evaluation of universal access to tb diagnosis in mzimba district (malawi)
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UNIVERSITY OF MALAWI
THE POLYTECHNIC
FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
EVALUATION OF UNIVERSAL ACCESS TO TUBERCULOSIS DIAGNOSIS IN
MZIMBA DISTRICT
PRESENTED BY:
CHRISTOPHER C. MWASE
SUPERVISED BY:
MR. C. MWENDERA
PRESENTED TO DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN ENVIRONMENTAL
HEALTH
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NOVEMBER 2009
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ i
ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ vi
DEDICATION .............................................................................................................. vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. viii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background Information ................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................. 5
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................... 13
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................... 17
3.0 OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................... 17
3.1 Broad Objective ............................................................................................ 17
3.2 Specific Objectives ....................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................... 18
4.0 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................... 18
4.1 Study Variables ............................................................................................ 18
4.2 Study Area .................................................................................................... 19
4.3 Study Type .................................................................................................. 19
4.4 Study Population .......................................................................................... 20
4.5 Sampling and Sample Size .......................................................................... 20
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4.6 Data Collection and Quality Control............................................................. 20
4.7 Data Management ........................................................................................ 21
4.8 Pre-testing .................................................................................................... 21
4.9 Data Analysis ............................................................................................... 21
4.10 Plan for Dissemination of Results ............................................................... 21
4.11 Ethical Consideration .................................................................................. 21
5.2 Personnel .................................................................................................... 22
6.2 Limitations .................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................... 23
5.0 FINDINGS ......................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................ 34
6.0 DISCUSSIONS ................................................................................................... 35
CHAPTER SEVEN ....................................................................................................... 41
7.0 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 41
CHAPTER EIGHT ........................................................................................................ 42
8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................... 42
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 43
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 46
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ACRONYMS/ABBREVIATIONS
AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
ART Anti-retroviral Treatment
CBO Community Based Organisation
CHAM Christian Health Association of Malawi
DEHO District Environmental Health Officer
DHO District Health Office
DHO District Health Officer
DOTS Directly Observed Therapy Short-course
DTO District Tuberculosis Office
DTO District Tuberculosis Officer
EPTB Extra-pulmonary tuberculosis
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HSA Health Surveillance Assistant
HTC HIV Testing and Counseling Centre
IPT Isoniazid Preventive Therapy
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MDR-TB Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis
MoH Ministry of Health
MPHC Malawi Population and Housing Census
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
NTP National Tuberculosis Control Programme
OPD Out-Patient Department
PTB Pulmonary Tuberculosis
T/A Traditional Authority
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TB Tuberculosis
UATBD Universal Access to Tuberculosis Diagnosis
WHO World Health Organisation
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Categories of tuberculosis...14
Table 2: Case finding..18
Table 3: Study variables.29
Table 4: Contact tracing in Mzimba.39
Table 5: TB Case detection in Mzimba45
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Sputum collection points.35
Figure 2: TB case detection by method. 36
Figure 3: Walk-in programmes in health facilities37
Figure 4: Case detection by method. 38
Figure 5: Services that aid TB case detection..40
Figure 6: Satisfaction of HTC conuselors..41
Figure 7: Services that aid TB case detection..43
Figure 8: Satisfaction of clinical officers.44
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DEDICATION
I dedicate this report to my brothers John and Christian and to my only sister Ephrida.
You always give me joy in this world.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A proposal of this nature could not have been completed without the assistance and
understanding of many individuals.
Firstly, I thank Mr. S. Kumwenda, the Health Systems Research Coordinator for the
great job he did in giving us lessons on how to conduct a successful research project.
Secondly, I thank Mr. C. Mwendera, my research supervisor for the wonderful advice,
encouragement and support he rendered to me during the research project.
I am also grateful to Mr B.D.K Mhango for furnishing me with tuberculosis data for
Mzimba.
Lastly but not least I thank my uncle Mr. A Mwase and my aunt Ms. A.C. Mwase for
their financial support and encouragements.
Above all I thank The Almighty God.
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ABSTRACT
Universal Access to TB Diagnosis (UATBD) is the strategy that was introduced in
Malawi in order to meet the WHO target of 70% case detection percentage per year.
Mzimba district adopted this strategy in 2007.
The aim of the study was to evaluate UATBD in order to determine whether the
programme is really meeting its objective.
The study was done in Mzimba and it was descriptive and analytical. The samples
included 53 health facilities, 2 prisons, 8 anti-retroviral treatment centres, 14 HIV testing
and counseling centres and 674 sputum collection points. Primary data was collected by
using questionnaires and secondary data was collected from records at the District TB
Office. Analysis of the data was done by using Microsoft Excel package.
The percentage of functional sputum collection points in Mzimba is 82.6%, there is also
98% coverage of walk-in programmes under the District Health Office, excellent contact
tracing, and good active case finding in high risk groups and there are no new
microscopy centres established. The annual case detection percentage is still below
70%.
It has been concluded that the implementation of UATBD in Mzimba has not helped the
case detection percentage to reach the 70% target. The DHO and the DEHO should
continue to support UATBD activities and the DTO should make the non-functional
sputum collection points and walk-in programmes functional. New microscopy centres
also need to be established in the district.
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CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
Tuberculosis (TB) is a communicable infectious disease caused by a bacterium called
Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Most infections are caused by inhalation of droplet
particles (nuclei) containing virulent human strains of the bacillus. Sometimes infection
occurs with Mycobacterium bovis through drinking of unpasteurized cow milk. About 75-
80% of tuberculosis involves the lungs (pulmonary TB), and 20-25% occurs in other
organs outside the lungs .i.e. extra-pulmonary TB (MoH, 2007a).
Pulmonary TB (PTB) can further be classified as smear-positive and smear negative
pulmonary TB. A smearpositive PTB patient has at least two sputum specimens
positive for acid-fast bacilli on microscopy or at least one sputum specimen positive for
acid-fast bacilli on microscopy and radiographic abnormalities consistent with
pulmonary TB or at least one sputum specimen positive for acid-fast bacilli on
microscopy which is culture positive forMycobacterium tuberculosis. A smear-negative
PTB patient is a patient who has been coughing for more than three weeks with: at least
two sputum specimens negative for acid fast bacilli on microscopy, lack of clinical
response to one week of broad-spectrum antibiotics, and radiographic abnormalities
consistent with pulmonary TB or a patient who is severely ill with at least two sputum
specimens negative for acid fast bacilli on microscopy and radiographic abnormalities
consistent with extensive pulmonary TB (interstitial or military). Military TB is classified
as pulmonary tuberculosis.
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Extra-pulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) refers to disease outside the lungs. This includes:
pleural effusion, pericardial disease, lymphadenopathy, peritonitis and/or
gastrointestinal disease, meningitis, spinal or bone disease, genito-urinary disease and
skin disease. The most common types of EPTB in Malawi are pleural effusion,
lymphadenopathy, ascites and pericardial disease (MoH, 2007a).
Adult patients with smear positive PTB are the main source of infection. They spread
the bacilli by coughing (droplet infection). Close and prolonged contact with a patient
who is smear-positive is associated with a high risk of becoming infected.Categories of
TB are shown in the table below:
Table 1: Tuberculosis categories.
Category Description
New A patient who has never taken anti-TB drugs for more than one month.
Relapse A patient who has previously been treated and completed treatment and
has now developed active tuberculosis with smear-positive sputum.
Failure A newly diagnosed TB patient who is sputum-smear positive five months
or more after the start of chemotherapy.
Treatment
interrupted
(treatment after
default)
A patient who interrupted treatment for more than two months after at least
one month of chemotherapy and is subsequently found to have smear-
positive tuberculosis.
Transfer in A patient who has been recorded on treatment in another TB register and
has been transferred to another district to continue treatment.
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Other A patient who does not fulfill any of the above categories. Examples are:
a) Chronic case- a patient who remains smear-positive after
completing a re-treatment regimen under supervision
b) Recurrent TB case- a patient who has previously been treated and
completed treatment and has now developed active TB with smear-
negative TB or extra-pulmonary TB.
Source: National TB Control Programme 2006.
During the 1990s the international community reached consensus on a strategy for
controlling TB, based on finding and treating infectious cases. The strategy is known as
Directly Observed Therapy Short-course Strategy (DOTS) and has five core
components. The components are: government commitment to TB control, diagnosis by
smear microscopy, mostly on self-reporting symptomatic patients, standardized short-
course chemotherapy under proper case management conditions; including direct
observation of treatment, at least during the initial phase, secure system of regular high-
quality drug supply and outcome evaluation of each patient through a standardized
recording and reporting system. Progress in the control of TB is monitored by the World
Health Organisation (WHO) (Nunn et al, 2005).
The targets for the DOTS strategy are to detect at least 70% of sputum smear-positive
cases and to successfully treat at least 85% of the cases. Achieving these targets
reduces the transmission of TB and, in the absence of HIV, incidence falls. A well
executed programme can reduce notifications by 6-8% per year (Nunn et al, 2005).
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WHO (2007) states another strategy that is of great importance in TB control; the Stop
TB Strategy launched by WHO in 2006. The core of this strategy is DOTS, the TB
control approach launched by WHO in 1995. The six components of the Stop TB
Strategy are: pursuing high-quality DOTS expansion and enhancement, addressing
TB/HIV, multi-drug resistant TB (MDR-TB) and other challenges, contributing to health
system strengthening, engaging all care providers, empowering communities and
people with TB, and finally enabling and promoting research.
Stop TB Strategy intends to achieve the following targets:
Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 6, Target 8: to halt and begin to reverse
the incidence of TB by 2015.
Targets linked to the MDGs and endorsed by the Stop TB Partnership:
by 2005: detect at least 70% of new sputum smear-positive TB
cases and cure at least 85% of these cases.
by 2015: reduce TB prevalence and death rates by 50% relative to
1990.
by 2050: eliminate TB as a public health problem (1 case per
million population).
Malawi adopted both the DOTS and the Stop TB Strategies and is committed to
meeting the targets of these strategies. The Ministry of Health is responsible for the
implementation of the strategies.
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1.2 Statement of the Problem
On 26th August 2005, African Health Ministers from 46 member states declared TB an
emergency in Africa during their 55th session of the WHO Regional Committee Meeting
for Africa, held in Maputo, Mozambique. Following the declaration of TB as an
emergency in the African region, many African countries followed suit by declaring TB
as an emergency in their respective countries (MoH, 2007c).
The Government of Malawi, through MoH declared TB as a National Public Health
Emergency in the country on 27th March 2007. At the same time the National TB Control
Programme (NTP) 5-year Development Plan was launched. By declaring TB as a
national emergency, it means that extraordinary resources in terms of human and
finance are required for the control of TB in Malawi. Furthermore some routine activities
within the NTP need to be done differently (MoH, 2007a).
According to MoH (2008) the advent of HIV infection has led to a rapid increase in TB
notification rates particularly in urban areas, resulting in the numbers of TB cases rising
over five-fold in the past 20 years.
MoH (2007c) states that tuberculosis is the biggest single cause of adult illness and
death from a communicable disease in Malawi and one whose greatest impact is on the
poor, with overcrowding and poor nutrition favouring transmission and development of
active disease from latent infection.
The DOTS Strategy clearly explains that the most effective way of combating TB is
early detection of TB cases, and prompt administration of anti-TB drugs to the patients
to cure the disease. WHO and the NTP require District Tuberculosis Offices in Malawi to
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have at least 70% case detection percentages of smear-positive TB cases in a year. In
the years 2005-2006 Mzimba district was unable to meet this target as shown by the
baseline data below:
Table 2: Case detection for Mzimba 2005-2006
YEAR NEW SMEAR
POSITIVE TB
CASES
TARGET ON
SMEAR
POSITIVE TB
CASES
CASE
DETECTION
PERCENTAGE
PROJECTED
POPULATION
2005 352 558 63% 743,374
2006 364 568 64% 757,000
Source: Mzimba District TB Office 2009.
Simwaka et al (2007) found that the poor, in Malawi, were faced with innumerable
barriers when accessing TB care, due to geographical distances and high opportunity
costs. She adds that long waiting time (queuing) at the health facilities in Malawi
contributes to this problem.
As one way of responding to the declaration of TB emergency in Malawi, the NTP has
adopted the strategy of Universal Access to TB Diagnosis (UATBD) as the main driving
force to increase TB case detection rate in Malawi; and to achieve the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) in line with the Stop-TB Strategy and the DOTS strategy.
UATBD strives to comprehensively address the barriers outlined by findings of Simwaka
et al (2007).
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UATBD uses seven strategies in order to increase the case detection rate and they are:
(a) Expansion of community-based TB initiatives (Mtsiliza model)
There is undoubted confidence that with various segments involved in the communities,
the health service can be augmented in its efforts of addressing challenges including
infectious diseases (Sambo, 2006 cited in Kachipande, 2008). The idea of community-
based TB initiatives was inspired by this observation.
In this strategy, community members are sensitized and mobilized to organize
themselves to establish sputum collection points/centres right at the community level.
All TB suspects within the catchment area submit sputum specimens at this centre. The
specimens are brought to the nearest health facility by the community members
themselves with logistical arrangements made by the District Health Office (DHO). A
community member manages the sputum collection point and is also responsible for
transporting the sputum to the health facility. All necessary logistics are given to the
community. The logistics include chronic cough registers (or community TB registers),
sputum containers, laboratory forms and sputum carrier boxes. It is required that the
results from the health facility should be communicated to the community within 7 days.
Community members also encourage people with chronic cough in the community to
submit their sputum for testing. In communities where it is not possible to establish
sputum collection points, suspects are referred to the nearest health facility using the
simple referral slips or community referral form. In Mzimba community-based TB
initiatives were not there before the introduction of UATBD. There are now 674 sputum
collection points in the district.
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These initiatives are a form of active case finding in which TB suspects are detected in
their communities rather than passive case finding where suspects refer themselves to
the hospital.
(b) Establishment of walk-in programmes (rapid diagnostic pathway) in all health
facilities
People who are TB suspects are encouraged to demand for TB diagnostic services. TB
suspects who need only sputum submission do not queue in the general outpatient
department, but rather go straight to a TB corneror TB office at the health facility and
submit sputum as per the NTP guidelines. Where possible, hospitals have a designated
TB cornerwhere TB suspects easily access sputum containers. Health workers do not
turn away such TB suspects when they demand for the TB diagnostic services. Walk-in
programmes had never been used before in the district until the introduction of universal
access. When sputum is collected the suspect is given a date when he can collect
results.
(c) Intensification of contact tracing
Claessens et al (2001b) found that there is a high frequency of tuberculosis in
households of index tuberculosis patients. They carried out a case control study in 44
non-private hospitals in Malawi which register and treat patients with tuberculosis. The
findings of this study are an inspiration to the birth of contact tracing.
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In this strategy all children under the age of 6 years who are contacts of smear positive
index cases are screened for TB. If TB has been diagnosed TB treatment is given. If
there is no TB, isoniazid preventive therapy is given for at least 6 months. All adult
symptomatic household contacts of smear positive index cases are also screened for
active TB. Contact tracing was not done in the district before the advent of UATBD. This
is also active case finding.
(d) Active case finding in high risk groups
In a study in Malawian prisons conducted by Nyangulu et al (1997) cited in MoH
(2007d), they state that a much higher rate of TB was found in a prison population at a
rate of 5,142/100,000 population compared with 209/100,000 in the general population.
The impact of human immuno-deficiency virus (HIV) on TB has been devastating with
approximately 10% of all global TB cases now attributable to HIV-were it not for HIV, TB
would already be declining worldwide(Nunn et al, 2005).
It is clear that high risk groups are prisoners, clients attending HIV testing and
counseling (HTC) and clients at ART centres. On regular basis, these high risk groups
are screened for active TB. Mzimba district had no form of active case finding before the
introduction of UATBD. In Mzimba there are 2 prisons, 26 HTC centres and 17ART
centres.
(e) Expansion of TB microscopy network
Harries et al (1998) found that overall 84% of patients with smear-negative pulmonary
tuberculosis in Malawi between January 1997 and June 1998 had sputum smears
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examined and that in each of the 6-months periods there was a significant increase in
the proportion of patients whose smears were evaluated. With this confidence in the
quality of service delivery of its microscopy centres the NTP decided to expand its
microscopy network so that more people can have their sputum examined and results
communicated to them quickly.
The plan was to train more microscopists and to open more microscopy centres. Before
UATBD there were only 7 microscopy centres in Mzimba. These microscopy centres
and microscopists were only found in admission hospitals.
(f) Involvement of other stakeholders
During 1998 briefing sessions were conducted with traditional healers in five districts in
Malawi as part of the NTPs initiative in collaborating with traditional healers and
informing them about tuberculosis and its management (Harries et al 1998). Mzimba
was one of the districts involved.
Later Claessens et al (2001a) conducted a country-wide study on traditional healers
and pulmonary tuberculosis in Malawi. In the study there were 770 patients of whom
248(32%) had visited a traditional healer before diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis.
Those with new tuberculosis and those who had a farming occupation were significantly
more likely to visit a traditional healer. Of 248 patients who visited a traditional healer,
15 (6%) had been referred to health facilities for sputum smear examination.
The study by Claessens et al (2001a) suggested that health personnel alone cannot
successfully fight TB. There is a need to involve other people like the traditional healers
in case finding. According to MoH (2007c) UATBD is not implemented by the district
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health office alone. Other stakeholders from within and outside the health system are
also involved. Some examples of stakeholders outside the health system are traditional
leaders,chiefs, volunteers, community based organizations (CBOs), non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), grocery owners and others.
(g) Strengthen monitoring and evaluation to include other parameters
De Cock and Boerma (2006) in their presentation, on monitoring progress towards
Universal Access 2010 in the health sector, call for establishment of rigorous systems of
monitoring and evaluation to enable information to be collected nationally on case
finding and treatment.
All necessary arrangements are made to monitor and evaluate activities for UATBD. All
recording and reporting tools are made available at all levels. Regular supervision is
done, and data collected at all levels, including the community level.
In Mzimba the implementation of UATBD was started in 2007. This study intends to
evaluate UATBD from 2007-2009. This evaluation will focus on determining the impact
of UATBD on the annual case detection percentage. The first six strategies of achieving
UATBD will be assessed and their impacts will be assayed either qualitatively or
quantitatively. Information obtained from this study will help various stakeholders
involved in UATBD to know if they are making progress in scaling up the case detection
rate or not. The study will identify areas of UATBD that need more effort in order to
scale up the case detection rate (if such areas exist) or will recommend the programme
to go on as it is (if it is meeting the objectives of UATBD).
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
In 2002, there were an estimated 8.8 million new TB cases in the world, including 0.71
million people infected with HIV. TB led to the death of 1.8 million people, including a
0.25 million people with HIV infection. Poor people are most at risk of TB, and most TB
deaths occur during the economically productive years of 15-54 years of age. Detecting
and curing TB is therefore, a key intervention for addressing poverty and inequality
(WHO, 2007).
TB and HIV have become a co-epidemic that poses a great burden on health systems
worldwide. The WHO (2003) cited in Nunn et al (2005) estimates that about 8% of the
8.8 million new cases of TB were HIV infected. Of the 1.7 million people who are
thought to have died with TB in 2003, 229,000 were probably infected with HIV. Africa is
the only continent where TB incidence is rising; however this trend is sufficient to cause
a global increase of about 1.0 % per year.
People with HIV easily contract TB because of their weakened immune system and go
to develop active TB. People with healthy immune systems easily recover from primary
TB infection and have only 10% chance of re-developing TB in their lifetime. In addition
sputum microscopy in TB/HIV co-infected people is not as effective in picking up TB as
in people without TB (WHO, 2006).
On poor access to DOTS strategy in the world, Elzinga et al (2004) gives the following
reasons: on the part of health systems they mention lack of human resources, limited
laboratory capacity, inconvenient opening hours, location of health facilities being far
from some communities, and limited awareness of tuberculosis among some health
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workers. On the part of patients factors include limited tuberculosis awareness and
inability to afford costs related to health care access.
Elzinga (2004) also emphasize on promotion of community action. They state that
communities have played a significant part in tuberculosis control in developed
countries and they are also essential to demand and deliver care under the DOTS
strategy in developing countries.
The incidence of TB in the African region has increased in tandem with the HIV/AIDS
epidemic. On average about one third of TB patients notified in countries in the African
region are co-infected with HIV, and in most countries in southern Africa-e.g. Lesotho,
Malawi, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe- over two thirds of adults and
children are co-infected with HIV (WHO, 2006).
Eight out of the 22 high TB burden countries are in sub-Saharan Africa. In high HIV-1-
prevalence populations e.g. many countries in eastern and southern Africa- tuberculosis
incidence is increasing at 10% per year without full implementation of the DOTS
strategy. During the phase of rapidly increasing TB incidence driven by HIV-1, achieving
the targets of 70% case detection and 85% cure rate will only slow down the rate of
tuberculosis increase to 7% per year. A strategy of expanded scope is needed to
counter the HIV-1 driven TB epidemic, consisting of measures aimed directly at TB (full
implementation of the DOTS strategy with intensified case finding and preventive
treatment) and measures against HIV-1 including prevention of HIV-1 and provision of
antiretrovirals (Elzinga et al, 2004)
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Establishing a reliable monitoring and evaluation system with regular communication
between the central and peripheral levels of the health system is vital. This requires
standardized recording of individual patient data, including information on treatment
outcomes, which are then used to compile quarterly treatment outcomes in cohorts of
patients. These data, when compiled and analysed, can be used at the facility level to
monitor treatment outcomes, at the district level to identify local problems as they arise,
at provincial or national level to ensure consistently high-quality TB control across
geographical areas, and nationally and internationally to evaluate the performance of
each country. Regular programme supervision should be carried out to verify the quality
of information and to address performance problems (WHO, 2009).This shows how
important monitoring and evaluation is for the successful implementation of TB
programmes.
Malawi is not spared from the global TB burden. According to MoH (2007b) tuberculosis
is the biggest single cause of adult illness and death in the country. DOTS coverage
remains at 100% in all the districts. Both TB case detection and cure rates targets set at
70% and 85% respectively are yet to be achieved. WHO scores Malawi as achieving a
low case detection rate of just under 50%, in spite of having 100% DOTS coverage.
From 1999 to 2002 the NTP piloted the WHO coordinated Pro-Test Project. The project
was aimed at increasing the uptake of HIV testing and counseling by the general public
with focus on TB patients. In 2005, 47% of TB patients registered in public health
facilities underwent HIV testing and of those 69% tested positive (MoH, 2007b). These
findings indicate a high rate of TB/HIV co-infection in Malawi.
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The complexity of TB diagnosis requires repeated visits, long queues, and delays in
sending results. This reduces poor women and men's ability to access and adhere to
services. The costs of seeking TB care are high for poor women and men up to 240%
of monthly income as compared to 126% of monthly income for the non-poor (Simwaka
et al, 2007). This was the situation before the introduction of UATBD. The effectiveness
of UATBD in addressing these problems is yet to be known.
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 OBJECTIVES
3.1 Broad Objective
To evaluate UATBD in Mzimba district.
3.2 Specific Objectives
1. To assess the functioning of sputum collection points.
2. To determine the proportion of health facilities that have established walk-in
programmes and to assess how these programmes are working.
3. To assess the extent of contact tracing in the district.
4. To assess active case finding in high risk groups in the district.
5. To establish the number of new TB microscopy centres.
6. To determine the level of involvement of other stakeholders in universal access
to tuberculosis diagnosis.
3.3 Hypothesis
Universal access to tuberculosis diagnosis has helped Mzimba to reach the 70% case
detection percentage target.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 METHODOLOGY
4.1 Study Variables
Table 3: Study variables.
VARIABLE INDICATOR
DEPENDENT VARIABLE Increase in the case detectionrate
Reaching the 70% target
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES Functioning of sputumcollection points.
Presence of functional sputumcollection points incommunities.
Sputum collection pointscontributing to overall casedetection.
Proportion of health facilitieswith walk-in programmes
Presence of a walk-inprogramme in a health facility.
Extent of contact tracing Number of smear-positiveindex cases whose contactshave been screened for TB.
Number of household contactsaged 5years or less put onisoniazid preventive therapy.
Active case finding in high riskgroups
Number of people in prisons,HTC and ART centresscreened for TB
Number of new TBmicroscopy centres
Presence of new microscopycentres in the district.
Level of involvement of otherstakeholders in UATBD.
Grocery owners referring TBsuspects to the hospital forsputum examination.
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4.2 Study Area
The study area was Mzimba district. It is in the Northern region of Malawi. It borders
with Zambia to the west, Kasungu to the south, Nkhata-Bay to the east, Nkhotakota to
the southeast and Rumphi to the North. The current population for Mzimba is 724,873
(MPHC PreliminaryReport, 2008).The total land area is 10,430 square kilometers. It is
linked with other districts mainly through the M9 road, which connects to Mzuzu -
Lilongwe M1 road. The dominant tribe is Tumbuka followed by Ngoni and the patrilineal
system is dominant in the district. Christianity is the major religion and the major
economic activity in the district is agriculture.
Mzimba DHO has 53 health facilities. There are four hospitals (Embangweni,
Ekwendeni and St Johns which are CHAM hospitals and Mzimba District Hospital); 4
rural hospitals, two of which belong to CHAM, 39 health centres and the rest are
dispensaries. Malaria is the main cause of health problems (34% of OPD attendance)
followed by pneumonia and diarrhoea including HIV/AIDS related infections.
Tuberculosis is also a major health problem. In Mzimba about 70% of tuberculosis
patients are HIV positive. Eighteen percent (18%) of tuberculosis cases die.
Tuberculosis services have been scaled up in the district.
4.3 Study Type
The study was descriptive. It was carried out in the third quarter (July-September) of the
year 2009. It involved the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data from the
study units. It focused on assessing how the strategies of UATBD are being
implemented and it also assessed the contribution of these strategies towards
increasing the case detection rate.
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4.4 Study Population
The study population comprised of 674 sputum collection points, 53 health facilities, 26
HTC centres, 17 ART centres and 2 prisons.
There were no new TB microscopy centres in the district and there were no records for
grocery owners hence the two were not studied.
4.5 Sampling and Sample Size
All of the following study units were not sampled (entire populations were studied):
health facilities, prisons and sputum collection points.
Quota sampling was used when selecting ART and HTC centres where to administer
questionnaires.
The sample sizes were as follows: 53 health facilities, 2 prisons, 8 ART centres, 14
HTC centres and 674 sputum collection points.
4.6 Data Collection and Quality Control
Data on sputum collection points, walk-in programmes and contact tracing was
collected from the District TB Office (DTO).
Questionnaires were used to collect data on active case finding in high risk groups.
They were administered to HTC counselors, clinical officers in ART centres and health
workers in prisons.
Questionnaires were also intended to be used to collect data on the level of involvement
of other stakeholders in UATBD. These were to be administered to grocery owners who
were oriented on TB issues.
For data collection tools see appendices 1 and 2.
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4.7 Data Management
The data was stored on a Microsoft Word master sheet for easy management of the
data.
4.8 Pre-testing
Pre-testing of the questionnaires was done at Mzimba boma. The exercise enabled
evaluation of the effectiveness, sensitivity and objectivity of the data collection tools.
4.9 Data Analysis
The data was analysed by using Microsoft Excel package. The data has been
presented in the form of graphs and pie charts. Some of the data is in table form.
4.10 Plan for Dissemination of Results
This study has obtained valuable data on the impact of UATBD on TB case detection
rate in Mzimba. The findings of the study will be presented to the Department of
Environmental Health at the Malawi Polytechnic in partial fulfillment of Bachelor of
Science Degree in Environmental Health. The findings will also be disseminated to key
players in UATBD in Mzimba so that they should see their progress or shortfalls in the
fight against tuberculosis. This will allow them to identify areas that need more effort in
order to scale up the case detection rate and at the same time they will also identify
areas where they are doing well.
4.11 Ethical Consideration
Verbal consent was sought from the District Environmental Health Officer (DEHO) of
Mzimba South. Permission to carry out the study was also asked from the District
Environmental Health Officer of Mzimba North who also took the time to write an
introductory letter for me (see appendix 3). For the questionnaires that were
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administered in health facilities, ART centres and HTC centres consent was sought from
either the in-charges of the institutions or from the persons found on duty.
5.2 Personnel
The person carrying out the study was the only person responsible for data collection as
well as management of the entire research project.
6.2 Limitations
The main limitation of the study is the fact that it was not able to cover the last quarter of
the year 2009. However, all the quarters from January 2007 to September 2009 have
been evaluated. The other limitation of the study is that the case detection percentage
and the contact tracing data for 2009 are both from January to June since data for the
whole year were not available at the time of the study. Lastly poor record keeping by the
DTO on the number of grocery owners who were oriented on TB issues resulted in only
3 grocery owners being interviewed.
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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 FINDINGS
5.1 Assessment of the functioning of sputum collection points.
From the total population (674) of sputum collection points 82.6% (557) are
functional and the remaining 17.4% (117) are non-functional. This is presented in
a pie chart below:
Figure 1: Sputum collection points.
In the first quarter of 2009, sputum collection points contributed 40% (37 cases)
to the total TB case detection (92 cases) in that quarter. The scenario is depicted
in the pie chart below:
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Figure 2: TB case detection by method
5.2 Proportion of health facilities that have established walk-in programmes
and assessment of how they are functioning.
Ninety eight percent (52) of the health facilities under Mzimba DHO have walk-in
programmes. The remaining 2% is a dispensary which is in a hard to reach area. In
addition to this, there are 20 private health facilities that have functional walk-in
programmes.
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Figure 3: Walk-in programmes in health facilities.
In the third quarter of the year 2009 walk-in programmes contributed 14% (13 cases) to
the overall TB case detection (93 cases). The remaining 86% (80 cases) was for the
other methods that are used in case detection i.e. self-referral and sputum collection
points. This is shown in the pie chart below:
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Figure 4: Case detection by method.
5.3Assessment of the extent of contact tracing in the district.
In Mzimba contact tracing was done for all smear positive index cases that were
detected from January 2007 to June 2009. In addition to this all the contacts that were
found to be 5 years or less were put on isoniazid preventive therapy. Contact tracing
was also able to contribute some TB cases. The table below offers a good summary of
what has been explained.
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Table 4: Contact tracing in Mzimba.
Note: It is important to note that the data for 2009 is from January to June because it
was impossible to have data for the whole year at the time of the study.
5.0Assessment of active case finding in high risk groups.
5.4.1 Prisons
All the 2 prisons in Mzimba have members of staff oriented on TB issues. In addition
both prisons educate their in-mates on TB.
One prison (Mzuzu prison) collects sputum and sends it to the hospital for microscopy
examination while the other prison (Mzimba prison) examines sputum on-site.
Health workers who handle TB cases were questioned on whether they are satisfied or
not on the role they play in UATBD. The one from Mzimba prison said that he is not
satisfied because he only knows about microscopy and would prefer to get advanced
27
Year Totalnumber of
smearpositiveindexcases
Totalnumber
ofsmearpositiveindexcaseswhosecontactsweretraced
Totalnumber of
householdcontactsinvestigatedfor TB
Totalnumber of
householdcontactsaged 5years orabovediagnosedwith TB
Totalnumber of
householdcontactsaged5years orless
Totalnumber of
householdcontacts puton isoniazidpreventivetherapy(5years orless)
2007 337 337 578 14 138 138
2008 282 282 209 9 172 172
2009 62 62 62 3 59 59
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training in TB so that he can offer better services to the in-mates. The other one from
Mzuzu said that he is satisfied with the role he plays in UATBD.
5.4.2 HTC centres
All of the HTC centres in Mzimba have members of staff oriented on TB. In addition all
of the HTC centres educate their clients on TB.
Seventy one percent (10) of the HTC centres refer their clients to the hospital for TB
screening (sputum microscopy) when they suspect TB and the remaining 29% (4)
collect sputum from the clients suspected of having TB and send the sputum to nearby
hospitals for examination. There is no HTC centre that offers sputum examination. This
is illustrated graphically below:
Figure 5: Services that aid TB case detection.
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When the HTC counselors (one from each HTC centre that was visited) were asked
about their satisfaction on the role they play in helping to find TB cases 36% (5) of them
said they are satisfied with their role and 64% (9) said they are not satisfied. This is
shown in the pie chart below:
Figure 6: Satisfaction of HTC counselors.
The reasons that were given for being the cause of satisfaction are:
People who are referred by the counselors for TB screening are usually found
with TB.
Due to the health education they offer clients go to seek advice at the HTC
centres when they have a prolonged cough (cough more than 3 weeks). In
addition the referred clients get to know their TB status and this diffuses fear.
The fact that they are tackling both TB and HIV/AIDS collectively.
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They easily refer people to walk-in centres where people easily access TB
diagnosis.
The reasons that were given for being the cause of dissatisfaction are:
The need for more training on TB.
The desire to have a microscopy centre on-site.
The desire to collect sputum from clients suspected of having TB in the HTC
centres where they do not collect sputum.
5.4.3 ART centres
All of the ART centres have members of staff who are oriented on TB. In addition all of
the ART centres educate their clients on TB.
On the help they render in detecting TB cases; 88% (6) of the ART centres refer their
clients suspected of having TB to hospitals for sputum microscopy. The remaining 12%
(2) collect sputum from their clients and send it to the hospital for examination. There
are no ART centres that offer sputum smear microscopy. This is shown in the figure
below:
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Figure 7: Services that aid TB case detection.
When the clinical officers from the ART centres (one from each centre that was visited)
were asked about their satisfaction on the role they play in helping to find TB cases
37.5% (3) of them said they are satisfied with their role and the remaining 62.5% (5)
said they are not satisfied. This is shown in the graph below:
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Figure 8: Satisfaction of clinical officers.
Those satisfied gave the following reasons:
Because they detect some cases and refer them for treatment.
Because they help patients get TB treatment and therefore help prevent spread
of TB.
Those dissatisfied gave these reasons:
There is the need to offer sputum examination on-site.
There is the need to collect sputum and refer it for examination if they cannot
examine the sputum themselves.
There is the need for more centres that offer TB treatment to open.
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5.4.4 Establishment of the number of new sputum microscopy centres
There are no new sputum microscopy centres opened in the district since the
commencement of UATBD in 2007.
5.4.5 Determination of the level of involvement of other stakeholders in UATBD.
The HSA who was responsible for the training of grocery owners was not able to
remember the exact number of grocery owners who were trained due to poor record
keeping. The trainer was only able to recall 5 grocery owners and of these one died and
another moved away from the boma as a result only 3 people were available for
interview. It was obvious that data obtained from the 3 people would be insignificant so
the study did not proceed on this group of people.
5.4.6 Case detection in the district.
Table 5: TB Case detection in Mzimba.
YEAR NEW SMEAR
POSITIVES
DETECTED
TARGET OF NEW
SMEAR POSITIVES
CASE DETECTION
PERCENTAGE
2007 337 528 64%
2008 282 573 49%
2009 185 296 63%
The TB case detection percentages for the years 2007, 2008 and 2009 in Mzimba were
below the 70% target set by WHO.
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CHAPTER SIX
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6.0 DISCUSSIONS
On the assessment of the functioning of sputum collection points it is encouraging to
learn that 82.6% of the sputum collection points that were established in the
communities are functional. This is an indication that communities have the capacity to
sustain initiatives that actively involve them. Despite the fact that there is a large
percentage of sputum collection points that are functional the remaining 17.4% also
need to be made functional.
The 40% contribution of sputum collection points to the total case detection of the first
quarter of 2009 proves the point that sputum collection points are key in scaling up case
detection in the district.
The findings on the assessment of the performance of sputum collection points agree
with Elzinga et al (2004). The author states that communities have played a significant
part in tuberculosis control in developed countries and believes that communities are
also essential to demand and deliver care under the DOTS strategy in developing
countries.
The District TB Office (DTO) has done a great job in achieving 98% coverage of walk-in
programmes in the health facilities of Mzimba DHO. However, they should work hard to
ensure that the remaining health facility is also covered because the current situation
does not meet the 100% time frame coverage stipulated in MoH (2007c). It is also
impressive to learn that they have also embarked on establishing walk-in programmes
in private health facilities.
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Walk-in programmes also have an important role to play in scaling up the case
detection as shown by their 14% contribution to the total number of cases detected in
the third quarter of 2009.
During the implementation of UATBD contact tracing has been excellent in Mzimba.
Household contacts of every smear positive index case were visited. In addition all
contacts aged 5 years or below were put on isoniazid preventive therapy (IPT).
Furthermore, some TB cases have been identified via this strategy as shown in table 4.
All in all the performance of the DTO on contact tracing shows all the necessary
indicators stated in MoH (2007c) namely: screening of contacts of smear positive cases
and putting on IPT contacts aged 5 years or below.
The overall performance of the DTO on active case finding in high risk groups has been
good. The DTO has taken the initiative to involve actively staff from prisons, HTC
centres and ART centres in TB activities.
It is impressive to note that all of the prisons in Mzimba have at least one member of
staff oriented on TB. It is further encouraging learning that all of the prisons educate
their in-mates on TB. These two issues are very critical in finding TB cases in prisons
because members of staff who are knowledgeable on TB can find TB suspects without
problems. In addition in-mates who are knowledgeable about TB are very likely to be
cooperative during TB screening and can even refer themselves to prison health
workers for medical attention when they suspect themselves of having TB.
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It is an improvement that Mzimba prison offers sputum smear microscopy on-site. The
other prison would also do well if it had a microscopy centre on-site as per required by
MoH (2007c).
It is not surprising to discover that the health worker at Mzimba prison is not satisfied
with the TB services he offers because he is merely a microscopist. This is supported
by the reason that he needs advanced training. It is also a consolation to note that the
health worker at Mzuzu prison said that he is satisfied with the role he plays in UATBD
despite the fact that no reasons were given for the answer.
It is also good to learn that all of the HTC centres have members of staff oriented on TB.
It is even better to note that all of the HTC centres educate their clients on TB. This is
good news as far as the implementation of UATBD is concerned. It is obvious that
members of staff who are educated on TB will offer good health education and advice
on TB to their clients. Clients who have been counseled on TB are also very likely to be
cooperative when asked to go for TB screening.
It is a good development by the HTC centres to directly offer help in the detection of
new TB cases. This is evidenced by 71% of the HTC centres that refer their clients to
the hospital for TB screening and the remaining 29% that collect sputum from the clients
suspected of having TB. It would be very expensive and some how inappropriate to
have microscopy centres in the HTC centres but sputum collection helps increase case
detection at a cheap cost. The most obvious hindrance in referring TB suspects to the
hospital is the fact that some suspects can choose not to go to the hospital. This issue
is a serious problem that needs immediate attention. However, this can be taken care of
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by also introducing sputum collection in the HTC centres that only refer the TB
suspects. This is better because when sputum is collected the persons physical home
address is also recorded in the TB suspects register such that when the sputum
examination confirms that the suspect has TB he can be easily followed up.
The fact that 36% of the HTC counselors are satisfied with the role they play in UATBD
is encouraging. However, it raises a big concern to know that 64% of the HTC
counselors are not satisfied with the role they play on TB. It is very important to address
the concerns that these people have raised i.e. the reasons that were given. This can
be done by strengthening monitoring and evaluation as suggested by MoH (2007b).
It is also good for UATBD in Mzimba to note that all ART centres in the district have at
least a member of staff who is oriented on TB. The fact that all ART centres in the
district educate their clients on TB is also a good a development. As is the case with
HTC centres staff educated on TB can deliver effectively in offering TB related services
to their clients. At the same time full cooperation is also expected when dealing with
clients who are informed via health education.
Since active case finding in high risk groups is one of the key strategies towards
achieving the objectives of UATBD it is therefore good to have 88% of the ART centres
referring clients suspected of having TB to hospitals. Despite this success there is need
to address the problem of some suspects not going to the hospital when referred. As
already suggested this can be addressed by collecting sputum from the clients. It is
possible to collect sputum in the ART centres as shown by the 2 ART centres that are
already doing this.
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Having a small percentage (37.5%) of clinical officers who are satisfied with their
contribution to UATBD is an indication that there are some issues that need to be
addressed in order to allow ART centres to contribute to their full potential in the fight
against TB. The issues that require attention are the reasons that 62.5% of the clinical
officers who were dissatisfied gave. This can also be addressed by monitoring and
evaluation in the form of supervisory visits by the district TB officer. Monitoring and
evaluation is a good problem solving tool as suggested by MoH (2007b).
The absence of any new sputum microscopy centres in the district since the
commencement of UATBD in 2007 is a major setback to scaling up the case detection.
According to WHO (2006) the recommended method of TB diagnosis is sputum smear
microscopy. Failure to increase the number of microscopy centres means that some
people in the district are being denied easy access to TB diagnosis. This thinking is
based on the findings of Simwaka et al (2007) who discovered that people who are far
away from microscopy centres find it hard to access TB diagnostic services. It has to be
understood that increasing the number of microscopy centres means increasing
peoples access to TB diagnosis.
Knowing the performance of other stakeholders in UATBD is important because it acts
as a guide to how best the stakeholders can be involved in TB activities. Failure to
assess the performance of grocery owners due to the absence of their records at the
DTO was disappointing. Absence of such records is also an indication that the district
TB office is unable to monitor and actively involve the stakeholders. This is also a
problem that needs to be taken seriously.
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It is no good news to see that the yearly case detection percentages are still below the
70% WHO target despite the implementation of UATBD. It is bad because UATBD was
introduced to scale up the case detection percentage. This seems to correspond with
WHO (2009b) which states that case detection is still low in developing countries.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
7.0 CONCLUSION
This study has come to the following conclusions:
Implementation of UATBD in Mzimba has failed to reach the 70% case detection
percentage set by WHO.
Many sputum collection points in Mzimba are functional and they are contributing
significantly towards case detection.
Community involvement is very important in the implementation of UATBD.
Ninety eight percent of health facilities under Mzimba DHO have walk-in
programmes and these programmes are making a contribution towards case
detection.
Contact tracing in the district is at an excellent level.
Active case finding in high risk groups in the district is good but it needs some
improvements.
There are no new sputum microscopy centres that have been established in
Mzimba.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
8.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 To the DHO and the DEHO
Monitor closely the implementation of UATBD activities in order to quickly
address problems that occur during the implementation.
8.2 To the DTO
Work towards making the non-functional sputum collection points functional.
Establish a walk-in programme in the remaining health facility.
Introduce sputum collection in the HTC and ART centres that do not offer the
service currently.
Immediately introduce new microscopy centres in the district.
Train new grocery owners in UATBD and actively involve them in case finding.
Always keep records of the people trained by the DTO for future use.
Strengthen monitoring and evaluation of UATBD activities.
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ml
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1
QUESTIONNAIRE ON ACTIVE CASE FINDING IN HIGH RISK GROUPS
Informed consent
Hello, my name is Christopher Mwase
I would like to ask you to participate in this research by answering questions inthis questionnaire. It is a research on Universal Access to TB Diagnosis and itsresults will be used for academic purposes. Remember that you have the right toaccept or not to accept this request. All information collected will be treated withconfidentiality.
Part A
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1. What is the category of this institution?
1. HTC centre Tick in the appropriate box
2. ART centre
3. Prison
2. Do you have any member of staff who is oriented on TB issues?
1. Yes 2. No Tick in the appropriate box
3. Do you educate your clients/ in-mates on TB?
1. Yes 2.No
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4. If yes, how often? .
Part B
5. How do you assist in detecting new TB cases?
1. Refer people for TB screening.
2. Offer TB screening.
6. If you offer TB screening services who carries out the screening?
.
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7. If you offer screening do you have the necessary materials for screening?
Explain:..
.
8. Are you satisfied with the role you play on TB?
Explain: .
.
...
..
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THE END
THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION
APPENDIX 2
QUESTIONNAIRE TO GROCERY OWNERS ON THEIR INVOLVEMENT IN
UNIVERSAL ACCES TO TB DIAGNOSIS.
Hello, my name is Christopher Mwase.
I would like to ask you to participate in this research by answering questions in
this questionnaire. It is a research on Universal Access to TB Diagnosis and its
results will be used for academic purposes. Remember that you have the right to
accept or not to accept this request. All information collected will be treated with
confidentiality.
Part A
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1. What do you understand by the term Universal Access to TB Diagnosis?
2. What role do you play in Universal Access to TB Diagnosis?
Part B
3. If you help refer TB suspects to the hospital how many have you referred from
July this year up to now? .
4. Are you satisfied with the role you play in Universal Access to TB Diagnosis?
1 Yes 2. No
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5. Explain why you are satisfied or not satisfied with your role?
.
.
.
.
6. What other roles do you think you can play to enhance UATBD?
THE END
THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION
APPENDIX 4
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Budgetary Estimates
DESCRIPTION AND QUANTITY AMOUNT MALAWIAN KWACHA
Stationery
2 rims of plain paper @ K950.00 K 1900.00
15 ball pens @ K30.00 each K 450.00
15pencils @ K20.00 each K 300.00
5 rubbers @ K60.00 each K 300.00
1 sharpener @ K100 K 100.00
1flash disc (4 GB) @ K4500.00 K5,000.00
Cost of photocopying questionnaires K 1500.00
Subtotal K 9,550.00
Training of research assistants
4 research assistants @ K2000.00 for one day K4,000.00
10 bottles of refreshments @ K50.00 each K 500.00
6 packets of biscuits @ K150.00 each K 900.00
Subtotal K5,400.00
Data collection
4 research assistants @ K2,000.00 each for
10 days
K20,000.00
Fuel costs for 4 motorbikes K 20,000.00
Transport costs Blantyre to Mzimba and back K 8,000.00
Subtotal K 48,000.00
Report writing
Printing and binding costs K 3500.00
Total K66,450.00
Contingency 10% of the total cost K 6,645.00
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Grand total K 73,095.00
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APPENDIX 5
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
5.1 Work Plan
Month(2009) April May June July August September October November
Activity
Literature
Review
Project proposal
preparation
Proposal
submission
Data collection
Data analysis
Report writing
Report
submission
Presentation