuesday)

4. yom revi'i (Wednesday)

5. yom chamishi (Thursday)

6. yom shishi (Friday)

The week culminates in the seventh day, the Holy Shabbat (shabbat kodesh).

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Months The Jewish month is based on the lunar or synodic month, the time it takes for the moon to circle the earth. Since

the exact duration of one revolution is a little over 29.5 days, the length of the months normally alternates between

29 and 30 days. A month of 30 days is called male ('full'), one of 29 days chaser ('defective'). There are two months

which are male in some years and chaser in others.

The month begins with the appearance of the new moon. In the time of the Temple, the Sanhedrin (the highest

court) sanctified the new month when two witnesses had actually sighted the moon. In the middle of the fourth

century C.E., a fixed calendar was introduced.

In the Tora, the months are numbered; the first is the one in which the Exodus from Egypt occurred (Yetziat

Mitzrayim; cf. Shemot [Exodus] 12:2). Later, names of Babylonian origin were adopted:

1. Nisan (30 days)

2. Iyyar (29 days)

3. Sivan (30 days)

4. Tammuz (29 days)

5. Av (30 days)

6. Elul (29 days)

7. Tishri (30 days)

8. Cheshvan (29 or 30 days)

9. Kislev (30 or 29 days)

10. Tevet (29 days)

11. Sh'vat (30 days)

12. Adar (29 days)

The first day of each month (with the exception of Rosh Hashana, the Jewish New Year) is Rosh Chodesh (lit.

'head of the month') - and so is the thirtieth day of the preceding month, if there is one. For example, if a gravestone

inscription mentions the first day of Rosh Chodesh Elul, the calendar date 30 Av is meant.

Years An ordinary year consists of twelve months. When Cheshvan has 29 days and Kislev 30, it is "regular" (kesidra); if

both have 30 days, it is "complete" (sh'lema) or "excessive", and if both have 29 days it is "defective" (chasera).

Thus, an ordinary year can have 353, 354 or 355 days.

A lunar year of 354 days is about 11 days shorter than the solar year, i.e. one revolution of the earth around the sun,

which corresponds to the cycle of the seasons. If the Jewish calendar were based exclusively on the lunar year,

Pesach (15 Nisan) would fall in the spring in one year, in the winter a few years later, then in the autumn, then in

the summer and - after about 33 years - in the spring again. But the Tora says that Pesach must be celebrated in the

spring (be-chodesh ha-aviv, Shemot [Exodus] 13:4), and so the average length of the Jewish year must be adjusted

to the solar year. This is achieved by adding an entire month about every three years: In each cycle of 19 years, the

3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th and 19th years are leap years, the others are common years. For example, 5755 was a

leap year because it was the 17th year in the 303rd cycle of 19 years: 5755/19 = 302 + 17/19. (This is something

that you can calculate online.)

The extra month in a leap year has 30 days so that the year lasts for 383, 384 or 385 days. It is added after the

month of Sh'vat and is called Adar I, whereas the original Adar (of 29 days) becomes Adar II. Purim, which is on

14 Adar, is celebrated in Adar II in a leap year. Someone who was born in Adar of a common year will celebrate

the anniversary in Adar II in leap years, but yahrzeit for someone who died in Adar of a common year is observed

in Adar I in leap years.

The new year begins with Rosh Hashana, the first of Tishri (although this is the seventh month), in September or

early October according to the Gregorian (civil) calendar. Jewish years are counted from the Creation of the world.

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To convert the Jewish year to the year of the Common Era (CE), subtract 3760 (or 3761 for the first months; in

most years, 1 January falls in Tevet). For example, the major part of the Jewish year 5678 corresponded to 1918;

the beginning of 5678 was in 1917. When the year is written with Hebrew letters, the 5000 is usually omitted

("small count"). In that case, one can find the civil equivalent by adding 1240. For instance, the numerical values of

the letters tet-shin-nun-vav add up to 756, short for 5756. That is the Jewish year which corresponds to 1996 (756 +

1240 = 1996); to be precise, it lasts from the evening of 24 September 1995 until the evening of 13 September

1996. (The numerical equivalent of a year written in Hebrew letters can be determined.)

Holidays All Jewish holidays, fast days, remembrance days etc. have a fixed date in the Jewish calendar. Some of them are

shifted to a different day if they fall on or just before the Shabbat.

Major festivals

The Tora describes two cycles of festivals (cf. Vayikra [Leviticus] Ch. 23, Bamidbar [Numbers] Ch. 28-29): the

three pilgrimage festivals (Pesach, Shavuot, Sukkot) and the High Holidays (Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur).

Rosh Hashana (New Year)

1-2 Tishri

Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement)

10 Tishri

Sukkot (Tabernacles): Full Holiday

Diaspora: 15-16 Tishri

Israel: 15 Tishri

Sukkot: Chol Hamoed (Semi-Holidays)

Diaspora: 17-21 Tishri

Israel: 16-21 Tishri

Sh'mini Atzeret (Eighth Day of Assembly)

22 Tishri

Simchat Tora (Rejoicing of the Tora)

Diaspora: 23 Tishri

Israel: combined with Sh'mini Atzeret (22 Tishri)

Pesach (Passover): Full Holiday

Diaspora: 15-16 Nisan

Israel: 15 Nisan

Pesach: Chol Hamoed (Semi-Holidays)

Diaspora: 17-20 Nisan

Israel: 16-20 Nisan

Pesach: Final Holiday

Diaspora: 21-22 Nisan

Israel: 21 Nisan

Shavuot (Festival of Weeks)

Diaspora: 6-7 Sivan

Israel: 6 Sivan

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Minor festivals

Two festivals commemorating the miraculous salvation of the Jewish people were instituted after the beginning of

the Babylonian exile: Purim has its basis in the biblical Book of Esther, Chanukah in the apocryphal Books of the

Maccabees.

Chanukah (Festival of Lights)

If Kislev has 30 days: 25 Kislev - 2 Tevet

If Kislev has 29 days: 25 Kislev - 3 Tevet

Purim (Festival of Lots)

14 Adar (in leap years Adar II)

Shushan Purim (in Jerusalem): 15 Adar (in leap years Adar II)

Fast days

In addition to Yom Kippur and Ta'anit Esther, four public fast days commemorating the destruction of the first

Temple were instituted in the era of the Prophets (cf. Zechariah 8:19). Since fasting is forbidden on the Shabbat

(with the exception of Yom Kippur), fast days that fall on Shabbat are shifted.

Tzom Gedalya (assassination of the governor Gedaliah)

3 Tishri (If 3 Tishri falls on Shabbat, the fast is observed on Sunday -4 Tishri)

Asara b'Tevet (beginning of the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem)

10 Tevet

Ta'anit Ester (Fast of Esther)

13 Adar (in leap years Adar II) (If 13 Adar falls on Shabbat, the fast is observed on Thursday -11 Adar)

Shiv'a Asar b'Tammuz (first breach in the walls of Jerusalem during the Babylonian siege)

17 Tammuz (If 17 Tammuz falls on Shabbat, the fast is observed on Sunday -18 Tammuz)

Tish'a b'Av (destruction of the Temple)

9 Av (If 9 Av falls on Shabbat, the fast is observed on Sunday -10 Av)

Other special days

After the proclamation of the State of Israel, new minor festivals and memorial days were introduced; Tu bi-Shvat

and Lag ba-Omer, which go back to Talmudic times, became particularly popular with children.

Tu bi-Shvat (New Year of Trees)

15 Sh'vat

Yom ha-Sho'ah (Holocaust Memorial Day)

27 Nisan

Yom ha-Zikkaron (Memorial day for fallen Israeli soldiers)

Eve of Yom ha-Atzma'ut

Yom ha-Atzma'ut (Israel Independence Day)

5 Iyyar (If 5 Iyyar falls on Friday or Shabbat, the celebrations are held on Thursday (4 or 3 Iyyar) so as to avoid

a desecration of Shabbat)

Lag ba-Omer (33rd day in the Omer period)

18 Iyyar

Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day)

28 Iyyar

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Tu Bishvat 101 http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Tu_Bishvat/Tu_Bishvat_101_Prn.shtml

Tu Bishvat is a holiday intimately connected to the agricultural cycle of the Land of Israel. Falling in the middle of

the Jewish month of Shvat, the 15th day of the month is the New Year of Trees. Today, this holiday is often

celebrated by planting saplings and also by participating in a seder-meal that echoes the Passover seder, in which

the produce of trees, including fruits and nuts, are eaten.

Ideas and Beliefs

The Bible expresses a great reverence for fruit trees as symbols of God's bounty

and beneficence. Special laws were formulated to protect fruit trees in times of

war and ensure that the produce of trees would not be picked until the trees were

mature enough and tithes were given from them. In order to calculate the age of

trees, both for determining when they could be harvested and when they were to

be tithed for the Temple, the Talmudic Rabbis established the 15th day (Tu) of

the month of Shvat as the official "birthday" of trees.

Subsequent to the destruction of the Temple, Tu Bishvat lost much of its

relevance, but in the middle ages it was rediscovered by Jewish mystics. In the

modern period it has enjoyed another revival as a holiday that links Jews with

the land of Israel and as a Jewish celebration of the environment.

Practices

When the Temple stood in Jerusalem, Tu Bishvat served as the day on which farmers offered the first fruits of the

trees they planted, after the trees had turned four years old. The following Tu Bishvat signified when the farmers

were allowed to begin making use of the produce of the trees they planted, whether for personal or economic

reasons.

In the middle ages, the Jewish mystics of Safed developed a ritual meal celebrated on Tu Bishvat that was modeled

on the Passover seder. Four cups of wine were drunk and seven "fruits" symbolic of those of the Holy Land were

eaten. With the rise of Zionism in the late 19th century, Tu Bishvat was rediscovered as a celebration that links the

Jews with their land. The holiday became one of rededication to the ecology of the denuded land, with the planting

of trees taking center stage in the celebration. Jews outside of Israel contribute money to plant trees there and/or

plant trees in their own communities.

With the increased concern for the environment in recent years, Tu Bishvat has taken on an additional meaning as a

day on which Jews can express and act on their concern for the ecological well-being of the world in which we live.

This has led to the rediscovery of the mystical Tu Bishvat seder, now transformed into a celebration of God's

bounty and the environment.

- 12 -

- 13 -

Purim 101 http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Purim/Purim_101_Prn.shtml

Purim, or the Feast of Lots, is a joyous holiday that recounts the saving of the Jews from a threatened massacre

during the Persian period (539-330 BCE). The story of Purim is recounted in the Book of Esther, whose eponymous

heroine plays the leading role in saving her people. The holiday is traditionally celebrated with wild abandon and

with the giving of gifts to friends and the poor.

History While the origins of Purim appear clear from the Book of Esther, historians have looked in

vain for any sort of extra-biblical corroboration of the events of the story. Be that as it may,

it is a tale that purports to take place during a time when many Jews were living in Persia. A

young Jewish woman, Esther, rises to be Queen of Persia under the tutelage of her guardian

Mordecai. All, however, is not right. The Jews have enemies, and a certain Haman, the

grand vizier, plots the Jews' destruction. Even though Esther has hidden her Jewish identity

from all, Mordecai prevails on her to risk her life by revealing her true identity to the king.

She does this and denounces the evil Haman's plot. At the end of the story, the Jews are able

to turn the tables on their enemies, who are then punished in place of the intended victims. This story is one of the

most beloved in the Jewish community, because of the hope that it gives a minority living in an oftentimes hostile

majority culture.

In Megillah (scroll), the Talmudic tractate devoted to Purim observances, Rabbi Akiva declares the Book of Esther

to be divinely inspired. Some commentators believe this eventually led to the inclusion of Esther in the Hebrew

Bible, despite the omission of God from the book. The Greek versions of Esther contain a number of additions--

including God's name--not found in the Hebrew story.

At Home In distinction to various other holidays, such as Pesach (Passover), Purim is the quintessential community holiday.

Nonetheless, there are a number of activities that are centered in the home. One of the favorite activities in

preparation for the holiday is the baking of hamantaschen, the triangular filled pastries that are the traditional food

at Purim time. In addition, following the commandment to give gifts to friends and the poor, the preparation of so-

called mishloah manot baskets is a fun activity to engage in, as is their distribution on the holiday. The centerpiece

of Purim's home celebration is the seudah, a festive meal accompanied by alcoholic beverages.

In the Community Purim is a community holiday of joyful celebration. The centerpiece of the communal celebration is the reading of

the Scroll of Esther, the Megillah, in the synagogue. This is a raucous affair, with whoops, hollers, and noise being

made every time that Haman's name is mentioned, so no one can hear the name of this horrible evildoer. Another

tradition is the Purim shpiel, the Purim play, during which fun is poked at community leaders and members. Purim

has often been called the Jewish carnival, and dressing in costume and taking part in a Purim carnival heighten the

levity of the day, on which one is encouraged to engage in activities that at other times of the year would be

somewhat more restricted in scope, such as drinking.

Themes and Theology The overriding theme of Purim is the saving of the Jews from a mortal threat. Even though God is not mentioned at

all in the Book of Esther, from a Jewish perspective, God is the one who is pulling the strings of redemption behind

the scenes. The holiday of Purim has become one of the best-loved holidays of the Jewish year. The reasons for this

are easy to see. It is a joyous holiday on which everyone just lets go. Most significant, however, is the paradigmatic

nature of the story of Purim. It is not difficult to see how a story in which a small and threatened Jewish community

in exile is able to triumph over its foes would prove to be a powerful image for a Diaspora community faced over

the centuries with threats from many different sources. The story of Purim, however, holds out the hope that no

matter how bad the circumstances, things will turn out well in the end.

- 14 -

Passover (Pesach) 101 http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Passover/Passover_101_Prn.shtml

Passover, or Pesach in Hebrew, is one of the three major pilgrimage festivals of ancient Israel. Originally a

combination of a couple of different spring festivals, it is a commemoration of the Exodus from Egypt--especially

the night when God "passed over" the houses of the Israelites during the tenth plague--and of the following day,

when the Israelites had to leave Egypt hurriedly. Centered on the family or communal celebration of the seder

(ritual meal), Passover is one of the most beloved of all Jewish holidays.

History The origins of Passover lie in pre-Israelite spring celebrations of the first grain harvest and the births of the first

lambs of the season. Within a Jewish context, however, it celebrates God's great redemptive act at the time of the

Exodus, leading the Israelites out from slavery in Egypt to freedom. Together with Shavout (the Festival of Weeks)

and Sukkot (The Festival of Booths), Pesach is one of the ancient Israelite pilgrimage festivals, during which adult

males journeyed to the Temple in Jerusalem to offer sacrifices and bask in the divine presence. Since the

destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, the focus of Pesach celebration shifted to the ritual meal, called the

seder, that takes place either in the home or in the community.

At Home In anticipation of Pesach, it is traditional to engage in a thorough spring cleaning. During the holiday, Jews' food

reflects the major theme of Passover, reliving God's great redemptive act, albeit in a vicarious manner. Because the

Israelites had no time to let their bread rise, Jewish law forbids eating (or even possessing) any food that can

contain leaven.Therefore, a major part of the preparations for Pesach consists of removing all traces of leavened

foods from the home and replacing them with unleavened foods (though many Jews prefer to "sell" their unused

leaven products to a non-Jew for the duration of the holiday). This necessitates both a massive cleanup and the

replacement of one's ordinary dishes with special Pesach ones. It also requires a shopping expedition to stock the

kitchen with special Passover-kosher foods.

Seder The central ritual of Pesach is the seder, a carefully choreographed ritual meal that takes place

either in the home or in the community. A number of symbolic foods are laid out on the table, of

which the most important are the matzah, the unleavened "bread of affliction," and the

shankbone, which commemorates the Pesach sacrifice in the Temple. The seder follows a script

laid out in the Haggadah, a book that tells the story of the redemption from Egypt and thanks

God for it. Although the Haggadah is a traditional text, many people--particularly in the modern

world--add to it and revise it in accord with their theology and understanding of God's

redemptive actions in the world.

In the Community Although the focus of Passover observance is on the home, it should not be forgotten that Pesach is a holiday, on

the first and last days of which traditional Judaism prohibits working. There are special synagogue services,

including special biblical readings, among which one finds Shir ha-Shirim, "The Song of Songs" and Hallel, Psalms

of praise and thanksgiving for God's saving act in history. The last day of Passover is one of the four times a year

that the Yizkor service of remembrance is recited.

Theology and Themes The overarching theme of Passover is redemption. After all, this is the holiday that celebrates God's intervention in

history to lead the Israelites from slavery to freedom. It is a time to celebrate God as the great liberator of humanity.

The divine redemption of the Israelites thus becomes the blueprint for the Jewish understanding of God and divine

morality and ethics, which can be seen in Jewish participation at the forefront of movements for social justice.

- 15 -

Counting the Omer The days between Passover and Shavuot are considered a time of mourning. By Rabbi Ronald H. Isaacs

Excerpted with permission from Every Person's Guide to Shavuot (Jason Aronson, Inc).

The 49 days of the Omer are traditionally referred to as madregot ha-tahara--steps of purity. They are seen as a

counterbalance to the 49 madregot ha-tuma--levels of abomination--that symbolize Jewish downfall in Egypt.

The special period between Passover and Shavuot is called sefirah, meaning "counting." The name is derived from

the practice of counting the omer, which is observed from the night of the second seder of Passover until the eve of

Shavuot. The counting of seven weeks from the 16th day of Nisan (i.e., the second day of Passover), on which the

omeroffering of the new barley crop was brought to the Temple, until Shavuot, serves to connect the anniversary of

the exodus from Egypt with the festival that commemorates the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai.

Tradition has it that it was announced to the Israelites in Egypt that the Torah would be given to them 50 days after

the exodus. As soon as they were liberated, they were so eager for the arrival of the promised day that they began to

count the days, saying each time, "Now we have one day less to wait for the giving of the Torah."

Thus, it is explained, the Torah prescribes that the days from Passover to

Shavuot are to be counted, symbolizing the eagerness with which the Torah

was received by the Israelites. In a similar vein, Maimonides points out that

the counting of the omerbetween the anniversary of the liberation from Egypt

and the anniversary of the Torah gift is suggestive of one who expects his or

her most intimate friend on a certain day. That person counts the days, and

even the hours.

The period of the counting of the omerbetween the two spring festivals of Passover and Shavuot has long been

observed through certain restraints, because many massacres recorded in Jewish history purportedly took place in

the spring months, beginning with the martyrdom of Rabbi Akiva and his students and continuing through the three

Crusades (1096-1192).

Another reason for sadness has been added in modern times. While the crematoria and gas chambers of the Nazis

operated all year round, some notable tragic events took place in the period of the counting of the omer. The Israeli

Parliament fixed the 27th day of Nisan as a Memorial Day for those slaughtered by the Nazis during World War II.

In addition, the day before Israel Independence Day is called Yom Hazikaron [Memorial Day]for those who died in

the War of Liberation. The last great deportation to the gas chambers, that of the Hungarian Jews, took place during

the period of the counting of the omer.

These sad events are traditionally memorialized by refraining from participation in joyous events during this period.

According to the Code of Jewish Law, Orakh Hayim 493:2, no weddings should take place, and it is customary not

to cut one's hair.

One interruption in this doleful period is Lag B'Omer, the 33rd day of the counting of the omer,which falls on the

18th of the Hebrew month of Iyar. This day is observed as a semi-holiday, and suspends many of the mourning

customs up until this point in time.

Rabbi Ronald H. Isaacs is the spiritual leader of Temple Sholom in Bridgewater, New Jersey. He has served as the

publications committee chairperson of the Rabbinical Assembly.

- 16 -

Lag Ba'Omer The thirty-third day of the Omer is an occasion for happiness during an otherwise mournful period.

By Francine Klagsbrun

Reprinted with permission from Jewish Days: A Book of Jewish Life and Culture (Farrar, Straus and Giroux).

Few of the many couples who marry on Lag Ba'Omer give much

thought to why this is one of the very few days between Pesah and

Shavuot when Jewish law permits weddings. If they were to

investigate, they would find a conflicting array of explanations, all

appealing, none definitive.

Why We Celebrate

The explanations begin with the Omer period itself, those forty-

nine days that are counted off one by one between the two

festivals. This is a time of semi-mourning, when weddings and

other celebrations are forbidden, and as a sign of grief, observant

Jews do not cut their hair.

Anthropologists say that many peoples have similar periods of restraint in the early spring to symbolize their

concerns about the growth of their crops. But the most often cited explanation for the Jewish practice comes from

the Talmud, which tells us that during this season a plague killed thousands of Rabbi Akiva's students because they

did not treat one another respectfully. The mourning behavior is presumably in memory of those students and their

severe punishment.

According to a medieval tradition, the plague ceased on Lag Ba'Omer, the thirty-third day of the Omer. (The

Hebrew letters lamed and gimel which make up the acronym "Lag" have the combined numerical value of 33.) As a

result, Lag Ba'Omer became a happy day, interrupting the sadness of the Omer period for twenty-four hours.

The talmudic explanation makes most sense when put into historical context. The outstanding sage Rabbi Akiva

became an ardent supporter of Simeon bar Koseva, known as Bar Kokhba, who in 132 C.E. led a ferocious but

unsuccessful revolt against Roman rule in Judea. Akiva not only pinned his hopes on a political victory over Rome

but believed Bar Kokhba to be the long-awaited Messiah. Many of his students joined him in backing the revolt and

were killed along with thousands of Judeans when it failed. The talmudic rabbis, still suffering under Roman rule

and cautious about referring openly to past rebellions, may have been hinting at those deaths when they spoke of a

plague among Akiva's students. Possibly, also, Lag Ba'Omer marked a respite from battle, or a momentary victory.

A completely different reason for the holiday concerns one of Rabbi Akiva's few disciples who survived the Bar

Kokhba revolt, Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai. He is said to have died on Lag Ba'Omer.

Rabbi Simeon continued to defy the Roman rulers even after Bar Kokhba's defeat, and was forced to flee for his life

and spend years in solitary hiding. Legend places him and his son Eleazar in a cave for twelve years, where a

miraculous well and carob tree sustained them while they spent their days studying and praying. When they finally

emerged, Simeon denigrated all practical occupations, insisting that people engage only in the study of Torah. For

this God confined the two to their cave for another year, accusing Simeon of destroying the world with his rigid

asceticism.

- 17 -

But Rabbi Simeon's otherworldliness resonated with mystics in his own time and later, so much so that tradition

ascribes to him the Zohar, the key work of the Kabbalah (although critical scholars attribute it to the 13th-century

Spanish kabbalist Moses de Leon). And in Israel, on Lag Ba'Omer, people flock to the site of his tomb in the village

of Meron in the Galilee, near Safed, where they light bonfires and sing kabbalistic hymns. Hasidic Jews follow the

custom of bringing their three-year-old sons to Meron to have their hair cut for the first time. (The custom of not

cutting the child's hair until his third birthday is probably an extension of the law that forbids picking the fruits of a

newly planted tree during its first three years.)

Unrelated to Rabbi Simeon, the kabbalists also give a mystical interpretation to the Omer period as a time of

spiritual cleansing and preparation for receiving the Torah on Shavuot. The days and weeks of counting, they say,

represent various combinations of the sefirot, the divine emanations, whose contemplation ultimately leads to purity

of mind and soul. The somberness of this period reflects the seriousness of its spiritual pursuits.

Finally, on yet another tack, some authorities attribute the joy of Lag Ba'Omer to the belief that the manna that fed

the Israelites in the desert first appeared on the eighteenth of Iyar.

Though its origins are uncertain, Lag Ba'Omer has become a minor holiday. (For Sephardim, the holiday is the day

after Lag Ba'Omer.) Schoolchildren picnic and play outdoors with bows and arrows--a possible reminder of the war

battles of Akiva's students--and in Israel plant trees. And every year numerous couples wed at this happy time,

oblivious to Rabbi Akiva or Simeon bar Yohai, manna or mysticism.

Francine Klagsbrun is a writer, editor and columnist. She has also devoted her energies to the Jewish Publication

Society, the Jewish Museum, the JTS Library, the American Jewish Committee, and the National Foundation for

Jewish Culture.

- 18 -

Shavuot 101 http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Shavuot/Shavuot_101_Prn.shtml

Shavuot, the Feast of “Weeks,” is celebrated seven weeks after Pesach (Passover). Since the counting of this period

(sefirat ha-omer) begins on the second evening of Pesach, Shavuot takes place exactly 50 days after the (first) seder.

Hence, following the Greek word for “fifty,” Shavuot is also referred to sometimes as Pentecost. Although its

origins are to be found in an ancient grain harvest festival, Shavuot has been identified since biblical times with the

giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai.

History

Shavuot combines two major religious observances. First is the grain

harvest of the early summer. Second is the giving of the Torah on Mount

Sinai seven weeks after the exodus from Egypt. The first determines the

ritual for the holiday, which was one of the three pilgrimage festivals of

ancient Israel, when Israelite males were commanded to appear before God

in Jerusalem, bringing offerings of the first fruits of their harvest. The

second determines the significance of the holiday for Judaism, tying it in

with the seminal event of Jewish religious memory, namely the entering into

a covenant between God and Israel, exemplified by Israel’s assumption of

Divine law.

At Home

Since Shavuot is an ancient pilgrimage holiday, it is not surprising that its ritual focuses on the community.

Nonetheless, there are a number of customs associated with personal practice. Chief among them is the eating of

dairy products on Shavuot. Although the reasons for this custom are not completely clear, it has become traditional

to eat milk and cheese products as part of the celebration of Shavuot.

In the Community

Much of the observance of the holiday centers on the synagogue and its rituals. The special readings for the holiday

include medieval poems (piyyutim) and the Book of Ruth. A number of reasons are given for the inclusion of the

latter. Among them are that the book takes place at the time of the barley harvest, that Ruth’s assumption of

Naomi’s religion reflects the Israelites’ acceptance of the Torah at Sinai, and that King David, who is alleged to

have died at this time of year according to rabbinic tradition, is mentioned at the end of Ruth. Another tradition is to

participate in a Tikkun Leil Shavuot, an all-night study session marking the holiday. And finally, Shavuot is one of

the holidays on which both Hallel, the Psalms of Praise, is recited and Yizkor, the memorial service, is observed.

Themes and Theology

By associating an ancient holiday of the grain harvest with the exodus from Egypt, Jewish tradition has imbued

Shavuot with religious significance derived from the foundational event in Jewish historical consciousness. In the

specific case of Shavuot, this takes the form of the entering into a covenant or formal agreement between God and

Israel at Mount Sinai. This is a joyous time, since it is the moment at which God and Israel entered into a figurative

marriage with each other, the hopeful springtime of their relationship.

- 19 -

Tisha B'Av 101

http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Tisha_BAv/Tisha_BAv_101_Prn.shtml

Tisha B'Av, the ninth day of the month of Av (which month coincides with July and/or August), is the major day of

communal mourning in the Jewish calendar. Although a large number of disasters are said to have befallen the Jews

on this day, the major commemoration is of the destruction of the First and Second Temples in Jerusalem in 586

B.C.E. and 70 C.E., respectively. Central to the observance of this day is fasting.

Ideas & Beliefs

Although the exact date of the destruction of each of the Temples--the ancient centers of Jewish life and practice--

are unknown, tradition dates the events to Tisha B'Av. Indeed, the rabbis of the Talmudic age made the claim that

God ordained this day as a day of disaster as punishment for the lack of faith evidenced by the Israelites during

their desert wanderings after the exodus from Egypt. During the course of the centuries, a number of tragedies have

clustered around this day, from the expulsions of the Jews from England and Spain to more localized disasters.

Tisha B'Av is therefore observed as a day of communal mourning, which is expressed through fasting and the

abstention from pleasurable activities and extraneous diversions. A whole literature of dirges appropriate to this day

of mourning, beginning with the biblical Book of Lamentations on the destruction of the First Temple, has been

created to serve the needs of the Jewish community at this time.

Rituals & Practices

A three week period of low-level mourning leads up to the

holiday of Tisha B'Av; the three weeks commemorate the

final siege of Jerusalem that led to the Second Temple's

destruction in 70 C.E. During this period it is traditional to

refrain from public celebrations, such as weddings, and

many traditional men refrain from shaving, reflecting their

practice during personal mourning periods. The last nine

days of these three weeks culminating in Tisha B?Av are

an even deeper period of mourning, during which

traditional Jews avoid eating meat; some who did not

previously take on certain aspects of mourning, such as

refraining from shaving, will assume these signs of

mourning during these nine days.

Tisha B'Av itself is a day of intense mourning, whose practice mirrors that of Yom Kippur in many respects. It is a

day of fasting, on which one also is to refrain from washing, sexual activity, using perfume and other such

ointments, and wearing leather. The Book of Lamentations (Megillat Eicha) and other dirges (kinot) are read in the

synagogue. Visits to cemeteries reflect the mood of the day, which continues even at the break fast meal at the

conclusion of Tisha B?Av, when neither meat nor wines are traditionally consumed.

- 20 -

Modern Holidays 101 http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Jewish_Holidays/Modern_Holidays/Modern_Holidays_101_Prn.shtml

There are a handful of holidays that have entered Jewish life in the latter half of the 20th century. For the most part,

these holidays are associated with the two major historical events shaping Judaism in the mid-20th century: the

Holocaust and the rebirth of the State of Israel. They include both joyous and sad observances.

Yom Hashoah

Yom Hashoah--Holocaust Remembrance Day--is observed one week

after the conclusion of Passover, on the 27 of Nissan. Significantly, it

is also halfway between the first day of the Warsaw Ghetto uprising--

which began on the first day of Passover in 1943-- and Yom

Ha'atzmaut, Israel's Independence Day. This date, chosen by the Israeli

government, emphasizes the nature of Jewish opposition to disaster.

While the rituals for this holiday are still being created, it is a solemn

day that is widely observed wherever Jews live.

Yom Hazikaron

Yom Hazikaron--Israeli Memorial Day--is observed one week after Yom Hashoah and one day before Yom

Ha'atzmaut. It is a quintessentially Israeli holiday, commemorating all the soldiers who fell in defense of Israel

from the Israeli War of Independence in 1948 to the present. While it is often acknowledged outside of Israel, it is

in Israel itself that this holiday unites the whole country in its somber observance.

Yom Ha'atzmaut

Directly following Yom Hazikaron, Yom Ha'atzmaut is a joyful celebration of Israel's independence. It is

celebrated annually on the 5th day of Iyar, which in 1948 corresponded to May 14, the day on which David Ben

Gurion, the nation's first prime minister, announced the creation of the State of Israel. Yom Ha'atzmaut is

celebrated both in Israel and in Jewish communities throughout the world.

Yom Yerushalayim

Yom Yerushalayim--Jerusalem Day--is the most modern of Jewish holidays. It celebrates the reunification of

Jerusalem under Israeli rule following the Six Day War of June 1967. Although it is joyously celebrated in Israel,

Yom Yerushalayim has yet to attain widespread popularity in the Diaspora. It is celebrated on the 28th of Iyar, in

May or June (one week before the eve of Shavuot)

Tu B'Av

Tu B'Av, the 15th day of the month of Av, is a modern semi-holiday with ancient roots. Although it is mentioned in

the Mishnah as a day on which the women of ancient Israel went out to find husbands, Tu B'Av more or less

disappeared from the Jewish calendar for close to two millennia, only to be rediscovered by mainly secular Israelis,

seeking a Jewish equivalent to Valentine's Day in the non-Jewish world. Over the course of the last few years this

mid-summer celebration of love has become increasingly popular in Israeli society.