Qualitative Market Research: An International JournalEmerald Article: Evaluating responses to celebrity endorsements using projective techniquesNisachon Tantiseneepong, Matthew Gorton, John White

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To cite this document: Nisachon Tantiseneepong, Matthew Gorton, John White, (2012),"Evaluating responses to celebrity endorsements using projective techniques", Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, Vol. 15 Iss: 1 pp. 57 - 69

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Evaluating responsesto celebrity endorsementsusing projective techniques

Nisachon Tantiseneepong and Matthew GortonNewcastle University Business School, Newcastle Upon Tyne, UK, and

John WhitePlymouth Business School, Plymouth, UK

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to utilise projective techniques as a method to capture andunderstand consumer reactions to celebrity-endorsed perfumes. The paper illustrates how projectivetechniques can aid practitioners in their selection of celebrity endorsers.

Design/methodology/approach – The paper is part of a wider tradition of returning to qualitativemethods when research based on existing theories offers only partial or little support for them. In total,16 females participated in the study, which utilised a range of projective techniques, including pictureassociation. For the latter, participants were exposed first to advertisements for two leading perfumesalone and then these advertisements incorporating four contrasting celebrity endorsers. Associationsand reactions to the advertisements with and without celebrity endorsers were compared.

Findings – The analysis identifies that celebrity endorsers may have a significant impact on theperceived target market for a product, highlighting their potential role in repositioning a brand.However, the celebrity may crowd out the endorsed product. The role of personal liking is critical,although this is ignored in existing source models of celebrity endorsement.

Originality/value – The application of projective techniques demonstrates their usefulness incapturing responses to celebrity endorsements. The paper uncovers some of the reasons why previousresearch has generated results that only partially support the existing main theoretical frameworks.

Keywords Consumer behaviour, Advertising, Product endorsement, Perfume, Celebrity endorsement,Market research, Projective techniques

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionCelebrity endorsement has long been used by marketers to enhance a brand’s appeal,where a celebrity endorser is commonly defined as a recognisable person who iscontracted to advertise for a product or brand (McCracken, 1989). Advocates for the useof celebrity endorsers argue that compared to non-celebrities, the former can improve theeffectiveness of marketing communications, by enhancing a product’s image, attractingattention and improving recall rates (Seno and Lukas, 2007). A celebrity endorser may beparticularly useful in making an advertisement stand out, cutting through clutter(Dean and Biswas, 2001). A globally recognised celebrity may also ease internationalmarket entry, overcoming cultural and language barriers (Erdogan, 1999). Choi andRifon (2007) argue that the power of celebrities in marketing communications rests ontheir ability to generate what Caughey (1984) terms “para-social” relationships, feelingsof a personal relationship despite the lack of direct contact with consumers.

The recognition of the “special powers” of celebrities encouraged extensive academicresearch on the extent to which, and how, a celebrity endorser’s image is transferred

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

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Qualitative Market Research: AnInternational Journal

Vol. 15 No. 1, 2012pp. 57-69

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited1352-2752

DOI 10.1108/13522751211191991

to endorsed products, and the impact of this on sales and a brand’s image. Academictheory, such as the source models and match up hypothesis discussed below, also seeksto aid practitioners in their selection of celebrity endorsers. However, despite extensiveempirical research, which has been overwhelmingly quantitative in nature, ourunderstanding of the influence of celebrity endorsers on consumers’ attitudes andbehaviour remains incomplete. As Erdogan (1999) noted in his review of the literature,empirical findings are equivocal and at best only support partially the main theoriesadvanced. More recent research has not resolved these issues, with no clear pictureemerging regarding the importance of the degree of congruence between product andcelebrity (Till and Busler, 2000; Lee and Thorson, 2008) or the characteristics thatcelebrities should possess to make them effective endorsers (Choi and Rifon, 2007). As aresult, academics continue to struggle to present empirically validated and theoreticallysound models that can underpin practitioners’ decision making.

To contribute to the literature this paper takes an alternative, qualitative approach. Theobjectives are two fold. First, we utilise projective techniques as a method, demonstratinghow they can aid practitioners in their selection of celebrity endorsers. Second, drawing onan application of projective techniques for understanding consumer reactions to celebrityendorsements for perfumes, we identify lessons for the academic literature. The paper is,therefore, part of a wider tradition of returning to a qualitative approach where, as in thecase of the celebrity endorsement literature, existing models appear incomplete and offeronly partial understanding (Carson et al., 2001; Mariampolski, 2001). Such a situation callsfor a critical re-examination of the validity of current conceptual frameworks. Theapplication of projective techniques helps identify why some of the inconsistenciesbetween existing models and empirical results occur, in keeping with the objective ofgenerating insights that are empirically grounded for revising theory (Eisenhardt, 1989).

Literature reviewThe literature on consumer responses to celebrity endorsement is extensive. The threemost influential contributions are source models (La Ferle and Choi, 2005; Ohanian,1990; Spry et al., 2011), McCracken’s (1989) meaning transfer model and the “match up”hypothesis (Erdogan, 1999). This section examines each in turn.

Ohanian (1990) drew on Hovland et al.’s (1953) synthesis of research oncommunicator credibility and McGuire’s (1985) analysis of source research to producean integrated source model. It posits that the effectiveness of the source depends on threeconstructs (expertise, attractiveness and trustworthiness). Expertise, also referred to asauthoritativeness, relates to a source’s competence, qualifications, knowledge andexperience. The attractiveness construct focuses on physical attractiveness. To capturethe construct, Ohanian (1990) includes items relating to the following descriptors:attractive, classy, handsome/beautiful, elegant and sexy. Trustworthiness refers to thehonesty and sincerity of the source. Ohanian (1990) found that all three constructs weresignificant for explaining intention to purchase for one chosen celebrity (Tom Selleck),but not for the other (Linda Evans). Subsequent applications generated similarly mixedresults. La Ferle and Choi’s (2005) study supports the source model’s tricomponentialstructure and Eisend and Langner (2010) found the effectiveness of celebrity endorsersto be linked to both attractiveness and expertise. However, other studies are lessclear-cut with the role of attractiveness being particularly contentious (Caballero et al.,1989; Till and Busler, 2000).

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McCracken (1989, p. 320) criticises the conceptual validity of source models, arguingthat the latter approach:

[. . .] prevents us from seeing that celebrities are in fact highly individualised and complexbundles of meaning. It also prevents us from seeing that endorsement consists in the transferof these meanings from the celebrity to the product, and from the product to the consumer.

According to McCracken (1989), source models make assertions about the credibilityand attractiveness of the celebrity but are blind to the endorser’s role as a medium; andwhat shapes perceived continuity of messages between advertisements. He reasonsthat source models cannot explain why a particular celebrity’s image can work withone product but fail when transferred to another brand. As a result, from applying asource model a researcher can establish that a particular celebrity is attractive but notmake sense of the specific meanings she/he lends a product.

As an alternative, McCracken (1989) contends that celebrity endorsements must beunderstood as part of a three-part meaning transfer process. In the first stage, themeanings that originate in the dramatic roles, political campaigns and/or athleticachievements of the celebrity come to reside in the celebrities themselves. In the secondstage, as a result of celebrity endorsement, some, but often not all, of the meanings ofthe celebrity are transferred to the product. In the final stage, the meaning transfers,often incompletely, from the product to the consumer. While McCracken’s (1989) paperis much cited, few recent studies investigate factors that facilitate/impede the transferof meaning in the content of celebrity endorsements.

One strong theme in both the academic literature and guides for practitioners is theimportance of fit between product and celebrity, which is often referred to as the “match uphypothesis”. The latter suggests that endorsers are most effective when there is a highdegree of fit between the endorser and the endorsed brand/product (Kamins, 1990;Biswas et al., 2006). To a large extent, empirical research on the match up hypothesisconcentrates on the physical attractiveness of the endorser (Till and Busler, 2000; Kim andNa, 2007), considering the impact of highly attractive celebrities on products linked tobeauty in contrast to goods which are not used primarily to enhance one’s attractiveness.The conceptual argument is that attractive celebrities are more effective endorsers forproducts which are used to enhance one’s physical appearance (Till and Busler, 2000).

Evidence for the match-up hypothesis remains equivocal. Kahle and Homer (1985)found that pairing a product (razor blades) with an attractive (rather than unattractive)celebrity endorser resulted in more favourable brand attitudes. However, Till andBusler (2000) criticise Kahle and Homer’s (1985) research design, claiming that as thelatter only considered one product, which they argue is used to enhance one’sattractiveness, the study cannot assess the effect of attractive celebrities on goods notemployed to enhance one’s attractiveness. A later study by Kamins (1990), which didinclude a good not used to enhance one’s attractiveness (home computer), found thepredicted interaction between celebrity attractiveness and product type in only two outof seven dependent measures. Till and Busler’s (2000) own study found that while anattractive spokesperson had a positive effect on brand attitudes, there was no evidenceof a product type by endorser attractiveness interaction consistent with the match uphypothesis. They conclude that “physical attractiveness is not a strong match-upfactor because the link from ‘attractive endorser’ to product used to enhance one’sattractiveness may not be readily apparent” (Till and Busler, 2000, p. 12).

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Other research queries the emphasis placed on attractiveness and the match-uphypothesis. Bower and Landreth’s (2001) study suggests that “normal-looking” endorsersmay be preferable to highly attractive ones even when a product is linked to enhancingone’s attractiveness. This is because a normal-looking endorser may be perceived as moretrustworthy, provoking a better connection with the average consumer because of greaterperceived similarity. Marshall et al. (2008), based on responses to advertisements forlipstick, argue that highly attractive endorsers may generate greater post-purchasedissonance, as the gap between the consumer’s actual self-image and projected productimage is too wide. Lee and Thorson’s (2008) experiments suggest that moderate mismatchbetween a product’s and a celebrity’s image generates more favourable intentions topurchase than either extreme mismatch or exceedingly high congruence. The authorsspeculate that moderately incongruent endorsements may generate greater interest in, andcuriosity toward, an advertisement, whereas those with high perceived fit fail to stimulateas they are perceived as too familiar and typical.

It is not just academic studies which question the validity of existing theory. Severalrecent, successful celebrity endorsements appear at odds with the source models andthe match up hypothesis. For instance, Dairy Crest attributed a rise in sales of85 percent for its Country Life brand of butter to a campaign featuring John Lydon(formerly Johnny Rotten of the punk band “The Sex Pistols”) (Teather, 2009). It isdifficult to see how John Lydon matches with butter, or how the source bringsexpertise, attractiveness and trustworthiness to a dairy product. A similar problemconfronts the interpretation of Ozzy Osbourne’s successful endorsement of “I Can’tBelieve It’s Not Butter”. Victoria’s Secret, a lingerie retailer, attributed a spectacularrise in sales to the appearance of Bob Dylan in one of its commercials (Coulson, 2004).This would appear at odds with the match up hypothesis and the contention thatattractive celebrities are more effective endorsers for products used to enhance one’sphysical appearance. While care should be taken in interpreting individual cases,particularly with the lack of thorough investigation of attitudinal responses andbehavioural effects, it is nonetheless apparent that practitioners often select and usecelebrity endorsers in ways which are at odds with existing academic theory.

Given the lack of consensus in empirical findings, and the extent to which findingshave not been consistent with theory, this study returns to a qualitative approach.Specifically the study utilises projective techniques to understand responses tocelebrity endorsements. Projective techniques are suited to uncovering the multipleassociations and salient characteristics of celebrities, brands and products. This fitswith Lee and Thorson’s (2008, p. 447) call for future research to capture themultidimensionality of celebrity endorsers, “assessing the broader meaningsassociated with an endorser”.

Overview of projective techniquesProjective techniques are one, often underutilised tool, for qualitative market research.They seek to uncover feelings, attitudes, beliefs and motivations that may remainsub-conscious or difficult to express (Donoghue, 2000) by studying responses toambiguous stimuli. An array of techniques exist, which Will et al. (1996) classify into fivetypes: association, construction, completion, choice ordering and expressive.The rationale for projective techniques is that individuals will respond to ambiguousand unstructured stimuli by projecting their personality, attitudes and mindsets

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on to such material to create structure and meaning (Hussey and Duncombe, 1999). Theuse of ambiguous stimuli, eschewing responses specifically in the first person,constitutes an indirect form of questioning. This indirect approach may overcomeblocking strategies whereby individuals do not communicate thoughts and attitudes toavoid the anxiety of embarrassment or fear of appearing stupid or diminished in someother way by others (Pettigrew and Charters, 2008; Hofstede et al., 2007).

The use of projective techniques in marketing dates back to Haire (1950) since whentheir popularity has waxed and waned. While some researchers question their reliability(Yoell, 1974), several studies demonstrate their utility for generating insights regardingconsumers’ motivations and image management, yielding relevant lessons for marketingstrategy (Cooper and Tower, 1992; Hofstede et al., 2007; Hussey and Duncombe, 1999).For qualitative market researchers, projective techniques offer “a ‘way in’ to the invisiblelayers of the mind” (Chandler and Owen, 2002, p. 100), allowing one to “unlock and clarifymeanings that are out of conscious reach or deep or difficult to express verbally” (Wardle,2002, p. 64). They enable researchers to probe inconsistencies in consumers’ reasoningand between stated preferences and actions, which is often essential for understandingmarket dynamics and possible future scenarios (Chandler and Owen, 2002).

MethodologyThis study involved four projective techniques: word association, choice ordering,sentence completion and picture association. Given the interest in celebrityendorsement, this paper focuses on responses to the last technique. After theapplication of projective techniques, the interviews garnered more general informationon participants’ use of perfume and reported motivations for purchase.

Picture association tests drew on six advertisements, comprised of two perfumeadvertisements and four pictures of perfumes and celebrity endorsers. The two perfumeadvertisements were real, commercial examples without endorsers. The four otherpictures were created by the lead author of this paper, combining images of celebrityendorsers and perfumes to create hypothetical advertisements. Photoshop softwarewas utilised. The perfumes chosen for this research were: Gucci Envy Me andChristian Dior J’adore. These are well-established brands with high recall and recognition(Mintel, 2007). The image of Gucci Envy Me was associated with Jennifer Aniston andAmy Winehouse[1] to create two other advertisements. The Christian Dior J’adoreadvertisement was edited with images of Queen Latifah and Emma Watson to create thetwo other hypothetical advertisements with celebrity endorsers. The four celebrities werechosen based on the likelihood of contrasting associations. At the time of the research(Summer 2009) none of the celebrities chosen had endorsed any perfumes.

Participants discussed first associations with the non-endorsed advertisements.Subsequently the hypothetical celebrity-endorsed advertisements were introduced oneat a time. In line with other applications of picture association (Prebensen, 2007),respondents first described their initial associations (top of the mind), then what theybelieved to be the message of the advertisement and the likely outcome. Respondentswere encouraged to describe the type of person the product is aimed at (perceived targetmarket). Participants were prompted to describe the thoughts, feelings and personalityof the endorser. Responses to the non-endorsed and celebrity-endorsed advertisementswere compared, as well as similarities and differences elicited by different celebrities to acommon brand, to assess the degree and type of meaning transfer.

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In total 16 females aged between 20 years and 35 years, all regular perfume wearers,participated in the study. This age group are the heaviest users of perfume (Mintel, 2007).At the outset of the research, the number of interviews was not predetermined. However, bythe 15th and 16th interviews conducted, little or no new insights were generated.The research at thispoint thus encountered theoretical saturation (Glaser and Strauss, 1967)and data collection ceased. Interviews, conducted individually, lasted for approximatelytwo hours. Each was recorded and transcribed. Data were evaluated using quantitative andqualitative content analysis. This followed established procedures for coding/indexing,segmentation of the texts and the analysis of word occurrence (Dey, 1993; Wilkinson, 2004).

FindingsTable I summarises background information on the age of respondents and factorsaffecting the purchase of a particular perfume for their own use (i.e. excluding gifts forothers). The latter information emerged from the open-ended interview questions askedafter conducting the projective techniques. All but one respondent identified thepleasantness of the fragrance as being a critical factor in selecting a particular perfumefor purchase. One half of the respondents identified the degree of fit betweenthe perfume and their self-image as being important. Seven participants identified thatthe perfume should make them feel happy. Three respondents identified the brand nameas being salient and five respondents discussed that the perfume selected should makethem feel more attractive and appealing to their boyfriend/husband. None identifiedcelebrity endorsements as being important.

However, the application of the projective techniques revealed a more complicatedpicture. Table II details the main associations for the perfume advertisements withand without celebrity endorsers. The figures in brackets refer to the number ofrespondents identifying a particular association.

Respondentcode

Agegroup

Pleasantfragrance

Fit withself-image

Make moreattractive

Appeal toboyfriend /

husbandFeel

happy NoveltyAppeal

of brand

A 30-35 X XB 30-35 X X XC 30-35 X XD 20-24 X X XE 20-24 X X XF 20-24 X X XG 20-24 X XH 30-35 X X XI 20-24 X X XJ 20-24 X XK 25-29 X X XL 25-29 X XM 25-29 X X X XN 30-35 X X XO 30-35 X X XP 20-24 X X X

Note: “X” indicates salient factor identified in interview questions

Table I.Overview of respondentsand stated motivesinvolved in purchasingperfume

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Gucci Envy MeWhen confronted with the advertisement without a celebrity endorser, participants’initial associations centred on the colour of the packaging and the brand name. The mostubiquitous associations were with the colour pink, Gucci and handbags. The majorityperceived the product as being aimed at 20 something females and if the perfume werea person it would be a beautiful, slim, and young woman:

This brand would be an independent, beautiful, smart, and simple career woman, good at herjob, who wears high heel shoes and a beige suit (respondent F).

Initial associations of the advertisement incorporating Jennifer Aniston focused on theactor. Four of the participants openly said that Jennifer Aniston did not match with theperfume, and two interviewees remarked that there was a good match. Regardingpersonification, respondents now linked the perfume with Jennifer Aniston rather thangeneral descriptors of “beautiful”, “slim” and “young”. Five respondents linked thename of the perfume to Jennifer Aniston:

No wonder it’s called Envy me. Jennifer Aniston is [. . .] envied by many people (respondent E).

If you want to be envied like Jennifer Aniston, then wear the perfume (respondent I).

Jennifer Aniston is popular and “Envy me” means the girl who wears this perfume will bepopular so she will be envied by other girls (respondent J).

The linkage of a celebrity with “Envy Me” as a brand name was disliked by threerespondents:

I do not like someone who says “envy me” (Respondent F).

Perfume Perfume alone Perfume plus JenniferAniston

Perfume plus AmyWinehouse

Gucci Envy Me Initial associations: pink(9), Gucci (5), sweet (3),girly (3), handbags (3),Personification:beautiful (6), slim (4),young woman (4).Perceived target market:women in their 20s (10)

Initial associations:Jennifer Aniston (7),friends (6), celebrity notmatch perfume (4)Personification:Jennifer Aniston (7).Perceived target market:30/40 year olds (9)

Initial associations:Amy Winehouse (14),“badness” (7), music (7),drugs (4)Personification:Amy Winehouse (12).Perceived target market:teenagers (7) 20-somethings (8)

Perfume plus QueenLatifah

Perfume plus EmmaWatson

J’adore –Christian Dior

Initial associations:golden colour (7), glow (4),cosmetics (3), luxury (3),clothes (3). Personification:elegant (4), mature (3),classy (3). Perceived targetmarket: 20s (3), 30s (3),40s (7), 50 to 60 (3)

Initial associations: QueenLatifah (6), earrings (3),glow (3)Personification:Queen Latifah (9), blackwoman (3). Perceivedtarget market: 20s (6),30s (7)

Initial associations:Emma Watson (8),dress (3), Harry Potter (3),perfume (3)Personification:Emma Watson (11).Perceived target market:teenagers (7), 20s (8)

Table II.Summary of main

associations forfragrances alone and with

celebrity endorsements

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With the advertisement endorsed by Jennifer Aniston the perceived target market wassignificantly higher (women in their 30s and 40s) compared to the non-endorsedversion (women in their 20s).

Reactions to the “Envy Me” advertisement incorporating the image of AmyWinehouse, focused almost entirely on respondents’ views of the singer. As a result,participants’ images of the perfume changed almost completely due to the hypotheticalcelebrity endorsement. This was in terms of both associations and personification:

It is aggressive [. . .]. The perfume is just like Amy Winehouse. It seeks excitement and likesto try everything including dangerous activities and very subjective, she doesn’t take mostpeople’s opinions into consideration, she cares about herself, she does not care about anything(respondent L).

Join forces with Amy Winehouse. I’m a wild girl and I like this sort of perfume, if you have thesame nature like me, this would be the best one for you (respondent P).

I would buy it, to know how Amy Winehouse smells like (respondent D).

Become a bad girl. Buy me if you want to be bad (respondent H).

Four participants thought that the endorser did not fit with the perfume and fiveparticipants thought there was a good match. The age of the perceived target marketwas also noticeably younger than with the Jennifer Aniston version (teenagers andwomen in the 20s).

J’adore – Christian DiorConfronted with the non-celebrity-endorsed advertisement, respondents focused on thegolden colour of the perfume’s packaging, the black background of the advertisement,the glow of the bottle and the brand name (Table II). Regarding the brand name,participants linked it principally to clothes and cosmetics, rather than perfume. Withregard to personification, respondents described an “elegant”, “mature” and “classy”woman although one participant (respondent O) thought that that the fragrance wasfor men. Some descriptions were remarkably detailed or specific:

It is for a career woman who is beautiful, independent, flexible, thin, self-sufficient, and doingwell in her job and private life. She has a good appearance, sexy and successful in the waythat she is loved and she loves herself, she is not desperate (respondent F).

She has inner beauty and she wears a pair of glasses (respondent I).

Maybe she is not beautiful but she has a lot of knowledge and experiences in life. She has a decentjob and knows a lot about her job, and she knows how to represent her feeling. She is elegant,charming, rich, self confident, talkative but likes to keep silent but she has a lot of good points inher mind. She has white skin, a lot of guys fall for her but she has a higher standard (respondent M).

The perceived target market was rather varied (from females in their 20s up to60 years old) with the most common response being career women in their 40s. Somerespondents responded to the non-endorsed advertisement, by arguing that theperfume was only for older women:

It is too old for me (respondent F).

I would not try it – I am not yet forty (respondent A).

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The incorporation of Queen Latifah into the advertisement resulted in a shift inassociations. The main associations were with Queen Latifah (style, earrings, facialexpression) rather than the perfume. Ten of the 16 participants felt that Queen Latifahmatched with the perfume. Overall the celebrity was perceived as likeable and this affectedboth personification of the brand and the perceived target market. In this case the perfumewas perceived as “friendly” and “successful”, aimed at women in their 20s and 30s:

This product is for a confident woman or the girl who wants to be like her (respondent K).

If you want to become as confident, beautiful and sexy as her, then just buy it, use it and thenyou will become her (respondent I).

Someone as strong, beautiful, and elegant as Queen Latifah is using this perfume, so if theproduct has captured her attention, then it must be worthy of buying. If you are between theage of 30 to 50 and if you are female, if you are a woman, if you are married or not that doesn’tmatter, but if you want to have a good time, if you want to look expensive, if you want to berich, wear this perfume (respondent P).

The inclusion of Emma Watson into the J’adore advertisement also dramaticallychanged participants’ associations of the brand and the perceived target market. Theirinitial reactions focused on the endorser (her style, dress, etc. and Harry Potter).Eight participants believed that Emma Watson and the perfume matched while fivefelt there was a mismatch. Those favourably predisposed to the celebrity, became moreenthusiastic toward the product:

I like Emma Watson [. . .] This fragrance [would] boost my confidence and make my night lifemore enjoyable, I would try it (respondent A).

This perfume would be tender as the endorser seems to be peaceful. Gorgeous because she issexy, educated, and she has good shape (respondent D).

Regarding, personification and the perceived target market, most respondents tookEmma Watson as a cue. In particular, the brand was seen as a much younger personthan that described in response to the non-celebrity-endorsed version. The perceivedtarget market was mainly teenagers and women in their 20s.

DiscussionIn response to interview questions on factors affecting choice of perfume, norespondent discussed the role of celebrity endorsers. However, the application of theprojective techniques revealed that celebrity endorsement may have a significant effecton the associations of a brand. Four important effects are discussed in this section(changing the perceived target market, the role of personal liking, the potential for thecelebrity to crowd out the product, and the role of brand families). These effects haveimportant lessons for practitioners interested in using celebrity endorsements and foracademic researchers seeking to understand their effects.

A noticeable effect of celebrity endorsers is their ability to alter the perceived targetmarket of a product. For instance, when respondents were confronted with the J’adoreadvertisement without a celebrity endorser and asked “who is this product for”, answersvaried enormously (women aged between 20 and 60 years), with most viewing the productfor professional women aged in their 40s. When faced with the J’adore advertisement withEmma Watson, however, the perceived target market was noticeably younger – teenagers

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and women in their 20s. The addition of Queen Latifah to the J’adore advertisement alsolowered the perceived age of the target market, albeit to a lesser extent than with the case ofEmma Watson. Celebrity endorsement could, therefore, play a role in repositioning abrand, so that it better fits with an existing or new target market.

Reactions to the advertisements typically involved respondents discussing their degreeof “personal liking” for the celebrity. The source model incorporates three constructs tomodel persuasiveness (trustworthiness, expertise and attractiveness). Attractivenesslargely focuses on physical aspects (e.g. items relating to handsome/beautiful, elegant andsexy). The source models do not, therefore, explicitly capture personal liking and the lattershould be seen as a distinct construct from attractiveness. As one respondent remarked:

She looks good but I don’t like her (respondent F).

Acknowledging the salience of personal liking recognises that endorsers elicit affectiveas well as cognitive responses and the possibility of para-social relationships.

McCraken’s (1989) model assumes that the meanings of the celebrity are transferredto the product, and then to the consumer, albeit often imperfectly. The projectivetechniques suggest that some celebrities may completely overshadow theproduct/brand. This was most evident when Amy Winehouse was introduced withthe fragrance “Gucci Envy Me”; few commented on the perfume or even the degree offit with the celebrity. Rather responses focused on whether the celebrity was “a badperson” and her associations with music and drugs. There was little or no meaningtransfer from the celebrity to the product; the advertisement was not treated primarilyas an endorsement. Assessments of celebrity endorsement often implicitly treat theproduct and celebrity as equally dominant (Lee and Thorson, 2008). Yet in practicethey are unlikely to ever be entirely equal and following recent experimental studies itis important to recognise that when one part of a stimulus dominates, other aspectsrecede into the background (Samu and Wymer, 2009).

A final theme emerging from the projective techniques, for studying responses tocelebrity endorsements, is the importance of overarching brand families. For example,a common association for the Gucci Envy Me fragrance was handbags. Similarly forJ’adore, the primary associations with Dior were clothes and cosmetics, not perfume.However, tests of the match up hypothesis typically treat the brand/product as a single cue.This, however, ignores the importance of brand extensions and how established brandnames are utilised to enter new product categories. In this case it may be that respondentsevaluate the degree of fit with the celebrity not only in terms of the specific perfume, if at all,but also against other Gucci/Dior products with which they are familiar. Future researchshould allow for multiple cues and assess the importance of consistency across them.

ConclusionsThis paper utilises a qualitative approach to demonstrate how projective techniquesmay inform practitioners in their selection of celebrity endorsers. This approach helpscapture the multiple meanings of celebrities and endorsed products, and the degree ofmeaning transfer, while avoiding too narrow a focus on single attributes. Indirectquestioning helps overcome blocking strategies (Cooper and Tower, 1992) andconsumers’ likely resistance to admitting the role endorsers may play in the selection ofproducts. Overall, the study illustrates how projective techniques are appropriate tools

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for gaining greater insight into how celebrity endorsements are interpreted, and howthey can be more effectively understood by both practitioners and academics.

The study highlights four main effects relating to celebrity endorsements (impact onthe perceived target market, the role of personal liking, the potential for the celebrity tocrowd out the product and the role of brand families). Celebrity endorsements may playa particularly useful role in repositioning a brand, for instance appealing to a youngermarket. However, practitioners in selecting a particular endorser need to consider the“likeability” of the celebrity, a factor which is downplayed in source models that focuson physical attractiveness, expertise and trustworthiness. The latter factors,while important, are likely to be insufficient, if personal liking is absent.

Note

1. This research was conducted before the sad and untimely death of Amy Winehouse.

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About the authorsNisachon Tantiseneepong possesses an MSc degree in International Marketing and is apostgraduate researcher. Her research concerns celebrity endorsement and brand management.

Matthew Gorton is a Senior Lecturer in Marketing at Newcastle University Business School.He teaches research methods and international marketing and has published more than30 papers in a wide range of refereed journals, including in the European Journal of Marketing.

John White is an Associate Professor in Marketing at the University of Plymouth. He teachesMarketing Communications.

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