evolución de la cartografía

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Cartography 1950-2000Author(s): Arthur H. Robinson, Joel L. Morrison and Phillip C. MuehrckeSource: Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, New Series, Vol. 2, No. 1,Contemporary Cartography (1977), pp. 3-18Published by: The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)

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Cartography950-2000ARTHUR H.ROBINSON

ProfessorfGeography,niversityfWisconsin-Madison

JOEL L.MORRISONAssociate rofessorfGeography,niversityfWisconsin-Madison

AND

PHILLIP C.MUEHRCKEAssociate rofessorfGeography,niversityfWisconsin-Madison

MS received 2 January 976

ABSTRACT. he authors eview hechanges hathavetakenplace ncartographyince1950 nd hazardguessesregarding

future evelopments.hese areoccurringna base oftechnologicalnnovations,rimarilynphotogrammetryndplastics,and a sudden ncreasen nterestncartography,argely consequencefthe SecondWorldWar.Cartographyas emerged y 1976 nto n identifiablecholarlynd scientificield ncontrast o itsstatus 0years

earlier.t exhibits generallyccepted eed, nup-to-dateechnology,nd body f cholarlyiterature. s this rowthasoccurred,o hasargumentegardinghe ssential haracterf thefield:whethercience, rt, r both.Thematic artographyhasburgeonedince1950, ndconcern or hemapuserhas edto ncreasingesearchncartographicesign nd nvestiga-tions fthetheoreticalideofthefield.

Technological evelopmentsince1950have beenrevolutionary;omputers,lectronicevices, nd sophisticatedspacecraftnnovationsre having rofoundffects. anyofthetime-consumingspects fcartographyre nowreadilydonewith omputer-plotterethods. ata acquisitionmethods aveenormouslyncreased he availablenformation,ndthecartographers now ntimatelynvolvedn the wholeprocedure. emote ensing pplicationseem ikely o be as farreachings theneworthophotomapndthere eemsno limit owhatmay ome bout s a consequencefdatabanks ndinteractiveractices.

Institutionally,artographyas shown normous rowthince1950. Nearly 0 societies nd over40 journalshave

come ntobeing,most fthem ince1950.Cartographyasbecome naccepted cademic ubject t all evels.

REVIEWINGhepast ndforecastinghatmay ieahead s presumablysalutaryxercise utlikebodilyxercisetsmain dvantagestokeep ne ntrim.n this ase theprofessionalell-beings a gainnunderstandingf he hronologicalontextnwhich large umberf hangesare aking lace.The fieldf artographyasbeen ubjectedocontinuousndrapidnnovationsince he econdWorldWarwhich aspromoted,mongtherhings,n ncreasingpecializa-tionwithinhe ield.tbecomesteadily ore ifficultorhe pecialisto omprehendhere isactivitiesit nto he arger isciplinendespeciallyhemetamorphosisfwhich e sa part.

Wetryoreviewbjectivelyhe hangeshat ave ccurredince bout1950 nd,because

watchingpatternf hangenvitesxtrapolation,e hazard guess s todevelopmentsrom1975 o 000. Reviewingnythings a very ersonalrocess,ndweare uite onscioushat urassessmentsust e biased s well s necessarilyncomplete.lsopredictionnhuman ffairsisnotoriouslynreliablendour racularronouncementsrewithoutivine uidance.ndeed,it sespeciallyossiblehat heymay efallibleecause artographys a fieldharacterizedyuncommonnventiveness,ndmap makings quite ikelyobe turnedopsy-turvyysomeunanticipatedevelopment.orexample,ven uch nastutetudentsWright1942) houldbe forgivenor ssertingnly littlemore han hirtyears gothatMapsaredrawn ymenandnot urned utbymachines.. .'. In 1942penand nkwasstandard rocedurendcomputer-automated apmaking asunheardf.

Abrief eviewfdevelopmentspto1950 s norder s a backdropgainst hicho ook t

3

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4 ARTHUR H.ROBINSON, JOEL L.MORRISON AND PHILLIP C.MUEHRCKE

thecharacterfcartographyincethen.Technologically,hreemajor nnovationsccurredwhichaused rofoundhangesnmapmakingapabilitiesndresponsibilities.hesewere headdition fplasticsothemedia,he omingf he geofphotogrammetry,ndtheperfectionofphotongraving/lithography.lasticsevolutionizedegistrationndmade cribingossible;

photogrammetryroughthe bservable orld ndoorsnd

pavedhe

wayor he

artographicapplicationsfremoteensingocome; ndphoto ngravingndespeciallyhotoithographyfreedhe artographerromhe onstraintsf he arlieruplicatingrocessesothe egreehatby 195oanythinghecartographerouldproduce ould be reproducedRobinson,i975).Furthermore,he econdWorldWar reated nunprecedentedemand ormaps.Asa conse-quence, ew gencies ere ormedndhundreds,ndperhapshousands,fpersons ecame'instantartographers'.n addition,nnumerablendividuals, ilitaryndcivilian,earned ousemaps uringheWar, ndthere ame nto xistencewidespreadnterestnmaps uch shadnever ccurred efore. he total xperienceemonstratedhatmapswere ery ecessaryand thatmapswere urprisinglyomplicatedhings.

Thusby1950 here ad come ntobeing oth demand or he artographer'sroduct

and a newtechnologyhat nabled hecartographeromeet hatdemand. hispaperwillreview ndforecastevelopmentsor heperiod 950-2000 ocusingn three spects fthetransformation:onceptualhange, echnologicalhangend nstitutionalhange.

CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHY

Arecognizedeedplus useable echnologysthebasis or he evelopmentf scientificield.When his ccurs,he equiredumberfpractitionersendsogrowothe xtenthat rainersbecome ecessaryokeep steady ork orce.xperimenterslsobecome ecessaryokeep hetechnologyurrenty bservingrforcingevelopments.hetrainersnd xperimentersequireeducation hich,nturn,emandscholars,eachersnd structuredurriculum.cholars renot ntirelyappy ntil basic heoreticaltructureor heir ieldsdevelopednd heoriesan

be statedndtested.Meanwhile,onceptualndtechnologicalevelopmentsontinueotakeplace.When ll ofthese onditionsremet,n identifiablecientificieldmay esaidto exist.

Thesedevelopmentsave occurredn cartographyince he conclusionftheSecondWorldWar ndfurtherevelopmentndrefinementan beexpectedocontinue. otonly idthe econdWorldWar ndwith recognizedeedbroadlyased) ormaps, ut lsonumerousnew echnologicalevelopmentsomeet hat eedhadbeendevelopeduringhedecade f he1940s. y 1950,t s safe oassumehat hebasesnecessaryor hedevelopmentf artographyas a scientificieldwere resentn theUnited tates ndtheUnitedKingdom. s themodeloutlinedbove ndicates,heneedformapsproduces needfor rainersndtechnologicalexperimentershich nturn reates needfor ducationfthese rainersndexperimenters.It is not urprisingofind,herefore,hat everal ooks nbasic artographyere ublishedaround 950.ErwinRaisz'sGeneral artography,hefirst ookwrittenor college oursencartography,irstppearedn1938.tset he tage orhe uturey allingor he pecialdentityofcartography.n hispreface,aisz 1938) sserted:

Thefield fcartographys a wide ne.Althought hasdefiniteontacts ithuchvariedstudies s history, athematicsndart, tcomprises ithintself well-roundedourse,withoutrespassingpon ther ranchesfgeographicalciencendwithoutakingn thespecial ubject f urveying.

Every epartmentfgeographyn our nstitutionsfhigherearninghould ncludedistinctoursencartography,ndthere hould e a literaturen the ubject dequatendappropriateo theneeds fboth eachersnd tudents.







Cartography 950-2000 5

Following hewar, n 1948,Raisz wrote n thepreface o his second edition f General arto-

graphy:

World-shakingvents ave aken lacesince he riginal eneral artographyaspublished.... In

responseo ncreased

emands,newschoolof

cartographysdeveloping

withgreatpromise or renaissance fthis rt.

In 1952 Monkhouse and Wilkinsonfirst ublishedMaps and Diagrams s an obvious

responseto theneed of trainers nd technological xperimentersor a referenceource. Itsthreedivisionsdealtwith i) how to handledata, 2) basic cartographicrinciples nd tech-

niques,and (3) howtodraft.n 1953RobinsonpublishedElementsfCartographynwhichhestated:

Cartographys a professionndas an academic ubjecthasbeengaining round or everaldecades,and WorldWar II sent nterestn it to an all-timehigh.This interest, hich s

steadily ncreasing,asresulted oth nmanynewtechniquesndina better nderstanding

of the place of cartographyn the academiccurriculum. . The approach s towardcartographys an intellectualrt and science rather han as a subjectprimarilyonsistingofdraftingnd drawing rocedures.

Therefore scant25 years go we haveperhapsfor hefirst ime hestrong asesneededfor hedevelopmentfcartographys an identifiableield: i) a generally cceptedneed, 2) an

existing p-to-date echnologyo meetthatneed,and (3) an initialdevelopmentfscholarlyliteratureutlininghe ubjectmatter. ince 1953,Raiszhaspublished ne morevolumeRaisz,1962),Robinson woneweditions nd Monkhouse nd Wilkinsonwoneweditions.Manyotherbooks on aspectsofthe fieldhave also beenproduced.A common hread o all ofthesebookshasbeentherapidlyhanging echnologypplicable ocartography,herapid ncrease n nterestincartographynd,morerecently,hechanges npoints fviewregardinghediscipline y ts

practitioners.t is to be expected hatbooksdealing ndepthwith pecific spectsof thecarto-graphicdisciplinewillemergeduring henext25 years.Already his s happening Dickinson,1969; Robinson ndPetchenik, 976; Keates, 1973).

The past 25 yearshas seen a growing nd intensifyingnalysisand discussionof theessentialnature fcartography.n 1950 cartography as referredo as an art, science,or a

technology, ut without trong rgumentsupporting ne view over theother. The currentI:C.A. definitionepresenting consensusoftheprofession uring he i960s refers o carto-

graphy s all three.Currently, owever, orperhapsthe first imein the English-speakingworld, trong cholarly rgumentsre beingadvancedthatcartographys primarily scienceand not an artor a technologyMorrison,1974, 1976). As thisdebatehas developed, ome

cartographersrenow

uggestinghat

manyegitimateartographicroblemsrenot

geographicalin nature, nd thatthe fieldofcartographyar exceeds thenarrower,arge-scale iewof thesurveyor. clearlydentifiableield s definitelymerging. herecanbe little uestionbutthatthe cientificasisfor discipline fcartographyillreceive onsiderable ttentionnthefuture.This has already ccurrednEuropeand in the Soviet Union Meine, 1974; Ratajski, 973). It

maybe that two or more differentases forthefieldwill be proposed nd argued,but onedoubts thatcomplete nternationalgreementan be reachedby theyear2000 (Salichtchev,

1973).A much ncreased nterestndemphasis n thematicartographys alsoapparent uring he

last25 years.This has become evidentnmanyways, uch as in therapidrise of thenational,regional ndlocalatlas;but all sorts fgroups, rom lanners oanalystsoordinaryndividuals,

are increasinglynterestedn thegeographicalharacteristicsfan enormousnumber f sub-








jects, angingromceanographyosocialphenomena.here s no imit o thevariety. ajorreferenceorks ave ppearedArnberger,966;Witt, 970), ndanencyclopediafthematiccartographysinpreparation.his ncreasen nterestnthematicartographysaccompaniedbya parallel xpansionngeneralartography,articularlynvolvinghe opographic ap nd

thenavigationalhart. he relativeisibilityfthegrowthf nterestnthematic appingslargelyueto ts omparativelyesser tatusn1950.Thistrend ill ndoubtedlyontinue,ndspecial-purposeapswill ecomeommonplaces the artographer'sbilityodesignndexe-cutehisproducts ill nable im o tailor-make'aps ormapusers. hegrowthreawillbeinthe reaofderivativeapsmade romtandardasesbut ontaininghematicverlayshatcan be selectedtthewill fthemapuser.Generalartographyillmaintaintspresentevelandtechnologicalevelopmentsill nable eneral artographyoproducetsproducts oreeasily, uickly,ndaccurately.hegrowthate fgeneral artographyrobably illnotbe asspectaculars that fthematicartography.

Thepast 5 years as lso seen growingoncernor hemapreaderruser. n 1950 hetermsmapmaker'nd cartographer'ereynonymous;ndused nterchangeably;n1975 heyarebecomingistinct.hegoal n 1950wassimplyomake map; n1975,ntheory,mapmakermakeshemap reatedy cartographerhossupposedobesensitiveo he apabilitiesof hisenvisaged apreader. orollariesfthis iew re a lessened oncernor hemap s astoragemedium or patial ataand an increasedoncernor hemap s a medium f com-munication.orcertainurposes,atabanksnwhichpatialnformationsstored igitallyranalogicallyremorefficienttorage edia hanmaps.ncommunicationhe sychologyf hemapreader hould etupper nd ower ounds n the artographer'sreedomfdesign. hesearch or hese imits ascreated wholenewareaof researchotentialor artographers.Furthermore,apusers an be expectedo becomemore ophisticatedndto demandmorefrommaps. n some nstanceshismay ake heform f desire or ncreasedccuracynd, nothers,or etter isual ffects,erhaps equiringsimplifiedresentationnd essaccuracy.In addition, ewtechnologyas enabled artographerso attain reviouslyndreamedfpositionaletail nd accuracy',t he ame ime,he oncernorhe sers,he seof emporarymaps,nd hencreasedase nmaking aps ow ften ictatesless accurate'map.Amapmaybe made oconvey singledeato a specifiedmall roup fusers.Accuracyn terms f arthlocation,tc.,may eofminor oncern.o wehave volvedosituationshere cartographermay xpressmore nterestnways odelete ccurate atathan oobtainmore ccurate awdata.

This trendowardmorenput rom hemapuser nto hemap-makingrocessannot ehalted. hecartographerrmapmaker ho gnoreshemapuserwillnot eemployabley heendofthis entury. artographersillbecome esponsiveotonly owhat hemapreader

wants,ut lsotothe

mapreader'sbilitiesousethe

map,hiscolour

references,nd even

tohis ndividualointsfreferencehatwill idhim norientingimselfothemapand n tsuse.

The conceptualhangesn thefield resenthecartographerithwide reasrequiringresearch.erhaps othingodatehasopenedmore esearchopics han he ncreasedoncernforhemapuser. olour references,ymbolffectiveness,yemovementatternsndmap-usetraining ave all entered he field s legitimateoncerns. he debateon thephilosophical asisof thefield as edto the pecificationftheories,nd a healthyontroversyithin hedisciplineis now evident.

There s noreason obelieve hat hese rendswillnot ncreasen thenext 5years. ndeedtheir atemaywellaccelerate s cartographyearches or ts own dentity,ndseeksto improve

itsproducts.







Cartography950-2000 7

TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CARTOGRAPHY

Technological dvances n the areasof data acquisition, rocessing,nd portrayal avehad a

profoundmpact n cartographyn the third uarter fthetwentiethentury. othdirect nd

indirect enefits avebeengained hroughechnical evelopmentsnmany reas, speciallywithrespectto the introduction f mass-produced omputers, lectronicdevices, plastics,and

sophisticated pacecraft echnology. he changes n cartography hichhaveoccurred re stillfarfrom ullrealization, et n exciting ewmapform as beencreated n photo-basedmaps,dynamicand animatedmaps have been made practical, nd long-established artographicmethodologys abouttoundergo mostradical hange s thetemporal imensions explicitlyincorporatednto hemapping rocess.Othermore ubtlebut mmenselymportanthanges retaking lace inthe area ofmapuse,wherefullynteractive ap design, nalysis nd interpreta-tion s fastbecoming reality. lthoughechnologyasrendered bsoletemany ftheproblemswhichfacedcartographersreviously,t thesame time t has created n even larger rrayofconsiderations hichwarrantmuch future ttention ndresearch.

Data acquisition and processingAfter heSecondWorldWarmajor hanges ookplacewith espect othesecuring f nforma-tionformapping urposesRutscheidtndAndregg, 971). Primary round urvey rocedureshave been changed significantlyy developmentsn theareas of opticsand electronics. herefinementftraditionaleodetic echniques hroughheuse ofcomputersnd the ntroductionofelectromagneticndopticaldistancemeasuring eviceshasvastly mprovedurvey recisionas well as reduced veralldataacquisition ime. n addition, he newtechnology akespossiblemoreprecise nd accuratedeterminationfsea level,elevation, ontinentalmovements,nd soforth.ndeed,survey echniques avebecome o sensitive hat hey urrentlyrovide he meansformonitoring eretoforemperceptible ault-zone hifts,which will contribute o effective

earthquake redictionnthefuture. ewreadjustmentsre alsobeing mplementedrproposedon the basis of thedata beingderived hroughmodern bservationalechniqueswhich haverevealed nconsistenciesn the various stablished eodeticdatums.

The communicationsapability fmappershas beensimilarlynhancedbyelectronicsndlasers,makingtpossibletoutilize ontrol nformationnd to transmitbservations ver ongdistances nd from therwise emote egions otpossibleusingpreviousmethods. he nature fgeographical ccessibility as also changed,primarilyhrough hedevelopmentfhelicopterswhichmakeground ontact nd thetransferfpersonnelndequipment ossible nalmost nyareaon earth. n extremelyemote egionsuch aircraftanthemselveserve s survey eferencepointssince they re capable of hovering vera groundpositionwhichwould otherwise eobscured rom ther urvey oints. nertial urveyingystemsnground ehicles ndhelicoptersholdgreatpromise or ying urveys ogether.

Data handlingnthefield aschanged adically ith he ntroductionf ompact omputingdeviceswhich are portable nd rugged enoughto continuefunctioningnder the stressofnormal ield buse. Ifmajor omputing acilitiesrestillrequired,t s possible otransmit atadirectly rom urvey tations o large, entrallyocateddataprocessing acilitiesr,at least,torecord ata ncomputer-compatibleormpunchcardsortape, rmagnetic ape)so that ndirectdataprocessingt some future ate s facilitated.

Whereasground urvey nd conventional ir photograph overage i.e., black and whiteimageryromow-flyingircraft)ominated rimaryataacquisition rior othe midtwentiethcentury,nvironmentalurveillancen theperiod1950-75was rapidly xtendedfarbeyond hevisible ightportion f theelectro-magneticpectrum. his was accomplishedwiththeuse of








speciallydevelopedfilms nd filtersn conventionalameras, s well as throughhedesignofspecialelectronicndphotographiccanning evices.The term emoteensing asgiven o thisbroadeneddata-acquisitionapability,ndwas soon to involve he use ofrocketsndsatellitesin addition ohigh-altitudeircrafts vehicles or hesensing quipment Reeves, 1976).

Asknowledgeoncerninghecharacteristicpectral ignaturesfdifferentbjects ncreased(still ar romomplete),tbecame vident hat omeday twouldbepossible outilize ilm/filter/wavelength actors o differentiateffectivelyetweenvariousenvironmentaleatures. imul-taneous ensing ndependentlyn severalportions fthespectrumwould be required, ut themulti-bandensing quipmentwasalready vailable rtechnicallyractical oproduce.Thus, inaddition o gaining n all-weather, ay or nightmapping apability, artographers erealsofacedwith thepossibility fhaving o deal withvast amounts fpreviously nmappeddata,muchof texistingntherelativelytrange orm felectronicnergy eadings nmagneticape.

In the next25 yearsremote ensing pplicationsn cartography ill be greatlyxpanded.Developmentswill come in two areas.Continuingmilitary evelopmentn declassificationfsensorswillopenexciting ewopportunitiesor pplicationsnthe environmentalciences, nd

at thesametimemajor dvantageswill result rom reating emotelyensed magesdirectlysmaps n themselvess usersgaintherequiredmagereading, nalysis nd interpretationkills.This procedurewillbe greatly acilitated hen users becomesophisticatednoughto specifyactivelyhe haracteristicsfthedesiredmageprior o ts nitial reation,incethiswillelimin-atemuch of thecostly,aboriouspost-image rocessingwhich s currentlyssociatedwithour

relativelyassiveremote ensing ctivities.Whenmapsare to be compiledfrom econdary atasources, uch as existing onventional

photographsnd linemaps, hevalueofnewtechnical evelopmentss unlimited.magescanbe

simplymodifiedenlarged/reduced)nd transferredhoto-mechanicallyromne base toanother,especially hroughheuseofnewproductionmaterialssee below), rthey anbefirst onvertedto numerical ormwhich makespossibleall manner f statistico-mathematicalanipulationprior o actualcreation fnewmap images. n the atter ase, specializedmachineshavebeendevised whichreadily onvertgeometricalnformationnto numericaldata. These so-called

digitizing evicesrange n complexitynd speed from elatively rimitive,manually perated,pointingrtracingnstrumentsothemuchmore ophisticated,artiallyutomatedinefollow-

ingand fully utomated ptical-mechanicalcanning evices.Although arge,multiple-accessdata banksholdinghugeamounts fenvironmentalatawill become primedatasource nthe

future, he continualneed for n-housedigitizingwill probably ntailextensive se of thesemachines or ometime.This willbe especially rue fdatastoragentheform fmicro-graphicsbecomes tandard ractice,s is the ndication ith ontemporarynformationandlingources,suchas theNationalCartographicnformationenter U.S.A.).

In thepast

themap

makerwas of ittlehelp

tomap

userswho found tdesirable ostudythesimultaneouselationshipsmong number f environmentalariables.But inrecentyears

quantitative echniqueshave beendevelopedby taking dvantage f thedata-processingapa-bilities f arge omputers hich ffectivelyondensemultivariateata nto simple oding rafew factorswhichaccountformostof the distributionalariance. The demandforsinglevariablemappings f multivariatelassifyingunctions illsurelyncrease s mapusersbecomemore ophisticatedndealingwith heir asic substantive) ubjectmatter,argely ecause suchmappings rovideforthe visualization f measureswhich re otherwise erydifficulto con-ceptualize.However, hemapuserswillhave to earn complex etofnow ntuitivemapreadingskillsbeforemultivariate apping an be very uccessful.

A common haracteristicf modern ataacquisitions that taggeringmounts f data are

routinelyenerated.roblems ssociatedwith he

toragend

subsequentmanipulationf these







Cartography950-2ooo 9

data are overwhelmingn the context f established artographicmethods.Fortunately,he

sophisticationfdataprocessings alsoincreasingapidly. he subject fdata structures asnota major artographiconcernn 1950,buttoday t s a majorcost factor nmapprocessingnd

productionPeucker nd Chrisman, 975).Research ntothemostefficientata structuresor

differentartographicechniqueswill not onlyoccur, t will be mandatoryn theverynearfuture. his isespecially rue sprivate artographicirmsmove nto omputer-assisted apping.Evenafter ata structureonsiderationsavebeendealtwith, herewillremain heproblem

ofhowcartographicallyo handle thevast amounts f availabledata.Anincreased mphasis nthemapping fpre-processeds opposedto raw data is already pparent nd shouldbecomea

major rendnthenext uarter entury.fanacceptable olutions to be found,twillundoubt-

edlyhavetotake dvantage ftheflexibilityndspeedof system asedoncomputer-compatibledataand computer rocessing.

By programmingemote ensors to returndata directlyn computer-compatibleorm

(which salready ssentiallyhe ase) andbymakingxtensive se of econdary-sourceigitizingequipmenteither xternal r nternal omachine perations),hetaskbecomes neofnumerical

data processingn spatialformat. urrentdevelopmentsn computer-orientedrocedures orpictorialdata compression, attern ecognitionnd pictureprocessing re stillsimplistic ut

encouraging,nd hopefullywill providean incentive,f not the basis, forsignificantutureadvances n theseareas.Currentlyhesituation s similar o thatfound n the area of remote

sensingwhere the technology lready vailableor simply reatedupon demandprobablyfarexceeds theassociated evelofconceptualizationnd theorywhich s essential o guide futureadvances.

The developmentf a vast rray fnewmappingmaterials nd associated roceduresnthe

past 25 years s reflected o someextent n theimprovedmage qualityofmodernpublishedmaps.The introductionnd subsequentrapidadvances thatweremade in thearea ofplasticswasparticularlymportantor everal easons. lasticbasematerials ererelativelynaffectedytemperaturend moisturehanges nd thusprovided dimensionallytablemediumwithwhichregistryouldbe maintained ver argemapareas. In addition, he stableplasticbase could be

simply oated with soft, ctinicallypaque layerwhichcould be readily emovedusingpre-cisioncuttingscribing) ools Moore, 1970). The direct esult fthis cribing rocedurewas a

high-quality egativemagewhich an be executed t scale and whicheliminated traditional

photographictepin themap-making rocess.The combined ffect fimproved egistrynd

scribings most videntnlarge-scale eneralmaps, uch as themajorgovernmentopographicseries.

To a lesser extentmap qualityhas been improved hrough se of a variety f in-house,non-printing,roofing rocesses.The designofcomplexmulticolouredmapshas in particularbenefited y the convenience nd controlmade

possible by havingeconomical,full-colour

proofingvailable in thecartographicaboratory.ndeed, bothpersonnel raining s well asmap production ave beenfacilitatedythe ntroductionftheseproofingmethods. he result,ofcourse, s totransfer uchofthecontrol f themapping rocess romtsprevious lacewiththeprinter ackto themapmaker. ince mapmakers riginally id their wn colourworkbyhand,this s not a newsituation, ut in the ight f the ncreasing pecializationhat s takingplace in themappingprocess his dditional pportunityo monitor ecisionmaking robablybecomes ignificant.

However, hangingmaterialsechnologyasprobably aditsgreatestnfluencenmappingbehind the scenes.Production osts have been held downand in somecases even reduced nabsolute terms hrough combination f technology-basedactors.New draftingnd repro-ductionmaterials avemade t

possiblencertain ases to

entirelyliminateraditional

tepsn







IO ARTHUR H.ROBINSON, JOEL L.MORRISON AND PHILLIP C.MUEHRCKE

themappingrocess. y taking dvantagefa multitudefpre-sensitizedrlaboratoryin-house) ensitized ediawhich acilitatemage-transfer,thasbecome ossibleo voidmuch ftheexpense reviouslyssociated ith cquiringndmaintaininghecostly quipmentndfacilitiesequiredo accomplishhe sameeffect.inally,heuse ofpreparedmaterialsnd

stick-uptems aspermittedess killed ersonneloproduce igher uality raphicresenta-tions hanwaspossible sing raditional ethods. ll ofthese actorsombineocutmappingtime ndeffort,hichranslatento ost aving.

Furthermprovementsn these reas willundoubtedlyakeplace in the nextquartercentury,ut he ate f nnovationill n llprobabilityecrease.irstly,hematerialsevelopedduringhe ast uarter entury illbe adapted ousebymachinesrivenycomputers.hisadaptationrocesstselfendso low he nnovativeevelopments.heimprovementshat anbe expectedrereallymprovementsnphotographicechnology.ase andconvenienceillbe theprimemotivationor urtherevelopment.roofing ethodsmployingre-sensitizedmaterialshat re not ffecteddverselyy daylight ay ecome ommonplace.hecomplexchemicalsequirednnormalhotographyillbeevenmore implifiednd hand cribing ill

definitelyiveway o machinecribing.urtherevelopmentsnobtainingasily ard opyoutputwith ine esolution,erhapsncolour) rom .R.T. displays ill ake lace.

Oneof themorenterestingmpactsfnewtechnologynmappings expressednthechangingonceptf hemap tselfVail,1976).Anentirelyewmapformasemergeduringthe ast ecade.Althoughn ts resenttatet ombinestandardhotographicnd onventionalcartographicmageryn a single resentation,tsorigins oback ophotographshichwereannotated ith ine magerynorderoenhance heireadability.hebreakthroughamewheninstrumentationndmethods ere eveloped hich ermittedonversionfperspectivehoto-graphicmageso true lanimetricmages, process hich equiredhat amerailt nd reliefdisplacemente removedromhe hoto.With erspectiveistortionliminated,twas simpletask oenhance he

magewithonventional

artographicethods,ftennthe orm f direct

overlay.nany ase, his ewmap ormscommonlyeferredo s anorthophotomapThrowerandJensen, 976).

Orthophotomaproductionime nd costs re reduced ver hose ssociated ith onven-tionalmapping roceduresut,moremportantly,nentirelyifferentap mages the esult.Since tutilizes photobase,heorthophotomapxhibits wealth f nformationhen om-paredwithonventionalinemaps. ome ndividualsill rguehat his evel f nformationsadisadvantagend that t hasbeenconsciouslyvoided n standardartographicractice ydefinition.ut he ruth aywellbe thathisevelwasnever ttained ecausevailablemagingmethods,ot artographicheory,recludedt.As for hotographs,hey iolatedartographer'ssensitivitiesecause f heir erspectiveistortion,lthoughhis gainwas problemfdefini-

tion. hedangerf mposinguch rbitraryimitsn a fieldhroughefinitionsfonvenience

should e apparent,nd must e avoidedfcartographys tokeeppacewith dvancingech-nology.

It is quitereasonableoconcludehat omeform fphotomap illbecomehe tandardgeneralmapof thefuture.here re several easonshat uggesthat hiswillbe so. High-altitude ircraftnd satellites illconstitutemajor rimaryataacquisitionourcen thefuture nd will be generating ast amountsof imagery uitableforphotomapping.n fact,photomapping ouldappearto be theonly wayto take reasonable dvantage f these futuredata sources.Byutilizinghevarious ontrols vailableduring heprocess f remoteensing, hephotobasecan be actively esignedto be as selective nd discriminatings is desired, hussatisfyinghesimplicityequirement eld to be so crucialby many raditionalartographers.

And, finally,he cartographeran emphasizeor de-emphasize lements f either he photo-







Cartography 950-2000 II

graphic r conventionaline magery o theextent equired o createthedesiredvisual effect.In general, hespeed and flexibilityfphotomappingnd the nature f theresulting roductensure t an important lace in futuremapping ndeavours, lthough raditionalartographersmaybe the astto realize hisfact.

The physicalnature f themapis also undergoingubstantialhange.The ubiquitous nkon paper,hardcopyversion fmapswillundoubtedlyontinue o be importantor omeyearssince it is susceptible o a multitude fdesignvariations,s relativelyonveniento store ndhandle, nd is relativelyheaptoproduce, speciallywhen arge uantities rerequired.Butfor

many urposes omeother orm fmappresentation ill uffice,fnotbe altogether oreuseful.Ink on papermapswill ncrease n costat a muchfaster atethanothermapforms uring henext25 years.By 2000, a seriousdecline n the rateofmapsproducedon paperto totalmapsproducedwill be evident.

Some situations,hanks o thetechnologyftodaywhichpermitslectronictorage fmapdata on discormagnetic ape,can nowbe better ervedwithtemporary'mapsrather hanthetraditional ard opymaps.A temporary' ap s a mapdisplayed or time n a CRT orelectro-

luminescent/thermochromaticcreen, r somesimilardirectly iewedelectronic isplaydevicewhich erves heuser's needs. n theseelectronicmaging echniques hecartographeras the

capability fpresentingugequantities f datarapidly nd nephemeral orm.Atthe ndof the

viewing rocess he magenaturally isappears r, f so desired, tcan be simply onverted ohardcopyform.The hardcopyconvertersangefrom rudecomputerineprinters hroughmoresophisticatedine plotters utilizingnk on paper, ighton film, r scribingmodes) to

amazinglyfast electrostatic rinter-plottersnd highlyaccurate photo and micrographicprinters. rapiddevelopmentncapabilitiesn this rea can be expected.

Indeed,microprintingepresents promising ewtechnologyormapping.Conventional

map imagesare alreadybeingstored n micrographicersions. everalmodernnavigationaldisplay ystems ave as their asis thegrouping ogetherfmicroform apson tapecassettes.

The flatmapprinted npaper, o longexalted s theultimatenease ofuse,canbe expected obe superseded ymicroform apsformany therpurposes s well.Colour is possible;repro-duction osts reminimal; torage pace sminute; ase oftransportingsfacilitated;ndloss of

accuracydue to differentialhrinkagend expansion s minimized. he result s to enhancethe ability o create ndividualmaps forspecific ses and users, mployingndividual olour

preferences,nd so on (Meyer,Broome nd Schweitzer, 975). The user n theyear2000maynotwant,or be willing o paythe costof,a flatpaper map.Not only mightt be considered

ecologically astefuloproduce maponpaperorplastic, heusermay imply otwant ohaveit lying roundrequiringtorage.

As a result fadvancing echnologyhetheorynd practice fmapuse are comingmuchcloser

together.deally,thefull

potentialfcartographic resentation

ould be realizedwiththemapusercycling ack and forth etweenmapdesign, nalysis nd interpretationuring heprocessofgaining nvironmentalnderstanding.o someextent his dealwas achieved n the

past whenexperts n thevarious environmentalciences made theirown maps to suit theirindividualpurposes,but mapping fforttimeand cost) alwaysacted as a constraintn the

flexibilityttainedn this ystem.Withspecializationnd advancing echnology,hemapusereventuallyostmuchofthe control f themapping ystemnd had to make do withmapsnotalwaysbest suitedfor pecific eeds.

But at thepresent imemodern echnologys fastmakingtpossiblefor hemapuser tofulfil hepromise feffectiveartographicommunicationn theenvironmentalciences.Thefeasibilityfinteractivelyesigning nd analyzingmaps usingdata banks, omputer outines,

and electronic isplaydeviceshas alreadybeendemonstrated,nd thepractice hould become








routinenthenext ew ecades. hemap nterpreterill e-enterhe artographicrocesssmade-to-orderapsbecome racticalndwidespread.his nturnwillrefocusartographicactivitynthenaturefbasic echniquesndproductiononsiderationsnthe ontextfdiffer-entdistributionalspatial) ituations,incemany fthedesign or urpose'ype fproblems

will e outof he artographer'sands sthemapuser ecomes hemapmaker,s wasthe aseinitially. apdesigntselfhouldmproves a resultfthe dvantagesesearchersillgain ncreatinglternativeaps or estingurposes.

Themapuserwill lsohave hebenefitf numberf echnicalidsformap nalysis.hepotentialf tatistico-mathematicalodels ndoptical roceduresor attern anipulationndanalysiss currentlyeing xplorednd shouldbe considerable.he futuremapuserwillenjoy he uxuryfhavingmachinesvailableofeedbackvarietyfdistributionalarameterswhich hen an be subjectedothefullntuitive,reativecrutinyfhumannformationro-cessing.

Rather han ejectingewmapformssbeing uriousberrationsf rue artography,hemapuserwillhavetolearn differentet ofmap-readingkillsnorder ullyoutilize he

changing ap.Map presentationalormsrealso hanging,articularlys theyake dvantageofthe mage eneratingapabilityfautomated appingystems.nimated apshave lreadybeenproducedn a widevarietyf topicswith heguessbeing hat hismapformhouldbecome armore ommonplacenthe uture.his ndother ew resentationalorms ill lsorequirehe earningf new etofmap-readingkills.

The futureelationshipetweenartographynd the emporalimensionfreality,hichchangingechnologysmakingossiblendmapusers redemanding,ill ikely esultnamajormethodologicalhock o thediscipline.hecharacternd naturefbasicmappingon-cepts nd thepositionndscopeofcartographyith espectothe nvironmentalciencessabout oundergonunprecedentedhange. he cause f his ransformationill ethe xplicitinclusionf he emporalimension,nadditiono the hreepatial imensions,hichsbeingencouragedycontinuingechnicaldvances.

Mapscanno onger e thoughtfas beingnstantaneousicturesrstatic ime lices ydefinition,utmust egin o nclude ime s a prime actor.ntegratedystemsfautomateddata cquisitionndmapping ake nformationisplay ossiblentime rameworksever eforeachievablend,thus, penmapping ctivityo include henomenahich reshort-livedynaturewhen omparedo thespanof themapping rocess. he concept,f not the actualpractice,f ontinuous apping ust ecome realityfmaps re oremain sefulna rapidlychangingnvironment.o a large xtenthanges ith especto the emporalimension illhave otake lace nthe erspectivef hemapuser,ince he taticmapform ill ndoubtedlypersist.ut ven hishange ill ave profoundmpactnmapnterpretation,hich,f ourse,is the inalustificationfthe ntireartographicommunicationrocess.

ORGANIZATIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN CARTOGRAPHY

Wolter 1975), buildingupon thehypotheses f Price (1963) and Crane (1972), asserts hat

cartographyn1975has the ognitivedentityThackrayndMerton,972)of conceptuallydiscrete isciplinenwhichthas itsowntools, echniques, ethodologies,ndintellectualorientation,nd that t sdeveloping professionaldentityhroughhegrowthf education ndtrainingn the field.He pointsout that hegrowth fcartography,ike so many ther hings,seemsto follow hesigmoidor logistic urve llustratedn Figure I. The growth tagesof ascientificield, s recognized yCrane,are: Stage i: a preliminaryrowth eriodwith mallabsolute ncrementsf iterature; tagez: a periodofexponential rowthwhenthenumber f

publicationsoubles at regular ntervals; tage

3:a periodwhen therateofgrowth eginsto








Stage I Stage2 Stage3 Stage4

TimeFIGURE I. The logisticurve haracteristicfthegrowthf scientificields ivided nto tages.Univ.ofWisconsin

Cartographicab. AfterWolter, 975)

decline ut annualncrementsemainonstant;ndStage4: a final eriodwhen herate fgrowthpproachesero.Thecharacteristicsf scholarlyield uringach f he tagesmay edescribedbrieflys followsWolter,1975): Stage i: little r no social organization; tage 2:groups fcollaboratorsnd existencef invisibleolleges'; tage3: increasingpecializationand increasingontroversy;nd Stage4: declinen membershipn both ollaboratorsnd'invisibleolleges'.

The nstitutionalharacteristicsf artographyodaynd tsdevelopmentince he econdWorldWarsuggesthat hefield s instage andapproachingtage . A varietyfevidencesupportshis iew:thegrowthforganizations,iteraturend educationince1950has beenremarkable;echnologicalevelopmentsavebeenprofound;ndthe mergingartographersengagingnconsiderableelf-examination.

Prior o1950 herewerefew rofessionalocietiesor artographers.ver ince he arlynineteenthenturycholarlyartographicommunicationsadoftenppearednthe ournalof a geographicalociety,nd themeetingsfsuchgroupsometimesncludedessions ncartography.evertheless,lthough eographersereinterested'ncartographyhey endedto lookon itas butone,ratheress ntellectual,omponentfthebroad ield fgeography.Indeed omegeographicalournals ad neffectquota ystemor artographicontributions.It isnot urprisinghatwithheburgeoningf artographyuringnd fterhe econdWorldWar, artographersecamencreasinglyissatisfiedith eingmerely practical'ppendagefgeographyndfelt heneedfor ocieties hosemajoroncern aswith heir ield. hese amerapidlynd nabundance.

Figure shows hat tpresentherere27 cartographicocietiesnd that t least 0 percent f them ave ome ntobeing ince1950.Ten were stablishednEurope, ivenAsia,two nSouthAmerica,wo nNorth merica,ndoneeach nAustraliandNew Zealand.Allareviable.A major imofscholarlyocietiess tosupport journal or hedisseminationfresearchindingsndthe xchangefphilosophicaliews. artographicocietiesollowedheusualpattern. olterummarizeshe hirduarterfthe wentiethenturys follows:

The exponentialate f ncreasennumbersf ournalsstablishedver hepastthirtyor more earss approximatelyhe ame s that or cience ndtechnologys a whole.Adoubling ateofsome fourteenears or artographyomparedwith ifteenears orsciencendtechnology.t is also nterestingonote hat heperiod rom951 o1966 awthe stablishmentfthirty-threeartographicournals.ndeed, ome eventy-fiveercent








100

Journals 43)

(27)

Societies

E 10

Z

1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970Year

FIGURE . Cumulatedumbersf artographicocietiesndournals.Univ. fWisconsinartographicab. AfterWolter,975)

of ll extantartographicournals ere irstublisheduringhe wenty-three-yeareriodfrom 951 Kartographischeachrichten)o 1974 TheAmerican artographer).

Justscartographersn n ndividualountryandedogetheroformsocietyn nationallevel, n a sense he amething ccurredn the nternationalevel.From tsbeginningheInternationaleographicalnion I.G.U.) hadhad a strongartographiclavour,ut t didnot atisfyhebroader rofessionalnterestsf modernartography.n 1956, uring carto-graphiconferencenStockholm,he deaof n nternationalartographicociety as dvanced

and n i96i the nternationalartographicssociationI.C.A.)was founded. he I.C.A. nowenrolsmorehan 0countriess membersnd ppearsobegrowingteadily.ftertsfoundingthe .C.A.andthe .G.U. agreedocollaborateloselyndthe .C.A.becamenaffiliatef heI.G.U. In itsfirstI6 years he .C.A. hasestablishedseries fworkingommissionshichhavebeen ctiventhepreparationfpublished aterialnd nthe urveyfvarious echnicalproblems,ncludingducation,utomationnd communication. bibliographyf I.C.A.relatedublicationspto1972 ists ome 50entriesMeynen,975).There eemsittle easontodoubt ncreasedctivityndcontinuedrowthor he .C.A.

In 1975 newdevelopmentccurredn nternationalrganizationhichmay e butthefirstna series.WithUnitedNationsncouragement,heAfrican ssociationfCartographywasformedinkinghe urveyrganizationsfthevarious ations. s theproblemsndtasks








1000-

Courses519)

(258)Institutions100

_8Master's

S-degrees (29)10 Ph.D. degrees

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975Year

FIGURE 3. Cumulated umber fcollegiatenstitutionsfferingourses n cartography,henumbers fcoursesofferedndnumbersfMaster's ndPh.D. degrees ranted 950-73 n theUnitedStates. Univ.ofWisconsin

Cartographicab. AfterWolter, 975)

ofmapping ushpast he onfinementsf nationaloundaries,t s only easonableoexpectthat imilaro-operativeegional,nternationalrganizationsill ome nto eing.

Since1950 onsiderableevelopmentslso have aken lace ntheroleofcartographyninstitutionsfhigherducation.rior o theSecondWorldWar herewere elativelyew ca-demic oursesncartographyndmost f hoseweretechnical'r practical'rainingoursesorgeographytudents.fterhe econdWorldWar ntheUnited tates,henumber f nstitu-tions fferingoursesncartographyndrelatedubjects rew rom9 in 1948-49 o264 n

1972-73;n the ame

period,henumberfcoursesncreasedromessthan

5tomore han

450 Wolter,975).The numberf tudentsnrolledncreasedromess han 000 in1948-49to overi i 500 n 1972-73. igure shows he teady rowthnthenumbersf nstitutionsofferingourses,henumbersfcourses,nd thenumbersfhigheregrees rantedncarto-graphyince 950.

In addition o thenumericalrowthnthepedagogicalspects fcartography,here asbeen a significanthiftowardartographicducations distinctrom tssubsidiaryoleassimply art fa geographyegree rogramme.hishasoccurrednd is occurringnmanycountriesndpredictablyo, given heconceptual evelopmentsaking lace.Severalpro-grammeseadingo a master'segreencartographyavebeen pprovedntheUnited tatessince1950 nonebefore)ndcertificaterogrammesere evelopedtGlasgowndSwanseaintheUnited

Kingdom.numberf nstitutionsre

rapidlyxpandingartography-remote








sensingptionsntheir eographyegree rogrammes,nd at theUniversityfWisconsin-Madison heGeographyepartmentffersseparateachelor'snd master'segreencarto-graphyswell s ingeography,ndwith artographycceptables a primaryieldnthePh.D.programme.

There s no evidence osuggesthat he teady rowthn enrolmentsilldecrease. n thecontrary,veryndicationoints oward ontinuedrowth. s thepressurenresourcesn-tensifiesnd as concernor hemanagementftheenvironmentncreases,hedemand or llkinds fmaps nd relatedmaterialsurgeons.his is thecommon atternnthedevelopedworld,nd ifwe add to this hegreat emand ormaps ikelyo occur n the nowunder-developed orld,verythingointso continuedrowth.

Theoutlookor henext 5yearss both lear ndhazy. artographyould eachmaturityin tsdisciplinaryrowthy heyear 000. The numberf ocieties ill iobablyncrease ut ta slowerate.Membershipillncreaseteadilys the rofessionrows,artlyecause greatervarietyfspecialists ill allthemselvesartographers.ikegeography,artographys a fieldwith normous readth ndonly ecentlys thetermcartographer'eginningoencompassindividualsithwidelyivergentnterests.sthe onceptualevelopmentsf he ieldontinue,thefull readth f he ieldwillbecome learernd tsown dentityill merge.

TheI.C.A.willgrowndexpandhe ange f ts ctivities.t isprobablehat he ieswiththe .G.U. willremain utthat hetwo nternationalroupswillpursuemorendependentcourses s I.C.A. seeks tscommunalitiesith ther roups,uch s the nternationalocietyof Photogrammetry.ertainlyhe rangeof I.C.A. activities ill greatlyncrease,ndco-operationith heUnitedNationswillgrowndbe moredirect.mportantnternationalco-operationillbe achieved ycommissionsfthe .C.A. workingn specific elldefinedcartographicroblemsfworld oncern.

Educationncartographyillcontinueogrow, artly ecause f therealizationfthefull readth fthefield swell s a

consequencefthe

major hanges aking lacenthe

pro-fession.n thepast n largemappingnstitutions,ne couldwork ne'swayup the n-houseladder,o to peak, rcould ome romny f varietyfbackgroundsndbe made ompetentwith trainingourse'. hese ourses illnotbesoavailablenthefuturesspecializationndcomplexityncrease. ore ndmore, baccalaureatergraduate egreencartographysbeingspecifiedsa desirableualificationor position,nd t s ikelyobecome requirementomeday.Theexperiencef nstitutionspecializingneducation,uch s the .T.C. intheNether-lands nd several nstitutionsn theUnited tates, s oneof ncreasingressure. hiswillcontinues theperiod 975-2000will ee a demand otonly ormore horoughrainingfcartographers,utalso for heretrainingfexistingartographers.wenty-fiveearss wellwithinhe verage orkingifetimef n ndividual,ndonewho ompletesis rainingn1976

cannot ope ocopewith he artographyf2000withoutontinuedetraining.CONCLUSION

Theevolutionaryhanges ow ccurringnmethodology,echnologynd nstitutionalharacterwillmake he artographyf henext 5yearsmuch ifferentromhat f1975nmany espects.In all likelihood,omputermap making,ncludingnalogue rocessing, illhavereplacedmanualmapmakingorwellover 0 per ent f llmapsproducedyA.D. 000.Thosemapsrequiring anual dditions illbeincrediblyxpensive.shasbeen he asewith ast echno-logical dvances,artographersrenowusing henew omputerechnologyimplyoreplicatethemapmaker's ormer anual asks. heprofoundotentialf omputerechnologysprob-ablyyet o be fully iscoveredVail, 976).Addto this he mpendingechnologicalevelop-

mentsn theformfparallel rocessingomputers,aserdata collectionndlaser nd other







Cartography 950-2000 17

optical rocessingechnologies,ndthe artographer'surrentttitudesndmethodologiesillhave obeexpandedndaltered.

Certainlyvast ncreasen the seofmaps ndmapproducts ill ccur, utmanyf hesemaybe 'temporary aps', xistingor hort imes nlyon a display creen. urthermore,

'incomplete' aps, ytoday'standards,illbe common.hese willbemade-to-orderapsthatmostpresent,elf-respecting,artographersouldnotadvocate,uchas mapswithoutscales r nsufficientasedata nd/oretail y oday'standards. ew ndhopefully eaningfuldistortionsill epossible,othat artogramsaywellbe moremportantnthe uture.n thepast hemanual artographerasusuallytrivenor s much etail ndaccuracys he couldincludenhismap; todayhe omputer-drawnapoftenoses he everseroblemfhow oeliminateetail ndpositionalccuracyoas to fit he ntended apformatndpurpose.

The changingechnologyndmethodology,odoubt,willmake hecartographyftheyear 000rigidnsome espectso a degreetpresentnheard forfeared,ut, nthe therhand,tmayhave differentind fflexibilityhat reatlyxceeds urcurrentxpectations.Rigidities aynclude reducedange fpossible ymbolsnd etteringtyles eadilyvailable

tothe artographer,ore evereizerestraintsor omemaps, .g., temporary'aps, nd theinabilityoutilize ertainurrentlyopular atternsf ines rfigures ithoutostlymanualoverridesothe ystem.tandardizationf ymbolsor ertain ata ategoriesnspecificypesofmapsmaybemuchmore ommon han tpresent.nternationalolour pecificationsayalsobecome reality.ncreased lexibilitiesayncludeuch hingssease nrotation,caling,projectionelection,he bilityo seea large rea ndtothenzoom' nona small ortionf t(the omputer'sndC.R.T.'sform f he nsetmap ), ndoverlayapabilitiesnddata ombina-tion ndprocessingotentialitiesever efore ossible. peedandeaseofobtainingpecialpurposemapsfor pecific roblems illbegreatlyncreased.

Cartographyuring950-75 as eenprofoundhanges. completelyew echnologyasbecome vailable nd newconceptualttitudesoward tsmethodologyave evolved.t is

inconceivable,fcourse, ut ven fno new echnologicalnnovationsccurrednthenext 5years,he ield f artographyould till e taxedn ts ffortsoutilizehe echnologyf1975to full dvantagend todevelop sound onceptualiew f tself.

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i96o-6 , 58-77CRANE, D. (1972) nvisibleolleges: iffusionfknowledgenscientificommunitiesChicago)DICKINSON,. C. (1969)Maps and airphotographsLondon)KEATES, . . (1973)CartographicesignsndproductionNewYork)MEINE, . H. (1974) Kartographischeommunikationskettenndkartographischeslphabet: inBeitragurTheorieder

Kartographie', itt.Ost.geogr. es. 116,390-418MEYER,M. A.,BROOME,. R. andSCHWEITZER,. H. (1975) Colorstatistical apping ytheU.S. Bureau ftheCensus',

Am. Cartogr.2, 100-17MEYNEN,E. (1975) nternationalartographicssociationibliography956-i972, Int.Cartogr. ss.MONKHOUSE, . J. nd WILKINSON, H. R. (1952, 1963, 1971) Mapsanddiagrams,st, 2nd and3rdedns London)MOORE,. C. (1970)Cartographiccribingaterials,nstruments,ndtechniques,m.Congr. urvgMapp. Washington,.C.)MORRISON,J.L. (1974) 'Changing philosophical-technicalspects fthematicartography',m.Cartogr., 5-14MORRISON,J.L. (1976) 'The Scienceofcartographynd tsessential rocesses',nt. Yb.Cartogr. 6PEUCKER, . K. and CHRISMAN,N. (1975) 'Cartographic data structures',Am. Cartogr.2, 55-69PRICE, . J. 1963)Little cience igscienceNewYork)RAISZ,E. (1938, 1948) General cartography,st and 2nd edns (New York)RAISZ,E. (1962) Principles of cartographyNew York)RATAJSKI,. (1973) 'The researchstructureof theoreticalcartography', nt. Yb. Cartogr. 13, 217-28REEVES,R. G. (ed.) (1976) Manual ofremote ensing,Am. Soc. PhotogrammetryFalls Church, Va)ROBINSON,A. H.

(1953, 1960)Elementsof

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(New York)








ROBINSON,. H. (1975) MapmakingndMap Printing: he evolutionf a workingelationship',nWOODWARD,. (ed.)Fivecenturiesfmap rintingChicago)1-23

ROBINSON, A. H. and PETCHENIK,. B. (1976) Thenature fmaps, ssays owardn understandingfmaps ndmapping(Chicago)

ROBINSON,. H. andSALE, . D. (1969)Elementsf artography,rdedn NewYork)

RUTSCHEIDT,. H. andANDREGG,. H. (1971) 'Instrumentsndmethods or urveyingndmapping', urvgMapp. 31,271-87;idem Addendum' oabove,SurvgMapp. 31, 453-6

SALICHTCHEV,. A. (1973) Somereflectionsnthe ubject nd method fcartographyfter he ixth nternationalarto-graphic onference',an. Cartogr.o, io6-II

THACKRAY,. andMERTON,. K. (1972) On discipline uilding: heparadoxes fGeorge arton', sis,63,473-95THROWER,. J.W. and JENSEN, J.R. (1976) 'The orthophotond orthophotomap: characteristics,evelopmentnd

application', m.Cartogr., 39-56VAIL,H. (I976) 'Maps of thefuture',uturist,o, 181-91WALLIS, . (1973) Mapsas a mediumf cientificommunication',tudia ziejoma eografiiKartograffi,52-62 Warsaw)WITT,W. (1970)Thematischeartographie,nd edn Hannover)WOLTER,.A. (i975) 'The emerging isciplinefcartography',npubl. h.D. thesis, niv.of MinnesotaWRIGHT,.K. (I942) 'Map makersrehuman: ommentsnthe ubjectivenmaps',Geogrl ev.32, 527-44

evolución de la cartografía

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