evolution of digital reinstatement methods within private ... · evolution of digital reinstatement...

Evolution of Digital Reinstatement Methods Within Private Cadastral

Organisations

A thesis

submitted in fulfilment of

the requirement for

the Degree of Master of Applied Science (Research)

by

Stephen William Steggall,

Bachelor of Surveying (UQ)

Graduate Diploma of Surveying Practice (QUT)

Queensland University of Technology

Faculty of Built Environment and Engineering

School of Design and Built Environment

in association with the

Research Centre for

Design and Construction Studies

October 2001

Page i

Keywords

surveying, cadastral surveying, reinstatement, digital, digital lodgment, land

information systems, geographic information systems, total station, electronic data

recorder, reinstatement calculations

Page ii

Abstract Cadastral reinstatement methods within Queensland involve the use of modern digital

surveying techniques in combination with traditional non-digital methods of recording

and reporting information. This leads to the need to manually enter and re-enter data

into a digital format at different stages of a survey. The requirement to lodge survey

information with government organisations in a non-digital survey plan format also

forces a break in digital data flow throughout the cadastral surveying system, which

can only be updated by changes in the lodgement regulations.

The private cadastral organisations are predominantly responsible for carrying out the

cadastral surveys and the government agencies are primarily responsible for the

examination, verification and administration of the cadastral data. These organisations

will have no communication link for digital cadastral data until the introduction of

digital data lodgement. The digital system within the private cadastral surveying

organisations can therefore be considered to be an independent system with

consideration needed to be given to the future introduction of a digital lodgement

system at some undefined time in the future.

Cadastral surveyors hold large amounts of digital information that is suitable for

digital reinstatement systems. This information, if appropriately archived and

distributed, has the capacity to meet the needs of reinstatement systems including as

an alternative source of digital information that will eventually be obtained from

digital lodgement systems. The existing technology and the private organisation

structures are capable of supporting continuous digital data flow and automated

systems.

This research proposes a process of development for private cadastral organisations to

advance from traditional systems to continuous digital data flow and automated

processes within their cadastral reinstatement systems. The development process is

linked to existing legislation and technology taking into consideration likely future

Page iii

directions. The current legislative and technological environments within Queensland

allow for development towards automated digital systems that will enhance most

current cadastral reinstatement systems.

Page iv

Table of Contents

Keywords ............................................................................................................... i Abstract .............................................................................................................. ii Table of Contents.................................................................................................... iv List of Tables .......................................................................................................... vi List of Acronyms ................................................................................................... vii Statement of Original Authorship......................................................................... viii Acknowledgements................................................................................................. ix

Chapter 1 Introduction ........................................................................................ 2

1 Problem Statement ............................................................................... 2 2 Aim and Scope ..................................................................................... 3 3 Overview of the Study.......................................................................... 3

Chapter 2 The Cadastral Reinstatement System in Queensland..................... 7

1 Cadastral Surveying ............................................................................. 9 2 The Queensland Cadastral Surveying System ................................... 14 3 Digital Technology Development in Queensland’s Cadastral Surveying

System ................................................................................................ 16 4 Summary ............................................................................................ 20

Chapter 3 Modern Surveying Technology ....................................................... 23

1 Hardware ............................................................................................ 24 2 Software ............................................................................................. 27 3 Methods.............................................................................................. 29 4 Summary ............................................................................................ 36

Chapter 4 Organisational Issues Effecting Digital Systems Evolution.......... 39

1 Motivation for Technical Change and Commercial Considerations.. 39 2 Existing Organisational Structures..................................................... 42 3 The Structure of Private Cadastral Surveying Organisations............. 44 4 Summary ............................................................................................ 47

Chapter 5 Technical Issues Effecting Digital Systems Evolution .................. 50

1 Historical Data.................................................................................... 50 2 Field Data Collection ......................................................................... 51 3 Reinstatement Calculations ................................................................ 62 4 Data Base Development ..................................................................... 71 5 Summary ............................................................................................ 73

Page v

Chapter 6 Digital System Evolution in Private Cadastral Surveying Organisations.................................................................................... 76

1 The Digital Cadastral System............................................................. 76 2 Incremental System Development ..................................................... 83 3 Implementation................................................................................... 98 4 Summary ............................................................................................ 99

Chapter 7 Conclusions and Implications ....................................................... 102

1 Conclusions ...................................................................................... 102 2 Implications...................................................................................... 105

Appendix 1 107

Bibliography 110

Page vi

List of Tables

Table 2.1 Queensland Cadastral Surveying System .......................................... 15 Table 2.2 Cook's Alternative Technological Scenarios ..................................... 18 Table 4.1 Traditional Digital Flow Chart........................................................... 45 Table 6.1 Cadastral Reinstatement Flow Chart.................................................. 83 Table 6.2 Traditional System Flow Chart .......................................................... 85 Table 6.3 Internal Digital Data Flow.................................................................. 93 Table 6.4 External Data Flow............................................................................. 94

Page vii

List of Acronyms

ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange CAD Computer Aided Design and Drafting Systems CSD Cadastral Survey Group DXF Digital Exchange Format EDM Electronic Distance Measuring Equipment GIS Geographic Information Systems ICDISG Information Collection and Data Interchange Standardisation Group LIS Land Information System NPDP National Procurement Development Program SDTS Spatial Data Transfer System

Page viii

Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signed: Date:

Page ix

Acknowledgements I acknowledge the contribution and guidance of my supervisors: Associate Professor Brian Hannigan Principal Supervisor (Retired) Dr. John Hayes Principal Supervisor Dr. John Cook Associate Supervisor

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 1

Introduction


Chapter 1 Introduction 1 Problem Statement

Current cadastral reinstatement methods within Queensland involve the use of modern

digital surveying equipment in combination with manual recording and reporting

techniques. This leads to the need to manually enter and re-enter data into a digital

format at different stages of a survey. The process of re-entering data into a digital

format is inefficient and creates an additional source of errors.

The private cadastral organisations are predominantly responsible for carrying out the

cadastral surveys and the government agencies are primarily responsible for the

examination, verification and administration of the cadastral information. The

requirement for private cadastral organisations to lodge survey information with

government organisations in survey plan format forces a break in digital data flow

throughout the cadastral surveying system, which can only be updated by changes in

the lodgement regulations. The digital data flow within the private cadastral surveying

organisations are therefore independent of the digital data flow within the government

agencies. The introduction of a digital lodgement system at some undefined time in

the future will create a digital link between the private organisations and government

agencies.

Private cadastral surveying organisations are capable of collecting and distributing

digital cadastral data with appropriate content and format that is suitable for use in

digital cadastral reinstatement systems. The coverage area and content of databases

produced outside compulsory legislative processes is restricted by the ability of

cadastral surveyors to share information. Private cadastral surveying organisations

can benefit by the introduction of continuos digital data flow and automated processes

within their organisations and can be enhanced by the availability of appropriate

digital cadastral data.


2 Aim and Scope

This research proposes a process of development to introduce continuous digital data

flow and automated systems within the cadastral reinstatement systems of private

cadastral organisations. The process will be compatible with the technical and

organisational issues existing in the current cadastral surveying environment in

Queensland.

The scope of this research is based on the digital data flow within the cadastral

reinstatement systems of private surveying organisations in Queensland. The focus

will be on reinstatement systems within the environment, particularly the legislative

environment in Queensland although it is acknowledged that reinstatement systems

within New Zealand and the states and territories of Australia are similar. Some

experiences and references will be drawn from the international and national levels

but the conclusions will be restricted to the cadastral reinstatement system in

Queensland.

The focus will also be restricted to the private surveying organisations. It will be

shown that the reinstatement system within private cadastral organisations can be

considered in isolation to the broader digital cadastral surveying system at state level.

It will also be shown that these elements have different input and output requirements.

The overall cadastral system in Queensland including digital lodgement and cadastral

mapping will not be the focus of this research.

3 Overview of the Study

This dissertation describes the existing cadastral surveying system and analyses the

issues relevant to the development from traditional reinstatement to digital

reinstatement systems. The particular issues are discussed in terms of problems raised

and the possible solutions to the individual issues. The individual solutions are

combined into a flexible system of development that deals with the identified issues.

The incremental development system is reviewed in terms of the technical and

commercial benefits to the private cadastral surveyor.


Chapter 1 introduces the subject to be studied and the overall aim of the research

followed by an overview of the study.

Chapter 2 provides an introduction and analysis of the existing cadastral surveying

system in Queensland and the development of digital systems. The analysis identifies

that reinstatement procedures are based on a set of flexible guidelines rather than

fixed rules of reinstatement and determines that the digital systems within private

cadastral organisations are digitally independent of the Queensland Government

cadastral system.

Chapter 3 identifies modern technology and methods that have applications to the

development of digital systems within the Queensland cadastral surveying system.

Digital technology being used and tested in associated fields provides options for

direct application to cadastral reinstatement systems.

Chapter 4 examines the organisational issues that effect digital system development.

The digital system operates within a changing environment where it is essential for

the cadastral surveying organisations to react to the changes as they occur. Where

private or government organisations do not react to change, there is a window of

opportunity for the more flexible organisations to take commercial advantage.

Structural change, including forming associations with other organisations, provides

for sharing and distribution of digital data.

Chapter 5 examines the separate technical issues that effect digital system

development. These issues are analysed in terms of providing automated processes

and continuous digital data flow between elements of the system. The analysis

identifies elements that can proceed on a stand-alone basis, need to be developed in

parallel with other system elements and those that require development beyond the

available commercial products.


Chapter 6 describes a system of incremental development of the digital reinstatement

process and an evaluation of the commercial benefits of the digital system. The

incremental development process deals with the issues raised in earlier chapters as it

sets out a flexible system of development. The process describes the transition from

traditional reinstatement systems to a digital system containing automated processes

and continuous digital data flow. The process includes the development of digital

reinstatement procedures and encompasses the flow and distribution of digital

cadastral data. The incremental development process is shown to provide commercial

advantages to the private cadastral surveying organisation.

Chapter 7 identifies the principal conclusions and discusses the implications for

private cadastral organisations.

Chapter 2: The Cadastral Reinstatement System in Queensland

Chapter 2

The Cadastral Reinstatement System in

Queensland


Chapter 2 The Cadastral Reinstatement System in Queensland

Cadastral reinstatement as part of the cadastral surveying process is predominantly

undertaken by private cadastral surveying agencies but is controlled to some extent by

government legislation. Legislation covers the gathering of historic information, the

collection of field data, the methods used to calculate the reinstatement and methods

of presenting the data to the government agencies. The private cadastral

organisations, although operating in the legislative environment have the freedom to

use traditional methods, digital methods or a combination of both to meet their goals.

The government agency’s roles within the cadastral surveying process include setting

standards and regulations, examination and verification of cadastral information,

mapping of cadastral information, administration of the cadastral information and the

output of cadastral information to interested parties. The role of government agencies

is dependent on political policy and the perception of this policy within the

government agencies.

The cadastral process relies on private cadastral surveyors supplying cadastral

information to government agencies in the format specified by these agencies. The

format currently required for cadastral data transfer is the survey plan but this is

expected to evolve into a digital data transfer system at some unspecified time in the

future.

The development of digital processes within the private surveying organisations will

remain mainly independent of the government agency’s level of digital development

as long as the communication link between the government and private sectors

remains as


the traditional survey plan. Any new systems being developed by private

surveying organisations will need to operate in the current environment and where

possible also function within the digital transfer systems of the future. The motivation

for digital development within the private organisations will be dominated by internal

considerations until changes in the communication link are made.

The factors that control the way reinstatement surveys are carried out within private

cadastral organisations include government legislation, client requirements and

commercial considerations. The client normally expects the surveyor carrying out a

reinstatement survey to meet the legislative requirements for an acceptable price. The

process involved in changing government legislation is time-consuming and uncertain

and is therefore out of the control of the surveyor in the short-term. This leaves the

commercial considerations as the main controlling influence on reinstatement

surveying systems.

The motivation for digital systems to develop is primarily an economic one from the

point of view of the private surveying organisations. Private organisations need to

improve efficiency or create new markets to make changes to digital systems viable.

The amount of resources required to make the change also has to be balanced against

the benefit of making the change. The digital systems will develop within private

surveying organisations if the person in authority can see a perceived economic

advantage that outweighs the cost of implementing the change.

Rapid changes in available technology require systems to be used that work in the

current environment but also function in environments that may develop in the future.

This not only affects the way we carry out tasks, but also what tasks are required to be

undertaken. Much of the technology that has applications to the reinstatement of

cadastral boundaries has been developed and applied in other areas of the land

information industry.


The leaders amongst the private cadastral surveying organisations can take

commercial advantage over their competitors by applying new technology in an

efficient and timely manner. Once the new systems become standard procedure and

are generally practised by most surveyors then the opportunity for commercial

advantage within individual surveying organisations passes. At this point the

resultant commercial benefits of the new technology passes on to the clients or end

users of the product.

1 Cadastral Surveying

Cadastral surveying is the process of determination of boundaries of a piece of land or

water and is defined in Queensland by the Surveyors Act 1977 as follows:

“cadastral survey” means any process of determining, mapping or planning the boundaries of a piece of land or waters required or authorised-

(a) under any Act dealing with the alienation, leasing, and occupation of Crown lands or with mining, or affecting titles to land; or

(b) by the proprietor, lessee or mortgagee under any Act affecting titles to land; or (c) by the owner, proprietor, lessee, mortgagee or occupier of, or any person holding a

registered interest in, any land for the re-establishment of, or identification of, or adjustment of any boundary of such land; or

(d) under any Act to be made or certified by a Licensed Surveyor.

The process of the cadastral surveying system in Queensland is described as follows: The process includes:

• The determination and marking of the position of the boundaries of a parcel/parcels of land by a Licensed Surveyor in accordance with the Surveyors Act 1977, Surveyors Regulations 1992 and other relevant legislation,

• The presentation and lodgement of the Licensed Surveyors determination of the boundaries in a format (usually plotted on a fixed format plan form in accordance with standards as shown in the Survey Plan Manual) for examination by registering authority, and

• The examination and verification of the information shown on the plan by registering authority before registration of the surveyor’s work by amendment of the cadastre.

This definition of the cadastral surveying process identifies three elements. The first

identified is the role of the Licensed Surveyors who are predominantly private sector

surveyors. The second element refers to the registration process that is the

communication link between the private sector surveyors and the government sector


registering authorities. The third element of the definition defines the role of the

registering authorities.

1.1 Reinstatement Surveying – Determining the Position of the Boundary

The reinstatement of cadastral boundaries is the process of determining the position of

boundaries, as they exist at the time of survey. The surveyor must take into

consideration the legal rights of all people who have rights and interests in the subject

piece of land and adjoining properties. The results of these surveys are required to be

lodged with the appropriate registering authorities to maintain the public record of

land boundaries.

The surveyor firstly collects the evidence of the position of the boundary and then

applying the principles of reinstatement, forms an opinion on the reinstated position

of the cadastral boundary. The surveyor does not have the power to determine the

boundary but in most cases the surveyors opinion is not challenged.

As Hannigan said: the surveyor has no judicial powers to say where a boundary is. Only the courts have that power. The surveyor collects evidence as if preparing a case for a court. In almost all cases the surveyor’s determination is not challenged and so the position of the reinstatement stands by public acceptance;

1.1.1 Collecting the evidence.

Collecting the evidence for a cadastral survey comprises firstly establishing the

historical evidence (search) and then determining the facts, as they exist on the ground

(field Survey).

The surveyor searches for historical data by examining all the existing recorded

evidence relative to the survey including title documents, registered plans and

identification surveys. The search provides evidence regarding the rights and

entitlements of the


people that have an interest in the property and the spatial relationships between

property boundaries and other recorded survey marks that existed at the time of each

individual survey. The search provides the first indication of the intentions of the

parties involved in establishing the original boundaries.

The field survey is undertaken to establish the facts on the ground at the time of the

survey with all the evidence being located, measured and recorded in the field notes.

The Surveyors Regulation 1992 states:

26. (1) When a cadastral survey (including an identification survey) is required to

determine the position of an existing boundary, a Licensed Surveyor must—

(a) ascertain the positions and descriptions of the existing survey marks and occupation that provide evidence of the boundary;

The field survey consists of the spatial record of information which normally consists

of an open or closed traverse with radiations taken to points of interest, descriptions of

these points of interest uniquely identifying them with respect to historical marks

where appropriate, and additional notes describing the condition and relevance of any

other evidence.

1.1.2 Reinstatement Principles

The surveyor examines the historical evidence in relation to what exists. The location

of the reinstated boundaries is then determined considering the evidence and the

principles of reinstatement.

The Surveyors Regulation 1992 sets out directions in regard to reinstatement in

Section 26. Reinstatement of existing boundaries

26. (1) When a cadastral survey (including an identification survey) is required to determine the position of an existing boundary, a Licensed Surveyor must—


(a) ascertain the positions and descriptions of the existing survey marks and

occupation that provide evidence of the boundary; and

(b) give primary consideration to the existing survey marks, unless other evidence (including original measurements, the position of improvements or statements by occupiers) suggests that the existing marks were incorrectly placed or have been disturbed; and

(c) if it is positively determined that a survey mark has not been placed as

originally intended, reset the mark according to the original intentions, after recording the position of the mark being reset; and

(d) determine whether or not the position of an ambulatory boundary is

significantly different from the position marked on the registered plan; and

(e) record whether an encroachment, within the meaning of section 183 of the Property Law Act 1974, has arisen; and

(f) ascertain and record the position of any occupation that affects or is

affected by the reinstatement of a boundary.

(2) If a surveyor determines that an owner may be adversely affected by the reinstatement of a boundary (except in the case of an identification survey), the surveyor must—

(a) without delay take all reasonable steps to give written notice to the owner

of the intention to seek registration of the plan with the reinstated boundary; and

(b) advise the registering authority of the steps taken to notify the owner.

The Surveyors Regulation 1992 establishes the guiding principles that must be used to

determine reinstated boundaries within Queensland. Additional principles of

reinstatement have been developed through a process of legislation and interpretation

by the courts to supplement the guiding principles.

A surveyor called on to locate and certify to the corners and boundaries of land, whether on a new subdivision or by way of remarking an old one, and whether the “old” one be one year old or 100, will find himself in the position of a Court faced with the interpretation of the deed, and bound by the same rules.

A commonly referred to “hierarchy of reinstatement evidence” has been established

by Brown based on Australian cases and American cases that can be applied here.

The hierarchy of reinstatement evidence appears to set out a clear set of rules that may


be used for the reinstatement of cadastral boundaries. This must be seen in the

context of two of the statements included within the hierarchy of evidence.

In making a survey to re-establish the boundaries of land, the first and over-riding aim is to arrive at the intention of the parties expressed in the original documents establishing those boundaries.

And 10. Finally, but most important of all, any one of these rules may be of more (or less) weight in one case than another. The rules set out are for cases of conflict, they are general rules, to be used as a guide but not as a straitjacket.

These statements emphasise the fact that the surveyor at some time in the process is

expected to make a value judgement to arrive at an opinion. It is also possible that two

different surveyors may from time to time arrive at different opinions given the same

information.

The principles of reinstatement rely on a combination of guidelines offered by

legislation and flexible rules from the hierarchy of reinstatement evidence from which

qualified and experienced surveyors are required to make judgments. There are no set

rules that can be followed to the letter to arrive at a unique solution to all

reinstatement problems.

1.2 Traditional Measuring Methods

Before 1880 accurate measurement in both direction and distance was considered a

low priority. The use of the theodolite became mandatory for all surveys in New

South Wales in 1868 and steel tape was introduced to Queensland in 1877.

The next major improvements in technology came in the 1970’s with the introduction

of electronic computers, electronic calculators and electronic distance measuring

equipment (EDM). These developments caused a marked decrease in the time taken

to carry out calculations and improved the accuracy achievable in measuring

distances. The introduction of efficient electronic calculators not only improved the

speed of calculations but also had an effect on the way surveys were carried out.


2 The Queensland Cadastral Surveying System

Queensland’s cadastral surveying system exists as a part of a hierarchal system, being

part of the broader land information industry. Cook identifies four organisational

levels:

• Land information industry

• Surveying and mapping industry

• Cadastral surveying and mapping system

• Government and private agencies involved in cadastral survey

Cook’s Table 4.3, reproduced below (Table 2.1) identifies the systems involved

within the cadastral surveying and mapping system in Queensland and makes some

comment on the performance of their roles.

The Queensland cadastral surveying system consists of predominately private

cadastral surveying organisations carrying out the work of cadastral reinstatement

with the resultant information being lodged with local and state government

authorities. The state government agencies have the responsibility for cadastral

mapping and records management.

The control network for cadastral surveys, being the network of connections to survey

monuments and reference marks, is supplied by the private agencies as part of the

cadastral survey. This information is supplied to the registering authorities in

the

required standard survey plan format. It is the responsibility of the state government

to maintain the geodetic control network. The integration of the cadastral survey

control and geodetic control networks is also the responsibility of the state

government in their role as cadastral mapping and digital land boundary information

supplier.


Table 2.1 Queensland Cadastral Surveying System

This table is unavailable online.

Please consult the hardcopy thesis

available at the QUT Library.


Surveying equipment suppliers provide not only the hardware required for surveyors

to carry out their tasks but also the software. With computer-based technology being

a part of almost every surveying function, it is the sophistication of the software that

determines how efficiently a particular process can be carried out.

The promotion and marketing of surveying services is carried out on a local level by

private surveying organisations and in the wider more generic context by the

professional associations aligned with the private surveying organisations.

Tertiary education institutions provide undergraduate and postgraduate surveying

education. The majority of postgraduate training takes place in the surveyor’s place

of work where specific training can be given in the systems in use. With the dynamic

technology environment that exists it is important for the private agencies to establish

a culture of learning within their organisations.

3 Digital Technology Development in Queensland’s Cadastral Surveying

System

The introduction of new technology into cadastral reinstatement surveying has made

it possible for the development of digital and automated systems. The development of

advanced digital cadastral systems is partly technical and partly organisational. The

technical development relies on the availability of new technology and new software

systems that are capable of upgrading the previous system. The organisational

development required to install new systems can often be the most difficult to

overcome. Introducing new technology can have an effect on more than one level of

a system thus requiring re-organisation to take into consideration not only each

element of the system but also the communication links between those elements.


Organisational development can also require economic and structural changes to the

entities requiring change and also changes in the legislation controlling the functions

of the system. Legislation and government policy changes to enable the use of new

technology where possible but the wider ramifications in surrounding systems affect

the timeframe at which legislation can react.

It is also possible to describe the technical change as either radical or incremental.

Radical change is the type of change that involves a number of incremental steps

simultaneously or changes in a completely new direction that bypasses the previous

envisaged advancement. Organisational development is more likely to lead to radical

change. Incremental change can occur as required when new technology becomes

available and economic and legislative conditions are favourable.

Cook identified three levels of technical development central to the surveying and

mapping functions summarised by the table reproduced below (Table 2.2).

The current level of technical development within Queensland is part way between

scenario 1 and scenario 2. This current system is a traditional system with the flow of

data controlled by traditional methods and with elements of digital technology being

used within the system.

The first three elements in each of the scenarios in table 2.2 describe the responsibility

of the private cadastral surveying organisations, with the fourth and fifth elements

being the communication link between the private and government agencies. The

remaining elements are generally the role of government agencies. The development

of these three levels is initially considered independently.


Table 2.2 Cook's Alternative Technological Scenarios

This table is unavailable online.



The private surveying organisations require information in an appropriate format to

carry out computer analysis of historical data. The traditional format of data

exchange is the registered survey plan supplied by government agencies. This

traditional data remains as the only official record of historical surveying data but

digital data is sometimes available from within private organisations. The digital data

is not generally available and the quality and completeness of the data is uncertain.

The Scenario 3 solution requires data to be of the required format, content and

completeness.


The field survey and computation of survey data is the responsibility of the private

surveying organisation with some higher level legislative control mainly with respect

to record-keeping, quality requirements and the principles for reinstatement surveys.

The communications between the levels of responsibility are the elements that require

most attention. The formats of data transfer impacts on the roles and responsibilities

of the two major players in the system. The private organisation’s systems will be

affected by change in the format of data required and the greater the change the more

drastic effect on the system. The government agencies are required to reformat the

data to suit their internal requirements and customer needs.

The processes within the communication link are dependent on both the private

surveyors and government organisations working together to achieve the best possible

outcomes. It is the responsibility of the private surveyors to translate the data from

the digital format into the graphical format required for registration, but it is the

registering authority that decides what is suitable for registration. Similarly the

quality control measures are the responsibility of the private surveyors with the

registering authorities setting the standards and controlling the format.

Survey plans remain as the communication link, regardless of whether the data has

been at some stage of the process held in a digital format. The change to total digital

transfer of data is dependent on the technology being available to meet all the

requirements of the government agencies and standards being developed to allow the

process to happen. Given the present system of titles based on traditional methods, it

is likely that the survey plan will remain as part of the communication link in parallel

with some form of digital lodgement.

The technology on both sides of the communication link is developing beyond what

can be handled by the link itself. Private surveyors require digital data from outside

sources at different stages of the production process and are required to produce

survey plans as the end product of the cadastral process. The survey plan is the only

method of communicating cadastral data with the government agencies. The

government agencies require digital data, and are therefore transferring information

from the survey plans back into the digital format. Until the communication link can


be improved, further development of digital systems within the private and

government sectors will be independent of each other.

4 Summary

Cadastral reinstatement is a process of collecting evidence and applying the principles

of reinstatement to arrive at a reinstated position of the property boundary. The

principles of reinstatement are flexible guidelines that are applied by cadastral

surveyors and not a set of fixed rules that can be programmed into a computer to

obtain a solution.

The Queensland cadastral system consists of private surveying agencies that are

predominantly responsible for carrying out of cadastral surveys and the government

agencies responsible for the mapping and administration of cadastral information.

Technology development within the cadastral system is moving towards automated

systems using digital data. The development of digital technology and products

within private cadastral and government organisations are moving beyond the means

of communicating data between them. This data communication is currently by

means of survey plan only and is expected to evolve at some undefined time in the

future to include digital data transfer.

The private surveying and government organisation’s digital systems will continue to

develop independently until digital data exchange is introduced. The introduction of

digital data exchange will not however automatically integrate the system as the

digital data requirements of the different organisations are changing. The private

cadastral organisations are developing digital technology that is improving the

efficiency of their processes. For the two systems to again be the one integrated

system, not only must the private organisations present survey information in a format

required by the government sector, but the government sector must also provide data

to the private sector in the format that they require. To remain within the stated aim

and scope of this research, the private digital reinstatement systems will be considered

to be independent of the lodgement process and the government sector’s digital

cadastral system.


For traditional cadastral reinstatement systems to develop into innovative digital

systems the private surveying organisations need to consider the viability of the

available technology, the structure of their organisations and technical issues effecting

the development.

Chapter 3: Modern Surveying Technology

Chapter 3

Modern Surveying Technology


Chapter 3 Modern Surveying Technology Modern technology such as data base systems, total station theodolites, global

positioning systems, electronic field books, computer calculation applications and

Computer Aided Design and Drafting systems (CAD) are being tested and used in

Queensland’s cadastral surveying and related industries. There is continuous change

to the technological environment as advancements and development occurs.

The technological environment within private cadastral surveying organisations in

Queensland is dynamic in nature. The digital processes of the private cadastral

surveying organisations are independent of government systems. These digital

processes import cadastral information from the registered survey plans and produce

survey plans as the end product. There is ample opportunity within this definition to

develop efficient systems based on digital technology and further opportunity to

develop beyond this definition as the technical and legislative environments develop.

An efficient digital system requires data to be entered into a digital format at the

earliest possible opportunity and be maintained and used in a digital format

throughout the entire process. For these conditions to be met, each element of the

system must be able to communicate digitally with other elements with no loss of data

content at the communication links.

The concept of a “surveying system” implies that the tasks accomplished - whether in the field or office - are a product of a cohesive unit.

The individual elements of the digital surveying system’s technology can be

considered in isolation but it is also important to consider the systems and methods

that hold these elements together as a cohesive unit.


1 Hardware

Modern equipment commonly used in cadastral surveying systems includes total

station theodolites, electronic field books and computers.

1.1 Total Station Theodolite

Total station theodolites are a combination of an electronic theodolite and electronic

distance measuring equipment, which operates as an integrated unit. Modern total

stations often include some or all the functions of the electronic field book built into

the theodolite system. The total station is often used independently of the electronic

field book so each total station must include at least some of the basic measurement

and calculation applications. These applications usually include coordinate

calculation, angle calculations, coordinate geometry functions, traverse calculations,

resections and set out functions.

The purpose of an electronic total station is to measure the horizontal and vertical

angles and the slope distance to a target. From the basic information, additional

values including coordinates and horizontal distances may be calculated and

displayed. This information along with other information held in the total station

including instrument settings, atmospheric corrections and prism constants could be

transmitted to the electronic field book for further processing.

Instrument manufacturers are continuously improving the efficiency and accuracy of

their equipment and adding additional functions in an attempt to improve their service

and build up their market share. Some improvements include inbuilt programmes for

the calculation of curvature and refraction, single and dual axis tilt corrections,

automatic focusing, motorised systems and reflector-less measuring. Some of these

improvements have not only affected the efficiency and accuracy of existing systems

but have allowed for changes in the methods used that add additional efficiencies to

the system.


1.2 Electronic Field Books

The electronic field book consists of a data-recording device and programming

functions. The data-recording device needs to record an adequate amount of

information in the format required. It is the flexibility of the programming that

determines whether an electronic field book is suitable for a particular purpose. The

physical structure of the system is of less importance then the functionality.

The structure of the electronic field book can be either: an independent device; a

device incorporated into the total station theodolite; or a combination of both. The

independent devices contain both the data recording and programming functions of

the data recorder and can be used in conjunction with a number of different total

stations from different manufacturers. It is more common among instrument

manufacturers to use data recording devices built into the total station or data

recording cards with the programming functions being maintained within the total

station.

The functions of the electronic field book include the storage of data uploaded from

existing computerised information, storage of raw data gathered in the field and the

data processing ability to manipulate this data in the manner required. The electronic

field book systems were initially designed for topographic surveying so it is necessary

to analyse these systems to ensure that they are compatible with the requirements of

cadastral surveying.

It is the programme’s flexibility that limits or enables a data recorder’s use within the

cadastral surveying system. Some data recording systems include the ability for users

to develop their own programmes, but if this is not an option then the existing

programmes must be able to suit the user’s purpose. The more modern field book


programmes include improvements in their flexibility especially with regard to

traversing options.

Manufacturers of measuring equipment are investing considerable efforts in improving equipment, with new models being built around convenience of use and automated recording of observations.

Each instrument manufacturer has their own proprietary system with their own

applications and data structures. Data flow is one of the most crucial aspects of

electronic data collection. The data flow within a proprietary system is designed to

facilitate the use of equipment manufactured or recommended by the specific

manufacturer. The data flow is therefore not only dependent upon whether the system

can facilitate the movement of the specific data required but also whether the

upstream and downstream equipment is compatible with the data recorder and its data

structures.

1.3 Computers

The growth in computer technology has made the standard desktop computer capable

of running most of the applications relevant to cadastral surveying. Desktop

applications are available for calculating and adjusting data, CAD systems, and

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and data base environments.

Field computing technology has developed significantly in recent years including the

field data recorders, hand held calculators, palmtop and laptop computers. These

developments have allowed for the increase in field applications being developed.

The recent development of more robust field computers and wearable computers will

bring even more desktop solutions to the field.


2 Software

The increase in sophisticated hardware has promoted the development and

improvement of software applications. Areas of improvement in software

applications that are relevant to cadastral surveying include field surveying

applications, CAD systems and GIS and data base technology. Modern cadastral

software is more flexible and includes improvements in each element of the cadastral

system and the data communication between these elements.

2.1 Field Surveying Applications

Software development within field surveying applications has been left mainly to the

instrument manufacturers. Major developments within one manufacturer’s software

are generally independent of developments by other manufacturers. Each instrument

manufacturer has their strengths and weaknesses but progress is being made towards

more flexible software.

The improvement in the traversing software within electronic field books is making

the application of these programmes to cadastral surveying easier. There are about as

many methods of cadastral traversing as there are cadastral surveyors so it is unlikely

that the traversing programmes within each different system will suit all surveyors.

The additional flexibility of the modern applications allows surveyors to

electronically record their surveys by modifying their field methods without

necessarily affecting the standards of the survey.

Manufacturers are offering the ability to adjust traverses and reduce the fieldwork

either in the field through the electronic data recorder or post-processing in

compatible office systems. The ability to sort and adjust the traverse information and

reduce the remainder of the survey information with minimal input from the system

operator is a major improvement in the software. The ability to transform data from

one coordinate system to the other also has applications in a preliminary field

reinstatement.


There are no standards for the electronic transfer of field data within the cadastral

surveying system. This lack of standards has allowed the different instrument

manufacturers to operate independently without giving adequate thought to data

integration. There is however systems available that provide for the handling of

“mixed field observations”.

The new solution for processing field-surveyed data is independent of the routine procedures and customs of the surveyors and is fairly transparent to the user. The process efficiently handles raw field surveying data collected by different collectors and no known order of measuring steps. The system enables fully automated transfer of field measurements into defined spatial databases.

Systems such as those developed for use in topographic surveying can be applied to

the collection of cadastral field information.

2.2 CAD Systems

CAD systems have developed from initial drafting and design packages to

sophisticated, often modular systems that handle a number of different functions. The

modular type systems allow surveyors to purchase only the functions that are relevant

to the objectives they want to achieve. Surveyors not only use the CAD system to

prepare their plans but also commonly to download and translate data from the field

surveying system into an appropriate format for further work, carry out coordinate

geometry calculations, input information directly from paper based plans, store

information as a form of spatial data base and transform information into different

formats for digital transfer to other users.

The value of a CAD system depends on it being able to perform all the required

functions in an efficient and user-friendly manner.


2.3 GIS and Data Base Systems

GIS and database systems are now readily available to prospective users within the

private cadastral surveying organisations.

With the advent of powerful desktop PCs, GIS applications have migrated to the same desktop environment as the rest of their enterprise counterparts. Relational database technology has been enhanced to include spatial data types and operators. And, at the same time, the information technology world has moved to standardised product development environments and graphical user interface that provide performance and versatility once only available to GIS developers using proprietary tools.

The cadastral surveying system has been a provider of information to geographic

information systems and other data base technology rather than a user of the systems

themselves. Traditionally databases within the cadastral surveying system have been

either paper based or CAD systems. Data base systems add additional functionality

particularly with respect to the amount of attribute information that can be stored with

the basic spatial data.

3 Methods

The increased use of modern technology within the surveying industry does not only

effect the way we carry out our tasks, but also what tasks are required to be

undertaken. The surveyor will be required to maintain standards while at the same

time take a flexible approach to what can be achieved with the use of modern

technology.

3.1 Field Surveying Methods

Modern total stations include improved sophistication in the surveying software,

allowing alternative methods of traversing and also improved accuracy achievable in

the reading of horizontal and vertical angles and distances. Each instrument

manufacturer has different data formats and a variety of conditions that are required to


be fulfilled while traversing. It is important to be aware of the limitations of the

software that is being used and the capabilities of other software types.

Traditional surveying techniques using manual recording methods provide the

surveyor with a very flexible system of recording observations where the surveyor can

choose the system of traversing using either angle reading or directions, record the

readings in any order and take as many observations as required. The early total

station software provided the surveyor with a very limited range of reading and

recording methods. Modern traversing software allows surveyors to automatically

record and reduce traverses using either one face or two face readings with backsights

and multiple foresights. Modern total stations have much more flexibility but it is still

the available software that determines the methods that can be used. Surveyors are

required to adjust their methods to suit the available software while still maintaining

the required standards.

Surveyors have the option of using either one face or two face angle reading system.

In the past, surveyors have been restricted to using two face observations to improve

the accuracy of angle readings, but mainly to record a redundant reading to guard

against transcription errors. Modern total stations, particularly those with dual axis

compensation are capable of meeting cadastral traversing standards with single face

observations and automatic recording of electronic data is carried out without any

transcription necessary thus reducing the need for two face observations. It can be

argued that closed traverses with single face readings provide enough redundant

information to validate the traverse. Pointing error is one possible significant error

that can be reduced by taking multiple observations.

It is the individual surveyor's decision to select a field surveying method that suits the

instrument being used and is capable of meeting cadastral standards without

introducing significant sources of error.


3.2 Data Structure and Coding

Automated and digital surveying systems rely on the unique identification of objects

within the system to ensure that as data is passed from one element of the system to

the next there is no loss of integrity in the data structure.

The weakest link in many automatic-surveying systems is the structure that supports the data flow throughout the system. As the field coding system is a major component of that structure, the efficiency of a system depends to a large extent on coding system used.

The collection, storage and exchange of digital data within cadastral systems requires

standard elements including a standard file structure, field coding system and a field

note format that is capable of being interpreted by other surveyors.

3.2.1 Data Structure

The flow of data through the system is a critical aspect of the system. Without the

efficient communication of data from one element of the system to the next the

system becomes less efficient. A well-organized data structure is essential for

sustaining efficient communication within the system and also satisfying external

communication with a wide variety of software and hardware.

Communication between different levels of the digital reinstatement system and

between different instrument types relies on each element of the system being able to

interpret the data structure presented by the previous instrument or level. The data

structure is often dependent on the instrument used to create the data and the

functionality required for processing the data. If the format of the data produced at

each step in the process does not suit the format required at the following step, a

process of converting or translating the data to the new structure is required.


Most direct data translators are fairly simple programmes that rely on having

sufficient information about the formats of the source file and the destination file.

This method of direct data translation breaks down when there is a large number of

source files and destination files requiring translation. A translator is required for

each destination file from the source files, and similarly for reverse data

communication a different translator is required for each source file from the

destination file.

A more efficient system of file converters is available to convert the system data into

an appropriate format for use when required. Koo and Lim recommended a neutral

file format when discussing data collector translators. This system reduces the

number of direct translations required by introducing a new standard neutral file

format that acts as a focus into which all existing formats can be translated. The use of

a neutral file format can reduce the number of direct translators required from 50 to

10 when considering reversible transformations from five data recorders to five

software packages.

The application of neutral file formats or standard formats on an industry wide basis

will provide significant efficiencies. Significant headway has been made in applying

neutral file formats to CAD and GIS databases, but no similar interest has been

expressed for data collectors. With the lack of interest shown on an industry wide

basis it is possible to apply this concept at the system level by using a standard format

within the system thus reducing the number of translations required particularly when

communicating with outside devices.

When an application requires multiple formats within the system it makes sense to

convert all the input files into a neutral format as soon as possible. The new

application is then able to operate on the one standard format within each level of the

system and when required to export the data can then apply direct translations back


into the required format. This system does not have the universal application of an

industry wide standard but can be applied in this lesser degree without waiting for

industry standards to be developed and implemented.

There are a number of standard formats that have application to Queensland cadastral

data collection and exchange systems that provide standard formats and in some cases

also provide many of the required direct transformation software. Most CAD systems

provide a pseudo neutral file format in that the CAD programme will accept many

field data recorder formats by transforming the raw data files into a standard format

before processing the data into the CAD format. An example of this is the Civilcad

programme that converts raw data files into a format called the “neutral file format”.

There are alternatives to relying on the CAD systems that from time to time require

considerable user intervention in the combination of files, checking and filtering

redundant information from the field data and processing adjustments and reductions,

particularly when those files are not of the same raw data format. Gelbman and

Doytsher describe a system of combining, filtering and reducing the raw field

surveying data into a format suitable for spatial databases. This system takes

advantage of the neutral file format by transforming data into a standard format at the

earliest possible opportunity. The system processes data into the one job from any

number of data recording devices taken in no particular order of measurement and

with any number of files.

3.2.2 Coding of Survey Data

The coding of survey data is the shorthand method used for field surveyors to transfer

descriptions of the survey and points located during the survey to the software that

interprets the field information and produces the model of the survey or other file

formats required for further processing.


The standard field coding system described by Dowling and McDougall incorporates

three types of codes: the operational codes; point type codes; and feature codes.

Point Type codes: These describe the following characteristics of a point: whether it is contourable, whether it is on a string, whether it is a graphic line feature, or whether it is a break line.

Operational codes: These codes are used to record the following types of information: administrative data, start of survey data; survey datum type; type of survey data; station set up data; measurement correction data; string data; line geometry data; point attribute data; survey quality data, and miscellaneous data.

Feature codes: these codes are used to record information about the following features: general descriptions, boundaries, fences, survey marks, harbour facilities, roads, buildings, structures, utilities, mining installations, vegetation and tree species.

This type of coding combined with standard feature code libraries is typical of the

coding systems available to the cadastral surveyor. The coding systems were initially

intended for the recording of general survey data but can be applied to the specific

needs of the cadastral survey.

Coding and descriptions of survey data is easier to apply on the desktop size

keyboards then in field instruments therefore the amount of coding required in the

field should be reduced to a minimum. The majority of information gathered in a

cadastral survey is the re-measuring of existing points that can be coded before the

field survey. Any additional marks placed or information gathered would need to be

coded in the field along with re-coding of existing points that cannot be uniquely

related to previously coded information.

There is no standard field coding system available for cadastral surveys within

Queensland although there are a number of different coding systems available for use.

The Australian Standard for the Interchange of Spatial Data is not considered to be

suitable for field coding of survey data as it does not provide the level of detail

required.


3.3 Digital Lodgement of Survey Data

Registering authorities in Queensland do not require digital lodgement of cadastral

survey data but this is expected to change. Public agencies mainly have undertaken

research into the development of digital lodgement processes including:

In Queensland, there have been a number of initiatives commenced towards the development of digital processes for dealing with cadastral and as constructed survey data including:

1 research being undertaken within the Department of Natural Resources and Mines

2 commencement of a collaborative public and private agency research project with funding under the National Procurement Development Programme (NPDP) Project entitled the Electronic Survey Plan Lodgement and Registration Research Project

3 the development by officers of the now defunct Albert Shire Council of the Standard Electronic Format for As Constructed Data utilising a .DXF exchange format

4 the establishment of the Information Collection and Data Interchange Standardisation Group (ICDISG).

Initiatives commenced or undertaken in other Australian jurisdictions include:

1 the creation of the cadastral data base in NSW utilising the Neutral Cadastral File Format

2 the establishment of an infrastructure to facilitate the lodgement of cadastral survey data in the Northern Territory

3 a system for the lodgement of cadastral plans in Western Australia utilising the Cadastral Survey Data (CSD) digital data format

4 the adoption of the Spatial Data Transfers Standard (SDTS) as an Australasian Standard on 5th January 1995 as AS/NZ 4270 for the distribution of spatial data primarily from one agency to another.


The exchange of cadastral data has mainly been in the form of proprietary software

and ASCII format such as .DXF. The .DXF has been the defacto local government

standard for the exchange of digital data. The fact that many CAD systems can

manipulate and present cadastral data in a variety of forms has led to the extensive use

of these systems for cadastral calculations and presentation. There is considerable

investment in CAD systems in terms of software and the skills developed by operators

within the surveying industry in Queensland.

Hayes has demonstrated that the information stored within CAD systems can be

processed to provide point, line and polygon data to populate a LIS/GIS. The

prototype system demonstrated that low-cost software could be used to provide digital

lodgement of cadastral data from CAD systems.

Research by the Department of Natural Resources and Mines includes the

development of processes for the electronic lodgement of survey information. The

intention is to improve the supply of digital information from surveyors to the

Department of Natural Resources and Mines and to also provide the surveyors with

digital information suitable for use in reinstatement from the Department of Natural

Resources and Mines.

4 Summary

Modern surveying technology provides many of the tools required to develop an

efficient digital reinstatement system. Although the technical environment is

dynamic, the systems already developed provide many options for surveyors who

choose to use digital methods. These options have been tried and tested in related

fields or in isolation within the cadastral reinstatement system.

Total Stations have the capacity, in conjunction with electronic field books, to accept

digital data to carry out the functions required by cadastral surveyors and to pass on

the data in a digital format to the next stage of the process. Desktop and field


computers are capable of running most applications relevant to cadastral surveying.

Much of the software available for use by cadastral surveyors was designed for other

purposes. This software has the capacity to be applied directly to cadastral

reinstatement or to be applied with minimal modification.

The use of this technology relies on the cadastral organisations applying the

technology within their own organisational structures while taking into consideration

the technical issues of digital system implementation.

Organisational Issues Effecting Digital System Evolution

Chapter 4

Organisational Issues Effecting Digital System

Evolution


Chapter 4 Organisational Issues Effecting Digital Systems Evolution

The development of digital systems in private cadastral organisations relies on the

managers of these organisations having the motivation to make changes. Apart from

the reluctance to change existing working systems there are a number of issues that

effect the development of digital systems within private surveying organisations. It is

the responsibility of the managers of these organisations to weigh up the effects of the

development issues and instigate change when it is justified.

1 Motivation for Technical Change and Commercial Considerations

Digital systems will develop when people in authority have the motivation to proceed.

In the private sector the motivation for change is either commercial or legislative. A

higher level of authority introduces legislative change with compliance being a

condition of continuing in the commercial marketplace. Changes made for

commercial reasons rely on the perceived economic gains covering the costs of the

change by increases in efficiency or the provision of new markets to give a

competitive advantage over business rivals.

1.1 Motivation

The motivation for managers to make changes relies on a combination of the

manager’s attitudes to achievement, financial remuneration and the performance of

the organisation balanced by the desire for security both for the individual mangers

and the organisation. This leads to the suggestion that managers will make growth of

the organisation the most important objective.


1.2 Commercial Considerations

When introducing digital technology, it is important that there will be future gains in

efficiency and that these gains in efficiency will provide a commercial benefit.

Commercial benefit will flow not only to the producers of surveying products but also

the consumers. The benefits of readily available and commonly used technology will

tend to produce a commercial benefit for the consumers rather than the producers and

impose a commercial disadvantage on producers not using this technology. An

important function of management is to balance the technical perspective where

technical improvement may be justified for its own sake against the marketing and

commercial perspective.

The incremental development of new technology can produce savings in the

introduction of new equipment and training and commercial advantage with timely

introduction of new methods and systems. There are savings to be made in the

development of existing hardware and software to carry out additional tasks reducing

the need for the initial capital outlays. The introduction of new methods allows

individual organisations to move ahead of their competitors, taking advantage of the

commercial benefit before this benefit is passed on to the consumer. Radical changes

to systems provide the advantage of moving ahead of competitors but these changes

also have a requirement for significant capital expenditure and training.

The introduction of new technology providing efficiencies in production is imposed

on producers either by legislation or the requirement to not be at a commercial

disadvantage. The new processes often require substantial outlays in new equipment

and training leaving poor short-term returns on the money invested.

There is really no doubt that surveying will become increasingly less viable overtime unless it can engage in some level of product innovation.


Innovation in the form of the production, distribution and brokerage of information

products requires the development of digital systems and possible changes to the

structure of the cadastral surveying organisations.

Products such as technical knowledge and information are difficult to market because

they can be consumed by many users without preventing other users from consuming

them, and sellers are unable to restrict use to those people who pay for the service.

1.3 Control and Implementation

Organisations that take the lead in technology development may find the variety of

choices of alternative products are extensive and difficult to choose between. These

decisions need to be made carefully considering the current situation within the

organisation and the direction that management sees the industry taking in the future.

As the development process matures the choice of alternative products converges

from numerous options originally available to fewer working systems and remaining

options.

1.4 Legislation

The legislative authority level provides advantages in sharing resources and

developing standard systems. The advantages are passed on to the industry as a

whole, with the resultant economic gains being passed on to the client and general

public.

The exact nature, extent and timing of future legislation changes cannot be predicted

which provides a window of opportunity for private surveying organisations or groups

of organisations to establish markets or develop products in fields that may be seen as

the domain of government agencies.


1.5 Education and Training

Tertiary education institutions are responsible for surveying education and the private

surveying organisations are responsible for the majority of training in the form of

workplace training. The education institutions provide a broad background in current

surveying skills and prepare the students for changes in surveying systems that may

appear in the foreseeable future. Workplace training provides surveyors with the

specific skills required to complete their daily work.

The training provided in the workplace depends on the commitment of management

to a well-trained staff. Even with commitment within a particular organisation,

training can become focused on existing internal requirements without a view to the

future. It is important to not only develop the skills of the staff but it is equally

important to be aware of the staff members existing skills.

Education and training can require considerable resources when developing new

systems. Sufficient planning by managers is required to maintain adequate training

levels in a developing environment. Single organisations may need to bring in

specialist staff or to consider sharing resources with other organisations that are

developing in similar directions.

2 Existing Organisational Structures

The Queensland cadastral surveying and mapping system’s cadastral functions can be

divided into the responsibilities of predominantly private cadastral organisations and

the state government. The state government's responsibilities include cadastral

control, records management, cadastral mapping and digital land boundary

information. The private cadastral organisations are responsible for the carrying out

of cadastral surveys.


The private cadastral surveying organisations rely on the state government for supply

of the historical cadastral information in an appropriate format. Due to the

compulsory lodgements of cadastral surveys, the state government holds a complete

database of the registered survey plans that are distributed to the private cadastral

surveying organisations for a fee. The introduction of digital technology has changed

the expectations of cadastral surveyors to expect the lodgement and distribution of

cadastral information at least in part in a digital format.

The development of a digital link between private cadastral surveyors and the state

government requires the solution of a number of technical and organisational issues

particularly within the state government departments. Until this digital link is

established the development of digital systems within private cadastral organisations

will be independent of similar systems within the state government. This separation

of digital development and automated systems is not a preferred situation but will be

the case until the appropriate legislation is in place. Problems will arise when

attempts are made to amalgamate the separate automated systems and digital formats.

Under existing organisational structures the private cadastral surveyor will be required

to not only carry out cadastral surveys, but will also be required to collect, archive and

distribute the digital data in the format required for their own systems. Each surveyor

will collect data in their own operational area that will not necessarily be complete or

related to any specific quality standard. The initial specification requires this data to

be suitable for the purpose for which it will be used.


3 The Structure of Private Cadastral Surveying Organisations

The private cadastral surveying organisation exists in an environment that has

changed from a relatively stable traditional environment to a modern environment of

continually changing conditions. The traditional organisational structures are not

necessarily the best structures in a modern environment to the extent that some of the

traditional structures are now ineffective, particularly with reference to the

distribution of digital information.

3.1 The Cadastral Surveying Environment

The cadastral surveying environment at any one point in time defines the entry-level

conditions that must be met before an organisation can participate at a competitive

level with those organisations already in the marketplace. These conditions include

being able to meet any legislative requirements and to have the basic technology and

training in place that allows for the efficient completion of the cadastral surveying

tasks. Once the basic entry-level requirements are met the environment is not only

effected by external conditions but also the changes in internal conditions due to

development of the internal processes.

The external conditions effecting the cadastral surveying environment include

changes in legislation, competitor’s actions, cost pressures, product compatibility,

social and political influences and future scientific and technical developments. The

internal conditions that effect the environment relate mainly to process innovation.

The environment is continuously changing and from time to time is redefined by

legislative change that often follows the environmental changes that occur as part of

the development process. Major changes in legislation redefine the entry-level

requirements that must be met.


Table 4.1 Traditional Digital Flow Chart

This Table is unavailable online.



3.2 Single Cadastral Surveying Organisation

The single organisation provides an elementary structure that allows these

organisations to analyse their processes and react quickly to any perceived need to

change. The single organisation predominantly controls the internal development

process allowing changes to be made while developing at its own pace. The ability to

react to change and a willingness to make these changes defines the progressive

organisations.


The reinstatement process provides a well-defined product with few opportunities for

product innovation at this level of organisation. The development from traditional

systems to digital and automated processes is the development of efficiencies in the

production of a single product or process innovation. The decision to make changes

in the process depends on the economy of the efficiencies outweighing the costs of

making the change as perceived by management.

3.3 Associations of Private Surveying Organisations

Alliances of private cadastral organisations can vary from loose agreements between

organisations operating in a particular local area to alliances instigated through

professional associations covering a large number of organisations in a much wider

geographical area. The content of agreements can vary from sharing copies of

registered cadastral plans to reduce search fees to sharing expertise, resources and

digital data for the exploitation of existing and new surveying products. The

advantages of shared resources have led to the types of agreements common with

traditional data and resource sharing.

There are obstacles to be overcome in combining independently developed systems

but these obstacles can often be outweighed by the advantages of shared resources.

The obstacles will be both organisational and technical but can be overcome by

incremental development and strategic planning. As with issues of efficiency, the

process of development will proceed if there is sufficient perceived advantage to

encourage management to make changes.

The advantage of shared resources allows for further development in process

development and also product innovation. The sharing of expertise and previous

development experience provides more information enabling groups of organisations

to make better-informed choices in strategic development. Groups of organisations

have the opportunity to develop new information products that would normally be

limited within the single organisation structure.


The sharing of digital data between organisations requires the information to be

processed and placed in a format that is suitable for sharing. This information is a by-

product of the digital systems within the external cadastral process, particularly when

the information is required to the shared with other organisations. The development

of lodgement, archiving and distribution systems by private surveying organisations

will provide information in a format that can be used for number of purposes.

The development of the process of lodgement, archiving and distribution provides

experience and skills that can be useful in information brokerage. The ability to add

value to gathered information with the inclusion of cadastral surveying information is

an advantage that may not be provided by other brokers in the marketplace.

4 Summary

Private surveying organisations entering the system must attain an entry-level at

which they are capable of meeting legislative requirements and competing with

existing organisations already in the marketplace. As the system progresses, the

technical, legislative and economic conditions required to be met at this level change.

Single private surveying organisations provide the elementary structure that can best

react to changes in the environment.

Associations of private surveying organisations allow firms to share resources,

particularly expertise and digital data that can lead to additional efficiencies and the

exploitation of new surveying markets. There are resource-sharing agreements in

place for the sharing of traditional data and technical information. These

organisational structures will not have to change to include digital data and innovative

technology exchange. The change to include digital data exchange will occur when

the organisations decide the advantages of the shared data out-weighs the advantages

of maintaining the ownership of digital data in-house.


The capacity to exploit digital data markets may be limited by the perception of what

the government agencies will provide when there is a requirement to lodge digital

data. The exact nature, extent and timing of future legislation changes cannot be

predicted. This provides a window of opportunity for private surveying organisations

or groups of organisations to establish markets or develop products in fields that may

be seen as the domain of government agencies.

Technical Issues Effecting Digital Systems Evolution

Chapter 5

Technical Issues Effecting Digital System

Evolution


Chapter 5 Technical Issues Effecting Digital

Systems Evolution

Solutions to a number of technical issues are required for progression from traditional

to digital reinstatement systems. The relevant technical issues are identified within

the context of the traditional system. Alternative solutions for the development of

digital systems are considered, including commercially available solutions, while also

identifying the merits of the different options available.

1 Historical Data

Historical data is information that can be gathered and used by the surveyor for the

production of cadastral information.

The major source of spatial data used for the reinstatement of cadastral boundaries in

Queensland is the Department of Natural Resources and Mines. This data is held in

the form of registered survey plans, identification surveys and title documents and can

be described as legal cadastral information. Other information such as Computer

Aided Design and Drafting (CAD) files of cadastral boundaries; subdivision designs

and “As Constructed” plans do not have the same legal standing as information

lodged with the Department of Natural Resources and Mines. This information is

therefore secondary cadastral information that needs to be confirmed at some stage by

comparison with the legal cadastral information. Traditionally legal cadastral

information is stored in the written format and this provides the only method of

transferring legal cadastral information from one surveyor to another, normally via the

Department of Natural Resources and Mines.


Modern technology has allowed for spatial data to be stored not only in the paper

format but also as digital data that can be displayed as spatial images in computer

applications. Applications that are used for the storage and manipulation of digital

spatial data include CAD packages and GIS.

The source information format and the format best suited for the proposed use needs

to be considered when determining the appropriate applications to be used for the

manipulation of historical data. The primary information source for cadastral

surveyors is paper based plans with some data, normally available from inside the

organisation involved, in a CAD format. There is no digital data available from the

Department of Natural Resources and Mines that is suitable for use in cadastral

reinstatement. The proposed uses of historical data within the system includes its use

as a source of information for searching for the cadastral marks in the field and its use

as a source of information of reinstatement data.

The Licensed Surveyor is responsible for the correctness and completeness of

information on the face of registered plans. This is even more critical than before as

the Department of Natural Resources and Mines are not regularly examining the

reinstatement of surveys. It is possible for Licensed Surveyors to certify data in a

digital format that may not be “legal data” but still carries the same weight as the

Licensed Surveyors certification.

2 Field Data Collection

The traditional method for field data collection is to use paper based systems backed

up with electronic calculators to assist in the calculations required. Cadastral

surveyors still commonly use this system. Surveyors have made some improvements


to the systems due to the available technology but this is often in a piecemeal fashion

without improvements to the system as a whole.

The technologies available to surveyors today that offer possible improvements to the

system include total station theodolites, electronic field books, database systems,

computers and software programmes.

The field surveying system is a combination of the use of historical data to locate the

survey marks in the field, the collection of field information and the adjustment and

reduction of the field information. Each of these elements can be upgraded separately

to digital systems but this will not necessarily improve the system as a whole. It is the

communication between the elements of the system that is required to be in place to

provide an integrated system.

Much of the technologies used for field data collection depend on proprietary systems

that are normally designed to be compatible with their own choice of software and

hardware. It is often the case that once a specific surveying total station is being used

then it is necessary to select electronic field books and CAD systems that are

compatible. The integration of the system is then normally dependent on the system

provided by the manufacturer. The combination of different equipment in the one

system often causes compatibility problems.

2.1 Location of Field Marks

To assist in the location of existing survey marks in the field the electronic field book

can be uploaded with coordinates from a compatible database that the electronic field

book’s programmed functions can interrogate and provide information to the surveyor

in the field. This process can provide new efficiencies on a stand-alone basis and is

already commonly being used by cadastral surveyors.


The minimum requirements for the field mark searching process need data to be input

into a CAD system from registered survey plans, a sketch plot to be produced

showing cadastral structure and coded point descriptions. The digital data should also

be able to be exported to the electronic field book and the field book should be

capable of allowing the operator to edit the data in the field. The field operator should

also be able to carry out the basic calculations required such as resection, bearing and

distance calculations and traversing calculations.

The CAD system should be capable of importing and exporting data electronically

from a variety of other systems and should have an efficient user interface when data

is required to be input manually. The user interface is particularly important as it has

often semiskilled or unskilled personnel required to manually enter this data. The

ability to be able to edit and adjust traverse data prior to entry into the CAD

coordinates system is a particularly useful function.

Most electronic field books are capable of carrying out the standard calculations

required in the field. The programming functions of the electronic field book can

often affect the field system used by the surveyor. The calculation and field search

programmes should also be compatible with the traversing programmes as these

functions are often carried out in parallel. The field search function can be enhanced

with the use of coordinate system transformations and preliminary reinstatement

calculations.

The digital tools available to assist in the location of existing field information

include: a CAD system used to convert historical data to a digital format; the field

recording device into which the data can be transferred; software solutions capable of

carrying out the basic calculations required; and a total station theodolite. These tools

must be considered separately before the problems of integration are faced.


CAD systems vary from the very simple systems often designed for a specific purpose

to general-purpose systems that are capable of handling most tasks. The selection of a

CAD system is often an economic decision balancing cost against the tasks that are

required from the system. For this purpose the CAD system is required to import data

from other CAD systems, plot sketch plans, have an efficient method of inputting

existing data from cadastral plans and be able to transmit data in the required format

to the available field-recording device.

The field recording device can vary from elementary data cards capable of holding

simple coordinate files to sophisticated electronic field books that include multiple

data input formats and data processing functions. The field-recording device must be

able to interact with the available programmes in the field to present information as

required. The basic calculation functions required include a resection programme

bearing and distance calculations to the next point and traverse calculations. This part

of the operation can initially be considered as an independent function where the

location of field mark operations are required to be independent of the data gathering

functions in the field. More sophisticated digital systems will require these files to

interact. For example the input data file can be transformed to be consistent with the

field traversing information allowing preliminary reinstatement and corner pegging.

Preliminary reinstatement in the field or real-time reinstatement can only be a

preliminary function that needs to be repeated once the field survey is completed.

The preliminary information obtained by these types of programmes is useful for

more precise information on the location of existing survey marks and for preliminary

pegging of some lot corners. It should be noted that the reinstated corner’s location

often depends on information that is obtained at a later stage of the survey and that the

final reinstatement is dependent on the adjusted traverse information that often cannot

be obtained until after the traverse has been completed.


2.2 The Collection of Field Information

Field survey recording is commonly carried out in traditional field books, using the

traditional methods in preference to electronic data recording. The traditional

methods have the advantage of recording the data in a standard format where the data

is easily accessible at all times during the survey. The standard format is familiar to

all surveyors and is readily accepted by registering authorities when field notes are

lodged.

The use of electronic recording of survey data will not necessarily make the process

more efficient, or easier without the development of other procedures that take

advantage of the digital data. The electronic recording of field data compared to hand

booking tends to make data less accessible, coding more difficult and field sketches

unlikely in the electronic format. There is no standard format for electronic data

recording, which causes problems when separating data types and combining

information from different sources and when field notes are required to be lodged

with government authorities.

The end result of the field surveying process includes the record of the relative

location of all the cadastral points relevant to the survey, so the field survey

component can be said to include not only the recording of the information in the field

but also the traverse adjustment and reduction of field data to obtain the final relative

location of the cadastral points. The traditional process that is commonly used

transfers data from a written format where calculations are carried out to adjust and

reduce the data, normally in a digital format, and then record it in a written format that

can be later entered back into a digital format for the reinstatement stage of the

process often done within a CAD system.

Field information required to be collected is normally in the format of traverse with

radiations to points of interest. This format is similar to the format used to collect

topographic information with the notable exceptions of the accuracy and the quantity


of data required. Most of the standard field book programmes were designed for the

recording of topographic information.

The method of collection of field information is dependent on the software available

and the method used in the field. There is often very little choice in the software once

an instrument configuration has been chosen so it is therefore very important to

ensure that the equipment being used has the capability to carry out the functions

required. The surveyor has a choice of using a number of different methods in

carrying out the field survey so it is often possible to adapt the methods used to the

instrument and software available. It is important not to sacrifice the standards of the

survey in an attempt to use hardware and software that is not up to the task.

The cadastral survey is required to meet certain accuracy standards, use measuring

systems that are consistent with the Surveyors Regulation 1992 and standard practices

and to record the field survey in field notes that meet the regulations. The use of total

station systems for the electronic field recording and calculations can reduce the

amount of field checks required and reduce the time spent in the field by up to 50%.

2.3 The Electronic Field Book

The electronic field book consists of a data-recording device and programming

functions. The data-recording device needs to record sufficient information in the

format required. It is the flexibility of the programming that determines whether an

electronic field book is suitable for a particular purpose. The physical structure of the

system is of less importance then the functionality.

When selecting an electronic field book, it is essential to analyse the system to ensure

that the required functions are achievable and the digital data can be exploited to its

best effect. The efficient processing of digital data requires data to be entered at the


earliest possible opportunity and be maintained in a digital format throughout the

process. As an example, when considering the field recording of cadastral traverses

the raw field data must be able to be transformed into an appropriate format for field

notes. The traverses and radiation information should be able to be adjusted and

reduced with minimum additional input from the user. The final results should be

able to be automatically transformed into a format suitable for the CAD or data base

format that will be used in the next stage of cadastral reinstatement.

Survey data taken directly from observations on the total station, with the inclusion of

field codes input in the field, can be efficiently recorded electronically. This is the

traverse, radiation and point identification data that records the position of the

identified points. This information is very similar to information recorded in standard

topographic surveys for which much of the surveying software and hardware is

designed.

The structure of the electronic field book can consist of an independent device, be

incorporated into the total station theodolite or a combination of both. Independent

devices such as the Sokkia SDR 33 (Sokkia data recorder, model number SDR 33)

contain both the data recording and programming functions of the data recorder. This

type of data recorder can be used in conjunction with a number of different total

stations from different manufacturers. It is more common among instrument

manufacturers to use data recording devices built into the total station or simple data

recording cards with the programming functions being maintained within the total

station.

The functions of the electronic field book include: the storage of data uploaded from

existing information; storage of raw data gathered in the field; and the data processing

ability to manipulate this data in the manner required. As the electronic field book

systems were initially designed for topographic surveying, it is necessary to analyse

the systems to ensure that they are compatible with the requirements of cadastral

surveying.


It is the programme’s flexibility that limits or enables a data recorder’s use within the

cadastral surveying system. Some data recording systems include the ability for users

to develop their own programmes, but if this is not an option, then the existing

programmes must be able to suit the user’s purpose.

Each instrument manufacturer has their own proprietary system with their own

systems and data structures.

2.4 Field Note Format

Surveyors are required to lodge field notes with registering authorities and are also

required to keep any survey records that are not lodged. The survey records lodged

with the registering authority are required to “be in a form suitable as a record of the

cadastral survey”. The Department of Natural Resources and Mines requires field

notes to be lodged with the survey plan to supplement information on the lodged plan.

This is necessary in cases of ambulatory boundaries, encroachments and when

additional explanation is necessary.

The registering authorities monitor the format of lodged field notes by a process of

accepting or rejecting the documents submitted. The traditional format of notes

drawn in pencil on A5 sheets of high-grade paper are still acceptable and form a basis

from which any variations can be compared. The registering authorities will accept

documents that can be readily archived within their existing systems and will not

deteriorate or be unable to be interpreted over a long archival period. Printouts of

electronic files are acceptable whereas disks holding the electronic file itself would

not be acceptable.


The Licensed Surveyor is responsible for the format of field records that are kept.

The registering authorities do not normally examine these documents and therefore do

not provide a standard format. The format of these records is more flexible than that

of the lodged records as the surveyor has a number of choices in the system of

archiving. These records may be required to be used as evidence in court proceedings

at any time in the future so the surveyor has similar responsibilities as the registering

authorities in assuring that the archived information is long lasting and retrievable.

The majority of field notes and field records are not lodged with registering

authorities so it can be seen that the emphasis for the format of field notes has shifted

from the registering authorities to the surveyors themselves. The advantage of having

a central authority setting a standard format for field notes is that all surveyors are

aware of what that standard is, the standard can be monitored by examination and the

standard can be taught by the education institutions. As there is no definitive standard

or checking process it is possible, even likely, that each surveyor will develop their

own interpretation of what is acceptable as far as the format and content of the field

records are concerned.

Surveyors should maintain the field records in such a manner that they are complete,

readily understandable by other surveyors and able to be archived for long periods.

These conditions apply whether the field notes are in the traditional format, an

electronically recorded format or a combination of the both. Information recorded

electronically would normally be required to be printed from the digital files and

paper copies kept for archiving purposes. The printed digital information forms only

part of the survey field notes and as such does not have to fully describe the survey.

The complete survey records may also contain additional printed digital information

or traditional style handwritten notes.


The printed digital information is required to be understandable by other surveyors

therefore consideration needs to be given to the format of the digital information that

is to be printed. The raw data files from some particular instruments may not be able

to be easily understood by a surveyor not familiar with that particular brand of

instrument. If this is the case, then the raw data file will need to be translated into a

generic format that can readily interpreted by other surveyors.

2.5 Traverse Adjustments and Reductions

The adjustment and reduction of field observations is an integral part of the field

surveying process. The majority of these calculations can be completed in the office

on the desktop computer system but it is sometimes essential to have the capability to

at least calculate the traverse misclose in the field. This misclose could be calculated

using an electronic calculator programme by reviewing the field data and re-entering

this information into the calculator but it is more efficient to use electronic field books

with the capacity to calculate this information directly from the recorded data.

When using electronic field recording devices it is first necessary to sort the traverse

information from the radiations. This process can be time consuming if the software

is not configured to carry out this task automatically or if data is obtained from

different instrument types in the one project. Savings of more than 40% in the data

processing time have been reported when comparing automated procedures to

traditional methods.


2.6 Preliminary Field Reinstatement

The reinstatement of cadastral boundaries carried out in the field as the survey

progresses can be considered to be only a preliminary field reinstatement. Except in

only the simplest cases, the reinstated position of a boundary point will depend on

information that is gathered once the survey moves on from the boundary point of

interest. The final reinstatement can normally not be undertaken until the traverse is

completed and the appropriate adjustments and reductions are finalised. It is

important not to confuse the final reinstatement when carried out in the field at the

completion of the field survey with the preliminary field reinstatement carried out as

the survey progresses.

The purpose of a preliminary field reinstatement is normally to assist in the location

of existing field marks, analyse encroachments and place marks as the survey

progresses. The importance of these types of functions often depends on the size of

the survey and the time expected to complete it. The preliminary reinstatement may

reduce the need to occupy all the stations a second time for pegging purposes.

Electronic field books with the capability to calculate traverse adjustments and also to

transform coordinates from one system to another are useful for field reinstatement.

The ability for the user to develop a traversing and reinstatement programme within

the field book environment adds another dimension to the flexibility of the system.

2.7 Pegging Lot Boundaries

The pegging of lot boundaries is a similar process to the set out of any other structure

or set out point. The electronic field book will be required to upload the design

information, have an efficient onboard set out programme and to record the results of

the set out for confirmation purposes.


3 Reinstatement Calculations

Reinstated cadastral boundaries are determined by applying the hierarchy of

reinstatement evidence to the historical data and field data. The rules of reinstatement

are subjective in nature and require the expertise of an experienced Licensed Surveyor

to determine the correct application of the rules. The historical data supplies the

boundary structure, the position of recorded survey marks relative to the known

boundaries and descriptive codes for the marks included in the database. The field

data supplies the spatial relationship between recorded survey marks, occupation and

any other facts relevant to the survey, as they exist at the time of survey.

The reinstatement rules are guidelines only and require subjective decisions to be

made by the Licensed Surveyor. Reinstatement calculation programmes will require

some option for user interaction allowing the Licensed Surveyor to make the

appropriate professional judgments and record this information as additional input to

the calculation programme. The calculation process can therefore not be fully

automated.

The reinstatement calculation process requires the system to be able to import the

historical survey data and the reduced field data. The calculation process will include

interaction with the Licensed Surveyor and the combination of information from both

the imported files. The process output requires information to be exported to CAD

systems for the preparation of the survey report. Additional digital data may be

required to be exported to internal or external systems at some time in the future.

The traditional system of reinstating cadastral boundaries requires the surveyor to

calculate the bearings and distances between the marks as they exist in the field and

compare these to those calculated from the original survey plans. This process

requires a large number of calculations often requiring the same information to be

input into the calculator more than once as different combinations of attempts are

tried and compared to determine the final solution. The uses of CAD systems with


their coordinate geometry and database functions have helped streamline the

traditional approach. The CAD-based reinstatement system is still the traditional

approach, with the advantage of using the improved calculating power of the modern

CAD programmes.

3.1 The Reinstatement Calculation Process

The reinstatement calculations are carried out a number of times during the

reinstatement process. These times include:

1 Initial Reinstatement - the analysis of historical data

2 Field Reinstatement - determination of the facts on the ground as the survey

progresses

3 Final Reinstatement - determination of boundaries considering all the relevant

facts

The emphasis on each reinstatement depends on the level of development of the

reinstatement system. The traditional reinstatement methods rely completely on the

final reinstatement for the determination of the reinstated cadastral boundaries. The

final analysis in these cases relies on all the relevant information being available

before the calculations can be carried out.

In a legal coordinated cadastre the boundaries are known before the commencement

of the survey and are therefore determined at the initial reinstatement stage. The field

and final reinstatements are used for checking and confirmation of the initial

reinstatement. The development of reinstatement systems are moving from the

traditional methods to a coordinated approach with automated systems developing

within the transitional period.


3.1.1 Traditional Reinstatement

The traditional reinstatement systems use the initial reinstatement as an initial analysis

tool where the surveyor gathers the information required for the next step in the field.

The surveyor gets a feel for the history of the job while placing the data in an

appropriate format for the next step. The main purpose of the initial reinstatement is

to allow the surveyor to go into the field with enough information at an appropriate

accuracy to locate existing survey marks. It is essential that the information provided

by the initial reinstatement be organised in an easily accessible format and that the

information is complete.

The field survey provides the surveyor with the facts, as they exist at the time of the

survey. The information from the field survey includes:

1 Checking the positional accuracy and relevance of historical data.

2 Locating and describing any other relevant information.

3 Field analysis to ensure the data is correct and accurate.

It is the field survey that defines the spatial relationship of the data, as it exists at the

time of the survey. The field survey also completes the record of all the relevant

cadastral information.

The final reinstatement is a combination of the facts established in the field survey

with historical information provided from initial search information. The initial

search information provides the structure of the boundaries and a record of the type

and location of original survey marks placed in relationship to the boundaries. The


field survey provides the actual relative locations of all marks significant to the survey

including historical marks and occupation.

The traditional reinstatement method is an iterative process that analyses the facts on

the ground with the historical information allowing the surveyor to make a subjective

decision as to the location of the boundaries. Under current legislation the final

reinstatement can only be completed once all the relevant evidence has been

considered. This includes information from the completed field survey, including the

adjusted traverse information that is often not available until after the final traverse

station has been occupied. Any reinstatement carried out before this point can only be

considered to be preliminary information.

3.1.2 Reinstatement Based on Legal Coordinates

It should be stressed that Queensland has not moved to a legal coordinated cadastre.

The nature and extent of any future legislation cannot be accurately determined. A

Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines discussion paper about an

enhanced survey observation management environment for Queensland includes

reference to a previous paper in which it was stated that until previous levels of

maturity were addressed it is inappropriate to consider, in any detail, any issues

associated with the legal cadastre. The time frame for any changes are uncertain and

could take several years to consider.

In a system of legal coordinates proposed by some surveyors, coordinates sit at the

top of the hierarchy of evidence above evidence of original intention in a legal

coordinated cadastre. With this form of reinstatement the emphasis is reversed from

the traditional system so that the main emphasis is on the initial reinstatement and

field reinstatement rather than the final analysis.


The initial reinstatement or analysis of historical data is reduced to the function of

obtaining the legal cadastral coordinates for the property corners and the reference

system marks. This information fully defines the legal position of the cadastral

boundaries.

The minimum field reinstatement will require the surveyor to establish the data by

reference to the defined reference system marks and then to mark the location of

property corners in the supplied coordinated position. Any additional work required

would be a function of the amount of quality assurance or checking required in the

specific legislation. Any final reinstatement required again will also be a function of

the amount of quality assurance or checking required under the specific legislation.

3.2 Current Systems

The current cadastral reinstatement systems are a combination of the traditional

system incorporating some digital methods. These digital methods include the use of

CAD systems in the analysis of historical data and electronic field books for the

location of existing survey marks in the field. CAD is often used for the reduction

and analysis of the field information, reinstatement calculations and presentation of

the survey information.

The information collected in the CAD system and used for the location of historical

data is not used extensively in further stages of the reinstatement process. The field

data is normally recorded in field books with the traverse information reduced in

handheld calculators or on in-house computer programmes. The field information is

recorded into the field books, entered into calculators for field calculations, and again

into calculations systems for the traverse reduction and finally entered back into the

CAD package for further processing. The entering and re-entering of data from the

written format to the digital format is only sustainable because of the relatively small

amounts of data involved.


3.3 Advanced Surveying Systems

Advanced reinstatement systems introduce the concept of continuous digital data flow

and integration of multiple equipment configurations. The aim is to develop a system

that enters digital information at the earliest possible opportunity without the need to

re-enter data and that can communicate digitally with equipment using a number of

different data structures.

These systems can still operate in a CAD based environment but require additional

software and methods for the integration of existing systems into advanced systems

containing standard or neutral file formats. Additional software is also required when

specific information is required to be extracted from CAD files to be integrated with

other CAD files at later stages in the process.

3.4 Automated Calculations Systems

Total automation of reinstatement calculation systems is not possible under current

legislation due to the subjective nature of the rules of reinstatement. Some suggested

legislative changes to the rules of reinstatement might allow for the introduction of

fully automated systems but changes to legislation are uncertain in content and

timing. Legislative reform is dependent on government innovation whereas the

development of automated systems within the existing legislative environment

depends on innovation in private cadastral surveying organisations.

Innovative reinstatement systems require automated processes to be linked with an

efficient system of interaction with the Licensed Surveyor. This interaction must

provide information in the appropriate format to assist in the making of the subjective

decisions required to determine the reinstated boundaries. The system of interaction

should also provide efficient data entry and automated logging of decisions made.

The different approaches include using a system of interactive coordinate geometry

programmes or vector systems.


3.4.1 Automation

The automation of cadastral reinstatement calculations is taking the calculation

process a step beyond the use of CAD and coordinate geometry calculation

programmes. These CAD and coordinate geometry calculation programmes are

calculation tools used by the surveyor to carry out calculations. An automated

reinstatement calculation programme will determine a preliminary solution based on a

simplified hierarchy of evidence. The surveyor is then in a position to interact with

this information, making changes as required in the specific circumstances to

determine the final solution.

The extent of automation and the quality of the preliminary solution depends on the

simplified hierarchy of evidence and the circumstances in which a valid solution can

be determined. In circumstances where the measured distances are equivalent to the

original distances within the specified accuracy of the survey a simple mathematical

distribution of shortage or excess may be appropriate as the final solution. The

simplified hierarchy of evidence can be expanded from initial simple mathematical

solutions to more complex algorithms that will handle a wide variety of reinstatement

problems. An example of this is the analytical approach to shortage and excess

developed by Stuart Sprott to handle a variety of different situations. The preliminary

solution can only apply in limited cases and have limited application to specific

reinstatement problems especially where gross errors exist. There will always be a

need for the judgment of a professional surveyor to examine the validity of the

preliminary solution and to determine the final reinstatement solution.

The automation process requires continuous data flow throughout the system, which

requires the amalgamation of data from different sources and often in different data

structures. Historical digital data is normally held in coordinate based systems


(structural data format) and field data is collected in vector format. The condition of

continuous data flow must be maintained irrespective of the data structures used at

any stage of the process. In automated procedures, the data structure is often

transparent to the user and the choice of coordinate or vector based calculations is a

matter of personal choice for the system developer.

3.4.2 Coordinate Based Reinstatement Calculations

The Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines is developing a survey

accurate coordinated cadastral database. Development beyond this point to some

form of legal coordinates is uncertain and legislation to introduce legal coordinates

will not be considered until “some point well into the future”. Under the existing

legislative environment it is important to note that the coordinates do not have a

substantial legal footing so that coordinated systems can only serve as a tool used by

the surveyor to analyse the survey data within the current rules of evidence.

The automation of traditional methods of reinstatement using coordinate geometry

programmes and CAD packages requires the development of additional software to

enhance the flow of data and the analytical power of the base systems. The

reinstatement process requires the combination of information from the digital

historical data files and the results of the field survey before the analytical processes

can be considered.

The concept of least squares reinstatement developed by Stuart Sprott provides an

example of an application of automated procedures using coordinate geometry

calculation programmes on a hand-held calculator platform. The least squares

programme develops a preliminary solution based on a set of assumptions. The


programme then provides for interaction with the Licensed Surveyor by providing

statistical information and the ability to refine the preliminary solution based on the

information provided and professional judgment of the surveyor.

The least squares reinstatement programme also demonstrates how the initial

assumptions could be varied incrementally with the development of more

sophisticated algorithms and methods. The initial programme was expanded to take

into consideration further automation of specific elements of the reinstatement

calculation process. The additional development expanded the number of cases and

applications where the initial solution can provide a good approximation of the final

result.

Hayes demonstrates a digital lodgement system of cadastral data collection primarily

created as a tool for the creation and maintenance of a survey accurate database that

can also be used for the reinstatement of cadastral boundaries to meet current titling

legislation. An initial “most likely” solution based on historical information is created

in a CAD format. The initial solution is then updated to a “field calibrated”

preliminary solution using software developed to operate on electronic field data

recorders. The final reinstated boundaries are determined in a CAD environment by

comparison of the most likely solution and the field calibrated solution with the

original cadastral information. The digital lodgement system demonstrates

continuous data flow in a CAD based system using specifically developed software

for the combination of the historical data and field data in the reinstatement process.


3.4.3 Vector Based Reinstatement Calculations

Traditional reinstatement calculations are carried out in vector-based format with

calculations and comparisons to the original information described in terms of vector

information giving relative positions. These vectors describing relative positions are

of more consequence when determining reinstated boundaries then the absolute

position described by coordinates. Coordinate geometry is a tool used for the

determination of these vectors.

Field surveys are normally recorded in vector format totally describing the spatial

survey information. It is common to transform this information from a vector format

from the field survey to a coordinate format in CAD before reinstatement calculations

are carried out. It is possible to carry out the reinstatement calculations in a vector

style format before transforming the final data to coordinated CAD systems for plan

and data presentation.

4 Data Base Development

4.1 Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines Data

The Department of Natural Resources and Mines provides surveyors with survey

plans containing the spatial information and content required in the process of

reinstating cadastral boundaries. An essential element of the data required by

surveyors for reinstatement purposes are the references to the cadastral reference

marks. This information is not compiled digitally by the Department of Natural

Resources and Mines and it is not expected that it will be in the near future. Digital


compilation of reference mark data may be possible under an “enhanced

environment” discussed within the Department of Natural Resources and Mines. The

existing cadastral databases tend to concentrate on the representation of property

boundaries themselves without any included data on the historical cadastral marks.

The lodgement of digital survey data in parallel with the cadastral survey plans may

provide an opportunity to include cadastral reference marks in a general database of

cadastral information. The format and timing of any such developments are uncertain

so the cadastral surveyor has an opportunity to put in place systems of their own to

provide this information.

4.2 Existing Digital Field Data

Private surveyors normally prepare their survey plans in a CAD environment.

Depending on the sophistication of the individual systems used, parts of the plans are

drawn in CAD with final details being added by hand drafting. At the completion of

the drafting the surveyor is left with a survey plan completed and ready for

registration and a digital CAD file that contains a representation of up to 90 percent of

the data from the survey plan. The data often omitted within the digital format is

normally text, tables or diagrams leaving the spatial representations of the cadastral

data complete. This digital data is then often stored away and not used to its full

potential or not used at all.

This digital data is often used within individual firms when other surveys are required

in the same area. This existing information can be merged with other digital data or

supplemented with additional information input from survey plans to become the

database for the commencement of the new survey.


This extensive source of digital cadastral data has limited use due to storage within a

large number of independent surveying organisations that have not attempted to index

or use the data in the production of local area databases.

4.3 Private Data Bases

Cadastral surveyors are left with the option of providing their own digital data or

waiting for the introduction of useful state government supplied digital cadastral data.

The cadastral surveyors can obtain this data by using existing digital information or

inputting digital data by direct entry from survey plans.

The technology is available for private cadastral firms to create and maintain their

own working databases. Natural Resources and Mines have demonstrated that

databases can be set up over pilot areas using both Acres and Mimika software.

4 Summary

The Queensland Department of Natural Resources and Mines does not supply

appropriate digital data for the reinstatement of cadastral boundaries. The private

surveyors have the opportunity to use existing CAD information and future cadastral

boundary information, as it becomes available, for the production of digital databases

containing suitable information for reinstatement of cadastral boundaries. Private

digital data cannot carry the same weight as the registered cadastral information but

can carry Licensed Surveyor certification of more complete data sets.

Cadastral surveyors tend to prefer field books to record and calculate the fieldwork,

even though they may use the total station and electronic field book while in the field

to measure the traverse and hold the historical data. This can still be efficient because


of the small amounts of data normally involved. For the use of electronic field books

to be worthwhile the surveyor must first develop an automatic system of sorting,

reducing and adjusting the field information which can be directly uploaded to CAD

or other data base files.

Development of automated reinstatement calculation systems requires enhancement

beyond the systems commercially available and development in parallel with field

recording procedures. The development of CAD databases of historical data and

systems for the location of existing cadastral field marks can be considered separately.

Each technical issue considered on an individual basis has solutions that provide

options for continuos digital data flow and automated systems. These solutions now

need to be considered in the context of a flexible development process that leads to an

integrated digital system.

Digital System Evolution

Chapter 6

Digital System Evolution in Private Cadastral

Surveying Organisations


Chapter 6 Digital System Evolution in Private

Cadastral Surveying Organisations

Technology is changing within a dynamic environment with new discoveries and

applications opening up new approaches to the solution of cadastral reinstatement

problems. Existing technology is being tested and used within other similar

environments and it is this existing technology that can be immediately applied to

enhance cadastral surveying systems. The process for the development of digital

systems is partly organisational and partly technical and the change can be managed

in either incremental or radical steps.

Within the existing technical and organisational environment the incremental

approach to digital cadastral system development process will be discussed in the

context of the individual elements of the traditional reinstatement systems. One of the

first decisions to be made when considering the introduction of digital methods is

whether to take a completely new approach or to apply digital methods to the

traditional systems. There are advantages and disadvantages to each approach,

including technical and implementation matters that will be considered. Conclusions

will be drawn in Chapter 7.

1 The Digital Cadastral System

The role of cadastral systems within private surveying organisations is to gather

information for the reinstatement of property boundaries, to reinstate the boundaries

and then to distribute the results. Digital processes incorporated within the cadastral

systems allow continuous data flow with input of data at the earliest possible

opportunity and the introduction of automated systems wherever possible.


1.1 Reinstatement Methods

The level of maturity of the reinstatement system is defined by where the emphasis of

the reinstatement is positioned. The traditional reinstatement systems place the

majority of emphasis on the field and final reinstatement whereas coordinate based

reinstatement places emphasis on the initial reinstatement and the field reinstatement.

1.1.1 Transitional Reinstatement Systems

The transitional period between traditional reinstatement systems and a coordinated

cadastre offers challenges where some emphasis is being placed on the coordinated

approach but the traditional rules still apply. The transitional process starts with the

use of coordinates as a tool in the traditional calculation process, with the possibility

of moving towards a survey accurate coordinated cadastre and then to some form of

legal coordinates as described earlier.

The professionalism of the cadastral surveyor is demonstrated through the ability to “discover” all the relevant evidence, to apply professional judgment to this information, and to reinstate corners in accordance with the present law of the land.

Throughout the transitional process it is important to be aware of the current laws and

regulations regardless of the tools used to obtain a solution.

The initial reinstatement process from the traditional systems can be enhanced using

digital coordinated methods. The development of coordinate based CAD technology

for the analysis of historical data can be a simple process of preparing sketches for the

field stage of reinstatement or an elaborate reinstatement process designed to prepare

a local coordinated cadastre. The level of sophistication required is a factor of not

only the current legislation but also the use to which the data will be put in subsequent

stages of the reinstatement.


The field reinstatement ranges from the traditional approach where completeness and

spatial accuracy are the only consideration, to the coordinated approach where the

reinstatement can be completed as the field survey progresses. The legal coordinates

approach can be completed as the survey progresses because all the information

required to fix a property corner is known when the surveyor arrives at the corner.

Under the existing rules of reinstatement, when the surveyor arrives at the property

corner that corner may not be able to be fixed because points that have not yet been

surveyed may have a bearing on the position of that corner. Unless the hierarchy of

reinstatement evidence is changed then the progressive field reinstatement can be no

more than a preliminary reinstatement used to obtain a better estimate of a boundary

corner during the process of the field survey.

The final reinstatement process has no real transitional properties. The final

reinstatement under traditional methods and current legislation cannot be determined

until all the facts from the field survey have been gathered. This will not change

unless significant changes are made to the legislation, at which time the process will

need to the reassessed. As stated earlier, if priority legal status is given to coordinates

then the reinstatement can be completed as the field survey progresses and the final

reinstatement will be a check on quality if required.

1.2 Data Structure

Cadastral data describes the spatial relationship between objects in the cadastral

system. This data can be of two main types:

1 Vector Format - objects are linked by bearing and distance to adjacent points

2 Structure Format - the spatial relationship is defined by structure using either a

4GL language or by an interactive coordinate geometry programme.


The vector data format is typical of the format used in the gathering of field survey

data and represents the actual measurements taken in the field. The structure format

data is typical of CAD data where the raw data is first adjusted to remove any

misclose and all dimensions are calculated from the adjusted data.

1.2.1 Existing Data Structure Applications

Different data structures tend to be better suited to and therefore more commonly used

at different stages of the cadastral system. The appropriate data format for an

integrated system requires assessment of whether it is easier to use one format

throughout or whether it is more efficient to change the data format as required.

The digital storage of historical survey data is almost exclusively structural with large

amounts of CAD data and coordinated digital cadastral databases. Both vector and

structure data will continue to exist therefore digital cadastral systems must be able to

process both forms of cadastral data.

Field survey information is typically recorded in the vector format either in traditional

field books or electronic field books. This information is often adjusted and

transferred directly into a structural coordinate for processing within the CAD system.

In the traditional reinstatement systems the data was first adjusted and maintained for

processing in the vector format.

The reinstatement calculations under current legislation is suited to the vector

approach regardless of whether the data is held in a structural CAD format or

maintained in traditional vector format. The comparison of vector data rather than the

comparison of position indicated by the coordinates are more appropriate in these

calculations when considering the hierarchy of evidence.


Structural data format is best suited to the presentation of survey data through the

CAD system and storage into coordinated databases.

1.2.2 Structural Data System (Coordinates)

The structural data system based around the CAD environment allows for a standard

data structure throughout. Older cadastral information that was recorded in vector

format can be adjusted on digital data entry and modern historical data is more likely

to be in a structural format. Field survey information normally collected in the vector

format is almost routinely converted to a structural format. This occurs on entry into

a CAD package either by digital conversion from electronic field books or manual

entry from traditional field books. From this point on the data can be maintained in

the structural data format.

The process of cadastral reinstatement calculations, although better suited to vector

style calculations is commonly carried out in the CAD environment.

1.2.3 Vector Data System

The vector data system is suited to the collection of field survey data and the

processing of cadastral reinstatement calculations. It will be necessary to convert the

data from one system to the other because of the almost exclusive use of structural

data systems for the storage of historical survey data and the presentation of survey

information.

The vector data gathered in the field collection process can be adjusted and

maintained in the vector format for further cadastral reinstatement processing. It

should be possible to use the same conversion programme that would normally be

used to convert the field information to CAD, to convert this data into CAD format. It


is more difficult to convert the data from the structure format back into the vector

format if this is required for automatically comparing historical and the field data.

1.3 Data Coding

The coding of survey data is the method used to not only transfer descriptions of field

survey points into the database but to maintain a unique description of data

throughout the cadastral process. Like all other data it is preferable to enter this

information at the first opportunity and then to maintain this data throughout the

entire system. With the coding of survey data it is easier and sometimes more

efficient to enter as much of the data as possible in the office environment because of

the small size of the field data entry units.

Cadastral data as opposed to general surveying data has a high content of historical

reference to information recorded from previous surveys. This allows the relative

position of the survey points in reference to the cadastral boundaries to be part of the

description of the point in question and can reduce the amount of coding required in

the field. As the majority of information gathered in a cadastral field survey consists

of the remeasuring of original survey points, an integrated system can be previously

coded and carried through to the field survey. This also reduces the extent of coding

necessary in the field.

The other source, apart from the field survey, of coded survey information is data held

in historical databases. The majority of this information is held on registered survey

plans in a non-digital format and is entered manually into the system during the initial

digital compilation of historical data.


The two main sources of digital cadastral information are the government maintained

digital cadastral database and private CAD files available from within each private

organisation. The private digital CAD databases normally hold up to 90 percent of

the information on the survey plan but this does not include the use of standard codes.

The digital cadastral database holds no reference to the reference marks that form a

large extent of the data required for cadastral surveys. It is therefore necessary to

enter codes manually into the system in most cases, with the possible exception of

using converting programmes to obtain previously coded information from within the

CAD files.

1.4 Alternative Digital Systems

A digital cadastral system can take a variety of different forms depending on

decisions taken as the system develops. These decisions include whether to adopt a

traditional reinstatement system, what data format to use and which coding method is

best.

When considering the development of a digital system, these decisions can be

considered to be part of the process, but will not necessarily be considered as separate

items. Whether the structural or vector approach is adopted, it does not change the

fact that a development process is necessary with the decision on what method to use

being left to the individual.

The reinstatement method that will be considered in the system development process

will be the traditional approach with the emphasis on the final reinstatement rather

than the preliminary historical or field reinstatements. This approach is compatible

with the existing legislative environment. The style and structure of the methods used

can vary as long as the conditions of continuous digital data flow without loss of data

are maintained.


Table 6.1 Cadastral Reinstatement Flow Chart




2 Incremental System Development

Incremental development describes a process that may be considered as the way

progress is normally made but with an element of forward planning. Incremental

digital system development is a step-by-step process starting with the introduction of

easy to integrate digital methods followed by the more complex procedures.


The development process can be broken into a number of development levels

including:

1 Applying digital methods to the traditional process

2 Applying automated procedures to the reinstatement calculation process

3 Developing continuous data flow.

2.1 Applying Digital Methods to the Traditional Systems

Queensland cadastral surveyors currently use a reinstatement system where the flow

of data is controlled by traditional methods with some elements of digital technology

being used within the system. The amount of digital technology being applied

depends on the individual organisations level of commitment to digital development.

The introduction of some digital methods into the traditional system are more

effective initially than with others. Some methods require development of other

elements of the system and the digital links between them before that particular

element can be effective. Cadastral surveyors already commonly use some digital

methods that indicate that these methods can operate efficiently on a stand-alone

basis. As an example, the use of electronic field books for the location of field marks

and the pegging of lot boundaries indicate that cadastral surveyors have developed

skills in the use of this technology and that these methods can exist independently of

an integrated data structure. Although the technology for electronic field books is

commonly used within these methods the use of electronic field books for collection

of field information is not common.


Table 6.2 Traditional System Flow Chart




The process for introducing digital methods starts with the introduction of the

methods that can operate efficiently on a stand-alone basis followed by the operations

that require some integration with other methods

2.1.1 CAD Database of Historical Data

CAD files are the digital representation of the survey plan. The traditional database

of historical data is registered survey plans that are prepared by Licensed Surveyors,

submitted to the Department of Natural Resources and Mines for registration,

archiving and distribution as required. CAD systems have been used to prepare


survey plans for a number of years with the CAD file containing up to 90 percent of

the information on the survey plan. These files are normally discarded or archived by

the private surveyors for future use within their own organisation.

A CAD database can be prepared at the start of each cadastral project by either

collecting existing CAD information or manually entering data from the survey plans

directly into the CAD database.

The purpose for which the data is to be used defines the content and format of the data

that is required to be compiled. As the digital system develops and the database is

used for additional applications, these requirements change and tend to become more

onerous. The initial purpose of the database may be to provide a digital file that can

be used to assist the field surveyor in the location of existing cadastral marks. For this

purpose file contents need to be to a relative accuracy standard of about 100 mm to

allow for the location of buried survey marks, to contain a point number description

of each coordinated point that can be related to the original survey marks on a sketch

and be in a format that can be uploaded from the computer system to the relevant

electronic field book. As the database information is applied to more applications the

coding, format and the content will need to be more sophisticated. With the

incremental introduction of digital systems it is important to keep in mind possible

future uses particularly when upgrading the format and content of existing digital data

files.

The first stage of development of a CAD database is to build a single CAD file that

represents the survey area containing the cadastral boundary structure and references

to all the cadastral information shown on existing survey plans. The file can be used

for the purpose of a preliminary reinstatement analysis, preparation of a sketch

consolidating the existing cadastral information and for the purpose of locating

existing cadastral marks in the field. The preliminary reinstatement does not need

to be an exhaustive process, as much of the information required to carry out

the reinstatement will be gathered later during the field survey. The preliminary


reinstatement is no more than a familiarisation process of existing information that

can be carried out while combining existing survey plans into a single CAD file

format.

The second stage of development requires the CAD file to contain standard

descriptive coding that can be used to uniquely identify the cadastral point types

within the file.

The final stage of development of the CAD file requires the spatial information to be

survey accurate for the purpose of checking the final reinstated boundaries against the

previously surveyed locations. This stage is likely to be incorporated with additional

database development or legislation changes with regard to the coordinated cadastre.

2.1.2 The Location of Existing Cadastral Field Marks

The location of existing cadastral marks using electronic field books is a process that

is commonly used by surveyors and can exist on a stand-alone basis given the

existence of a CAD file containing the relevant digital information. This process uses

a field sketch produced from the CAD file and annotated with point numbers and

descriptive codes that can be related to the simple point number and coordinate file

uploaded from the CAD file to the electronic field book.

2.1.3 CAD Production of Survey Plans

The CAD production of survey plans is another process that is already commonly

used by cadastral surveyors. The amount of automation of the plan drafting process

varies from direct transfer of boundary lines with the re-entering of all text, tables and

diagrams to an almost fully automatic process with the drafter required to direct the

formatting and final presentation.


2.1.4 Pegging Lot Boundaries

The pegging of lot boundaries can be carried out by transferring the point number and

coordinate listing, from an existing CAD file of the reinstated cadastral boundaries

and additional reference marks required to be placed, to a standard electronic field

book. This data is then used in combination with a standard pegging programme and

the field sketch. This process is similar to the system used for location of existing

field marks.

2.1.5 Reinstatement Calculations

The reinstatement of cadastral boundaries has traditionally been carried out using

electronic calculators to determine a comparison between original and measured data.

The use of CAD systems to carry out these calculations provides the user with a

coordinated database and some additional calculation routines but the system remains

much the same as with the calculator-based methods. The surveyor is still required to

make the reinstatement decisions as well as to carry out a number of repetitive

calculations.

2.1.6 Electronic Field Book Field Data Collection

The development of electronic field book recording systems requires firstly the

existence of an efficient traverse sorting, adjustment and reduction programme and

secondly open access to the data file during the surveying process. There is also a

condition that the electronic field information is to be printed into a standard legible

field notes format.

2.2 Automated Reinstatement Procedures

It is important to ensure that the current system is compatible with existing legislation

as well as having some thought given to possible future developments. These systems


need to first establish the process for final reinstatement before considering the

preliminary reinstatements carried out at the data collection stage.

The total automation of cadastral reinstatement calculations is not possible due to the

necessity for the surveyor's judgment in determining a solution to the reinstatement

problem. There are a number of the processes used in determining the reinstatement

solution that can be improved using digital methods including programme

development and data integration.

2.2.1 The Reinstatement Calculation Process

The existing digital method used for reinstatement calculations is for the surveyor to

use a standard CAD programme to assist in the calculations required. While this is an

efficiency improvement on traditional methods using handheld calculators the CAD

programmes only offer additional data storage, a visual image and some additional

coordinate geometry functions to the standard calculator methods. Without the

addition of personalised add-on programmes the surveyor is still required to carry out

a number of repetitive calculations when comparing possible solutions to the original

survey information.

The alternative to the traditional CAD methods is the development of programmes

designed specifically for the reinstatement process. These types of programmes

include the coordinate based least square reinstatement programmes and the

preliminary field calibration method or the vector analysis method.


2.2.2 Integration with Field Data Collection

Cadastral field information is electronically collected using dedicated electronic field

books or electronic recording programmes within total station theodolites. The format

of the data collected is not only dependent on the type of instrument used to collect

the data but also the manufacturing company's software configurations. The data

collected can be in a numerically coded format that is only decipherable by surveyors

familiar with that particular system, such as the Geodimeter raw data file.

Alternatively the data collector can be in an alpha coded ordered format similar to the

Sokkia raw data file that would be expected to be interpreted by most surveyors.

The field data in a cadastral survey is required to be in a format suitable for survey

records and also be able to be adjusted and transformed into a format suitable for

direct entry into a CAD system. With modern software this process can be automatic.

An example of this is the Civilcad programme where data from most data recorders

can first be reduced into the neutral file format, that is vector style data format and

that would be suitable as a record for field surveys. Adjustments using either

Bowditch or least squares are possible before the data is transformed into CAD

format.

The cadastral reinstatement calculations can be carried out while the data is still in the

vector format of the neutral file format or in the coordinated format derived from the

CAD file.

2.2.3 Integration with Historical Data Collection

The reinstatement process combines the data from the field survey and historical

cadastral information to determine the cadastral boundaries. The historical cadastral

information compiled into a digital format at the start of the reinstatement process is


an adjusted copy of information held in the registered survey plans which is not

necessarily a true or exact record of the information on the survey plans. The

reinstatement process therefore requires the surveyor to, at some stage, refer again to

the registered survey plans that are the legal documents describing the original

boundaries.

The digital information compiled from the survey plans at the historical data analysis

stage in the reinstatement is often used during the field survey to assist in the location

of original marks and subsequently archived or discarded. This information is

effectively superseded by the field survey redefining the location of the original marks

and the original survey information requiring the certainty of the original legal

document as opposed to the copied and adjusted digital information. Within a CAD

reinstatement environment it is necessary to re-enter the original information into the

new spatial model defined by the field survey.

It will always be necessary to carry out a comparison of the reinstated boundaries with

the boundaries shown in the registered survey plans, unless there is a change in the

legislation giving legal status to the digital data. The original historical information in

the digital format may be used in an automated preliminary reinstatement. These

automated procedures have been demonstrated to some extent by the least square

reinstatement method and the field calibration method. The digital historical file is

required to hold the correct structure for the cadastral boundaries as well as the

original references to cadastral reference marks. This information can be digitally

combined with the dimensions from the field survey to obtain a preliminary solution

to the reinstatement problem.

2.3 Digital Data Flow and Distribution

The efficiency and automation of a digital system rely on the flow of data through the

system. The data is entered into a digital format at the earliest possible opportunity

and maintained in the digital format without needing to be re-entered. There should

be no loss of integrity of the data regardless of the format and individual content


required at specific stages of the process. Individual data elements will be uniquely

identifiable by a combination of their standard codes and spatial relationships. The

original survey data within the cadastral reinstatement process will be updated and

completely replaced by the final survey data.

2.3.1 Internal Data Flow

The internal data flow from the input information to the automated reinstatement

process depends on the format of the input data and the format required for the

specific reinstatement process to be used. The automated reinstatement process

requires the data to be in specific formats for the reinstatement to continue. These

formats are dependent on the system of reinstatement chosen. The format of the input

data depends on the level of system development.

Data will be split into three different formats on entry to the system, regardless of the

level of system development and database or process choices. These formats allow for

suitable data required for the field surveying processes, the digital format of original

data and an option for transferring the remainder of the original database information

not required in the previous two formats. The flow of data is illustrated in Table 6.3.

The updated database should contain all the input information as updated by the field

surveying and reinstatement process in a format that is similar to the original

information.


Table 6.3 Internal Digital Data Flow




2.3.2 External System Data Flow

The external data flow relates to the process of lodgement, examination and archiving

of the final product of the reinstatement system and the preparation of this data for

input back into the reinstatement system. The surveyor carrying out the survey does

not have control of this process and is required to meet conditions set by the outside

agencies that collect and distribute the data. The outside agency determines the

content and format of this data.


Table 6.4 External Data Flow




The traditional reinstatement process’s external data flow consists of the single output

of a cadastral survey plan that was required to be lodged with the Department of

Natural Resources and Mines. The surveyor was also required to submit additional

supplementary information including field notes and cadastral reinstatement reports

depending on the legislation of the day. The survey plans once lodged with the

department were examined with reference to the appropriate legislation and were

either rejected or registered. The archive of registered survey plans with additional

supplementary survey information including title documents, identification surveys,

field notes and cadastral reinstatement reports forms a complete record of the

cadastre.


This process is essentially the same today with the registered survey plan being the

controlling instrument in the transfer of all legal cadastral data between surveyors.

Digital data transfer is not recognised by legislation and the quality of the data within

any particular digital database is the responsibility of the entity or surveyor

maintaining that particular database. The changes in legislation and government

procedures have meant that the majority of survey plans lodged with the department

are now not examined. The correctness and completeness of survey plans has always

been the responsibility of Licensed Surveyors. The reduction in examination

resources at the Department of Natural Resources and Mines has now placed the

responsibility completely on the Licensed Surveyors.

The existing cadastral reinstatement process not only provides registered survey plans

but also the CAD files that are the digital representation of the survey plans. The

CAD file is a by-product of the process that produces the survey plan. These files

contain more than 90 percent of the plan data in the digital format. The CAD file may

also contain the additional 10 percent of data that can be extracted digitally if

required. As a by-product of the production process, the CAD file is often discarded

or archived for future uses within the organisation that produced the file.

The CAD files as a by-product of the system have no standard formats or coding that

allow for the lodging of data into a standard digital database. Data from these existing

files are of undetermined quality and completeness. It is possible that this information

is of acceptable quality and the contents are suitable for the purpose of obtaining

preliminary digital information required for the reinstatement process when used in

conjunction with registered survey plans.

The use of standard formats and codes within the reinstatement process will produce

standard CAD files. The process of digital lodgement can include the extraction and

validation of digital data from these standard CAD files in formats suitable for


inclusion in existing databases. Digital lodgement may provide data of equivalent

standard as the traditional databases (certified by Licensed Surveyors) but unless

changes are made to the legislation ensuring compulsory digital lodgement the

completeness and maintenance of the digital database cannot be guaranteed.

To complete the circle of digital data flow throughout the system, it is necessary to

convert data from the external database back into a format that is suitable for entry

into the start of the reinstatement process. At the early stages of development of the

digital reinstatement process this information is required in the CAD format. This

format is essential for inclusion into existing systems and it has been demonstrated by

the digital lodgement process that digital data acceptable to other database systems

can be extracted from the CAD files using programmes developed on a Microsoft

Office platform.

2.3.3 Data Distribution

The distribution of traditional survey data revolves around the process of compulsory

lodgement of survey plans with the Department of Natural Resources and Mines. The

department provides a database that is essentially complete and up-to-date. This data

is then distributed to the public at a fee.

There are also voluntary forms of data distribution where surveyors distribute copies

of their own registered plans to other associated companies in exchange for the

reciprocating companies registered plans. This reciprocal system is used to bypass

the need to pay for each survey plan and to extend their database in their local area.

These voluntary arrangements can also cover the sharing of information not lodged

with the department. There are large amounts of data and knowledge held exclusively

by private surveying firms.


The distribution of digital surveying data also depends on either compulsory or

voluntary agreements. It is unlikely in the short-term that the government will

provide digital information that is suitable for use by cadastral surveyors to determine

the property boundaries. It is possible that the digital information to be provided will

include survey accurate coordinates for the property boundaries that may assist in the

location of property corners in the field but to hold no information on reference marks

and occupation that is essential to surveyors for the reinstatement of property

boundaries. This is similar to the process in New Zealand with the survey accurate

coordinated cadastre forming a summary of the survey information with the approved

survey plans remaining the core evidence of boundary location.

It is essential that the voluntary agreements for sharing data extend to the sharing of

digital cadastral data, so surveyors can maintain a circular flow of digital data. Until a

network of surveyors can provide adequate coverage of the local area there will be a

reliance on possible future developments in the government or the constant need to

convert registered survey plans to digital format.


3 Implementation

The evaluation of digital processes designed to replace traditional elements within the

cadastral reinstatement system almost invariably report an improvement in the

efficiency of the process. In some cases reported efficiencies have not been sufficient

motivation for changes to occur and in other cases the changes to the digital processes

have occurred on an almost industry wide basis.

The first type of process to progress to a digital system is when the digital technology

is commercially available and commonly used in other surveying processes. In these

cases the surveyors may already be using the technology for other surveying methods

leaving little requirement for additional capital purchases or training. This is typical

of the introduction of the use of CAD databases and electronic field data recorders to

assist in the location of cadastral marks in the field and the pegging of lot boundaries.

Change is less likely to occur when there is a requirement for some adaptation to

available technology or existing methods. This is the case in the application of the

electronic field book for the recording of cadastral field information. Significant

savings in production time can be achieved with the introduction of the electronic

field books in gathering cadastral field data but practitioners are reluctant to make the

changes.


Recent research shows the introduction of totally new technology provides additional

development costs associated with product development and staff training. The

digital lodgement system incorporating automated reinstatement and quality assurance

procedures is a result of extensive product development by a cadastral surveying

organisation that has reported efficiency improvements of between – 15% to +10 %

over the traditional cadastral reinstatement methods. Poor performance in some cases

was related to the experience of the surveyor and the quality of training received.

Reduction in costs accrued after adequate training and the availability of certified

digital data. The development of new technology can provide surveyors with a

commercial advantage over their competitors but the motivation to change relies on

that commercial advantage outweighing the development costs, including staff

training.

4 Summary

The digital cadastral system’s development process does not significantly change

although the individual elements of development may progress using different

methods. The style of reinstatement may vary from the traditional where the

emphasis is on the final reinstatement calculations to a co-ordinated cadastre

approach where the reinstatement emphasis is on the initial historical analysis. The

data structure may change from the co-ordinated structural approach to the vector

method and back again at different stages of the development. The style and structure

of the methods used can vary as long as the conditions of continuous digital data flow

without loss of data are maintained.

The incremental system of development allows for the introduction of additional

digital elements as the system progresses. The development process moves from the

introduction of digital methods from within the traditional system to the selection of

an appropriate automated reinstatement procedure. This is followed by ensuring a

continuous flow of data firstly from within the private cadastral surveying


organisation and then through the external system including the distribution of data to

outside agencies.

The external distribution and flow of data is traditionally controlled by the

government agencies, but this does not have to be the case. The technology exists for

surveyors to share digital data, certified by Licensed Surveyors independent of

government policies. The opportunity to obtain complete data sets is only limited by

the surveyor’s ability to share data.

The incremental system of development provides the surveyor with an opportunity to

introduce digital technology progressively thus reducing the initial set up costs

associated with radical change and still providing a degree of commercial advantage

at each incremental step.

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Implications

Chapter 7

Conclusions and Implications


Chapter 7 Conclusions and Implications 1 Conclusions

1.1 Independent Systems

The digital reinstatement systems within private cadastral organisations are

independent from the digital cadastral systems within the Queensland

Government.

The private cadastral organisations currently operate their digital systems independent

of the government system with the product of their surveys being lodged with the

government in the format specified by the government. The government sets the

specification for lodgement primarily in the format that suits their own requirements,

with the needs for digital reinstatement information taking a secondary role. Even

with digital lodgement of surveying information it will be some time before the

present requirements for digital reinstatement information is met, especially in terms

of network coverage.

The move towards uniting the digital systems of private and government

organisations through the introduction of digital lodgement has merit, but it does not

mean that the digital system within private cadastral organisations cannot operate

efficiently, meet the current data requirements within its own system and still produce

the cadastral reinstatement output in the format currently specified for lodgement.

The development of internal digital reinstatement systems within private cadastral

organisations is mostly within the control of the private organisations with each


individual organisation setting the pace of development. Government agencies that

traditionally control the external flow of cadastral data require this information in a

non-digital format. Surveyors have the option of collecting and distributing digital

cadastral data, certified by Licensed Surveyors, independent of government policy.

1.2 Existing Technology and Organisation Structures

The existing technology and organisational structures are suitable for the

development of digital reinstatement systems within private cadastral

organisations.

Modern surveying technology that is suitable for digital reinstatement systems with

continuous data flow has been tried and tested in related fields or in isolation within

the current cadastral reinstatement processes. The surveying organisation structures

and agreements that currently exist to share non-digital resources are also suitable for

sharing digital information.

1.3 Digital Cadastral Information

Digital cadastral information is available for the development of digital

reinstatement systems.

It is necessary to have a supply of easily accessible and relevant digital information

for digital reinstatement systems to reach their full potential. This information may be

supplied at some time in the future by the cadastral registering authorities but private

cadastral surveyors already hold large amounts of digital cadastral information that is


suitable for many of the uses required in digital reinstatement systems. The

availability of suitable digital information is limited by the private surveyors’ ability

to archive their own information in a format suitable for distribution and to share this

resource with other organisations providing digital cadastral data.

The digital cadastral files used by surveyors for the preparation of registered survey

plans is of a similar spatial quality as the paper plan, though not in the format required

by the registering authority. The only value added to this spatial information by the

registering authorities is the legal status of the registered survey plan. The existing

digital information will be easier to collect and archive for redistribution, without the

registering authorities’ legal, format and authorisation restrictions. This data has the

capacity to not only meet the internal reinstatement requirements of the private

cadastral organisations, but to also serve as an unregistered spatial record of the

property boundaries themselves.

1.4 Incremental Development

An incremental system of development allows for the introduction of additional

digital elements as the system progresses towards complete digital data flow and

automated systems.

The cadastral reinstatement system is a well-defined process that does not

significantly change regardless of the methods and data structures adopted. The

incremental approach to development allows private surveying organisations to

introduce digital systems incrementally, first allowing for continuous digital data flow

throughout their own internal reinstatement processes followed by the full circular

flow of digital data through the external lodgement and distribution of digital data.


The introduction of the full digital data flow through external lodgement is dependent

on the development and maturity of systems within the lodging authorities. At some

time in the future digital lodgement will provide the registering authorities with digital

information in a format that their systems require. The registering authorities will

then be in a position to distribute the registered digital data. The amount and extent of

registered digital data to be distributed will depend on the policies of the registering

authorities.

Continuous digital data flow and automated systems within the private cadastral

organisations is dependent on the private organisations themselves. The organisations

have the technology, organisational structures and the access to existing digital data to

develop these systems independent of outside agencies. This includes the possibility

of using existing digital information as a source of unregistered boundary information

for reinstatement purposes until the registering authorities collect and supply

appropriate registered information through the digital lodgement process.

2 Implications

The process of incremental development of digital cadastral reinstatement systems

provides surveyors with the means of developing efficient and sustainable digital

cadastral systems within the existing legislative and technical environments. The

development of these systems does not rely on external conditions such as relevant

legislation and industry standards. Incremental development allows surveyors to

choose the extent and timing of development to take advantage of opportunities for

economic gain when the opportunities arise.

The limit of development within private cadastral organisations depends to some

extent on the ability to share the digital information existing within these

organisations and the quality of the information collected. The information available


is suitable for organisations to go beyond the existing level of development to

improve the digital data flow and include automated elements into their own systems.

The private organisations have the capacity to not only implement their own internal

systems but to also develop beyond this through the use of local area databases of

existing digital unregistered boundary information. The unregistered digital boundary

information can be used as an alternative to the information that will eventually be

supplied by the digital lodgement process.

The process of digital data storage and retrieval will develop the skills of surveyors as

digital information managers allowing them to not only supply digital information to

other surveyors and government institutions, but also to provide private clients with

digital spatial information. Along with the skills required to manage spatial

information, surveyors will also possess local area digital information gathered

throughout the process of cadastral reinstatement in a format that is possible to sell as

a spatial information product. The coverage area and amount of data available to the

surveyor is limited by the ability to share resources with other producers of similar

data.

Appendix

Appendix 1

Surveyors Act 1977

Surveyors Act 1977 No. 18 - date of assent 21 April 1977; commenced 29 April 1978 (proc pubd gaz 29 April 1978 p 1739)

as amended by— Surveyors Act Amendment Act 1978 No. 33 - date of assent 8 June 1978; commenced

29 April 1978 (see s 2)

Surveyors Act Amendment Act 1978 (No. 2) No.69 - date of assent 8 December 1978; commenced on date of assent

Surveyors Act Amendment Act 1980 No. 23 - date of assent 12 May 1980; commenced

26 February 1981 (proc pubd gaz 28 February 1981 p 659) Surveyors Act Amendment Act 1983 No. 5 - date of assent 10 March 1983; ss 1—2

commenced on date of assent (see s 2(1)); remaining provisions commenced 6 October 1983 (see s 2(2) and proc pubd gaz 8 October 1983 p 552)

Surveyors Act Amendment Act 1987 No. 86 - date of assent 1 December 1987;

commenced on date of assent Surveyors Act Amendment Act 1989 No. 115 - date of assent 31 October 1989; ss 1—2

commenced on date of assent (see s 2(1)); remaining provisions commenced 1 April 1990 (see s 2(2) and proc pubd gaz 31 March 1990 p 1537)

Surveyors Amendment Act 1991 No. 59 - date of assent 18 September 1991; s 12

commenced 1 April 1992 (1991 SL No. 148); remaining provisions commenced on date of assent

Lands Legislation Amendment Act 1992 No.64 ss 1—2, ch 2 pt 4,s 3 sch 1 - date of

assent 7 December 1992; ss 1—2 commenced on date of assent; remaining provisions commenced 26 March 1993 (1993 SL No. 88)

Statute Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1993 No. 32 ss 1—3 sch 1 - date of assent

3 June 1993; commenced on date of assent (see s 2)

Appendix

Anti-Discrimination Amendment Act 1994 No. 29 ss 1—3 sch - date of assent 28 June

1994; ss 1—2 commenced on date of assent; remaining provisions commenced 1 July 1994 (see s 2)

Land Act 1994 No. 81 ss 1—2, 525 sch 3 - date of assent 1 December 1994;

commenced on date of assent (see s 2(1)) Statute Law Revision Act 1995 No. 57 ss 1—2,4 sch 1 - date of assent 28 November

1995; commenced on date of assent (see s 2) Statutory Bodies Financial Arrangements Amendment Act 1996 No. 54 ss 1—2, 9 sch

- date of assent 20 November 1996; ss 1—2 commenced on date of assent; remaining provisions commenced 1 June 1997 (1997 SL No. 128)

Valuation of Land and Other Legislation Amendment Act 1998 No. 48 pt 1 s 17 sch -

date of assent 27 November 1998; ss 1—2 commenced on date of assent; remaining provisions commenced 18 December 1998 (1998 SL No. 364)

Surveyors Regulation, 1992 Surveyors Regulation 1992 SL No.72 - made by the Governor in Council on 9 April

1992; pubd gaz 10 April 1992 pp 2053—73; commenced on date of publication; exp 1 September 2002 (see SIA s 54)

as amended by— Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No. 1) 1992 SL No. 266 - notfd gaz 21 August

1992 pp 2949—51; commenced on date of notification Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No.2) 1992 SL No. 293 - notfd gaz 9 October 1992

pp 446—7; commenced on date of notification Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No. 1) 1993 SL No. 389 - notfd gaz 22 October

1993 pp 695—7; commenced on date of notification Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No. 1) 1994 SL No. 346 - notfd gaz 23 September

1994 pp 355—6; commenced on date of notification Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No. 1) 1995 SL No. 205 - notfd gaz 22 June 1995

pp 1281A—1281D; ss 1, 3 commenced on date of notification; remaining provisions commenced 1 July 1995 (see s 3)

Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No. 1) 1996 SL No. 133 - notfd gaz 14 June 1996 pp 987—9; ss 1—2 commenced on date of notification; remaining provisions commenced 1 July 1996 (see s 2)

Appendix

Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No. 1) 1997 SL No. 190 - notfd gaz 27 June 1997

pp 1004—1010; ss 1—2 commenced on date of notification; remaining provisions commenced 1 July 1997 (see s 2)

Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No. 1) 1998 SL No. 208 - notfd gaz 17 July 1998

pp 1404—6; commenced on date of notification (see s 2) Natural Resources Legislation Amendment Regulation (No. 2) 1999 SL No. 228 pts 1,

3 - notfd gaz 8 October 1999 pp 559—60; commenced on date of notification Surveyors Amendment Regulation (No. 1) 2000 SL No. 121 - notfd gaz 16 June 2000

pp 555—6; commenced on date of notification Natural Resources Legislation Amendment Regulation (No. 2) 2000 SL No. 168 ss l,

2 (2) pt3 - notfd gaz 30 June 2000 pp 736-48; ss 1—2 commenced on date of notification; remaining provisions commenced 1 July 2000 (see s 2(2))

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