Evolutionary, Evolutionary, Adaptionist, and Adaptionist, and Materials TheoriesMaterials Theories•Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology and Julian Steward’s Cultural Ecology and Multilinear EvolutionMultilinear Evolution•Marvin Harris’s Cultural MaterialismMarvin Harris’s Cultural Materialism

Birth of Modern Cultural Birth of Modern Cultural AnthropologyAnthropology

1930s1930sEvolution re-emerges in American Evolution re-emerges in American AnthropologyAnthropologyAnti-Boasian (historical particularism)Anti-Boasian (historical particularism)Implicitly MarxistImplicitly Marxist

20th Century 20th Century EvolutionistsEvolutionists

20th Century Evolutionists20th Century EvolutionistsLeslie WhiteLeslie WhiteJulian StewardJulian StewardMarvin HarrisMarvin HarrisEleanor Burke LockeEleanor Burke Locke

20th Century Evolution20th Century Evolution

20th Century Evolution20th Century EvolutionScientific laws linking culture change to Scientific laws linking culture change to materialmaterialReconnection to the work of Morgan and Reconnection to the work of Morgan and TylorTylor

Anthropology within Anthropology within American CultureAmerican Culture

The Red ScareThe Red ScareBecause of anti-communist fervor in the US, Because of anti-communist fervor in the US, 20th Century evolutionists had to avoid 20th Century evolutionists had to avoid explicit reference to Marxismexplicit reference to MarxismReprisals by federal government Reprisals by federal government (McCarthyism) and university presidents(McCarthyism) and university presidents

““red-baiting” in anthropology journalsred-baiting” in anthropology journals

Anthropology during the Anthropology during the Red ScareRed Scare

Morris Opler accused Leslie White of Morris Opler accused Leslie White of “Stalinistic Anthropological Analysis”“Stalinistic Anthropological Analysis”Those practicing materialist research Those practicing materialist research strategies were marginalizedstrategies were marginalized

Used Tylor and Morgan as facades for Marx Used Tylor and Morgan as facades for Marx and Engelsand Engels

Red Scare lasted to 1970s in the academy but Red Scare lasted to 1970s in the academy but 1980 is Anthropology1980 is Anthropology

20th Century Evolution20th Century Evolution

Main focus: “Concern with the causes of Main focus: “Concern with the causes of change”change”

Causal explanations are materialist, in Causal explanations are materialist, in contract to historical or idealistcontract to historical or idealistChanges in the modes of production set in Changes in the modes of production set in motion changes in cultural processesmotion changes in cultural processes

Monolineal to Multilineal Monolineal to Multilineal EvolutionEvolution

Morgan & Tylor: Evolutionary stages are Morgan & Tylor: Evolutionary stages are smooth and monolinealsmooth and monolinealSteward & Harris: Evolution is multilinealSteward & Harris: Evolution is multilineal

Similar cultural patterns equate to similar Similar cultural patterns equate to similar environmental situationsenvironmental situationsCultures have evolved to their own, Cultures have evolved to their own, particular environmentsparticular environments

Cultural MaterialismCultural Materialism

Cultural materialism can explain cultural Cultural materialism can explain cultural practicespractices““Broad evolutionary trends”Broad evolutionary trends”

Explanations for cultural processes in terms Explanations for cultural processes in terms of material rather than in ideology.of material rather than in ideology.

Julian StewardJulian StewardCultural Ecology and Multilinear EvolutionCultural Ecology and Multilinear EvolutionFather of Human Biological Ecology (HBE)Father of Human Biological Ecology (HBE)Education:Education:

UC BerkeleyUC BerkeleyCornell 1925 (BA)Cornell 1925 (BA)Berkeley 1929 (PhD): N. American Indian Berkeley 1929 (PhD): N. American Indian GroupsGroups

Julian StewardJulian StewardEarly CareerEarly Career

During Great DepressionDuring Great DepressionUniversity of Michigan, then U of UtahUniversity of Michigan, then U of UtahUC Berkeley 1334-36 research on ShoshoneUC Berkeley 1334-36 research on Shoshone

““fundamental pattern of Shoshonean society fundamental pattern of Shoshonean society was derived from the fact that ‘pursuits was derived from the fact that ‘pursuits concerned with the problems of daily concerned with the problems of daily existence dominated their activities to and existence dominated their activities to and extraordinary degree and limited and extraordinary degree and limited and conditioned their [social] institutions’”conditioned their [social] institutions’”

Julian StewardJulian Steward

MaterialistMaterialistInfluential in the 1950s and 1960sInfluential in the 1950s and 1960sSearch for causal relationshipsSearch for causal relationshipsConsidered the bridge between Boas’s Considered the bridge between Boas’s historical particularism and White’s cultural historical particularism and White’s cultural evolutionevolution

Impact on AnthropologyImpact on Anthropology

Development of area studiesDevelopment of area studiesAnthropology should concern itself with Anthropology should concern itself with changes in culture and development in ‘3rd changes in culture and development in ‘3rd World’World’Large research projects with teams of Large research projects with teams of investigatorsinvestigators

Impact on ArchaeologyImpact on Archaeology

Moved the field from cultural history to cultural Moved the field from cultural history to cultural evolutionevolution

““New Archaeology” --relationship between New Archaeology” --relationship between society and the environmentsociety and the environmentSociety changes through timeSociety changes through time

Parallel PatternsParallel Patterns

Early research on band society and drew Early research on band society and drew parallels between distant groups: Shoshone, parallels between distant groups: Shoshone, Australian Aborigines, the Australian Aborigines, the San in KalahariSan in Kalahari, and , and the Semang of Malaysiathe Semang of Malaysia

Stewart was Stewart was UnconventionalUnconventional

Focused on understanding a single problem in Focused on understanding a single problem in culture, not seeking to understand the entire culture, not seeking to understand the entire culture as a complete system (problem-orientated culture as a complete system (problem-orientated fieldwork)fieldwork)Concerned with “adaptive relationships between Concerned with “adaptive relationships between humans and their environments” and not with the humans and their environments” and not with the culture traits, styles, and normsculture traits, styles, and normsEmphasized parallels between cultures based on Emphasized parallels between cultures based on adaptation instead of on historical adaptation instead of on historical diffusion/migrationdiffusion/migration

3-Steps for Cultural-3-Steps for Cultural-Ecological InvestigationEcological Investigation

1. Analyze relationships between 1. Analyze relationships between exploitative/productive technology and the exploitative/productive technology and the environment (material culture)environment (material culture)2. Analyze the behavior pattern involved in 2. Analyze the behavior pattern involved in the exploration of a specific area by means of the exploration of a specific area by means of a specific technologya specific technology3. Analyze how the method used to exploit the 3. Analyze how the method used to exploit the environment affects other aspects of culture.environment affects other aspects of culture.

Material ConditionsMaterial Conditions

The structure and ideology of a group is The structure and ideology of a group is influence by “classes of material conditions”--influence by “classes of material conditions”--of the environmental situation AND economic of the environmental situation AND economic arrangementsarrangements

Multilinear EvolutionMultilinear Evolution

Core Tenants of Multilinear EvolutionCore Tenants of Multilinear EvolutionHumans are adaptiveHumans are adaptiveHuman groups relate varyingly with the Human groups relate varyingly with the environmentsenvironments

Multilinear EvolutionMultilinear Evolution2 Key Concepts2 Key Concepts

parallel cultural forms and functions do occur in parallel cultural forms and functions do occur in independent/discrete culturesindependent/discrete culturesThese common forms/functions have identical causalityThese common forms/functions have identical causality

In order to find regularities cross-culturally:In order to find regularities cross-culturally:1. Define and apply typography of social phenomenon1. Define and apply typography of social phenomenon2. Specify the causal relationships and identify parallel 2. Specify the causal relationships and identify parallel causal relationships through timecausal relationships through time3. Propose and test hypothesis against case studies3. Propose and test hypothesis against case studies

Marvin Harris: Cultural Marvin Harris: Cultural MaterialismMaterialism

1953 PhD from Columbia1953 PhD from ColumbiaTaught 1953 -1981Taught 1953 -1981

University of Florida from 19891 - 2000University of Florida from 19891 - 2000Latin America (Brazil, Angola, Mozambique)Latin America (Brazil, Angola, Mozambique)

Ethnography on a mining townEthnography on a mining townBrazil cannot be classified as a rural Brazil cannot be classified as a rural “developing” nation because it has many urban “developing” nation because it has many urban nucleinuclei

Cultural MaterialismCultural Materialism

““Human Social Life is a response to the Human Social Life is a response to the practical problems of earthly existence”practical problems of earthly existence”

Marx & EngelsMarx & Engels

Techno Determinist: Techno Determinist: InfrastructureInfrastructure

1956: 1956: Town and Country in BrazilTown and Country in Brazil

Foundational concept of infrastructureFoundational concept of infrastructure““technological, economic, demographic, technological, economic, demographic, and environmental activities and conditions and environmental activities and conditions directly related to sustaining health and directly related to sustaining health and well-being through the social control of well-being through the social control of production and reproduction”production and reproduction”

Techno Determinist: Techno Determinist: InfrastructureInfrastructure

Techno DeterministTechno DeterministDocumented: Economic pursuits, public Documented: Economic pursuits, public economy, class, and raceeconomy, class, and race““Urban Ethos”: Complex of interconnected Urban Ethos”: Complex of interconnected values, emphasizing a preference for living in values, emphasizing a preference for living in town rather than in the countrytown rather than in the country

Seems idealistic, but this is a social Seems idealistic, but this is a social arrangement that is defined and reinforced by arrangement that is defined and reinforced by infrastructureinfrastructure

Anthropology within Anthropology within American CultureAmerican Culture

1958: 1958: Minorities in the New World Minorities in the New World (1958) (1958) coauthored with Charles Wagleycoauthored with Charles Wagley1964: 1964: Patterns of Race in the AmericasPatterns of Race in the Americas

Roots of racism in the AmericasRoots of racism in the AmericasEconomic origins of racismEconomic origins of racismLatin America and USALatin America and USARacism as part of the infrastructureRacism as part of the infrastructure

Magnum OpusMagnum Opus1968: 1968: The Rise of Anthropological TheoryThe Rise of Anthropological Theory

Critique of Western thinking about nature, Critique of Western thinking about nature, culture, and evolutionculture, and evolution1. Anthropologic thought has been a failed 1. Anthropologic thought has been a failed scientific effort of the Enlightenment that scientific effort of the Enlightenment that reproduced ideology as absolute factreproduced ideology as absolute fact2. Cultural materialism is more logical2. Cultural materialism is more logical

Magnum OpusMagnum Opus1968: 1968: The Rise of Anthropological TheoryThe Rise of Anthropological Theory

Critique of Western thinking about nature, Critique of Western thinking about nature, culture, and evolutionculture, and evolution1. Anthropologic thought has been a failed 1. Anthropologic thought has been a failed scientific effort of the Enlightenment that scientific effort of the Enlightenment that reproduced ideology as absolute factreproduced ideology as absolute fact2. Cultural materialism is more logical2. Cultural materialism is more logical

Harris is sexyHarris is sexyEpistemology and anthropological thought:Epistemology and anthropological thought:

1968 1968 The Rise of Anthropological TheoryThe Rise of Anthropological Theory

““from Plato to Montesquieu to Hegel--and from Plato to Montesquieu to Hegel--and anthropological schools--from culture and anthropological schools--from culture and personality to structuralism to cultural personality to structuralism to cultural evolution.”evolution.”

1. Boas as atheoretical: historical 1. Boas as atheoretical: historical particularism misinterpreted cultures through particularism misinterpreted cultures through ethnocentric values of the Enlightenmentethnocentric values of the Enlightenment2. Cultural Materialism2. Cultural Materialism

Cultural MaterialismCultural Materialism

Cultural MaterialismCultural MaterialismPhilosophical materialism: Supernatural Philosophical materialism: Supernatural does not exist / irrelevant; decisions are does not exist / irrelevant; decisions are made based on the physical world, not on made based on the physical world, not on ideologyideologyDialectical materialism: unending ebb and Dialectical materialism: unending ebb and flow of material in shape and meaningflow of material in shape and meaning

Cultural MaterialismCultural MaterialismPrinciple of techno-environmental and techno-Principle of techno-environmental and techno-economic determinism as a research strategyeconomic determinism as a research strategyRequires analysis of the epistemological nature Requires analysis of the epistemological nature of the acquisition of scientific knowledge: false of the acquisition of scientific knowledge: false binary of the observed and the observerbinary of the observed and the observer

Mental -v- behavioral eventsMental -v- behavioral eventsEmic -v- Etic eventsEmic -v- Etic events

The 2 DistinctionsThe 2 DistinctionsMental: Thoughts and feelingsMental: Thoughts and feelingsBehavioral: Physical Actions and the effects on Behavioral: Physical Actions and the effects on the environment --cumulative affects of all the environment --cumulative affects of all humans who have ever livedhumans who have ever livedEmic: View from the participant’s perspective Emic: View from the participant’s perspective (the native informant)(the native informant)Etic: View from observer’s perspective (the Etic: View from observer’s perspective (the observer)observer)

Tripartite scheme of Etic Tripartite scheme of Etic BehaviorBehavior

1. Infrastructure: the interface between 1. Infrastructure: the interface between nature and culture in human’s effort to nature and culture in human’s effort to overcome limitations at the boundary between overcome limitations at the boundary between humans and the ecological worldhumans and the ecological world2. Structure: Social relations and 2. Structure: Social relations and arrangementsarrangements3. Superstructure: Symbolic importance3. Superstructure: Symbolic importance

InfrastructureInfrastructureThe most opportunities for research and The most opportunities for research and funding for research occur when one funding for research occur when one investigates at the infrastructureinvestigates at the infrastructure

It is a contested boundaryIt is a contested boundaryCultural values are made apparent when one Cultural values are made apparent when one observes how the process is negotiatedobserves how the process is negotiated

Innovation reverberates into the structure Innovation reverberates into the structure and superstructureand superstructure

Process to Understand Process to Understand Cultural PatternsCultural Patterns

1. Explain 1. Explain phenomena in terms phenomena in terms of infrastructureof infrastructure2. Explain how the 2. Explain how the innovation at the innovation at the infrastructure infrastructure affects the shape of affects the shape of the structure and the structure and superstructuresuperstructure

Infrastructure is Infrastructure is determinantdeterminant

Infrastructure innovation affects structural and Infrastructure innovation affects structural and symbolic-ideational systemssymbolic-ideational systemsStructural and symbolic-ideational innovation Structural and symbolic-ideational innovation reduce efficiency in the infrastructure (but less reduce efficiency in the infrastructure (but less so)so)Heart of Harris’s argument is the assumption Heart of Harris’s argument is the assumption that anthropology is a science and should focus that anthropology is a science and should focus its efforts on generating law-like generalizations its efforts on generating law-like generalizations about human infrastructure (HBE??)about human infrastructure (HBE??)