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Events Concerning the Nativity of Christ and the Death of the Virgin Mary as Illustrated in Mediaeval Art – Some comments Introduction Near Perpignan, in the South of France, is the small town of Le Boulou. The parish church has, over the West door, a long lintel with sculptured nine scenes of the birth and early months of the life of Christ. This lintel is attributed to a sculptor known today as the ‘Maître de Cabestany’ and it is dated to around 1160. One of the scenes towards the right of the lintel shows the birth of Christ in the manger.

Le Boulou – Birth of Christ Mary is shown on the right side of the scene. She is lying fully stretched out with her right arm on top of her long bedding roll, the tips of the extraordinarily long fingers reaching down to her knees. At an angle to her feet lies her baby, tightly wrapped in bands of cloth. His nature is confirmed by the nimbus round the head. By Mary’s pillow we can see the outline of a small head; below her body, in the corner of the panel is part of a figure that holds a horn. Next to that we see a rather crudely carved star. Between the heads of Mary and Christ are the heads of the ass (severely damaged) and a distinctive ox. The presence of the animals is not recorded in any of the four the Gospels of the Biblical Canon, but it is recorded in the ‘Infancy Gospels’, texts that were not accepted by the majority of those attending the early synods of the Church at which the Biblical Canon was formulated. The School or Workshop of the Maître de Cabestany created scenes taken from the ‘Infancy Gospels’ in several locations in Catalonia, Southern France and Tuscany. In all there are five different scenes or events taken from those gospels and one or more are to be seen in sculpture at four different sites. (See http://www.green-man-of-cercles.org/articles/the_maitre_de_cabestany.pdf ). Twentieth century Christmas cards and Christmas carols frequently give significant supporting roles to the presence of the ox and ass at the birth of Christ. Our knowledge of the circumstances of Christ’s birth is based on the descriptions given in the four gospels of the New Testament. Yet neither the ox nor ass is mentioned in any of the four. Their presence in the illustrations adds colour and lively circumstantial detail that makes the event seem more imaginable than it might have been without such details.

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Across Western Europe there are many sculptures from the 11th and 12th century that illustrate scenes from the events that surround Christ’s birth beginning with the appearance of the Angel Gabriel to Mary foretelling the birth through to the flight of Joseph, Mary and Christ to Egypt as they evaded Herod’s order that the new-born infants be massacred. The majority of these sculptures faithfully follow the story as told in the New Testament Gospels. However, a small but significant number include additional background detail that is not to be found in those Gospels. It was not until the mid 20th century that the dogma confirming the status of Mary and her Assumption into Heaven to be the Queen of Heaven was formally confirmed. There is no explicit description of these events in the New Testament Gospels. This short article provides examples of these additional details and proposes possible sources for their origin and an explanation as to why mediaeval artists used them. Early Manuscript Sources Across the various churches that make up the Christian community today there remains an absence of agreement as to which texts or books constitute the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. The first attempts to establish agreement on the contents of the Bible began in the fourth century with the Synods of Rome (AD 382) and Carthage (AD 397). The Synod of Rome resulted in the publication of the Biblical Canon, known as the ‘Damasine List’, named after the Pope of the time. All the accepted New Testament texts were those that were considered ‘inspired’. All are thought to have been first written before AD 160. In AD 419 the Book of Revelation was added to the New Testament at the Council of Carthage. From this date until the Renaissance there was unanimity in the Christian Church of the West concerning the New Testament canon. There are more than fifty texts known as the ‘Gnostic Gospels’; these are mostly texts that are dated from between the 2nd and 4th centuries and are texts that include teachings of prophets and early spiritual leaders including Christ. None of these books are part of the Biblical canon of any major Christian denomination, though the Protestant churches include some that appeared to be authentic in form in a New Testament Apocrypha; that Apocrypha dates from the mid 16th century. Amongst the ‘Gnostic Gospels’ are texts known as the ‘Infancy Gospels’, probably written to satisfy the hunger of early Christians for more detail of the early life of Christ. None were accepted into the Biblical Canon nor into the New Testament Apocrypha. The number of examples of Infancy Gospels that survive attests to their popularity. Two, of which the ‘Infancy Gospel of Thomas’ (not to be confused with the ‘Gospel of Thomas’) is the best known, were later combined into the book known as the ‘Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew’ in the early 6th century. This Gospel contains, in chapter 14, the first reference to the presence at the birth of Christ of the ox and ass at the birth of Christ: ‘And on the third day after the birth of our Lord Jesus Christ, the most blessed Mary went forth out of the cave, and entering a stable, placed the child in a stall, and the ox and the ass adored Him. Then was fulfilled that which was said by Isaiah the prophet, saying: The ox knoweth the owner, and the ass his master’s crib. The very animals, therefore, the ox and the ass, having Him in their midst, incessantly adored Him. Then was fulfilled that which was said by Abacuc the prophet, saying: Between two animals thou art made manifest.’ (1)

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Gnostic Gospel Codices found at Nag Hammandi & fragment of Gospel of Mary The second Infancy Gospel that was combined into the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew is that of James the Just and sometimes titled Gospel of James or the Protevangelion of James. It contains, in chapter 13, references to the two midwives, Salome, who, having initially doubted the possibility of the Virgin birth, was convinced when in the presence of Mary and Christ at the manger, and Zelomi: ‘Now, when the birth of the Lord was at hand, Joseph had gone away to seek midwives. And when he had found them, he returned to the cave, and found with Mary the infant which she had brought forth. And Joseph said to the blessed Mary: I have brought thee two midwives – Zelomi and Salome; and they are standing outside before the entrance to the cave, not daring to come in hither, because of the exceeding brightness. And when the blessed Mary heard this, she smiled; and Joseph said to her: Do not smile: but prudently allow them to visit thee, in case thou shouldst require them for thy cure’. (1) There is a third detail of the events that relate to the birth of Christ that concerns us. The Gospel of St Matthew of the Biblical canon records that Joseph, following the warning of an angel that came to him in a dream, took his wife Mary and their child ‘and departed into Egypt: And was there until the death of Herod’. This record provides no supporting detail. However, in chapters 17 and 18 of the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew the author provides details of the journey, who travelled in the party, when they stopped and details of miracles that occurred during the journey:

‘Now the day before this was done Joseph was warned in his sleep by the angel of the lord, who said to him: Take Mary and thy child, and go into Egypt by way of the desert. And Joseph went according to the saying of the angel. And having come to a certain cave, and wishing to rest in it, the blessed Mary dismounted from her beast, and sat down with the child Jesus in her bosom. And there were with Joseph three boys, and with Mary a girl, going on the journey along with them’. (1)

Manuscripts of the Gospel of James are to be found in nine languages; at least 150 copies are known in Greek. The earliest known copy dates from the 3rd or early 4th century and is now in the Martin Bodmer Library, Geneva; but most copies of the manuscript date from the 10th century or later. Early Illustrations of the Nativity

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There is little disagreement that the purpose of the frescos, mosaics and sculptures that were to adorn the exteriors and interiors of churches, some of the mobilia within them and other structures such as cloisters was to provide illustrations to the faithful of events in the Bible that confirmed the doctrine and beliefs of the Church. These ‘illustrations’ set out the virtuous contexts of events and, where appropriate, the failings of men who were present at the event described. The catacombs of Rome contain most of what we know of the earliest Christian art. These are in the form of frescos painted on the plaster of the walls and ceilings of the extensive burial complexes that were developed from the 2nd to the 5th centuries and which were situated outside Ancient Rome by the Appian Way. Amongst the themes illustrated are the Lamb of God, usually with the Good Shepherd, the Last Supper, Lazarus and several events from the Old Testament such as Noah releasing the dove and Jonah being disgorged by the whale. There is only one illustration of Mary with Jesus as a child. It is to be found in the Priscilla catacomb and dates from the 3rd century. However, there are none that show any details of scenes from the Nativity that are not contained in the four gospels of the Biblical canon and which are in any of the other texts such as the Gnostic Gospels or the Infancy Gospels

. Detail of 3c fresco depicting Mary from the Priscilla Catacomb, Rome The earliest evidence that the source of a New Testament scene being illustrated was not a gospel from the Biblical canon, but one of the Infancy Gospels, is to be seen on sarcophagi. The more usual event recorded on sarcophagi was the visit of the three Magi presenting their gifts to Christ who is seated on Mary’s knee. This scene is taken directly from the description in the Gospel of St Matthew except that in most examples on sarcophagi the Magi are accompanied by camels, a detail that is not recorded in any of the texts. However, there are examples that confirm that the details contained in the Infancy Gospels were also well known. One example is to be seen on a sarcophagus that was found in Arles. On the central panel of one that dates from the late 4th century are two related scenes from the Nativity. The top one shows the central figure lying in a cot with, to the right, Joseph, and to the left, a female figure,

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either Mary or one of the midwives; over this figure is the star that was to shine down on Bethlehem that night. She is looking across at a swaddled person in a basket-like bed or couch and wearing a head veil. If the female figure to the left is Mary then this prone person is Christ with an ox and an ass looking on, though the female head veil is inconsistent with that unless it was the custom of that time to put a protective cowl over a baby’s head. To the right is a male figure holding what appears to be a club. If the prone figure is not Christ but is Mary, then there may be no image of the baby Jesus, indicating that the birth may not yet taken place. In the Eastern churches Mary was the focus of veneration rather than her child; it is unusual in Byzantine illustrations of the Nativity for the child to be the centre of focus. Below this panel is another with three figures. It is not entirely clear whether they are intended to be the Magi or the shepherds; given that there are no sheep and that there are three figures wearing Phrygian caps, it is more likely that they are the Magi. It is significant that the upper part contains two details that are only to be found in the Infancy Gospels and not in the Gospel of St Matthew.

Late 4thc sarcophagus in Arles Museum, central panel A second example of this scene is to be seen on the sarcophagus of Marcus Claudianus, which dates from AD 330. In the upper left corner of the front is an illustration of Jesus lying in his cot with Joseph at his head watching over him and looking down on is an ox and ass; the midwife is omitted; the figure to the right is part of another unrelated scene. But in this image the baby is also wearing a head veil.

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Sarcophagus of Marcus Claudianus, Museum of Palazzo Massimo, Rome - detail A third example of the same scene but one that reduces the scene to very basic elements is to be seen in the Basilica of Sant’Ambrogio, Milan. The Stilicone sarcophagus, which dates from AD 385, has a simple scene on the apex of the lid. It shows the recumbent figure between an ox and an ass that gaze inwards towards him. The figure is wrapped in bands but also wears a distinctly feminine style of veil around the head. This owes little to the description in the Gospel of St Matthew and everything to one of the Infancy Gospels.

Stilicone sarcophagus, Sant’Ambrogio, Milan – detail A final example of a sculpture comes from a much damaged sarcophagus that is in the Vatican. It is known as Traditio Legis (after the main scene on the front panel). It dates from AD 370 and combines the scene of Mary, Joseph in the stable with Christ in the centre in a cot and the arrival of the Magi bearing their gifts. Between these two sub-sets of the Nativity event stands a huge ox. The Vatican museum has other examples of this scene but with the ass included; all date from the second half of the 4th century.

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Traditio Legis sarcophagus, AD 370, Vatican - detail A Coptic sculpture on a 6th century tympanum illustrates the scene of the two midwives, Salome and Zelomi bathing the Christ child. The tympanum is likely to have been once over a major entry to a church, a position that would have ensured that everyone passing through that door would have seen it. That it should be a Coptic church that should accept the inclusion of a scene from a gospel that does not form part of the canon of the Western Christian churches should not be a complete surprise. Several manuscripts of ‘Infancy Gospels’ originated in Egypt; the Eastern Churches included several texts in their canons that were not accepted by the Western Church for their Biblical Canon. The Eastern Churches were to continue using this scene in frescos, on icons and in wall paintings. A 7th century example that is either Coptic or Armenian shows both the scene of the manger and one with the two midwives bathing Christ.

Coptic tympanum, 6th c, Cairo (left) and Coptic or Armenian 7th c, detail of icon (right) One of the finest examples of ivory carving from the Eastern Mediterranean is the Throne of Maximian which is now in Ravenna. It is dated to the middle of the 6th

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century. The throne is decorated with scenes from the life of Joseph and the life of Christ, particularly his early years. There are scenes that show Jesus laid in the manger and of him being bathed by the two midwives. In both these the craftsman has followed the prevailing view of accepting the additional descriptive details of both events as they are described in the Infancy Gospels.

Maximian’s Throne, mid 6c, now Ravenna – Two panels The Byzantine Empire had a highly developed gold and jewel industry. Amongst the finest examples of that workmanship that has an image of the Nativity is a large gold medallion that was made in Constantinople in the 6th century. Below the main scene of Mary with child seated between two angels is the now familiar scene of Christ in the manger being watched over by an ox and ass.

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Constantinople, 6c gold medallion now in Dumbarton Oaks, US It has already been stated that the Eastern Churches accorded Mary a significant status in their doctrine following the Council of Ephesus of AD 431. As we shall see, the Roman Catholic Church was also to be accorded a central role from the Middle Ages but that was not to be formalised until 1950. The earliest known image of Mary as Queen of Heaven is a fresco that dates from between AD 565 and 578 and which is in the church of Santa Maria, de Antiqua, Rome. There is no Biblical reference to provide substance to that title; it is derived from an interpretation by scholars and, from early times, the Marian writings of Saint Irenaeus of Lyon (circa 140-202), Saint Ambrose of Milan (339-397), Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430) and others.

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Sta Maria de Antiqua, Rome – 6thc fresco Carolingian Period Illustrations of the Nativity From the 5th century the custom of including biblical and historiated scenes in sculpture disappeared almost completely. It was not revived until the Carolingian revival of the 9th century. We noted above that the custom did continue in other media in the Eastern Churches without a break. Furthermore, the more liberal acceptance of texts such as the Gnostic and the Infancy Gospels ensured that Byzantine artists were able to embellish the scenes with additional details that might not have been acceptable in the West at that time.

Milan Diptych, detail of Nativity, 5 or 6c, Milan Cathedral treasury

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Byzantine ivory (Syria) of the early life of Christ, detail of the Nativity. 6c, now British Museum, London

Nativity scenes on ivory. 10th c Byzantine; now Vatican (left) and Baltimore, US (right) The form was readily adopted by craftsmen in the West. A panel from the Werden Casket provides an example. It has a much more natural and realistic presentation of the manger scene. There is some debate about the origin of the craftsman responsible for it and its date. John Beckwith considered that it was from the Rhine or Maas area and he dated it to the early 9th century. He noted that it was probably modelled on an earlier Byzantine example but the craftsman failed to fully understand the significance of some of the details that he was copying. He also observed that these scenes were based not on the Biblical Gospels but on Pseudo St Matthew or St James’ Gospel. (2).

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Ivory panel from the Werden Casket, Rhenish or Mosan, early 9c, now V&A, London The panels from the Werden Casket show a second scene that does not appear in the Gospels of the Biblical canon. This is of Mary being directed to the Temple by an Angel. There Mary will undergo trial by ordeal, drinking the ‘Bitter Waters’.

Detail of ivory panel from the Werden Casket, Rhenish or Mosen, early 9c, now V&A, London Further examples from Aachen and Koln show Mary as the centre of focus, following the custom of the Eastern churches; Christ is shown to one side.

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Ivory plaque of the birth of Christ, AD 800, now British Museum, London (left) and from Koln mid 12c, now V & A, London (right)

Lorsch Gospels ivory cover, detail; early 9c; now V & A, London The front and back ivory covers of the Lorsch Gospels have been separated; the front cover is in the Victoria & Albert Museum, London, whilst the back cover is in the Vatican. At the base of both covers is a small panel with scenes from the Nativity. That on the front cover shows the Annunciation to the Shepherds and the scene in the stable. In this Mary lies to one side, gazing across to the manger where a large ox and ass watch over the baby Jesus. Whilst the covers are the work of craftsmen from the Court School, they were strongly influenced by works of that period produced in Ravenna. (3). An early 9th century reliquary cross from Sancta Sanctorum Chapel of the Lateran, Rome, has scenes venerating the Virgin Mary, including two that contain

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elements of scenes drawn from the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew or the ‘Infancy Gospels’.

Italian reliquary cross, circa 820; now Vatican & Ivory casket, late 9th c; now Brunswick There are several examples from Southern Germany and Austria of the manger scene with the animals in attendance, confirming the widespread acceptance of the inclusion of the non biblical details. Two are of particular note. The first is a casket made in about 1130 from Gruol and which is now in a museum in Frankfort. The scene is familiar but the artisan has given the whole scene lively touches: Mary is reaching up to indicate her new-born child; she is lying on a bed fit for a queen rather than the poor bed of straw that was more probably present at the birth; the animals have been given a bit of character with their fine horns and lively heads; (when did an ass ever have horns?). The second item is a panel on the reliquary of St Andrew in the treasury of St Servatius, Siegburg. It is of bronze gilt and enamel and was made around 1110. It is unusual in that the Nativity scene is split into two parts; in the top right corner we see Mary lying in her bed with Joseph below her, holding his head in his hand as if full of anxiety; in the lower left corner we see the baby Christ lying in the manger overseen by the ox and ass. There is no obvious explanation as to why the scene was split in two; perhaps it would have been too cluttered for the space available in one corner.

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Gruol casket, 1130, now in Frankfurt – detail of a panel (left) and a panel of the reliquary of St Andrew at St Servatius, Siegburg, c1110 (right) In Molise, on the Adriatic coast of Southern Italy, the crypt of the church of San Vincenzo al Volturno has frescos from the 9th century; Archangel Michael and the angels is the main topic for these. However a small panel repeats the now familiar illustration of the two midwives bathing Christ.

San Vincenzo al Volturno, Molise. 9th c fresco in crypt The last detail of the events surrounding Christ’s birth that we will look at is the arrival of the three Magi or Kings from the East bearing gifts: gold, frankincense and myrrh. The detail is sparse. However, from early times artists added camels. There is no mention of these in any Gospel. Furthermore, the author of Psuedo St Matthew makes no reference to them in the description which follows the description given in the Biblical Canon Gospels closely. Whether the artists were following other texts or whether they were just adding colour from their imagination we will never know.

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Sarcophagus of 4thc now in the Vatican In the early 10th century Anglo-Saxon monastic activity revived. Monastic art in them flourished. Outstanding amongst them was Winchester. A magnificent benedictional written and decorated for the Bishop, Aethewold, in about 970, was the key work. It is said to be much influenced by the Carolingian court style, particularly by the school at Metz. In a museum in Liverpool is a carving of the Nativity in walrus ivory that is dated to the second half of the 10th century and also considered to show influences from the Metz school. Together, the two artefacts show the very close relationship of the iconography of some manuscripts with sculpture.

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Ivory from 2nd half of 10thc, Liverpool (left) & Benedictional of St Aethelwold, Nativity; circa 970 (left) Carvings in wood that record the Nativity are less frequent. In the Cleveland museum of Art is a casket of boxwood that is generally believed to have come from Uttoxeter, in Staffordshire, England, a country that has provided few examples of images where details have been drawn from the Gnostic Gospels. The casket dates from around 1050, and so provides an Anglo-Saxon example. It has carvings on four sides: the Nativity of Christ and his Ascension on the larger sides, and Christ being bathed by the midwives and his entry to Jerusalem on the smaller sides. The scene of the Nativity is damaged; in the centre at the bottom we see Christ swaddled in bindings and in the manger and above him is a space where it is possible that there was once an image of the animals looking down on the Christ-child. The bath scene follows the familiar format, though the two midwives are standing with one holding a towel and an object that may be a brush. There are no other similar examples of these scenes in Britain that survive from this period. It is possible that the models were obtained from the Continent; Germany would seem a realistic possibility.

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Uttoxeter casket (now Cleveland) – Panel with the Nativity & an end panel Romanesque Period Illustrations of the Nativity There is a clear continuity to be seen in the illustrations of the Nativity in the Eastern Church. A 12th century icon from St Catherine’s monastery, in the Sinai, which is now in the Getty Museum, shows this with the scenes of the two events that we have looked at. Mary is the dominant figure, in accordance with the custom of the Eastern Church; the animals look over to Christ in the manger; and below is the figure of Christ, with a golden halo around his head, being bathed by the two midwives.

Icon from St Catherine’s, Sinai, now in the Getty Museum, Los Angeles By the mid 11th century there was a revival of sculpture across Western Europe. Models were to be found in textiles, illuminated manuscripts, ivories and metal work of various kinds, but above all from the remains of sarcophagi and sculptures from antiquity. By the last decades of the 11th century sculptures were more assured in style. By the turn of the century there was a veritable explosion of sculptural activity across France, providing early examples of the new style of narrative sculpture. On many porches there are mixtures of foliage capitals in Corinthian style, biblical scenes and scenes of figures of historic significance to the Church. Few of the biblical scenes seem to have been modelled on any of the sculptures from the Paleo-Christian period. Furthermore, the figurative style is unlike that used in antiquity. (see http://www.green-man-of-cercles.org/articles/from_antiquity_to_romanesque.pdf ). This explosion of sculptural activity inevitably led to a significant increase in the variety of subjects illustrated and the frequency that each subject was used. However, the number of scenes showing features and incidents derived from texts that did not form part of the Biblical Canon remained small. This is not surprising, given that such texts were often considered by the religious authorities to be heretical and therefore dangerous. Indeed, in such circumstances it is remarkable that they were allowed at

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all. At Piacenza, the artisan used two small panels to illustrate the scene on the North door of the Cathedral façade. It is thought that these are the work of Wiligelmus or of a closely related member of his school. To the East of Piacenza, the doorway at Ferrara Cathedral has a lintel with scenes from the events around the birth of Christ including a charming one of the Holy Family in the manger with the ox and ass looking on. This lintel is the work of Niccolò, the successor of Wiligelmus, and it is dated to around 1135. Given Ferrara’s proximity to the Po valley, where the Byzantine influence had been enduring and considerable, it is possible that the artisan had been inspired one of the Eastern churches for his model. Niccolò was to use this scene again, this time on a panel on the façade of San Zeno, at Verona. As at Ferrara, he included in the one panel Mary, Joseph, the babe in a manger with the animals looking on and above there is a large star.

Italy, Ferrara, Duomo – Sculpture on façade (left) and Piacenza, Duomo – Sculpture of façade

Italy, San Zeno, Verona – Sculpture on façade left of doorway In the centuries leading up to the 11th century the scene of the Nativity with details from the Infancy Gospels is that of Christ in the Manger with the ox and ass looking on was the most common to have survived for us to see today; it was followed in frequency by the scene of the two midwives bathing Christ. In the introduction we referred to the sculpture by the Maître de Cabestany that is on the lintel at Le Boulou; in it he showed the figure of Mary wrapped in her cloak and lying below the

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diminutive figure of her baby. Looking on are an ox and an ass. It is a formula that was to be adopted across France in sculpture form. An example is to be seen on a capital at Saint Christophe, Montsaunès, in the Hautes-Pyrenées.

Montsaunès, Hautes-Pyrenées – Capital on façade It was also used by artisans working in Northern Italy near Modena. At the abbey at Nonantola, rather as we saw on the façade at Piacenza, the artisan has spread the scene over two small panels to the right of the main doorway. In the lower of the two panels the infant Christ is being bathed by only one midwife, whilst Mary lies in bed above them. These panels, like those at Piacenza, are thought to be by an artisan closely associated with the school of Wiligelmus, and are dated to c1095. Vincent Juhel has suggested that this scene with the bathing of Christ is the earliest sculptured depiction of the subject in Central Italy. (4).It is remarkable that these images based on details and scenes taken from works that had long been deemed heretical were used on churches in an area that was at the forefront of support for the Gregorian Reforms; it is, of course, accepted that the Gregorian Reforms were concerned with topics unrelated to either the use of banned Gnostic Gospels or to artistic decoration. Nonetheless, it should have given pause for thought to the person commissioning the work and the artisan creating the work that the scene was being derived from an unapproved source. That is until one refers to a seventeenth century drawing that is in the Vatican library. It shows the 8th century mosaics that decorated the Oratory of Pope John VII in Old St Peter’s Basilica, Rome, a building that was destroyed in

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1606. The top centre panel contains the scenes of the Nativity, including those details drawn from descriptions in the Gnostic Gospels.

Italy, Nonantola Abbey – Two panels from pillar to the right of the main doorway

Drawing (and detail) of the mosaics in the Oratory of Pope John VII in Old St Peter’s Basilica, Rome From Spain there is a delightful image in the Ripoll Bible which is dated to 1027; perhaps this was to provide the model for a fresco in the Catalan church of Sant Pere de Sorpe. (See also http://www.green-man-of-cercles.org/articles/the_maitre_de_cabestany.pdf ). It was a scene that was to be widely replicated in Spain with examples in Catalonia and Navarre, the latter includes a fragment from Pamplona Cathedral that is part of a work by Master Estaban. From Germany there is the portable altar of Eilbertus of Koln which is from a century later. These are representative examples of many from the late 11th century through to the

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mid 12th century that illustrate the Nativity but which draw on details from texts that are outside the Biblical Canon.

Nativity scene at Notre Dame la Grande, Poitiers (left) & San Giovanni in Sugana, Tuscany (right)

Ripoll Bible, now Vatican – Detail of Nativity (left) & fresco from Sant Pere de Sorpe, now in MNAC, Barcelona (right)

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Portable altar of Eilbertus of Koln, now Berlin – Detail of Nativity (left) & Sant Pere de Galligants, Girona - Cloister capital of Nativity (right)

Pamplona, Museum of Navarre – Fragment of Nativity scene by Master Estaban from Pamplona Cathedral In Catalonia there is an interesting fresco of the Nativity that dates from the 12th century. It was in the parish church of Pedrinya, but it is now in a Girona Museum. The scene is one with which we are now familiar: Mary and her child lie asleep; an ox and ass look on. Almost all images of the Nativity from this period show the baby Christ to be disproportionately tall when compared to his mother, Mary. However, in this image Christ is shown as a teenager rather than as a new-born child; he has long, golden hair below the halo and it seems that his head is resting on the flank of the ox.

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Pedrinya, now Girona – 12c fresco in choir, detail Eliane Vergnolle noted that there was a stained glass window in the Cathedral at Clermont-Ferrand that she suggested was modelled on the Byzantine mosaic showing the same scene in either the Palatinate chapel at Palermo or the church of Martorana, also in Palermo. (5). Whilst all three show the Byzantine setting there does not seem to be any significant evidence to support the link between the window and either of the two mosaics. Both mosaics include the scene of the two midwives bathing Christ; both depict it in an unusual way with Christ seated in the lap of one of the women.

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Clermont Ferrand Cathedral – Mid 12c stained glass window

Mosaics from Palatinate chapel, Palermo (left) and Martorana, Palermo (right) It is noteworthy that linked to the scene in the manger is that of the two midwives bathing Christ. This scene is to be found in conjunction with the manger scene on sculptures on several churches, on the pulpit of the baptistery at Pisa and on the East door to the South transept of the Duomo, also at Pisa. On this last the artisan has successfully combined three events; the Angel telling the shepherds of the birth of Christ; Mary & Joseph with Christ being watched over by the ox and ass; and the two midwives preparing to bath Christ. The door at Pisa is dated from 1187, and the pulpit is dated from 1260.

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Bathing of Christ by midwives at Notre Dame la Grande, Poitiers (left) and Le Boulou (right)

Odbert’s Psalter, AD 990, from Abbey St Bertin, now Boulogne-sur-Mer (left) and Duomo at Pisa, door to transept (right)

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Baptistery at Pisa – Panel on pulpit There are a few illustrations of the bathing of Christ by the midwives which include a detail that adds confusion to the scene. An example of this is from a small panel by the West door of St Trophime at Arles. The basic scene follows the convention that we have seen elsewhere. However, the sculptor has included a dove over the head of Christ; this is a convention that symbolises the descent of the Holy Spirit at the act of baptism. This example is not the only one to show the dove descending on the figure of Christ in a bath or tub. On the next plaque is a sculpture showing the scene in the manger with a midwife, Mary and the baby in the manger being watched by the animals; and beyond that, to the right, are the Magi presenting their gifts. So these were intended to be closely related images of the events around the birth of Christ.

St Trophime, Arles – Panels by West doorway

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Pamela Patton addresses this subject at length and notes that there is some confusion as to whether the scenes that depict Christ in a tub are in fact showing him being baptised; she considered that there was probably a relationship between the bathing of Christ and his baptism in the minds of the artists. (6). Furthermore, she noted the Nativity scene in the Ripoll Bible that is illustrated above and she considered that the ‘bath scene’ also represented Christ’s baptism. Patton offers an earlier example of an ivory plaque showing scenes that includes the baptism of Christ. ‘Here, the tub shaped font stands directly in the Jordan River in a manner not unlike that of the Gerona and Turin Baptisms (that are illustrated in the Beatus manuscripts of that name); the hand of God appears above the dove of the Holy Spirit; and the episode is clarified by inscriptions reading: “PATERNA VOX” and “BAPTISMUS DOMINI” ’. The plaque, in the British Museum and which is from the Continent, dates from c900. Patton comments further that John Beckwith chose to dismiss it as an artistic error. Unlike the other examples of the bath scene, in this one Christ is a mature figure and not an infant. The figures to the sides are a mature male, John the Baptist and an angel; they are not the midwives. Therefore the event is certainly Christ’s baptism in the Jordan as the inscription says.

Ivory plaque, c900 – now British Museum, London, with detail left A comparison between the examples of the bath scene on ivories of Byzantine origin and the sculptures of Romanesque origin at Poitiers and Le Boulou along with the illustration in the Ripoll show a consistency of form that are more convincing evidence of a direct lineage between them. The suggestion that these scenes may have

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been intended to combine the concept of the bath with that of the baptism of Christ is, therefore, less probable. However the dove that hovers over the head of Christ on the sculpture at St Trophime may be intend to foretell his baptism. There does not seem to be another illustration showing the dove’s presence at the first bath. The Maître de Cabestany also made use of further detail from the Infancy Gospels when illustrating the Flight of the Holy family to Egypt, for which he carved two scenes. In the first, on the right, Mary is shown in the familiar setting, sitting sideways on the donkey; she is clutching her baby child, while Joseph is leading the donkey. However, the sculptor has inserted an additional figure, a female servant. In the second scene, at the extreme left of the lintel, the Holy family are shown asleep. Now they are accompanied by three additional figures. All these figures are briefly described in an extract from the Gospel of Pseudo Matthew at the start of this article.

Le Boulou, lintel over West door; the Flight into Egypt The additional figures escorting the Holy family are also to be found in the illustration of that event in the Ripoll Bible.

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Ripoll Bible, now Vatican – Detail of Flight into Egypt The workshop of the Maître de Cabestany was, for a time, at work in Roussillon both at Cabestany and at Le Boulou. Roussillon was at that time both politically and culturally part of Catalonia. It should therefore not be a complete surprise to see another sculpture that draws on the three events from Christ’s early life. In the National Museum of Catalonian Art (MNAC), in Barcelona, there is a 12th century capital that shows the manger scene and the Flight to Egypt on the larger sides and on one end the bath scene. The manger scene is conventional but with an angel looking at the ox and ass as they gaze down at Christ; that of the flight to Egypt shows two extra figures in addition to the Holy Family. One, at the head of the group, is carrying a small carcass on a pole, whilst the second figure carries a container, no doubt rations for the journey. The bath scene shows a fairly well grown Christ stepping nimbly out of a bath that has the appearance of a baptismal font; to the sides are the two midwives. One of the midwives has put an outsized hand across the chest of Christ. The midwife to the right has a large hand and a disproportionately long arm. The outsized hand is one of the ‘signature’ characteristics of the Cabestany workshop or school; it is also a characteristic employed by the artist responsible for the nativity scenes in the Ripoll Bible. It can only be a matter for speculation as to whether the sculptor of this bath scene was influenced by the Cabestany workshop or the Ripoll Bible. Either way the capital has a remarkable amount of detail that is drawn from texts that are not part of the Biblical Canon. (See also http://www.green-man-of-cercles.org/articles/the_maitre_de_cabestany.pdf ).

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MNAC Barcelona – Mid 12c capital with three scenes of the Nativity The doctrines of both the Eastern Orthodox churches set out the circumstances of Mary’s death. The Orthodox churches state that Mary died and that her soul was taken to Heaven whilst the Roman Catholic Church asserts that Mary, on completion of her earthly life, was resurrected and taken up into Heaven. This is summarised as the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. There is no explicit description of this event in the New Testament Gospels. There are, however, other texts that describe this in detail. One of these, that is dated from the 5th century and which comes from the so-called ‘Palm Tree of Life Narratives’, is attributed to Joseph of Arimathea. It includes an account of doubts expressed by St Thomas as to the veracity of her Assumption and the event that convinced him, namely the donation of her girdle. ‘Then the most blessed Thomas was suddenly brought to the Mount of Olivet, and saw the most blessed body going up to heaven, and began to cry out and say: O holy mother, blessed mother, spotless mother, if I have now found grace because I see thee, make thy servant joyful through thy compassion, because thou art going to heaven. Then the girdle with which the apostles had encircled the most holy body was thrown down from heaven to the blessed Thomas. And taking it, kissing it, and giving thanks to God, he came into the Valley of Jehoshahat’. (7). The Eastern Church produced illustrations of the Dormition of Mary that show her soul, usually depicted as a small swaddled figure, being taken to Heaven. The model was widely copied and circulated in the Western church, where local craftsmen followed the Eastern format. But local artists developed their own format as is seen on the example at St Gallen that was carved by Tuotilo. The Byzantine format was reproduced at Martorana, Palermo opposite the Nativity scene illustrated earlier in this article. This may have provided models for images that were produced elsewhere in the Church of the West. In the Eastern Church the event continued to be illustrated

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through the 12th century following the traditional format, as may be seen on an icon from St Catherine’s Monastery. The scene, with all its Eastern iconography, was to be faithfully reproduced in the Winchester Psalter that is dated to the mid 12th century; the forms of the drapery are English in style and it was made for use in Winchester Cathedral. In the same Psalter, on the opposite page, the illustration showed the Virgin as the Queen of Heaven, enthroned in glory. The artist was clearly copying from a diptych that originated in the East Mediterranean but which had found its way to Winchester. (8).

Byzantine ivories of Dormition of Mary; AD 950, now Met, NY (left) & late 10c now V&A, London (right)

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Cover of Gospel Book of Otto III with Byzantine 10c ivory insert (left) & Byzantine ivory book cover, late 10c, now Cluny, Paris (right)

St Gall - Ivory book cover by Tuotilo, c900, detail (left) & Martorana, Palermo – Mosaic, c1145 (right)

Icon from St Catherine’s, Sinai, now in the Getty Museum, Los Angeles

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Winchester Psalter, mid 12thc - Folios 29 & 30 That the early Christian church in Anglo-Saxon Britain was influenced, in part, by the art and symbolism of the churches of the Eastern Mediterranean is generally agreed by scholars; the example of the Winchester Bible (illustrated above) provides a late example. An earlier rather strange example is to be found on an 8th century grave slab that was recovered from below the altar of Wirksworth church, in Derbyshire. This was made for the grave of a local evangelist and saint, St Betti. It has a splendid iconography, which demonstrates some of the sources of Anglo-Saxon theology. There are eight scenes from the life of Christ and Mary; one illustrates the Death & Burial of Mary, a scene not found in the Gospels.

Wirksworth, Derbyshire – 8th c grave slab & detail of Death & burial of Mary The whole episode of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary as detailed in the extract above forms the basis of the charming and touchingly illustrated sequence of scenes on the tympanum in the small church of Cabestany, near Perpignan. This is the

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emblematic work of the so-called Maître de Cabestany. It shows, from right to left, Mary being lifted to Heaven by Angels, Mary with Christ in which he foretells of her death and assumption, a doubting St Thomas receiving Mary’s girdle which has dropped from Heaven and, finally, Christ receiving his Mother, Mary, into Heaven. Furthermore, as with other scenes that the Maître de Cabestany used in his sculptures that are to be found in the Infancy Gospels, this one is also illustrated in the Ripoll Bible with two illustrations. One shows Mary on her death bed surrounded by attendant angels. This is similar in concept to that used by the Maître de Cabestany on the tympanum. However, the second scene, showing Mary being raised into Heaven, is not reproduced in any form on the Cabestany tympanum. But amongst the other works attributed to the Cabestany Workshop are capitals in the church of Rioux-Minervois, in the Aude. One of these shows Mary inscribed within a mandorla, being lifted into Heaven by angels.

Cabestany – Tympanum of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary

Ripoll Bible, now Vatican – Details of the Assumption of Mary

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Rieux- Minervois – Capital of the Assumption There are not many examples of 12th century sculptures of the Assumption; perhaps there were some misgivings by those who commissioned sculptures about using an event that was not described in the Biblical Canon. A sculpture on one of the columns of the ambulatory of Notre dame du Port, at Clermont-Ferrand shows a more conventional image of the Assumption: Mary is shown as a small swaddled figure which represents her soul, being received into the welcoming arms of her Son in Heaven. On the North edge of the Beaujolais is the 12th century village church of Notre Dame d’Avenas. On the left side of the altar, which is of the same date as the church, are four scenes from the life of Mary. On the lower left is a scene of Mary being presented with Christ by a mid-wife. There has been no attempt to create the scene in the stable; the setting is covered by huge drapes. To the right is the Assumption of Mary; she is on her death-bed attended by two figures. Christ is waiting to receive her soul. So on this side of the altar there are two scenes that draw on details that are not described in the Bible.

Notre Dame du Port, Clermont-Ferrand – Capital (left) & Avenas – Left side of altar (right)

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Across Catalonia images are to be found that confirm the widespread use of scenes from the Gnostic texts. We have already looked at works by the Maître de Cabestany and illustrations in the Ripoll Bible amongst other examples. A 12th century altar front that is now in the Episcopal museum at Vic provides two examples; the church that the altar front came from is unknown. The first concerns the birth of Christ, who is shown in a crib with the ox and ass looking on, but the rest of the scene concerns the foretelling of his birth. The second scene is of Mary’s assumption to Heaven; she is carried, apparently still alive, standing in a sheet or shroud held by angels. Her dead body is shown at the bottom of the scene. A not dissimilar scene is found on a capital in the cloisters of Sant Cugat del Vallès, on the outskirts of Barcelona; in the same cloister there is a capital of the Nativity, with animals (damaged) gazing over Mary and Christ.

Episcopal Museum, Vic – Two details from a 12c Catalan altar front

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Sant Cugat del Vallès – Capitals in the cloisters showing the Assumption of Mary (left) & the Nativity (right) The Marian status had been taken a stage further at the Council of Ephesus (AD 431) which proclaimed Mary to be Queen of Heaven. The development of this in the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church was to be shaped by not only the writings of the early theologians but also by popular sentiment and papal directives. From the 13th century there were to be an increasing number of illustrations that gave prominence to Mary’s status as the Queen of Heaven. Romanesque illustrations are uncommon. One is to be seen in the Cathedral Museum of San Cerbone, Massa Marittima.

San Cerbone – Late 12c sculptured slab The next example to be illustrated is from part of the tympanum on the church at Civray, in Vienne. It shows Mary, crowned as Queen of Heaven, being greeted by angels swinging censers. The subject of the tympanum as a whole is of Christ in Glory; this detail confirms the key status of Mary in Heaven at the side of her Son.

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Civray, Vienne – Detail of tympanum over West door The last detail of the life of Mary to be discussed is that of the crowned Madonna. The gradual inclusion of images of Mary that show her wearing a crown is examined at length by Marion Lawrence. (9). She noted that from the 6th century there was a continuous line of examples in Italy that showed Mary plainly clothed and wearing a simple veil over her head, as we have seen in the illustrations above. However, a 6th century, much damaged fresco in the choir of Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome, shows Mary wearing a high jewelled crown and seated in regal fashion as Queen of Heaven. The crown resembles that worn by Theodora in the mosaic at San Vitale, in Ravenna, a mosaic that dates from AD 547. In the late 7th century she was still shown wearing a typically Byzantine crown, as may be seen in frescos at Santa Maria in Trastevere and the lower church of San Clemente, both in Rome.

Sta Maria Antiqua, Rome – 6c fresco (left) & Sta Maria in Trastevere, Rome – 7c fresco (right)

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San Clemente, Rome – fresco in lower church From the 10th century examples of the crowned Madonna were to proliferate not only in Italy but across Western Christendom in ivories, manuscripts and sculpture. In Catalonia it was not until towards the end of the 12th century that the images of Mary showed her with a crown. Examples of this transition are clearly shown when the many fine surviving examples of polychrome wood carvings of the Madonna and child are examined. Up to the middle of that century she is usually shown wearing a veil over her head; thereafter the sculptures show her with a high crown and sometimes wearing a chasuble. In keeping with her status she is also seated on a throne.

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Vic Museum – 13thc Madonna from Catalonia In the 11th century cloisters of Santo Domingo de Silos, near Burgos, there is a magnificent panel that illustrates an angel announcing to Mary that she is to give birth to the Christ. Above Mary are two smaller angels in the act of crowning Mary the Queen of Heaven, an act for which there is no biblical report. The scene was to cross the English Channel. From the former Abbey of Hyde, near Winchester, is a capital of Mary as the Queen of Heaven, whilst at Quenington, in Gloucestershire, the tympanum above the South door shows Mary being crowned by two angels.

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Santo Domingo de Silos – Panel of Annunciation in cloisters

Capital from Hyde Abbey, now at Winchester (left) & Quenington, Glos. – Tympanum over South door (left) A 9th century ivory Byzantine casket that is now in Rome provides an interesting example of how models were transmitted. The casket is known as the ‘David casket’ because David is the principal figure in the illustrations around the sides and top. However, the artisan has also included some scenes from the life of Christ, including the Massacre of the Innocents. On the upper register of the front panel is a scene of a woman lying on a bed or couch; she is looking across at a child being bathed by a midwife. Whilst it resembles many of the Nativity scenes it is not another one; it is the birth of David. The artisan appears to have been tasked to link the event of David’s birth and life with those of Christ. By drawing on a familiar image but putting it to use in a new context, namely that of the birth of David, the artisan would have more easily shown that link to the viewers. (10).

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‘David’ casket, Byzantine late 9c, now Rome A Basis for Accepting Texts not in the Biblical Canon From the examples in ivory, manuscript, enamel and stone sculpture it is very apparent that the texts based on the Infancy Gospels were widely known and that they seem to have been an entirely acceptable source for the details of events that were described in the Gospels of the Biblical Canon in the barest of detail. We have already explained that some Eastern Churches had adopted a greater tolerance of some of the texts. It is from the Eastern Church that visual examples came to Italy and probably thence to the wider Church of the West. However, it would appear that the debates at the various synods were heated as those attending struggled to identify those texts that were authentic and to be included into the Canon. Along side this debate there was a continuous battle to suppress movements that were deemed to be heretical. This second battle was to be as important in the 12th century with the spread of the Cathar heretical movement as it had been in the late 4th century with the rise of Arianism. It, therefore, seems most surprising that the religious authorities of the West were to tolerate the widespread use of texts that, whilst providing details with a ‘human factor’ that helped to create a life-like image of the Nativity, should not have been aware that other elements of the text were not acceptable from a doctrinal aspect. The scene of Christ lying in the manger with the animals looking on should present no doctrinal issues that would conflict with existing dogma. Therefore it was very probable that it was widely used and accepted as a decorative embellishment. Few if any one would have noted that it was derived from an unauthorised text. The scenes of the two midwives giving Christ a bath and of the two scenes from the flight into Egypt are somewhat more problematic. The events illustrated do not conflict with the doctrine, but they are more than just a decorative addition. They expand on the narratives contained in the Biblical Gospels; in so doing, the two illustrated events flesh out that journey that is dealt with in one short sentence in the Gospels. But they do not contradict the Gospels and, as a result, were probably not contentious and, thus, entirely acceptable.

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The final scenes we have looked at are altogether different. The inclusion of the Assumption of the Virgin and her status as Queen of Heaven are not described directly in any of the Gospels. There is reference to it in the Book of Revelations. Despite the complete absence of an authentic and acceptable account it was widely celebrated from the 5th century in the Eastern Church and in the West from the 7th century. However, those celebrations rested entirely on apocryphal accounts and theological interpretation that were formalised at the Council of Ephesus, which is remarkable given the contemporary fear of heretical deviance. Such was the uncertainty that in November 1950 Pope Pius XII made a formal declaration, exercising ‘Papal Infallibility’, in which he defined the Dogma of the Assumption. This declaration was given a Biblical reference by Pope John Paul II in August 2004. He quoted John 14:3 as the scriptural basis for understanding the dogma of the Assumption: ‘If I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again, and will receive you to myself; that where I am, you may be there also’. In the Roman Catholic Church, Mary is the fulfilment of that promise. We cannot know why, after more than a thousand years, the Papacy felt it necessary to clarify the matter in 1950. But there must have been some unease in the upper reaches of the Roman Catholic Church that there was no clear account or biblical justification of an event that was of such great significance in the church calendar. The papal response of 1950 was later seen to have been an inadequate or incomplete response. Pope John Paul sought to rectify this defect in 2004. If this is correct then it is remarkable that the matter had not been properly addressed centuries earlier. The key to this acceptance of the non-canonical texts may lie in the wording of the declarations issued at the culmination of the Synods of Carthage in 397 and 419. The earlier Synod of Carthage (AD397) set out the approved list for both the Old Testament and the New Testament: ‘Canon 24. Besides the canonical Scriptures, nothing shall be read in church under the name of divine Scriptures. Moreover, the canonical Scriptures are these: (then follows a list of Old Testament books). The (books of the) New Testament: the Gospels, four books; the Acts of the Apostles, one book: the Epistles of Paul, thirteen; of the same to the Hebrews, one Epistle; of Peter, two; of John, apostle, three; of James, one; of Jude, one; the Revelation of John’. (11) The concluding words of the Synod of AD 419 are recorded as: ‘…Fourteen Epistles of Paul, …. The Revelation of John, one book. Let this be sent to our brother and fellow-bishop, Boniface (of Rome), and to the other bishops of those parts, that they may confirm this canon, for those are the things that we have received from our fathers to be read in church’. (10 & 11) The wording is clear: it does not prohibit the reading of other texts by the Church; it clearly prohibits the reading of other texts ‘in the name of divine Scriptures’. This would seem to provide the loop-hole that allowed for the circulation and reading of other texts and thus the acceptance that details contained in them were to be tolerated as a contribution towards the understanding of the events of Christ’s life. It does not

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explain how a matter of such doctrinal significance seems to have been introduced to the churches dogma. This interpretation of the records of the Carthage Synods should have failed when a declaration attributed to Gelasius, bishop of Rome 492-496, is taken into account. Known as the Decretum Gelasianum de libris recipiendis et non recipiendis, the declaration sets out the list of approved scriptures and those that are not: ‘A catalogue of the ‘apocrypha’ and other writings which are to be rejected. The remaining writings which have been compiled or been recognised by heretics or schismatics the Catholic and apostolic Roman Church does not in any way receive; of these we thought it right to cite below some which have been handed down and which are to avoided by catholics. (There follows a list of texts). These and the like, what Simon Magnus, Nicolas, Cerinthus,.. (there follow 32 names) .. and the other Peter, of whom the one besmirched Alexandria and the other Antioch, Acacius of Constantinople with his associates, and what also all disciples of heresy and of the heretics or schismatics, whose names we have scarcely preserved, have taught or compiled, we acknowledge is to be rejected but excluded from the whole Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church and with its authors and the adherents of its authors to be damned in the inextricable shackles of anathema for ever’. (11 & 12) Whilst there were and there remain doubts as to exactly who wrote the declaration and when, it was certainly current by the 7th century. Thus, this declaration ought to have overruled the interpretation of the concluding words of the 419 Synod of Carthage that permitted the circulation and reading of the texts outside the context of Divine Scripture. Yet there is extensive evidence that the texts were popular after the 12th century and this in an institution that outwardly was highly regulated with draconian penalties for those who failed to abide by those regulations. Furthermore, most of these works were being created against the backdrop of the general reform movement known as the Gregorian Reforms. It is particularly noteworthy that the Cabestany Workshop should make use of all the events we have examined, with the supporting details. It was working on sculptures for churches in what are now the départements of the Aude and Pyrénées-Orientales in the second half of the 12th century. This was at the time that the heretical sect of the Cathars was to take root so deeply that it was to require a major campaign to root it out and destroy it. The beliefs of that sect owed nothing to the Gnostic Gospels or other texts that we have mentioned. The success of the movement may, in part, be attributed to the generally lax state of the Catholic Church in the region at that time. The examples of the use of unapproved texts to provide descriptive details for sculpture and other forms of art are not confined to the Nativity of Christ and the assumption of the Virgin Mary. At Modena there is a plaque on the façade that illustrates to killing of Cain by blind Lamech. This is not an event that is described in the Old Testament; it is taken from the Old Testament Apocrypha. In Romanesque churches in France there are several examples of Tobias carrying a fish, a reference to another event only to be found in the Old Testament Apocrypha. Saint Anne is not named in the New Testament canon, only in the Apocrypha, in the 2nd century Protoevangelium of James, where she is identified as the mother of Mary. Protoevangelium of James was declared to be unreliable by St Jerome in the 4th

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century and subsequently it was condemned as being untrustworthy by three popes. Yet a capital on the façade of Sant’Andrea, at Pistoia in North Tuscany, shows her standing beside her daughter in an illustration of the Annunciation. The frequency of these illustrations suggests that there were copies of these books in general circulation or, at least, that knowledge of the events had wide circulation and must have had a measure of the seal of approval. That the books concerned were not part of the authorised canon seems not to have been an impediment.

Modena Cathedral façade – Death of Cain (left) and Saujon, Charente Maritime – Capital of Tobias in nave (right)

Pistoia, Sant’Andrea – Capital to right of main door Finally, most of these artefacts that have been referred to in this article have been the subject of detailed analysis and discussion by erudite art historians: the origins of artisans have been identified where possible; the authority of the person commanding the work, that persons motives and relationship to the object and its physical context; any symbolism that might be unusual; the model that might have provided the form for the object under discussion; and often where there is a written context from the Old Testament or New Testament or some commentary by a medieval religious

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authority an analysis of the relevance and relationship between the text and the object. However, for some inexplicable reason such analysis does not seem to have been carried out where the model is derived from text in the Gnostic Gospels. Notes:

1. ‘Ante-Nicene Fathers’, Vol 8 1886; ed Alexander Roberts, Sir James Donaldson, Arthur Cleveland Coxe; part of the Gnostic Society library

2. ‘The Werden Casket Reconsidered’, John Beckwith. The Art Bulletin, Vol 40, No 1, March 1958

3. ‘Ars Sacra 800-1200’, Peter Lasko. Yale University Press, 1994 4. ‘Le Bain de l’Enfant-Jésus. Des origines à la fin du douzième siècle’, Vincent Juhel.Cahiers archéologique 39, 1991 5. ‘L’Art Roman en France’, Eliane Vergnolle. Flammarion 1994 6. ‘Et Patu Fontis Exceptum: The Typology of Birth & Baptism in an

Unusual Spanish Image of Jesus Baptised in a Font’, Pamela A Paton. Gesta, Vol 33, No 2 (1994)

7. ‘Early Traditions of the Virgin Mary’s Dormition – Joseph of Arimathea, The Passing of the Virgin Mary’, Stephen J Shoemaker.

8. ‘The Pictorial Arts of the West 800-1200’, CR Dodwell. Yale University Press, 1993

9. ‘Maria Regina’, Marion Lawrence. The Art Bulletin, Vol 7, No 4, June 1925

10. ‘An Imperial Byzantine Casket and Its Fate at a Humanist’s Hands’, Anthony Cutler & Nicolas Oikonomides. The Art Bulletin, Vol. 70, No 1 March 1988

11. http://www.ntcanon.org/Carthage.canon.shtml 12. http://www.tertullian.org/decretum_eng.htm

13.07.2014