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# DATE EVENT SIGNIFICANCE COUNTRIES

AFFECTED

OTHER

EVENTS

AFFECTED

1

Nov. 18th,

1302

Boniface VIII issues

the Unam Sanctum

Boniface VIII was known for his Unam Sanctum, an attempt to put the

monarchy under the power of the pope, and a continuation of his protest

against taxing the clergy. Philip IV's chief minister, Nogaret, denounced

him for this, so he excommunicated them both. However, an army led by

Nogaret surprised him at Anagni and he was seized and most likely

executed. This hostility between church and state was one of the factors

leading to the Babylonian Captivity.

France 2

2

1309 Avignon Papacy

This was also known as the Babylonian Captivity, and it was caused by

Clement V's unwillingness to go to Rome. All of the popes in this first

Avignon lineage were French, and increasingly fell under the influence

of the French monarchy.

France, England 4, 6

3

Jan. 27th,

1343

Pope Clement VI

issues papal bull

Ungenitus Dei filius

With this bull, Clement VI sets up a "treasury of merit" also known as a

system of indulgences, by which people could absolve themselves of

guilt - for a price. These persisted, often corrupt and abused, until Martin

Luther argued against them during the Reformation.

Entirety of Catholic

Population

18

4 1337

Beginning of the

Hundred Years War It created a basis for both French and English nationalism, while making

marked innovation in military tactics and weaponry.

France and England None

5

1348

Black Death first

appears in Italys port cities

The Black Death was one of the worst plagues in history, set up by states

weakened by years of war and overpopulation. It killed approximately

60% of Europe's population.

All of Europe 8

6

1378 Great Schism Begins

Urban VI is elected, but the electors mistrust him and elect an antipope,

Clement VII. This polarized the church, as each had their own followers

and it continued until the Council of Constance, despite attempts to stop

it through force and negotiations.

All of Europe

7

1415 Hohenzollerns rise to

power in Brandenburg

The Hohenzollern family rose to the position of Margrave in the

unattractive territory of Brandenburg, later Prussia. A Hohenzollern

descendent, Frederick William the Great Elector would unite

Brandenburg into a strong European power for the first time in it's

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history, and his son would be Frederick I, the first King of Prussia.

8

1434

Cosimo de Medicis ascent to power in

Florence

The Medicis will rule in Florence for more than 300 years. They are

massive patrons of the arts, which helps stimulate the Italian

Renaissance.

Italy 17,

9

1440

Lorenzo Vallas Donation of

Constantine essays

began circulating

The Donation of Constantine was a forged document that Lorenzo Valla

exposed in a scientific, professional manner. Valla was one of the

famous humanists, and he encouraged the ideas of the Renaissance.

All of Europe

10

1453 Fall of Constantinople

The sack of Constantinople by the Ottomans marked the ending of the

Byzantine Empire (also known as the Eastern Roman Empire) and rise

of the Ottomans in the east.

Eastern Roman Empire 34

11

1455 Gutenberg Bible first

printed

Gutenberg invents the printing press and starts mass-distributing bibles.

This is one of the most important inventions of this era, as it allows for

mass-produced dissemination of information, which increases the

general level of learning in the populace.

All of Europe 16, 17,

12

1467 Louis XI becomes

King of France

A king of the house of Valois, Louis XI set up France as a major world

power by stabilizing the country and its economy and decreasing the

power of the nobility. He was known as the Spider King for his wont to

political intrigue and diplomacy, and was one of the New Monarchs.

France

13

1469

Marriage of

Ferdinand and

Isabella

Ferdinand and Isabella were the New Monarchs of Spain, and

centralized and strengthened the government. They also supported many

Spanish explorers and began the era of colonialism.

Spain

14 1485

Henry VII takes the

throne

One of the New Monarchs, he was the first king of the house of Tudor, a

long and powerful dynasty that lasted until Elizabeth I.

England

15

1492

Christopher

Columbus arrives in

New World

He was supported by Ferdinand and Isabella, and his landing in the New

World marks the beginning of the age of conquistadors.

Spain

16

1509 Henry VIII marries

Catherine of Aragon

Her inability to give him a male heir precipitates their annulment and

eventually a break with the Roman Catholic Church, creating the

Anglican Church of England.

England

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17

1511 Erasmus writes In

Praise of Folly

A Dutch humanist, Erasmus wrote In Praise of Folly as a biting essay

against the corruption of the Catholic Church. It is regarded as one of the

major works of the Northern Renaissance and foreshadows the soon-

coming Protestant Reformation.

Italy

18

1513 Machiavelli writes

The Prince

Machiavelli wrote the political treatise as a means to unite the Italian

city-states; it explained how best to keep an absolute ruler's country

united. However, it extended far beyond that and his ideas influenced

many of the rulers to come, such as Cromwell.

Italy

19

1517 Martin Luther

publishes his 1 Theses

Luther posts the 95 Theses, his criticism of the Catholic church, on the

doors of the Castle Church of Wittenburg. This is widely regarded as the

catalyst for the Protestant Reformation.

Germany

20

1521 Diet of Worms

The Holy Roman Empire's gathering at Worms. Here, Emperor Charles

V denounced Luther, calling him a heretic and forced him into exile at

Wartburg Castle. Despite the harshness of the Edict, Charles V was not

able to enforce it and eventually, Luther was able return to his key

position in the Protestant Reformation.

Germany

21 1522 Affair of the Sausages

Zwingli breaks the Lenten fast by eating sausages. This is one of the first

major events of the Swiss Reformation.

Switzerland

22

1524-1526 German Peasants

Revolt

The peasants rise up against the nobility because Luther's teachings. It

causes mass panic and after Luther realized that he couldn't support it

without losing noble support, he calls the peasants a lying, thieving, un-

christian horde and and squashes the revolt.

Germany

23

1527 Sack of Rome

When Rome is sacked by mutinous troops of Charles V, the pope

remains avoidant of conflict against the Holy Roman Empire for the rest

of his life, which leads to him ceding them the bishopdom of Utrecht and

refusing to annul Henry VIII's marriage to Catherine of Aragon (Charles

V's aunt). It also slows the Italian Renaissance.

Italy

24

1527 Philip II takes the

throne of Spain

Philip II, son of Charles V, was the heir to a massively powerful empire,

about which the phrase was coined "The empire on which the sun never

sets." Though he was a pretty strong king, he had several bankruptcies

through his reign and was known for his religious fanaticism.

Spain

25 1531 Henry VIII He passed the (first) Act of Supremacy and the Act of Succession at the England

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recognized as head of

the Church of

England

Reformation Parliament in order to be able to annul his marriage to

Catherine of Aragon. This split the English church from the papacy

forever, and two years later, Henry VIII was excommunicated.

26

July 1536 Calvin visits Geneva

Calvin, a major theologian, took a detour through Geneva because of the

Italian war. After William Farel begs him to stay, he becomes one of the

major figures of the Reformation in Geneva.

Switzerland

27

1540

Jesuit order

recognized by

Catholic Church

Ignatius of Loyola founded the Order after he converted to Catholicism

when he was wounded in a battle. They are also called the Soldiers of

the Cross and are known for their educational outreach.

Catholic people

everywhere in Europe

28

1543

Copernicus publishes

On the Revolutions of

Heavenly Spheres

The publishing of on the revolution of the heavenly spheres, though not

immediately accepted, signaled a transition from the old, geocentric

view of the universe to a heliocentric view of the universe. For this

assertion, the Church declared Galileo heretical.

Western Europe

29

1545-1563 Council of Trent

Charles V calls a meeting of high church officials to reform the Catholic

Church (in response to the Protestant Reformation) by removing much

of the corruption and incompetence prevalent in the church.

Catholic people

everywhere in Europe

30

1555 Peace of Augsburg

The Peace of Augsburg can be summed up by the Latin phrase "cuius

regio, eius religio," which allowed the ruler of a country to decide its

religion. When Charles V realized he could not contain or stop

Protestantism anymore, he had to accept the doctrine in order to keep his

empire from tearing apart.

Holy Roman Empire

31 1558

Elizabeth I takes the

throne

Elizabeth, daughter of Anne Boleyn and Henry VIII, took the throne

after the deaths of Edward VI and Mary I.

England

32

1559 Philip leaves

Netherlands

Philip II did not care at all about the Netherlands, besides their

commercial value as a country of seaports. This neglect led to the Dutch

Revolt.

Spain, Netherlands

33 1563 39 articles

The Thirty-nine Articles were the statements of doctrine of the Anglican

Church relative to the Roman Catholic and Protestant Churches.

England

34

1570 Elizabeth I

excommunicated

Pope Pius V releases a papal bull of excommunication in response to her

radical changes to the English church in the Thirty-nine Articles. This

effectively gave Catholics everywhere permission to assassinate the

England

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queen, of which several attempts are made.

35

1571 Battle of Lepanto

This battle marks a turning point in the relationship between Europe and

the Ottoman Empire. After the fall of Constantinople, there was nothing

between the Muslim Ottomans and Christian Europe; however, with this

battle, the Europeans are able to stop the Ottomans from expanding

farther into the European side of the Mediterranean.

Southern Europe,

Turkey

36

August 24th,

1572

St. Bartholomews Day Massacre

The massacre took place in Paris, during the Protestant Henry of

Navarre's wedding to Princess Marguerite. Catherine de' Medici, the

queen mother of France, was nervous about the Huguenot presence (he

brought an entourage of his countrymen) and the growing tension in the

violently Catholic Paris. Triggered by the attempted assassination of the

respected Protestant leader, Coligny, and fearing Huguenot revenge, she

ordered the king to order the execution of the rest of Huguenots in Paris,

which led to widespread killings of Protestants throughout France. The

massacre marked a change towards the hostile in the relationships

between Protestants and Catholics throughout Europe.

France, the Protestant

populations in other

countries

37

1576 Sack of Antwerp

(Spanish Fury)

Started by some mutinying Spanish soldiers, the sack of Antwerp

spanned three days. There were at least 7000 casualties and massive

property damage, and Antwerp, one of the strongest and richest cities of

the Netherlands, never recovered. This lowered the already tarnished

reputation of Philip II.

Netherlands

38

1576 Pacification of Ghent

Enraged by the Sack of Antwerp, the Netherlands, Protestant north and

Catholic south, joined together against the Spanish threat. Facing this

newly unified Netherlands, Philip had to accept defeat and ceded the

Netherlands to William of Orange.

Netherlands

39

1579 Union of Arras

Only three years after the Pacification of Ghent, the Union of Arras was

formed after Spain was able to turn the southern provinces away from

their Calvinist neighbors. In response, two years later, the northern

provinces formed the Union of Utrecht.

Netherlands

40

1586 Babington Plot

The Babington Plot was seemingly an assassination attempt started by

Mary Stuart, seeking sanctuary from Scotland, where she had abdicated

her throne. After Francis Walsingham found evidence of her

involvement, Elizabeth had no choice but to execute her, despite

England

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angering many of the Catholics in England.

41

1588 Defeat of the Spanish

Armada

Philip II planned to invade the staunchly non-Catholic England with the

invincible, at that time, Spanish Navy. However, due to the Spanish

fleets' hugeness and slowness as compared to the English ships, they

were soundly defeated, marking an end to Spanish dominance on the

seas and the rise of England.

England, Spain

42

1589

Henry of Navarre

becomes Henry IV of

France

After the War of Three Henrys, with Henry III and Henry of Navarre, his

heir, against Henri, the Duke of Guise. Henri planned to assassinate

Henry III, but then was killed by Henry's Forty-Five, a group of lower

nobility that were pledged to the king. Afterwards, despite success in the

campaign against the Catholic League, Henry III was assassinated by a

fanatical monk and Henry rose to the throne, becoming Henry IV.

France

43

1598 Edict of Nantes

Decreed by Henry IV, a noted politique, the Edict of Nantes extended

religious toleration to the Huguenots, though France would remain a

Catholic state.

France

44

1603

James VI of Scotland

becomes James I of

King of England

James VI, son of Mary Stuart, had been the King of Scotland and

succeeded the childless Elizabeth I easily, becoming James I. Instead of

going to Parliament to raise income, he levied custom duties called

impositions, which set up some tension between him and Parliament,

who believed he was overstepping his authority.

England

45

1610 Galileo Publishes

Starry Messenger

Galileo's The Starry Messenger expanded on Copernicus' heliocentric

view of the universe, using a telescope to back the assertion up with

irrefutable evidence. This made the Church even more nervous than it

had previously been, for if the Church admitted that it had been wrong

about a geocentric universe it would discredit itself in other areas as

well.

Western Europe

46

1618 Defenestration of

Prague

The Defenestration of Prague was the catalyst for the Thirty Years War,

beginning the Bohemian Phase of the war. The unpopular Habsburg

Ferdinand was determined to restore Catholicism to the eastern Holy

Roman Empire, and as soon as he took office, he revoked religious

toleration for Bohemian Protestants. The Protestant Nobles responded by

throwing his regents out of a window, fifty feet above the ground.

Bohemia

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47

1620

Francis Bacon

publishes Novum

Organum

Bacon attacked the scholastic belief that most truth had already been

discovered, and promoted the scientific method, that is, controlled

experimentation and observation as a basis for the formulation of

universal laws. This bolsters the scientific revolution's idea that the

universe is logical and governed by rules that man can understand.

Western Europe

48

1624

Cardinal Richelieu

becomes chief

minister of France

At the age of 9, Louis XIII inherited the French Throne from his father,

Henry IV. Because of his age, he heavily relied on Cardinal Richelieu,

whose influence continued to Louis XIV.

France

49

1628 Petition of Right

Charles I, like James I, often overstepped his monarchial boundaries.

When he gathered Parliament again in 1628 to ask for more funds, they

refused to grant them until he passed the Petition of Right, a document

that governed the boundaries between the monarchy and the legislation.

England

50

1629 Edict of Restitution

Eleven years into the Thirty Years War, Ferdinand attempted to create

this return to the Peace of Augsburg, as a way to protect Catholic lands

from the encroaching Protestants. However, it was too little, too late, and

the Protestants were far too ingrained in Europe for it to really do

anything besides increase Ferdinand's unpopularity.

Holy Roman Empire

51

1629

Beginning of the

Personal Rule of

Charles I

Also known as the Eleven Years Tyranny, this was when Charles I, with

the help of his chief advisor, Thomas Wentworth, was able to rule

England without going to Parliament for funds by exploiting every

single legal method of fund-raising they had. If not for a war with

Scotland over religion, he could've been able to rule this way

indefinitely. However, because of the Scottish rebellion, he called up

first a Short Parliament (which he immediately dissolved) and then a

Long Parliament, his last.

England

52

1630

Gustavus Adolphus of

Sweden joins the

Thirty Years War

Gustavus Adolphus II led the Protestant forces within the empire. He

was controlled by the French (Cardinal Richelieu), who wanted to keep

the Habsburgs otherwise occupied, and the Dutch, who did not want to

be put under Habsburg rule again. With Prussia, Adolphus won a

massive victory at Breitenfeld, the turning point of the war.

Sweden, Germany,

France, Netherlands,

Prussia

53

1635 The French enter the

Thirty Years War

The French finally join legitimately, and fight with the Spanish through

the entirety of Germany. By the end of the war, the war had killed

approximately one-third of the German population.

France, Spain, Sweden,

Germany

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54

1648 Peace of Westphalia

The Treaty of Westphalia brought the Thirty Years War to a close, and

rescinded the Edict of Restitution, giving the Calvinists legal

recognition. The Swiss Confederacy and the United Provinces of the

Netherlands were officially declared countries, and France got

considerable territorial gain.

France, Sweden,

Prussia, Holy Roman

Empire, and the

Calvinist populations of

Europe.

55

1648 The Fronde

The Fronde was a series of rebellions among French nobles against the

policies of Cardinal Mazarin, one of Louis's advisors. These rebellions

convinced a young Louis that the nobles were too powerful and caused

him to create a more absolutist government.

France

56

1649 Cromwell comes to

power

After Charles' calling of the Long Parliament, the power of the

monarchy is severely restricted by Parliament who give themselves and

the people more rights in the Bill of Rights. He attempts to arrest some

of his opponents in the Parliament but they escape and after this fails, he

leaves London and raises an army, setting off a civil war that would

continue for another four years. Cromwell, at the time a radically puritan

country squire, leads this parliamentary army, and Charles is executed

by January 1649. England is a Puritan republic under Cromwell's rule.

After his death in 1658, England is ready for the Anglican Church and

the monarchy.

England

57

1651 Thomas Hobbes

publishes Leviathan

Hobbes wrote in support of absolute government, stating that

government is created to protect from the egotistical nature of man, and

that if your government is bad, you can do nothing about it.

Western Europe

58 1660 English Restoration

Because England is so sick of Cromwell's puritanism, they happily

return to a monarchy, this time, Charles II, Charles I's son.

England

59

1672 Declaration of

Indulgence

King Charles II issued a declaration suspending all laws against

Catholics and non-Anglican protestants, in attempt at instituting limited

religious freedom. However, he was forced to repeal this in 1673 in

favor of the Test Acts, which required anyone who wished to enter into

the English government, an act against the future Catholic James II. This

declaration was later reaffirmed in 1687 by James II.

France

60

1682 Versailles built

As King of France, Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King,

consolidated unprecedented power in the monarchy. Versailles was built

in part as an effort to control the nobles, since they were forced to move

France

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from their hereditary lands and the source of their power to Versailles if

they wanted to have the ear of the King. Versailles was also built in part

because of Louis dislike of Paris, due to the Fronde.

61

1685 Revocation of Edict of

Nantes

The Edict of Nantes, which guaranteed limited religious tolerance in

France, was revoked in favor of a return to Catholicism, because Louis

XIV thought religious unity was essential to a unified state. Louis paid a

high price for this religious intolerance, as some 200,000 Huguenots fled

France, negatively impacting the economy. This was worrying for

protestants, especially since the Catholic King James II took the English

throne around the same time.

62

1687 War of Devolution

One of Louis XIVs goals as king of France was to make his nation the strongest in Europe. To this end, he initiated a series of wars in the 17th

to early 18th century for the purpose of gaining more territory, beginning

with the War of Devolution. In this war, Louis supported his wifes supposed right of inheritance of the Spanish Netherlands. With this

excuse, Louis invaded Flanders and the Franche-Comt of the Spanish

Netherlands, but was driven back by the Triple Alliance. The Treaty of

Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war and gave France some of the towns

bordering the Spanish Netherlands. In the end, Louis was able to

strengthen France, though the war would contribute to the later-crippling

debt.

France, Austria

63

1687

Newton publishes his

Principia

Mathematica

Newton's masterwork combined the works of previous great thinkers of

the scientific revolution, such as Kepler's laws of planetary motion,

Galileo's laws of falling bodies, and his own ideas about gravity. This

proved to people at the time that the universe was strictly logical and

governed by laws that man could understand, through mathematics.

Later, the Enlightenment movement will draw on these ideas.

Western Europe

64

1688 Glorious Revolution

After Charles II died, his son, James II, took the English throne. Unlike

his father, James was a devout Catholic, which worried the Anglican

population, and when he had a son by his Catholic wife, Parliament

asked William of Orange, James son-in-law, to invade. When William arrived with his army, James fled to France and Parliament crowned

William William III, in a bloodless revolution. He ruled jointly with his

wife, Mary.

England

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65

1689 War of the League of

Augsburg begins

Louis continued upholding his army and attempting to expand his

territory. After he occupied the free city of Strasbourg in 1681, new

defense coalitions sprang up against him. From 1689, he fought the

League in Europe while England and France fought in North America.

The Peace of Ryswick stopped Louiss expansion, and France did not gain much territory from this.

England, Sweden,

Spain, the United

Provinces of the

Netherlands, all major

German states, and

France

66

1689 Act of Toleration

During the reign of William and Mary, Parliament made the Act of

Toleration, which extended limited freedoms to dissenters against the Church of England. This was an act of compromise between Parliament and Protestants.

England

67

1690

John Lockes Second Treatise of

Government

Stated that government is a social contract into which people enter, and

that if government is bad it breaks this contract, and the people can and

will rise up against the government to create a new contract.

England

68

1697 Grand Embassy

Peter the Great, motivated by a desire to modernize and a recognition

that Russia had fallen behind the rest of Europe, took a tour of Holland,

England, and other parts of Western Europe to learn their culture so that

it could be emulated in Russia. Prior to Peter, Russia was geographically

and culturally isolated from the rest of Europe and barely affected by the

ideas of the Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Exploration, and

Scientific Revolution. After his tour, Peter institutes such reforms as

requiring western clothing and cropped beards f the nobles, the Boyars,

requiring the court to speak French, expanding the army and navy, and

making agricultural improvements through the introduction of the

potato.

Russia

69 1700 Great Northern War Directly after the 30 years war, Sweden controlled entire eastern shore of

the Baltic, so Peter fought against Sweden to gain land on the Baltic

shore, thus gaining a window to the west through which Russia could interact and trade with Western Europe. This victory contributed

dramatically to Swedens decline.

Russia, Sweden

70

1701 Act of Settlement

After the Glorious Revolution, wherein the protestant William and Mary

took the throne from the Catholic James II, it was decreed that the throne

of England could only go to a protestant.

England, Germany

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71

1701 War of Spanish

Succession

Before the last Habsburg king of Spain, Charles II, dies without heirs,

Europe scrambles to find a division of his inheritance in a way that keeps

the balance of power. However, he left his entire inheritance to Philip of

Anjou, a distant relative and in line to the French throne which

completely upset the balance (with the possibility of a combination

France and Spain combined superpower) and sucked Western Europe

into a huge war. Philip ended up leaving the French line of succession

and became Philip V of Spain.

Western Europe

72

1702 Death of William III

of Orange

In the 17th century, the Netherlands were the only European power with

a confederation of provinces, rather than a strong central government.

Since William was Stadtholder in the Netherlands, in addition to King in

England, and his death signaled the loss of strong central leadership in

the Netherlands, and led to a decline in economic prosperity, naval

supremacy, and the Netherlands' position as a center of European trade.

Netherlands, Britain

73

1703 Founding of St.

Petersburg

Peter used land gained in the Great Northern War to build a new capital

and royal palace in St. Petersburg, calling the city a great window for Russia to look out at Europe. Additionally, Peter forces the Boyars, or nobles, to move to St. Petersburg so that he could better control them,

emulating Louis XIV and Versailles.

Russia

74

1713 Frederick William II

takes the throne

Frederick William II was the second King of Prussia, and spent a great

deal of effort developing the army, to the point that Prussia had the 3rd

or 4th largest army in Europe and the 13th largest population. For

Frederick William, this was a defensive move to prevent other countries

from invading the newly established Prussia, formerly Brandenburg.

This army was also played a large part in his son's future success in the

War of Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War.

Prussia

75

1713 Pragmatic Sanction

Charles VI knew that upon his death, because he did not have a male

heir, the country would be weakened and attacked by surrounding

countries. Through his reign, he made agreements with the countries

surrounding the Holy Roman Empire and the rest of the Habsburgs that

would ensure that his daughter, Maria Theresa, could inherit.

Holy Roman Empire

76

1713 Treaty of Utrecht and

Treaty of Rastatt

The two treaties brought an end to the War of Spanish Succession.

According to their terms, Philip V was allowed to retain throne of Spain,

as long as throne of Spain and throne of France were not united. England

Spain, France, England

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got Gibraltar, and the island of Minorca and became a Mediterranean

power, fishing rights and land in Canada, and the Asiento, or excusive

rights to trade slaves to the Spanish empire, which was incredibly

lucrative, making England the biggest winner in these negotiations.

Austria gets the Spanish Netherlands, plus Naples, Milan, Sardinia, and

the Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick, was recognized as King of

Prussia. France does, in fact, succeed in pushing its boundaries outward

because it gets Alsace. Ultimately, France is still a great European power

they were debilitated by wars, but so was everyone else.

77

1720

John Law sets up the

Banque Generale

Privee

Law exaggerated the wealth of the Mississippi territory and in an

effective marketing campaign rallied investors to his company. To pay

the investors' profits, he issued paper bank notes. However, when the

government was forced to admit that the bank notes issued were not

backed by real currency, a mass conversion bankrupted the company.

France

78

1722 Table of Ranks

The Table of Ranks was a system created by Peter the Great as a way to

keep the nobles under his control. It set up a direct correlation between a

persons merit and ability and their social standing, rather than taking social standing from lineage. In this way, not only was he able to keep

his bureaucracy strong, but also give people

Russia

79

1739 The War of Jenkins

Ear

Fought between England and Spain, the war of Jenkin's Ear began with

Jenkins, who had been smuggling goods into Spain in defiance of the

Asiento, but claimed the Spanish had cut his ear off without reason. The

war lasted approximately 1.5 years and was largely significant because it

was the first in a series of disputes over European trade & money, with

overseas colonies dragged into the fighting.

Great Britan, Spain

80

1740 The War of Austrian

Succession begins

Frederick II takes the throne of Prussia in 1740, the same year that Maria

Theresa succeeded to the Austrian throne, and immediately violates the

pragmatic sanction by taking the territory of Silesia, which was a very

rich area, thereby doubling his population and industry. Maria Theresa

fought to regain Silesia, and the scale of the war quickly expanded, with

the Austrians, Bohemians, Hungarians, and British fighting against the

Prussians and the French. The British and French do not care about

Silesia, but the French hoped to expand to the Rhine river by taking land

from the Netherlands and the British seek to deny France access to the

Netherlands. This dispute spills over into the Americas, where the

Prussia, Austria,

Bohemia, Hungary,

Britain, France, British

and French Colonies

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French and British colonists fight what for them is King George's War.

The first and second Silesian wars denote Prussian campaigns within the

larger war. Ultimately, Frederick wins Silesia and France does not

expand into the Netherlands.

81

1743 Death of Cardinal

Fleury

King Louis XV was a far weaker ruler than his predecessor, King Louis

XIV, a fact of which Louis XIV was very aware. The death of Cardinal

Fleury, a capable advisor to Louis XV, allowed Louis to enter into two

ill-advised wars, augmenting the existing debt that he was incapable of

managing and leading to the eventual collapse of the French economy.

France

82

1748 Treaty of Aix-la-

Chapelle

Ended the War of Austrian Succession. Austria recognized Prussia's

conquest of Silesia, and the Asiento contract, which guaranteed trading

rights with Spain to England through the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, was

renewed.

Prussia, Austria, Britain,

France, Spain

83

1756 The 7 Years War

begins

Also called the Third Silesian war, this was another war in which Marie

Theresa of Austria and her allies Russia and France fought against

Prussia and England. It is notable that the change in allegiance of France

and England is known as the diplomatic revolution. By all rights, the

alliance of France, Austria, and Russia should have won, but they did not

have the sort of centralized command needed for an effective alliance.

Prussia's saving graces were that England kept France occupied so that

they never fought Prussia, that Prussia was fighting close to home, and

that when Elizabeth of Russia died, she was succeeded by Peter III who

was so militarily enamored with Frederick II of Prussia that he withdrew

from the war. Once again, Prussia kept Silesia, but Maria Theresa was

able to preserve the Habsburg empire. Other results were that Louis XV

increased France's debt and made the country even more vulnerable and

that Britain became a world power.

Prussia, Austria, Russia,

France, Britain

84

1748

Montesquieu

published Spirit of the

Laws

Montesquieu's most influential work calls for limitations on the abuses

of royal absolutism and holds up the British constitution, a constitution

with checks and balances and a separation of powers, as the best model

of government. However, he thought that democracy should only

succeed in small areas and advocated a reformed and revived

aristocracy. Montesquieu's work represents an attempt to create a social science," following the enlightenment pattern of applying the ideas of

the scientific revolution to all things by applying the methods of the

Western Europe

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natural sciences to the study of government.

85 1751

Diderot compiled the

first encyclopedia

Diderot's encyclopedia put all the known knowledge in one place to be

shared, so that knowledge could spread and be improved upon.

Western Europe

86

1759 Voltaire published

Candide

Voltaire was known for criticizing France's rigid government and

denouncing religious bigotry. His Candide attacked war, religious

persecution, and unwarranted optimism.

Western Europe

87

1762 Rousseau published

The Social Contract

This tract asserted that only the people, not the monarch, have the right

to legislate. This was called the General Will. He proposed democracy as

a solution to political problems of the time, which he said stemmed from

absolute monarchies and the abuse of power.

Western Europe

88

1763 The Treaty of Paris

The Treaty of Paris ended the 7 years war and returned Europe to the

status quo, antebellum, meaning that they reverted to conditions before

the first of the mid century wars. This however, did not include Prussian

and Austria, who signed a separate agreement in which Prussia kept

Silesia and Austria retained the remainder of the Habsburg territories.

Prussia, Austria, Russia,

France, Britain

89

1776

Adam Smith

published On the

Wealth of Nations

Smith's On the Wealth of Nations gave birth to modern classical

economic thought, and describes laissez-faire economics, a theory which

states that governments must not interfere with the free functioning of

the market, because supply and demand, the "invisible hand" creates a

self-regulating economy.

Western Europe

90

1762

Catherine the Great

took the Russian

throne

Catherine the Great consciously sought to create the image that she was

an enlightened ruler, reading and citing the works of philosophes, and

corresponding with Voltaire. Her familiarity with the enlightenment and

with the culture of western Europe convinced Catherine that Russia was

backwards and needed major reforms to remain a great power. To this

extent, she limited the practice of torture, allowed limited political

toleration of the Jews, and promoted economic growth. She also ignored

the arguments of the enlightened philosophes when it came to war and

fought wars in the Ottoman empires and Poland to gain territory.

Russia, to an extent: All

of Western Europe

91,

91

1772 First Partition of

Poland

Poland's government was made up of a king with no real power and a

Diet where each noble who sat on the Diet had the power of liberum

veto, meaning that they could dissolve the Diet at any time and nothing

Poland, Russia, Austria,

Prussia

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could be accomplished except unanimously. This meant that nothing was

ever accomplished. In an attempt to shock Poland into reform, Russia,

Austria, and Prussia each annexed a part of Poland. This was

unsuccessful, and so happened twice more in 1793 and 1795

respectively, until Poland no longer existed.

92

February

1781

Necker publishes the

Compte Rendu au Roi

Necker's report on finances of the pre-revolutionary government was

falsified and led to large discontent both with debt and the current

regime's obscurity while complicating the jobs of current officials who

needed to fix the falsified debt.

France

93

1785

Catherine the Great

approves the Charter

of the Nobility

Catherine understood the fragility of the Romanov dynastys base of power and the necessity of widespread political and social support for

any significant reforms and convened a legislative commission to draft a

new enlightened law code. However, nobles refused to concede any of

their privileges, and little was accomplished save limited administrative

reform in the form of the Charter of the Nobility, which gave strong

support to the rights and local power of the nobility In this, Catherine

had to favor the nobles because they could topple her from the throne.

Russia

94

1785 Imperial Patent of

1785

Joseph II of Austria, and enlightened monarch who sincerely wanted to

improve the lot of his people, gave freedom to the serfs and abolished

the robot, a forced work program. This program of reform was bitterly

opposed by Austrian nobles.

Austria

95

August 8th,

1788

Louis Summons the

Estates General

Louis's summons mark the beginning of the end for absolute monarchy

in France. By calling the legislature to session, they are now able to

make demands and pass laws that Louis's predecessors had managed to

avoid. It is an admission of his loss of power and therefore he must rely

on the Estates General to maintain his power. This also belies the extent

of the French debt at the time that Louis would see this as the better of

the two evils.

France

96

June 20th,

1789

Oath of the Tennis

Court

Power shifts from the monarch and the first estate to the third estate and

the mob. With the formation of the National Assembly, France is

beginning to move towards a constitutional monarchy. Later, when

Louis XVI gives in to the newly formed national assembly, and the

second and third estates join, the weakness of the absolute monarchy is

further exposed. Most significantly, the Oath of the Tennis Court marks

France

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the beginning of the French revolution.

97

July 14th,

1789 March on the Bastille

As the Bastille was a symbol of the Old Regime and its power, the

March on and subsequent fall of the Bastille mirrored the mob's intent to

overthrow the Old Regime. The March also provided weapons for the

rebellion when the Bastille was sacked.

France

98

August 8th,

1789 August Decrees

The August Decrees were decrees issued by the National Constituent

Assembly that saw the nobles give over many of their traditional rights,

as feudalism was abolished in France. Required tithing to churches was

also abolished. This signaled a transition away from the rigid class

system of l'Ancien Rgime towards a more equal France while the

church was marginalized. They also show the decline of the NCA's

power as, despite their power over the church and nobility, the NCA is

unable to quell the uprisings without catering to the rebels.

France

99

August 26th,

1789

The Declaration of the

Rights of Man and of

Citizens

This declaration states that all men are created equal (although not all

women) thus legally abolishing the aristocracy in favor of a meritocracy

and wealth based system. The declaration also clearly defines the

government's duty to the citizen, the citizens' duty to the government,

and the limitations of both entities rights.

France

100

October 5th,

1789

Womens March on Versailles

The Women's March on Versailles shows the failure of the NCA and of

Louis XVI to relieve the debt crisis in France. Holding the king

accountable, they surrounded Versailles and forced him and the court to

return to Paris, effectively ending their independent activity.

France

101

July 12th,

1790

Civil Constitution of

the Clergy

All Church lands were confiscated for public property and any monastic

orders were abolished. The lands were used to back a new currency

which eventually failed, and the Constitution led to severe backlash from

the church parishes, the nobility, and the Church itself.

France

102

June 20th,

1791

The Flight to

Varennes

The Flight to Varennes was Louis XVI's failed attempt to flee France

and stage a counter-revolution from Austria. It contributed to the public

hatred of him and his family and was the grounds for the charges of

treason on which he and his family were executed. The Flight more

immediately led to Louis's removal from power.

France

103 August 27th, Declaration of Pillnitz The Declaration of Pillnitz stated that, should Louis not be allowed to France, Prussia, Austria

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1791 return to power or his rights be further infringed upon, Austria and

Prussia would go to war if other European powers agreed. This showed

Leopold II's and Frederick William's support for the French nobility and

monarchy while they were still unwilling to commit to war on their

behalf and would not have to, since Britain did not support war with

France.. The National Assembly misinterpreted this, however, and later

declared war against Prussia and Austria at the urging of Louis XVI who

hoped a resounding defeat would return him to power.

104

September

3rd, 1791 Constitution of 1791

Following the ideals of the general will, the new constitution redefined

the French government, its limitations, and its citizenship. The

constitution established a government based on checks and balances

between the legislature and the monarch finalizing the creation of a

constitutional monarchy for France.

France

105

September

30th, 1791

End of the National

Constituent Assembly

With their new constitution in place, the National Constituent Assembly

peacefully hands power over to its successor, the Legislative Assembly

and, at Robespierre motion, does not allow its own members to serve in

the new legislature.

France

106

1792

Wollstonecraft

published Vindication

of the Rights of

Women

In response to the prevailing misogyny of the time, especially that of

Rousseau, Wollstonecraft advocated for the rights of women and

asserted that the difference between men and women was a difference in

educational opportunities, not in talent.

Western Europe

107

February 1st,

1792

Declaration of War

Against Britain and

the Dutch Republic

These wars lead to the Leve en Masse as France begins to fight its way

into the Netherlands while quelling internal rebellions. The battles

following were where Napoleon first gained prestige and also were the

one's in which Demouriez defected to the side of the counter-

revolutionaries.

France, Britain,

Netherlands

108 February 25th

-28th, 1792 Food Riots in Paris

Denote the Legislative Assembly's failure to correct the debt crisis while

also lending power to the Jacobins. Girondins were the primary party

blamed for the food crisis, adding to their disfavor.

France

109

April 20th,

1792

France Declares War

on Austria and Prussia

Having overreacted to the Declaration of Pillnitz, the new government,

at Louis XVI's urging, declares war on counter-revolutionary Prussia and

Austria. These wars continue throughout the Revolutionary period and

serve to deepen national debt while becoming a focus for patriotic fervor

France

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in the nation.

110

June 20th,

1792 Protests of 20 June

The mob invaded the Tuileries demanding the removal of the king. He

was offered help by both Lafayette and the Girondins who sought to

become his ministers in return for their aid. Meanwhile, the Jacobins and

the mob united to overthrow him.

France

111 August 10th,

1792

Overthrow of the

Monarchy

The National Convention, led by the mob-backed Jacobins, votes to

remove Louis XVI from office while reinstating the dismissed Girondin

ministers. 205 years later, Sarah Zoellick will be born.

France, United States of

America, Universe

112

September

1792 September Massacres

Upon rumors that important political prisoners intended to escape and

initiate a counter-revolution, the mob broke into prisons and killed the

prisoners, most of whom were no more than common criminals.

Following the Massacres, the crowd demands the disbandment of the

Legislative Assembly and the institution of universal male suffrage for

the first time in history.

France

113

September

20th, 1792

National Convention

Takes Over

The new tri-partisan governments advent heralds the beginning of the

Radical Phase of the French Revolution. Sentiment is strongly negative

towards the old monarch and nobility, while the mob largely drives

political power in the new government favoring the Jacobin party.

France

114 September

20th, 1792 Battle of Valmy

The first victory of the French revolutionary armies, the battle of Valmy

served to drive the advancing Austrians away from Paris and out of

France opening Belgium to French assault.

France, Austria

115

September

21st, 1792

Abolition of the

Monarchy

The Monarchy is legally abolished in the new National Conventions

debut legislature. This secures alliance between the Jacobins and the

mob while marking the new government as a republic rather than a

constitutional monarchy. Year one of the Republic begins here.

France

116 May 31st,

1792 Girondin Expulsion

In reaction to mob uprisings in Paris, the Jacobins expel the Girondins

from the National Convention securing their control over the legislature.

France

117 January 21st,

1793

Execution of Louis

XVI

Terminates the monarchy as Louis and his family are executed for

treason. Also marks a divide between the Girondins who opposed

Louis's execution and the Jacobins who supported it with the mob.

France

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118

April 5th,

1793

Committee of Public

Saftey established

The Committee of Public Safety, originally led by Danton, served to

centralize power under its nine members for the autonomous defense of

the republic from threats within and without. This allowed its members

unchecked power leading to the rise of The Terror.

France

119

February 1st,

1793

Declaration of War

Against Britain and

the Dutch Republic

These wars lead to the Leve en Masse as France begins to fight its way

into the Netherlands while quelling internal rebellions. The battles

following were where Napoleon first gained prestige and also were the

one's in which Demouriez defected to the side of the counter-

revolutionaries.

France, Dutch Republic,

Britain

120 July 27th,

1793

Robespierre elected to

the Committee of

Public Safety

Robespierre drives the new government with an iron fist while laying the

groundwork for the Terror. He almost single handedly pushes a radical

agenda with the mob's support and his new power.

France

121 August 23rd,

1793

Leve en Masse

Decreed

The leve en masse was a largely successful mass conscription that

helped secure French power while taking advantage of the

overwhelming patriotism in the nation.

France

122

September

11th, 1793

Law of Maximums

established

The Jacobin government infuriates the peasants in favor of pleasing the

urban poor by fixing a price cap on grain and other commodities. This

initiates many uprisings in rural France and turns many peasants to

counter-revolutionary views.

France

123

September

19th, 1793 The Terror Begins

In the conflict between Girondins and Jacobins, Robespierre utilizes

totalitarian tactics to eliminate any and all opposition and some of his

allies to maintain power. The years in which he uses these tactics are

known as the Terror. Initially supported with fervor by the French

populace, the executions soon turned the people against the Jacobins as

they exercised an authoritarian and tyrannical rule.

France

124

12/4/1793 National Convention

Established by Law

The National Convention now is able to exercise power without concern

of removal due to its legal support by the Constitution of 1793. In light

of this, it begins a massive secular movement, recreates the calendar,

abolishes slavery, and removes any record of the kings from public sight.

France

125

4/5/1794 Danton and

supporters executed

Robespierre turns against his former ally and one-time leader of the

Committee of Public Safety for fear that he will regain the favor of the

mob. Due to this, the mob begins to turn against Robespierre to favor

France

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more conservative leaders.

126

6/10/1794 Law of 22 Prairial

By openly decreeing that no hard evidence is necessary to execute

people on charges of treason, the National Convention ensures that the

public views any executions as unjust, undeserved, and as abuses of

power. Both peasants and the mob are beginning to sympathize with the

targets of the Jacobins (primarily the Girondins) while the Jacobins

become the focus of their disdain.

France

127

6/26/1794 French Victory at

Fleurus

This French victory over the allied forces of England, the Dutch

Republic, Austria, and Prussia led France taking the Austrian

Netherlands and conquering the Dutch Republic. Also was the first use

of aircraft (a reconnaissance balloon) for battle.

France, England, The

Dutch Republic, Prussia,

Austria

128

7/28/1794 Thermidorian

Reaction

In the initiation of the Thermidorian Reaction, Robespierre and about 80

of his followers are executed after being brought down by the mob. The

Girondins are then reinstated to the National Convention beginning the

move towards the recovery phase. To prevent the repeat of the power

abuse utilized by Robespierre, the new Convention reorganizes the

Committee of Public Safety along with other parts of the government

France

129

12/24/1794

Law of Maximum and

Law of 22 Prairial

Abolished

The abolition of these laws marks a return to more conservative views in

France, a view shared by the populace as shown by the conspicuous lack

of riots at this action

130 4/6/1795-

7/22/1795 French Peace Treaties

France establishes peace with most of its enemies thus dividing the First

Coalition allowing France to emerge as a dominant power in Europe.

France, Prussia, Spain

131

8/22/1795 Constitution of the

Year III

The Constitution of the Year III secures the ascent of a conservative

government while maintaining the centralized power of the Committee

of Public Safety in the five person Directory. A bicameral legislative

system is set up in this constitution to check the Directory and appease

the public.

France

132 August 30th,

1795 Decree of 2/3 Passed

The legislature passes a law requiring that two thirds of the legislative

body be from the Plain or Girondin political parties to ensure their

majority.

France

133 December

18th, 1795

Napoleon captures

Toulon

Napoleon begins to gain prestige and power within the French military

with this victory over the British.

France, England

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134

October 5th,

1795

Napoleon defends

Directory from mob

Napoleon furthers his prestige and his favor with the Directory by

quelling a mob uprising effectively (very different from Lafayettes attempted quashing of the Women's March on Versailles and the Protests

of 20 June).

France

135 August 3rd,

1798

Napoleon invades

Egypt

Napoleon fights the British Lord Nelson in an attempt to cut of Britain's

cotton supply from Egypt but loses. After losing the majority of his

navy, Napoleon abandons his army to escape back to France.

France, England

136 November

9th, 1799 Coup of 18 Brumaire

Napoleon deposes the Directory establishing himself as the head of the

new Consulate. Due to his prestige, there is little public opposition to

this action.

France

137 December

24th, 1799

Constitution of the

Year VIII

Napoleon passes a constitution instituting universal male suffrage, a

system of checks and balances, and a council of state. He, however, does

not adhere to this at all and continues to act autonomously.

France

138

July 15th,

1801 Concordat of 1801

Napoleon and Pope Pius VII agree upon terms that the church lands

confiscated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy remain in control of

France, clerical wages will be paid by France, the Papacy reserves the

right to consecrate priests, and Catholicism is recognized as the majority

religion of France. Their agreement reestablishes some Catholic power

in France while the Consulate would maintain power over the local

church.

France

139 December

2nd, 1804

Napoleon Crowns

himself Emperor of

France

By crowning himself Emperor, Napoleon establishes himself as ruler for

life of France without placing anyone over him by allowing them to give

him his crown.

France

140

March 21st,

1804 Code Napolon

The first uniform law code for the entirety of France, the Code Napolon

destroyed local customs but brought about domestic order throughout the

nation. Enforced by a prefect system, the code protected private

property, outlawed trade unions, subjugated women and children,

confirmed a meritocracy, and suppressed freedoms of speech and press.

France

141 October 21st,

1805 Battle of Trafalgar

Lord Nelson yet again defeats Napoleon and, by destroying Napoleon's

navy, restrains him to the continent and prevents any action against

Britain.

France, Britain, Europe

142 December Battle of Austerlitz In perhaps his greatest victory, Napoleon crushed the Third Coalition France, Austria, Holy

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2nd, 1805 thus removing Austria from the war. As a direct result, the Holy Roman

Empire is dissolved and the Confederation of the Rhine is formed.

Russia is allowed to retreat home.

Roman Empire,

Confederation of the

Rhine, Russia

143 December

26th, 1805 Treaty of Pressburg

In this treaty, Austria backs out of the war, cedes Venice to Italy (which

Napoleon is already king of), surrenders land to Napoleon's German

allies, and pays heavy fines to France.

Austria, Italy, France,

Confederation of the

Rhine

144 June 14th,

1807

Russians Defeated at

Friedland

Napoleon again defeats Russia and ends the Fourth Coalition and the

defeat leads Alexander I to agree to the peace terms offered.

France, Russia

145 June 25th,

1807 Treaty of Tilsit

France and Russia form an alliance thus protecting the French empire's

eastern front allowing them to focus on the Western European countries.

France, Russia

146

December

15th, 1808

Beginning of

Peninsular War

France declares war on Spain and Portugal in order to enforce the

Continental System and cut off Britains trade. The war becomes a stalemate and Napoleon eventually withdraws from the Iberian

Peninsula.

France, Spain, Portugal,

Britain

147

1812 Invasion of Russia

Napoleon invades Russia in response to their withdraw from the

Continental System and due to Russia violating parts of the Treaty of

Tilsit. The invasion was a massive failure as Napoleon's army was

unprepared for the invasion and could not support itself during the

Russian winter.

Russia, France

148 October 19th,

1813 Battle of Leipzig

The European Coalition wins a decisive victory over Napoleon and

manages to press into France as he retreats. They then force Napoleon to

abdicate the throne and send him into exile in Elba in 1814.

France, Russia, Prussia,

Austria, Sweden

149 February

26th, 1815 Escape from Elba

Napoleon escapes Elba and returns to France where he takes power at

the head of a defected army. The subsequent time period is known as the

Hundred Days of Rule.

France

150 June 18th,

1815 Battle of Waterloo

Napoleon is defeated for the last time by the Coalition and Prussian

armies led by the Duke of Wellington. As a result, he is again forced

from power and is exiled to St. Helena where he lives the rest of his life.

France, Prussia

151

1816 Treaty of Vienna

finalized

This unified treaty, created by representatives from all parties involved

including the defeated French, shows a move by Europe as a whole

towards unified peace. The majority of Europe is returned to its pre-war

France, Prussia, Russia,

England, Austria

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state as lands are given to the victors as compensation and a valid

attempt is made to balance power in Europe. France is also returned to

Bourbon rule.