evidence for a human occupation of the north american great
TRANSCRIPT
Evidence for a human occupation of the North American Great Plains during the Las t G lacial Maximum
Steven R. Holen and Kathleen A. Holen
Denver Musellm of Nalure & Science
Ten mammo th bone sites older than 11,700 rcybp in the central Great Plains of North America (fig ure I) provide evidence of a human occupation during the Last Glacial Maxi mum and before the begin ning of the Clovis techo-complex at Cll .
I I 500 rcypb. The senior au thor has worked on seven of these sites in the last 20 years. The other three sites were inves tigated by Dennis Stanford of the Smi thsonian Inst itution from the mid 1970's through the eady \ 980's. The evidence for a human technology, the geological context and the age of each s i t(~ wi ll b:- discussed. Experimental breakage and flaking of elephant limb bone provides support for the hypothes is that only humans wielding hammer stones can produce the type of impact points with negative bulbs of percuss ion and bone flakes found at these sites, and that indeed the late Pleistocene sites discLlssed are archaeological in orig in. In conclusion, a model of human arrival in the central Great Pla ins of North America will be presented .
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.... ,.,~~ ~ -' "-Shaffert"t S . Jensen
e.a ena - _ . .. -.-" Hamburger ___ ~"' -. ~,~~""",
A
Lamb Spring '. Selby -' ' "- -=-------Lovewell I
Dutton I " r Lovewell II ,"' Kanorado .-" -:.;. .... ,
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Figure I. Map of the 10 Mammoth Sites in the Centra) Great Plnins of Nort h America.
1I ~I ~n. s _ H. j' K. :\ . Hnlen. 20 11 . Evidence for " human o<"""pa!io,, of (he ~()nh '\","r i~-'111 Gr~a! Plain. du ring the LaSt Gl"ci . l :>.r ,,~i!1Hlm . PI' 65- 105. en, 1 V Sin'I""io Intern.donal 1-:1 hombre temprano en ,\merk ". e<l iladr> ~r J. C. Jimenel L6pe! .. C. Serra no:> S~nchc7.. :\, Gonl~l e~ GOM.ale!. y F J. AguiI~ r .\ rell a",,_ Inst iuHo N~ri""a l de .\ mropologfa e HislOr ia; !"'lihI10 de I n\"C nig:a~Oo''c, :\ n! rop"l6g icu.lJl1i'·cn!d ~d Nacion. l :\ut6nom. de .v lhlCO J !'>Iu"", ,M Dt:s;"rw. :>.-Ihicu. .'hl2 PI"
rv Simposio [nternacional EI hombre temprano en America
Sm ithsonian Inves tigations, 1975-198 1
Dutton and Selby Two sites, Dutton and Selby, in the plains of eastern Colorado, US,\, \'vere excavated by Dennl~ Stanford of the Smithsonian Institution in the mid to late 1970's (Stanford, 1979;
Stanford and Graham, 1985). Th e two sites are situated in upland playas In a late Wisconsin loess land::;cape. Evidence for a pre-Clovis occupation at the Dutton and Selby sites is derived from impacted and flaked mammoth and large ungulate bone in the Peorian loess,
lacustrine levels and an overlying buried soil at both sites. Mammoth bone from the Dutton Site was radiocarbon dated to 11 ,7 10 ± 150 (S I-2877) and this is considered a minimum age.
Impact points on mammoth and large ungulate limb bones show how the bones were broken for marrow extraction and the production of bone tools and choppers. These tools are
reported from level::; dating back as far at 16,330 ± 320 (SI-51 85) in Peorian loess. Several lithic flakes \Vere found in the screen washing from the pre-Clovis level, however none were found in place. Stanford ( 1999) urges caution in the interpretation of the mammoth
bone modification as evidence of human actions after earlier interpreting the bone breabge as human in origin . vVork by the author on additional sites in the central Great Plains and experimental breakage of elephant limb bone discussed belo\v suggest that Stanford's earlier interpretation was correct (Stanford, 1979; Stanford et al., 1981; Stanford and
Graham, 1985).
The Lamb Spring Site The Lamb Spring Site south of Denver, Colorado, consist::; of numerous mammoth skeletons found around several spring seeps (Rancier et aI. , 1982; Fisher, 1992; Mandryk, 1998; Stanford et at., 1981). Evidence for human modification of mammoth bone consists of the presence
of impacted and flaked limb bones, while lighter bones like ribs and scapulae are intact. T he presence of two stone artifacts, a 16.3 kg boulder with battering on the pointed end and a flaked quartzite bifacial wedge support the hypothesis that humans were responsible for the bone breal\age according to the site excavator (Stanford, 1999). However, Fisher (1992) interprets this data as inconclusive. Three radiocarbon ages are reported for the site, with
two bone dates of I 1,7 S5 ± 95 (SI-4.850) and 13,140 ± 1000 (M-l +64), and one on organics of 12,750 ± 150 (SI-648 7). The geological situation is complex as multiple spring channels contain mammoth bone. Dixon et al. (1997) suggest the main concentration of mammoth bone is in the range of 13,000-14,000 rcybp; however, some radiocarbon ages from the
deposit are as early as 17,850 ± 550 (Elias and Nelson, 1989) and some bone is from deposits dating 25,000-26,000 rcybp (Mandryk, 1998). All the radiocarbon ages from Pleistocene deposits are older than Clov is. However, direct dating of the impacted and flaked limb bone would help resolve the age of the proposed human involvement with the site.
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Holen and Holen · Evidence ror a Human occupation ..
T able 1. f"lamll1oth sites in the Central Grear Plains with geological depos its and ages
Sites
J. Dutton
2. Selby
Geology C- 14 age
Lacu!;trine si lt / day and I 1, i I O± I 50 ~
loess 16,SSO±S20
Lacustrine sil ts/clay and (same
loess st ra tig raphy and
age as Dutton)
3. Lamb Springs allu\'ia l spr ing depos its 11,iS5±95 ~
26,000
4. La Sen.a Peorian loess
5. Shaff,rt Peorian loess
6. Hambmger Peorian loess
7 .• ft-IlSC1/ Peorian loess
8. L ovrwdl l Fine-grain allu\'iu lll
9. LOiJf'i.~'ellll Fine-grain allu\·iltlll
10. Kallor,u!o Fine-grain allU\'ju ltl
18,4+0±14f)
15.600±:300
16,480±60
14,8S0±2S0
10.4S0±SOO
19,5S0±80
1:1,375±:35 6..
12.670':::.60
Evidence of Human
Technology
illlpact points, bone
flaking
impact points, bone
flal\ing
impaer points, bone
flaking, hammer stone, lithic wedge,
diflerentiaJ breaKage of limb bone
impact points, cone
flake, bone flak ing,
am·il and spatial
patterning of debit age around an vil ,
differential breakage of
I imb !.lone
impact points, bone
flakin?;
impact points,
differential breakage of
I imb bone
impact point. bone
fl aking, diffe rential breakage of limb bone
bone stacKin g, spira l
frac turcs. skull position
impact poinrs, con t'
flahes. bOIlt' flaKing, bifaci,dly flal,ed bone
tool, pol ished bon" tool
impact point, bonc
fl"l,e scar, d ifTerential bn.!a l\<lgt of li mb bone
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IV Simposio InternacionaI EI hombre temprano en America
Recenl Inves ti gat ions , 198!J-200B
Seven sites containing hlHlli1n-lI\odified mamlllo th bone have been inyes tigatcd by the senior
author in t he last 20 years. These include La Sella, Hamburger, Jensen, ShaHen, LO\.'ewell
I & I I and Kanorado. These ~ites range in age lI'olll ("/I. I '::!,OOO-20,OOO rcybp and all werc
exc<I\·ated in \·ery fjne-grained loess or alluyilllll (tabk I). These geologic,lI deposits arc
\·ery 10\\· energy depositional situ;ltions ideal lor studying taphonomy of mammoth bone
because geological torces were not a I;\ctor in the bone breakage.
Medicine Creek Valley Sites, Southwest Ncb ras l,a
La Sena 1\ 1ammoth
Ilwcstigated {i'OIll 1989-1998, the La Sen a M 'WlIlloth S ite consist.s o f a s ingle adult male
mammoth situated 3.5 III deep in late \Visconsin F'eo rian loess at Medicine Creel, Reservoir
in southwest Nebras!,a (Holen, 200G; Holen and May, 2002; May and Iiolen, 1993). Evidence
of human modification (I f the mammoth bone is in the fo rm of difleren'.i.3IIJ1"cakage patterns
on limb bone ver!)lIS lighter bones liI,e ribs and \"(:~rtebrae. The only complete eh:: men ts on
the site are ribs and vertebrae, while the linlb bones were heavily broken whi le still fresh by
blows from an object that is 5 em in diamNer at the point or illlpact. illlp;}ct points occlir
on both lemor;) and on opposite sides of rhe bone. Bone flalies are also p resent (figure 2) in
addition to one cone flake. There are no chipped stone too ls associated with the Illammoth
\
I i
i I l ( / \1
" Figure 2. IllllstJ'ation of a bone !la!\e frolll the L<t Sena \larmnoth Site. (a) Dorsal (CorricCl l) lace exhibiting a flClke scat'; (b) side vie\\", showing bulb of percuss ion and hinge fi'acture; (c) ventra l lace showing bulb of I>c)'cussion and platform.
88
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Holen and Holen - Evidence for a Human occupation ...
, , ~ La Sena Si t e
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Figu re 3. La Sena )'1allHnorh Site. the at1\ il and distribution of bone debitage surrounding rhe am il.
indicating that it ' \'as probably not killed and butchered by hUllHlllS. J t appea rs that the bone
was quarried for use in milking bone tools, although marrow extraction cannot be ruled
out. A hea\'y concentration of small spirally fractll red pieces of lim b bone around a broh~ 11
vertebra siandi ng \'ertically with \\'(~a !" patterns on the upper su rfm:e indic(Jtc that this bone
was lIsed as the anvil on which to break the lilllb bones (figure 3).
T he La Sena \1ammoth Site is wtll-dated at 18, H·O ± 14'; (A.'\-697'1) wi th
strat igraphically sequent denes both above and bela\\" the mammoth (Holen, 2006; Iiolell
and May, 2002; May and Holen, 1!-J9S). Thcf'C' ages agree \\-ith til(' well-dated regional
sequence for Peorian loess.
TIl(' Ilamimrfer "1ammo/1t
The Ham burger Mamllloth Site is s it uated at Medicine Creek H(:'sen'oir about '1 J.tin di~tanl
from rhe La Sen a :'1ammoth. about -J. III deep in l<l. lc \\' isconsin Pt'o r ian loe .... s ( Ilolen and
May, 'lOO!-J). The Illamllioth \\-as exci-I\·,lted f,"om 2000- ~()()~ and ('on~ists of rhe panial
remains of a sing-Ie adult IIl<1lllmolh about ~~ ,·-sa year~ old. The 11l<l!llllloth consists of
hig-hly fragmented po~t-tTanial elements, s kull ti'<lglllenb ,md lllolar=" Only seven wmplete
(~ktJlf'nts were f{Hlnd , olle tibia, fi\ 'e ribs and OIW too t hOlW (fI g-lin' I). \ 11<111), limb elements
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IV Simposio Imcrnacional El hombre temprano en America
Figul'e 4. Impact points on mammoth limb bone froUl the Hamburger Mammoth site.
are spirally fractured and three segments exhibit impact points (figure 4). The lack of stone
tools and chop/ cut marKS on the bone indicates that humans did not butcher the mammoth. Instead, like the La Sena Mammoth, bone quarrying is indicated. A single radiocarbon age
was obtained on cortical limb bone, this age is 16 ,'~80 ± 60 rcybp (CAMS-94859).
The Shaffert j\
Holen and Holen . Evidence for a Human occupation ..
Mammoths at Lovewell Reservoir, North-Central Kansas
The Lovewell Mammoth Site is located at Loycwell Hesen'oir in north central Kansas and consists of two separate concentrations of mamllloth bone that were modified by humans
(Holen, 2006, 2007 ). Exca\'ations were conducted in 1969, 1991,2002, and 2004.
LO'i)cwell Nlammoth !
Lovewell Y1al11llloth I W<lS excavated in 19()9 by cln . .:haeologists from the Kansas State
Historical Sociery (Holen, 2006, 2007). They noted llumerous spiral fractures on the limb
bone, bone stacking. and the reversed position of the skull with the tllsks pointing back toward the post-cranial skeleton. unfortunately, the excavation was not completed because a geologist told the exca\'ators that the mamllloth was in a geological deposit that was
over 100,000 years old. The archaeoJogi!')ts left the excavation and the l'eserYoir covered the mammoth. The site was almost completely destroyed by 1991 when the reservoir was lo\\' enough to expose the rn;Jlllmoth again. Discoyery of an ill situ rib in 2002 allowed one
radiocarbon age of 20,4·S0 ± 300 (CAMS-l12i .... ·». The mammoth is now known to be situated in alluvial silt that is part of the lale Gilman Canyon Formation and not in pre
Sangallloll Londand Loess as pre\'iously reported in 1969.
Lovewell .'1ammoth JI The Lo\'('wcll Mammoth II was discovered in 1991 when the reservoir \\'as at vcry low level
(Holen, 1 9~)(i, 2006). It was presuI11ed at the tillle that the m,\Jl1lJloth described ahoye Iwd been re-discovered, but ;Jdditional excavation in 2002 produced evidence of two mammoths separated
by about 80 1!l and in different alluvial fills. Excavation in 1991,2002, and 2004· revealed a partial single mamllloth situated in alluvium in a shallo\\' swaJe, The malllmoth exhibits highly
fi'agmented spirally fractured limb bone (Holen, 200G, 2007). The limb bone exhibits impact points, calle fla\,es ;Jnd numerous bone flakes and tlaJ,e scars are present (figure 5), One
bifacially fla l,ed piece of cortical limb bone appears to be;J small chopping tool. The tip of a highly poli:o;hcd bone rool (Holen, 1996) appears to be the broken tip of;J bone rod, similar to those fiwnd in (1m' is and upper P;J I("o1ithic sites. Two rtldio(';J rbotl ;Jges indicate the site
date~ to the La!:>t Glacial .~vlaximLlm, with the fi r~t age (Holen. I f106) 011 bone of 18.~50 ± 90 (CAMS-1 5G3G). ;-\ more recent bone coll<lgen radiocarbon sample takell from (he bifacially
flaked bone tool pro\'ides the best age for the :o;ite of 19,530 ± SOrcybp (UCIA:\1S-11211 ) (Holen, 200G, :200,) because it \\'as acquired (i'OIll )!lore hi?;hly-pu rified bone collagen.
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IV Simposio Internacional EI hombre temprano en America
Step
Figllre 5, Thick cortical linlb bone segment from the Lovewell II Mammoth Site exhibiting intersecting radial fractures and a negati\'e flake scar (lippeI') and an impact point (lower).
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Holen and Holen - Evidence for a Human occupation ...
The Jellsell _\fammollL
The Jensen Mammoth, in the Platte Ri,-er Valley in sou th-central Nebraska was first
exca"ated by paleontologists from the Uni\'ersity of i'<ebraska Sta te Museum in 1995 and
by al'chaeo l ogi~ts from the same ins t itution in 1995-1996 (Holen, 1995; May and Holen,
2005). The site contai ns much of the skeleton of a single old adult male mammoth situated
in Peorian loes~. The mammoth exhibits differential breakage of some limb bones, while the
ribs, ' -crtcbrae and other lighter elements are generally complete. The limb bone exhibits
illlpact points and a bone f1ake is pre~ent (figure (i). The la r k of stone tools and the fact thar
this old mamllloth probably died naturally indicates th at the only action taken by humans \\'as
the breakage of se lected limb bones, probably to quarry bone segments for the manufacture
of bone tools. Two radiocarbon ages, one on bull, soi l humate!" nnd one on bone collagen, are
available. The sediment date i~ 14,830 ± 2~:W rcybp (Tx-8 l 35) and the bone date is 13,880 ± 90 )Tybp (13eta-68859)_ In thi s case, the sediment age is considered the more accurate of the
two based on the st ratigraphic posicion of the mamllloth 3.5 III deep in PeOl-ian loe~s_
Figure 6. Illustration of a hone flal,f:' from the Jen .... f:' ll Mammoth Site. (a) Dorsal (Cortical ) face exhihitit1~ twO tlal;e s(' ar.~: (b) side \·ie\\-. showing bulb of pe rrus .... ion and /l-athe red termination; (c) \ ent r,ll f:l cl' .... 1)/)\\ ing lHllh of perclls sion and plat/orin.
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IV Silll posio Internacional EI hombre te mprano en America
The 1\"/lIlOmdo Locality
The Kanorado Loca lity was li rst excavated by paleontologists ti"olll the Denver :,\ rw,ClIIIJ
of Natural History (now ~atllre & Scicnce) in 1~)-;6 after a mamllloth molar was tound in a
cons truction t.:ut by the landowner. The locality is lo(;ated in a late Ple istocene! early Holot:ene
alluv ial till along Middle Beaver Creek in very western Kansas. The paleontologist at the
t ime re(;ognized dilkrcneial breakage of lilllb bones that did not appear to be natural. An
attempt to get archaeo logists imerested in cxcav<lting the site tailed. The locality W<lS later
tested by archaeologists from the same institution in I USI, but no definitive archaeological
cOlllponent was identified.
The loctllity has been reinvestigared by archaeo logists and geoarclHlcologis ts from
the Denver Mu seum and the Uni\·ersity of I{ansas froll ] 2002-2008. At least three late
P leistocene and three early Holocene archaeological components have been iden tified at
three archaeological sites with in ehe locality with the oldest componen ts being ca. 11,000
to 1$,000 rcybp (Mandel et al., 2004), including one Clovis age lithic component. The oldest
component at site Il-SN 105 consists of mammoth limb bone that exhibits an impact point
and a negat i q~ fl ake scar (figure 7). These elements are der h·ed from a component dated to
12,375 ± 35 rcybp (UCIA:.\'IS- I 1214) on bone colJagen" At site 14SN lOl a piece of spirally
fractured mammoth li mb bone is dated to 12,670 ± 60 rcybp (?\ZA-,:?8699)" vVhile no stone
toob ha\"e been found in these components, the fracture patterns on mammoth limb bone
indicate human technology is present.
Figure ,. Mammoth cortica l limb bone segmenrs from the Kanorado locality, site I+SN105 . (a). T wo irnpact sca rs shown by arrows; (b) flake sca r shown by arrow.
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Holen and Holen - Evidence for a Human occupation ..
D iscussion
Evidence froll} the 10 mammoth sites pres en ted above indicates rhree things in com mOil; their
geological contex t in fine-grained eolian or alluvia l sediments, radiocarbon or stratigraphic
ages that al'e older than the Clovis techno-complex and the mamilloth limb bone \\'as heavily
bro],en \vhil e the bone was still fresh by high-velocity impacts (table 1). One s ire, Lamb
Springs, contains a large boulder with battering on one end that was probably the hammer
used to break the mamllloth limb bone, The fine-grained low energy geological context
of each site eliminates the possibility that geological processes were respomible for the
breakage of the limb bone, Previously, other hypotheses offered to explain this mammoth
limb bone b,-eakage by carni\'ore gnawing and mammoth trampling and haw been rejected
(Holen, 2006). The t\\'o sites with the best evidence for human modification of mammoth
limb bone are La Sen a and Lovewell II. Lamb Springs with the associated hammer stone
and chipped stone wedge also oflers good e\"idence of hUJntln technology, but the actual
modified mammoth bone needs to be dated as the site may be multi-component.
Figure 8. Ex perimentally-produced impact point. (a) On proximal eleph<lnt temur and impact point; (b) on La Sella proximal elephant remur (circular depression has not detached ).
Evidencc of th~ same type of mammoth bone breakage, including impact points,
cone !lakes and bone flaking, from ClO\'is-agc sites in America suppon the hypothesis
th<lt. hUlll<lllS commonly bro!,e l1HlllllTIOrh limb bone in ordcr to Ill<l!,€' expedient <lnd
highly paltenwd bone tools (Arroyo-Cabndes rt III .. ~O()I; J lannns, 1~'H{g,199(); Johnson,
19H5; \Tiller, 1989; Steede <1lld CClrlson. 19hY}. iVTorian had ('onduded thal: 'Actualistic
and (::-..pcrime!ltal stlldic~ have !ililed thus IiiI' to idcllti!y any agency other thall hanHlwr
.'>tone lise by p(:opJe that ('an indUCt' fracture . ...; by poill! loading on fresh probosciciean bOlle"
(:\'101'Ian, 19~ ~ ). Thi~ inrerpret<lt ion i~ supp()nl~d by (,\'ideJlcl" fl'OI11 lilt' .-:ites reported abo\'('
and h)' later rl· .... ~ .. -'ard1f'rs (Arroyo-Cabralc .... et a/., 2001; 11anJllls. 1989, 1990; Holen, 'lOOG.
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IV Simposio Internacional EI hombre temprano en America
2007; Johnson, 1!)H5; :'v!iller, 1 9S~); Steele <1Il1.! Carlson, 19W1) a11d lVIorlan's conclusion has
not been n:tllted, The sites discussed abO\'c that exhibit impact points and bOlle flaJ .. ing datc
betwecn 11 ,700 and 20,500 rcybp, indic<lting a human presence on the ccntral Gn::ar Plains
of North Arnerica during and just after the Last Glacial l'/Iaxi1lllll'll (u:;:.! ) anc! betore the Cloyis tcchno-t:omplex,
Experimental Elephant Limb Bone f rac turing
An elephant limb bone break<lge experiment was l:OnducteJ by the authors in T anzania,
Africa, in 2006, in order to better understand the lllcchnnics of impacting and fhkin g
thid corti cal proboscideal1 limb bone and to reprodw.:e the impact points and bone flaking
present on the mammoth limb bone at several sites noted abO\'c (Holen and Holen, 2006),
The ultimate goal was to further test the hypothesis that hUll1ans wiel ding hammer stones
could produce the types of impact points, cone na]ie.s, spiral frac[Ures and bone nal,ing
found at the mammoth sites, This type of experiment with breaJ{ing e!ephnnt limb bone has
been conducted before in the Ginsberg Experinlent (Stan ford el ai., 19 ~1 ) and the Denver
Elephant P roject (Hel-shey, 1979); however. the complete results of this reseal-ell have never
been published,
Figure 9, Experimenta lly-prod uced impact point and long irHersecting spiral fr<'lctures on elephant temur mid-shaft (a, refit of two segments), and impact point and long intersecting spiral fl'actures on La Sella mammoth remur mid-shaft (b. refit of rour segments ),
A 28-30 year old male elephant died along a road in Ngorogoro Crater National Pari"
The authors were allowed to remow one femur frol11 the elephant for the experiment, but
\\'ere not allowed to remove any of the elephant bone from the country. The experiment
invoh'ed the production of impact points and bone flaking lil;;e that present on limb bone
from the La Sella Site, Lo\'ewell Mamilloth and se\'cral other sites discussed abo\'c, In order
to break the temur, a 4.5 kg cobble was hafted onto a 1.2 m-Iong wooden handle with cow
96
Holen and Holen - Evidence for a Human occupation"
nl\dlide (figure S), Th~ cobble tapered to a 5 em diametel" point and pro"ided a large mass
to small point ratio ill order to produce the same size of impact points found on the La Sena
mammoth femora. An anvil was constructed from dimension lumber \\'ith the narrow 5
cm "'ide edge of the 5 by 10 cm board as the anvil surface. T h is was clone to replicate the
approximate width of the ve r tebrae anvil found at the La Sena S ite (Holen, 2006; figure ~
above),
Figure 10. St€\'en I [olen breaking elephant femur on an aJ1\"il using a 4.5 kg hammer stone hatied on a long handle,
The elephant femur proved to be amazingly durable and it took 10 blows to break
the femur near the proximal end :md produce (Ill impact notch (figu re 9(1 ). Sub!'equent blows
to the mid-shaft prodllCl'd ncgativt" bulbs of J:>e rcu!'!'.ion and long spiral fhH.:tllres (figure lOa ).
Bone flahing was accoll1plished wi th i.1 O . .5lij:;: hand-held hammerston<:.'. Both longitudinal and
tram;\"ersp flab.;'s \\"('r~ produced. A longitudin;d i1al,e 13.9 CIll long (,:\hibired a prornillctlt
bulb of percussion (fi gure lla) and a tr;lllS\'erSt:: tlal,e 1+.2 CIl! wide ex hibited a diffuse bulb
of per("u~ ... i()n (figure 1 ~a). The impact notches, long ~piral fractures. int('r~ecting radial
fbc[Ures alld bOlle f1ahes are morphologically identical to tho:;.(' fi'olll the L<l Sen<l and
J"()\'ewell sites (fig-u re:-- lob. lIb, l~b), The dil'otributioll of small pieces of bone debitage
around tIlt:" anvil (figure 1.1) replicates the distriblltion pattern arolmd thl: bone am'il at the
La Sena :,vlallllnoth Site (figure 2: Holt'll and 11 01en, <200G).
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IV Simposio In ternacional EI hombre temprano en America
Figure II. Longitudinal flake ( 13,9 crn long) experimentally produced on elephant letnur (a), and longitudinal flake (10_3 em long) on La SetHI mammo th limo bone (b).
The results of this experimen t indicate that humans \vielding hafted hammer
stones cause the same types of impact points and cone flakes on elephant limb bones as
those found on mammoth limb bones in Clovis and pre-Cloyis age sites. Bone flaking with
a hand-held hammer stone produced both longitudinal and transverse Hakes like those
excavated at several of the sites discllssed 8bove. This experiment, along with the earlier
elephant bone breakage experiments, strengthens the 8rgument that only humans wielding
hammer stones t:all produt:e this type of breabge on thick cortical mammoth limb bone.
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--HoJen and Holen - Evidence for a Human occupation ..
Fig-un· 12, Tnmsn~rsl' flake (1+.2 em wide) experimentally pmduct:d on I'lephant femur (upp(:!]') and trans\'er,!,e ila l,e (20.3 em wide) on LO\ ewell Mammoth II limb bone (i nsen).
Figlln.> I ~\ , Oi~lrib\ltinn of borw debitllge ~lIr rolindin~ the am il in the elephant bone Iw('ali<l~(,
(,xlwrillwnr
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IV Simposio Inlcrnacional EI hombre temprano en America
Concl us ion
G la<.:lll l icc covered Canada during [he Last Clnei;"!! .\Iraximum (1.(;;\1 ) (fig-me 11-) ti'olll about
~~,ooo n..:ybp and after th e 1.(;1\1 until ct!. I 1,:)00 )"cyhp. T hi:i fact indicates that hUllwns mUit
ha\"(~ arrived on t he Great Plains before rhe icc blOl:ked the illlcrior i':orth .-\merican rourc
m. '1'1,000 rcybp.
Late Pleistocene Upper Paleolithic poplJlatioll:i became adapted to the tree1ci:i
:itcppe b ion Ic in Eastern Europe and southern Sibe]'i;l ca. 3::;,000- 1-0,000 years ago ( Hofted,e!'
and Elias, '2007). This generally tree less biome ex tended across Siberia into Alaska and
graded in to the Great Plains steppe biome ill th e interior of 0:orth Atneri <.:a . Once humans
adapted to the Mamllloth Steppe biome they could move relnti\'ely rapidly across Siberia into
Alaska and sou th into the Great Plains of i'iorth .-\rncrica and furthe r south into Mex ico.
,
o 375 750 - 1.500 Kilometers
Last Glacial Maximum Ice
F igure i 'k Las t Glacial :Vlaxillllln1 ice covers Canada from ca. q~,OOO to 11,500 rcybp.
100
Holen and Holen" Evidence for a Human occupation"
Human adaptation that led to the movement into this o'eeless !\1ammoth Steppe
included a sophisticated bone and i,'or), technology including eyed needles that al lowed humans
to manufacture sewn clothing necessary to live in far nonhern climates, They also im'en ted
the use of bone as fuel, a necessary adaptation to a treeless environment. The invention of
mammoth bone structures that did not require c:xtensi" e use of wood also allowed people
to live on the treeless steppe, A sophisticated lithic tcchnology based on bifacial and blade
tools allowed the production of the bone and ivory technology as "'ell as high-qual ity lithic
hun ting and butchering tools,
E\"idence of this fa r northern human adaptation to Arct ic environments comes
from both easte rn and wes tern Siberia (Pavlo\, and Ind relid , 2000; Pitull,o et al., 2004),
Sites at 65° o r farth er north in northeastern Euro pe in Siberia and dating more than 25,000
rcy bp include Hryzm'aya, at 25,000-33,000 rcybp, and !\I[amolltm"aya I'llr),a, at 34,000-
37,000 rcybp (Pavlm' and Indrelid, 2000), Pitulko ef at. (~OO+) descri be the Yana Rhino Horn
Site on the Yana H.i"er in rhe Beringian portion of Siberia at 72 0 nort.h , The site comists
of a rhinoceros horn beveled rod, two beveled bone roels, numerous stone tools, charred
bone and llu 'nerous faunal remains eroding from a per mafrost terrace fil l. The site is well
dated to ~7,000-28,OOO rcybp, indicating humans were wel l-adap(ed to Arctic conditions in
Beringia du ring the mid-\Vi sconsin, Because the ice sheet completely covered Canad::l about
22,000 rcybp and closed the land route into the central North America n continent, humans
therefore would have had 5,000-6,000 yea rs to en ter the Great Plains of North America
f)'om Siberi a before the corridor closed, The distance from the ) 'ana Hhino I-lorn Site to the
u.S.-Canadian border is ra, 5 ,265 km "ia the Beri ng La nd Bridge and southward east of lhe
Rodi}' :'10untain, This dist<lllce indicates that human groups would have had to expand at
the rate of one km a year fi'olll the "{ana Hi"er Site to an an.:~a not cO\'e red by I.Gj\1 ice to have
popul ated the Great Plains of North America before the ice blod,ed the corridor (fi gu re 15),
The human groups wert already adapted to Arctic condition .... so this expansion rate does not
seem ill.!.Ut" llJountable once the adaptar ion is in place.
E,'idence from the Old Crow Locality and l3Iucfish Caws in the Yukon prm'ide
furth er ('yidellcc that this lJdapUltion reached ~onh America at an carly ela te, Impacted and
flaked mammoth limb bone found at th/;:' Old Crow Locality and Bluefish Ca\"e in tlw 1'ul\On
date back to '1,0,000 rcybp (Cinq- \1al's. J ~)9(); !\Ilorlan, 19~'I', 1956,2003) , Cut marks on bison
bOIll' frolll Old Cro\\' da le as early as +2,000 rcybp (.~\'Iorlan . '200S) suggef'ting the hllllllJll
:\I"('(i(' adaptat ion Illay hayc been eyell ear lier that recorded <It the Vana Hhino Horn Site,
T his evidence has gener,dly Iw(:'n i~n()r(;c1 by the arcilal!olog ic;:i1 COllHllllllity, but it has no t
been r(,Ii!tcci, The illlpil('('<.:d and tlal,cd rmn-nlllorh bone l','iclence fbI' human OcclI p<ltion of
the Yukon rl'pres('J1(~ the same rype of imp<l('t point!> nnd hom' tlaliing found at the La Sena
and ollwr r.<;j\] mammoth sites and Clm'is-agc man1ll10th sites in the Gn.'lIt Plains (J 10k'l),
2(06), It wou ld appear. baSt'" on this <"\ ' idl'nl't:, that ilu!Ilans bt'<l)'i ng nn L'PPl'1' Paleo lithic
culturc' r eBehed the Cn'3t Plains sOll th of C(!)l<1da SOIlll'l ilt1C beh\'l't'n 2~,OOO and +(J,nno
101
IV Simposio Internacional EI hombre temp rano en America
A o 375 750 1.500
Late Mid-Wisconsin Glacial Ice
Figure !S_ Hypothcsii',cU Mi(J-\Visconsin expansion of upper Paleolithic l>cople!> from Beringia south to thc Grcat Plains of ~orth America.
rcybp (Holen, 2006) and that this hypothesis cannot be refuted with evidence presently
available. NJandryk et at. (2001) suggest that the northern part of this "ice-free co rridor"
could have been blocked by glacial icc by 27,000 rcybp, indicating that the age range for th is
early human migration would have been before this date. An early coastal migration down
the west coast of NOI-th _America <lppears to ha\-e also occurred b<lsed on evidence from
South America. This is not to suggest that these were the on ly or the earliest entries of
humans into ~orth America. Humans may have entered i':orch America by both coastal and
interior routes at several differenc periods.
102
Holen and Holen - Evidence fo r a Human occupation ...
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105