THE EVOLUTION OF THE EVOLUTION OF PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF ALASKAUNIVERSITY OF ALASKA

K.D. BORCOMANK.D. BORCOMAN

WHAT WAS THERE BEFORE WHAT WAS THERE BEFORE THE SCIENCE OF THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY?PSYCHOLOGY?

• ““Cogito ergo sum”Cogito ergo sum”

EMPIRICAL METHODEMPIRICAL METHOD

• Empiricism: the premise that knowledge should be Empiricism: the premise that knowledge should be gained through observationgained through observation

• 1. This makes science precise1. This makes science precise• 2. Relatively intolerant of error2. Relatively intolerant of error

THE BATTLE OF THE “SCHOOLS” IN THE THE BATTLE OF THE “SCHOOLS” IN THE U.S.: STRUCTURALISM VS. U.S.: STRUCTURALISM VS.

FUNCTIONALISMFUNCTIONALISM• StructuralismStructuralism – Edward Titchener – Edward Titchener

• Analyze consciousness into basic elementsAnalyze consciousness into basic elements• IntrospectionIntrospection – careful, systematic observations of one’s – careful, systematic observations of one’s

own conscious experienceown conscious experience• FunctionalismFunctionalism – William James (VERY influenced by – William James (VERY influenced by

Darwin).Darwin).• Investigate function of consciousnessInvestigate function of consciousness• Led to investigation of mental testing, developmental Led to investigation of mental testing, developmental

patterns, and sex differencespatterns, and sex differences

SIGMUND FREUD AND THE CONCEPT SIGMUND FREUD AND THE CONCEPT OF THE UNCONSCIOUS MINDOF THE UNCONSCIOUS MIND

• Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud (1856- (1856-1939): Austria1939): Austria

• Founded Founded PsychoanalyticPsychoanalytic school of thoughtschool of thought

• Emphasis on Emphasis on unconsciousunconscious processes processes influencing behaviorinfluencing behavior• Unconscious = Unconscious =

outside awarenessoutside awareness

FREUD’S IDEAS:FREUD’S IDEAS:CONTROVERSY AND INFLUENCECONTROVERSY AND INFLUENCE

• Behavior is entirely influenced by the unconsciousBehavior is entirely influenced by the unconscious• Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a central Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a central

role in behaviorrole in behavior• Controversial notions caused debate/resistanceControversial notions caused debate/resistance• Significant influence on the field of psychology Significant influence on the field of psychology

BEHAVIORISM: REDEFINING BEHAVIORISM: REDEFINING PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY

• John B. WatsonJohn B. Watson (1878-1958): United States (1878-1958): United States• Founder of Founder of Behaviorism – Behaviorism – Can you observe the Can you observe the

unconscious? Then how can it be studied?unconscious? Then how can it be studied?

• PsychologyPsychology = scientific study of behavior = scientific study of behavior• BehaviorBehavior = overt or observable responses or activities = overt or observable responses or activities

• Radical reorientation of psychology as a science of Radical reorientation of psychology as a science of observable behaviorobservable behavior

• Study of consciousness abandonedStudy of consciousness abandoned

JOHN WATSON AND THE NATURE-JOHN WATSON AND THE NATURE-NURTURE DEBATENURTURE DEBATE • Nurture, not natureNurture, not nature

• ““give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take special world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thiefchief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief…”…”

• Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the Behaviorist school of thought emphasized the environment (nurture), rather than innate biological environment (nurture), rather than innate biological predispositions (nature)predispositions (nature)

• Focus on Focus on stimulus-response relationshipsstimulus-response relationships• S-R psychologyS-R psychology

ARE PEOPLE FREE?ARE PEOPLE FREE?B.F. SKINNERB.F. SKINNER

ANOTHER NAME ASSOCIATED WITH ANOTHER NAME ASSOCIATED WITH BEHAVIORISMBEHAVIORISM

• B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner (1904-1990): United States (1904-1990): United States • Environmental factors determine behaviorEnvironmental factors determine behavior• Responses that lead to positive outcomes are repeatedResponses that lead to positive outcomes are repeated• Responses that lead to negative outcomes are not repeatedResponses that lead to negative outcomes are not repeated• Beyond Freedom and DignityBeyond Freedom and Dignity• More controversy regarding free willMore controversy regarding free will

THE 1950’STHE 1950’S: OPPOSITION TO : OPPOSITION TO PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY AND PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY AND

BEHAVIORISM BEHAVIORISM • Charges that both were de-humanizingCharges that both were de-humanizing• Diverse opposition groups got together to form a loose Diverse opposition groups got together to form a loose

alliancealliance• A new school of thought emerged - A new school of thought emerged - HumanismHumanism

• Led by Led by Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow (1908-1970) and (1908-1970) and Carl RogersCarl Rogers (1902-1987)(1902-1987)

• Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans: Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans: freedom and freedom and personal growthpersonal growth

PUTTING THE PSYCHE BACK IN PUTTING THE PSYCHE BACK IN PSYCHOLOGY:PSYCHOLOGY:

THE RETURN OF COGNITIONTHE RETURN OF COGNITION• Cognition Cognition = mental processes involved in acquiring = mental processes involved in acquiring

knowledgeknowledge• 1950’s and 60’s – 1950’s and 60’s – PiagetPiaget, Chomsky, and Simon, Chomsky, and Simon

• Application of scientific methods to studying internal Application of scientific methods to studying internal mental eventsmental events

• Cognitive psychologyCognitive psychology: the new dominant perspective?: the new dominant perspective?

BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY:BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY:THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIORTHE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

• Biological perspective - behavior Biological perspective - behavior explained in terms of physiological explained in terms of physiological processesprocesses• James Olds James Olds (1956)(1956)• Electrical stimulation of the Electrical stimulation of the

brain evokes emotional brain evokes emotional responses in animalsresponses in animals

• Roger SperryRoger Sperry (1981) (1981)• Left and right brain Left and right brain

specializationspecialization

CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY:CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY:RECOGNIZING HUMAN VARIATIONRECOGNIZING HUMAN VARIATION

• EthnocentrismEthnocentrism – viewing one’s own group as superior – viewing one’s own group as superior and as the standard for judgingand as the standard for judging

• Historically: middle and upper class white males studying Historically: middle and upper class white males studying middle and upper class white malesmiddle and upper class white males

• 1980’s – increased interest in how cultural factors 1980’s – increased interest in how cultural factors influence behaviorinfluence behavior

• Growing global interdependenceGrowing global interdependence• Increased cultural diversity Increased cultural diversity

EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGYEVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY::HUMAN ADAPTATIONSHUMAN ADAPTATIONS

• Central premise: natural selection occurs for behavioral, Central premise: natural selection occurs for behavioral, as well as physical, characteristicsas well as physical, characteristics

• Buss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby Buss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides & Tooby – 80’s and – 80’s and 90’s90’s

• Studied natural selection of mating preferences, jealousy, Studied natural selection of mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual behavior, language, decision making, aggression, sexual behavior, language, decision making, personality, and developmentpersonality, and development

• Thought provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not Thought provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not without criticismwithout criticism

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGYPOSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

• Martin Seligman’s epiphanyMartin Seligman’s epiphany• Humanist concerns revisitedHumanist concerns revisited• Uses theory and research to better understand the Uses theory and research to better understand the

positive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human positive, creative, and fulfilling aspects of human existenceexistence• Positive subjective experiencesPositive subjective experiences• Positive individual traitsPositive individual traits• Positive institutions and communitiesPositive institutions and communities

Table 1.1 Overview of Six Contemporary Theoretical Perspectives in Psychology

PSYCHOLOGY TODAY:PSYCHOLOGY TODAY:A THRIVING SCIENCE AND A THRIVING SCIENCE AND

PROFESSIONPROFESSION• PsychologyPsychology is the science that studies behavior and the is the science that studies behavior and the

physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, physiological and cognitive processes that underlie it, and it is the profession that applies the accumulated and it is the profession that applies the accumulated knowledge of this science to practical problems.knowledge of this science to practical problems.

• ResearchResearch: Seven major areas: Seven major areas• Applied PsychologyApplied Psychology: Four major areas: Four major areas

Figure 1.7 Employment of psychologists by setting

Figure 1.8 Major research areas in contemporary psychology

Figure 1.9 Principal professional specialties in contemporary psychology

STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY:STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY:SEVEN ORGANIZING THEMESSEVEN ORGANIZING THEMES

• Psychology as a field of study:Psychology as a field of study:• 1.1.

• Empirical: dependent on evidence that is Empirical: dependent on evidence that is observable by the senses observable by the senses

2.2.• Theoretically diverseTheoretically diverse3.3.• Evolves in sociohistorical contextEvolves in sociohistorical context4.4.

• Behavior:Behavior:• Determined by multiple causesDetermined by multiple causes• Shaped by cultural heritageShaped by cultural heritage• Influenced jointly by heredity and environmentInfluenced jointly by heredity and environment

UNIFYING THEMES CONTINUEDUNIFYING THEMES CONTINUED

• 5. Behavior is shaped by cultural heritage5. Behavior is shaped by cultural heritage

• 6. Heredity and Environment Jointly influence behavior 6. Heredity and Environment Jointly influence behavior Is the Nature vs. Nurture argument dead?Is the Nature vs. Nurture argument dead?

• 7. People’s experience of the world is highly subjective.7. People’s experience of the world is highly subjective.