Europe and the World:Decolonization

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY

Introduction• Decolonization: the process of becoming free of

colonial status and achieving statehood

• Between WWI and WWII, movements for independence begun in earnest in Africa and Asia

• Dominance of colonial powers seemed at odds with Allied goals in WWII.

• Call for national self-determination – fight for independence.

• Empires reluctant to let colonies go.

Introduction• Churchill: “I have not become His Majesty’s Chief

Minister to preside over the liquidation of the British Empire”

• European power destroyed by WWII.

• G.B. no longer had energy or wealth to maintain a colonial empire.

Introduction• Between 1947 and 1962,

virtually every colony achieved independence and statehood.

• It was a difficult and bitter process.

• Created a new world – non-Western states ended era of Western domination.

Decolonization: HOW

The many differing African & Asian groups used a variety of elements in their efforts to gain independence. Some of these include . . .

• Nationalism• Military force / violence• Mass demonstrations• Economic boycotts• Government representation & democratic processes• Indigenous religious beliefs & symbols• The wealth & power of the African and Asian middle

& upper class.

Africa: The Struggle for Independence• After WWII, colonial rule in Africa would have to

end.

• Little had been done to prepare the colonies for self-rule.

Two major methods in Africa:

– Negotiated Independence: Long or short term deal between European power and African colony

– Incomplete Decolonization: White settler minority population given political power over black majority

Independent Kenya• British settlers controlled prime farmland in North &

fiercely resisted Decolonization there

• Forced to accept Independence due to:– the strong, popular leadership of Nationalist Jomo Kenyatta

(Kikuyu educated in London) &

– The rise of the Mau Mau secret society made up of mostly Kikuyu farmers forced out by British farmers

– Mau Mau’s aim: frighten the white farmers into leaving• Kenyatta was not a Mau Mau but he did not oppose them either

• 1963 Independence was granted but only after 10,000 Kenyans & 100 whites were killed

• Jomo Kenyatta became President– Worked to unite the various ethnic /language groups

– Nairobi (capital) grew into a major business center

Africa: Kenya The Struggle for Independence

• Political organizations formed pre-war– Convention People’s Party: Kwame Nkrumah

– Kenya African National Union: Jomo Kenyatta

• Most political activities were non-violent.

• Constituents were primarily merchants, urban professionals, and members of labor unions.

• Kenyan Mau Mau movement:

– Employed terrorism to achieve goal of uhuru (freedom).

– Convinced G.B. to promise eventual independence in 1959.

Africa: The Struggle for Independence

• Egypt became an independent republic in 1952, after being quasi-independent monarchy under British control since 1922.

• French not strong enough to maintain control over entire empire.

• France granted full independence to Morocco and Tunisia in 1956.

• Retained possession of Algeria.

Algeria• Appeal of Arab

nationalism• Large French settler

population 1 million french colonists / 9 million Arab & Berber Muslims

• 1954- 1962 war between FLN (nationalist party) and French troops

• “part of France”• 300,000 lives

Independents Algeria

• 1945- French troops fired on Algerian nationalist who were demonstrating--killing thousands of Muslims & 100s of Europeans

• 1954 -Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) moved to fight for independence– FLN used guerrilla tactics at home but diplomacy (talk)

internationally

• French sent ½ million troops to stop them

• Both sides committed atrocities

• European settlers began calling for De Gaulle to return as president in France to restore order in the colonies

Africa: The Struggle for Independence

• South Africa– Formation of African National Congress in 1912.

– Goal of ANC was economic and political reforms, including equality for educated Africans.

–Whites created system of segregation known as apartheid

– ANC called for armed resistance after arrest of Nelson Mandela in 1962.

• Most black African nations achieved independence in the late 1950s and 1960s.

De Gaulle & Algeria• 1958- De Gaulle returned to power– He concluded that Algeria count not be held by force– France let go of most of its African possessions

• 1962- a referendum set up the conditions for independence– Transfer of power planned– March -750,000 settlers fled Algeria

July 1962 = Independence • Ahmed Ben Bella (FLN leader, imprisoned by French)

became prime minister & then President– Reestablished order– Began land refors– Developed new plans for education

• 1965- he was overthrown by his Chief of Staff!

Secular & Religious Conflict over Power

• 1965-1988- attempt to modernize & industrialize – were undermined when – world oil prices plunged (1985-86)– Unemployment & broken promises lead to an

Islamic revival• Riots in 1988 against the secular govt occurred– Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) won in 1990 & 91 elections– Ruling govt refused the election results– Civil War broke out Islamic militants vs govt

– The War continues of & on today – & the international community is working on an

agreement

Independent Congo :

• 1960- granted independence• Renamed Zaire 1967-95- Tumultuous process• Internal conflict & Outside (UN & USSR) intervention– Patrice Lumumba 1st prime minister– Ruled a divided country (He controlled the North)– In the SE (Mineral rich Katanga region / copper)– Moise Tshombe declared SE independent of the rest Tshombe

backed by Belgian mining co.– Lumumba 1st asked UN for help against Tshombe, then he turned

to the USSR– Colonel Mobutu (first working for Lumumba) led a military coup

to over throw Lumumba & turned him over to Tshombe– Lumumba was murdered shortly after– Tshombe ruled briefly until 1965 when– Mobutu overthrough him & seized power in a bloodless coup

Mobutu• Ruled 32 yrs

• Used a combo of force, 1 party rule & bribes

• Zaire’s mineral wealth & natural resources made it 1 of the richest in Africa

• Under Mobutu it became 1 of the poorest

• He is believed to have looted the country for billions

• Mobutu resisted many attempted rebellions & ethnic clashes

• 1997 Laurent Kabila took over after a 7 month long civil war–Banned all political parties

–Promised transition to democracy & election by 1999

– Never Happened

• Country is in constant state of rebellion

Colonial Rule and Independence in Africa

• In 1955, only 3 independent states in sub-Saharan Africa• By 1965, 31• By 1980, whole continent independent except Namibia

(1990)

Conflict in the Middle East

• Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon became independent after WWII.

• Idea of Arab unity led to formation of Arab League in 1945.

Conflict in the Middle East

• The Question of Palestine– British reduced Jewish immigration in Palestine in 1930s.

– Zionists turned to U.S. for support.

– Truman administration approved independent Jewish state in Palestine.

–May 14, 1948, UN proclaimed new state of Israel

– Arab states refused to recognize existence of Israel

Israel Becomes a State: May 14, 1948

• Palestinians feared the increasing # of Jews would result in hardships– 1920: 20 Arab Palestinian to 1 Jew / 1947: 2 to 1

• Post- WWII Britain was weary of failed solution for the problem & deferred to the UN– UN recommendation: – PARTIITION of Palestine into a Palestinian state & a Jewish State

– Palestine = 66% of the Pop. & got 45% of the land / Jews = 34% of the Pop. & got 55%

– Jerusalem was to be an international city owned by neither.– All Arab nations voted against this & Palestine

rejected it completely– The Jews welcomed the decision

• Country of Israel declared by United Nations, 1948

? of Palestinian rights, boundaries & access to things like water & farmland went undetermined

UN Partition Plan,

1947

Effect: Full Scale Arab

Israeli war!-Egypt, Iraq, Jordan,

Lebanon, Saudi Arabia & Syria invaded Israel

1st of many Arab-Israeli Wars (56, 67, 73, 2006) . This ended w/in months in Israel’s Victory. Israel had strong US support

Arab Israeli War 1947-48

• Palestinian state never came to be• 1948-49: Israel seized half the land

set aside for the UN planned Palestinian state in the 1st Arab Israeli War –(Gaza Strip taken by Israel & Jordan took the West Bank)–Palestinians fled out of Jewish controlled areas into UN refugee camps

1956 Second Arab-Israeli War:Suez Crisis

• Egypt seized the Suez Canal from French & British businesses–Pres. Nasser (Egypt) was angry b/c the US & Britain stopped financial support for the building of the Aswan Dam

• British & French made an agreement with Israel–Military air support if Israel marched on the Canal – they did & took it

–Egypt lost the canal, BUT…

• Pressure from the international community (incl. US/USSR) forced Israel & the European Allies to withdraw & leave Egypt in charge of the canal

1967: Six- Day WarTensions Grew:

• By early 1967, Pres. Nasser & his Arab allies, helped by USSR tanks & aircraft, moved to close off the Gulf of Aqaba (Israel’s outlet to the Red Sea)

• Threatened, Israel attacked airfields in Egypt, Iran, Jordan, & Syria• Safe from air attacks, Israeli ground forces struck FAST on 3-

Fronts• War ended in 6 days. Israel lost 800 troops Arabs lost > 15,000

• Results: Israel militarily occupied & then annexed the old city of Jerusalem, the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights & the West Bank. (providing a buffer btwn Israel & the Arab states)–Palestinians living in the newly occupied Jerusalem were offered citizenship in Israel or Jordan (most chose Jordanian) –Palestinians living in the other occupied areas were NOT offered citizenship & became stateless

1973 Yom Kippur War

• Egypt’s new Pres. Anwar Sadat, planned a joint Arab attack on the holiest Jewish holiday

–Surprised! Israel incurred heavy casualties & lost some of the territory lost in 1967

• Israeli prime minister, Golda Meir launched a counter attack & regained most of the lost territory.

• An “uneasy” TRUCE (NOT a Peace Treaty) was agreed to after several weeks of fighting

Egypt • 1906 Dinshawai incident aroused nationalist passions.

• Actions post- Indep (1936) not sufficient.

• Coup d’etat in 1952 Gamal Abdel Nasser

• Nationalization of Suez 1956 protested by Israelis, British and French but diplomacy won over eventually.

• Nasser= symbol of pan-Arab nationalism.

Conflict in the Middle East• Nasser and Pan-Arabism– Col Gamal Abdel Nasser seized control of Egypt in 1954

– 1968: Nationalized the Suez Canal Company.

– British and French launched a joint attack on Egypt to protect investment; joined by Israel.

– U.S. and Soviet Union supported Nasser

– March 1958: Egypt united with Syria in United Arab Republic.

– Hoped that union would eventually include all Arab states.

– UAR ended when military leaders seized control of Syria.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism

U.S. granted independence to the Philippines in 1946.Great Britain soon did same in India.Ethnic and religious differences made process difficult

and violent.British negotiated with both Indian National Congress

(Hindu) and the Muslim League.Muslims and Hindus were unwilling to accept a single

Indian state. British India divided into two states: India (Hindu) and

Pakistan (Muslim).

Asia: Nationalism and Communism

• 1948: Britain granted independence to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Burma (Myanmar).

Mohandas ‘Mahatma’ Gandhi

• Passed English bar - lawyer for Indian merchants in South Africa.

• Gandhi’s answer to a spiritual theory of social action – Satyagraha - “soul force”. A tactic using nonviolent resistance or civil disobedience.

A ‘Revolution’ in Indian politics

• Gandhi’s Satyagraha -

“What do you think? Wherein in courage required – in blowing others to pieces from behind a cannon, or with a smiling face to approach a cannon and be blown to pieces?...Believe me that a man devoid of courage and manhood can never be a passive resister.”

Asia: Nationalism and Communism

• Only Mahatma Gandhi objected to the division of India.

• India and Pakistan granted independence in Aug 1947; million were killed trying to cross borders.

• Gandhi assassinated January 30, 1948.

Refugees

Modern India• Largest democracy in the world• Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister for the

next 17 years• Democracy, Unity, & Economic Modernization

Challenges: • Kashmir= years of conflict that continues today• Cold War alignment= NON Alignment Movement• Industrialization= slow but coming• Social and cultural issues= continuous challenges with

progress– Caste system– Economic– Women’s rights

Asia: Nationalism and Communism

• Indonesia emerged from Dutch East Indies in 1949.

• French tried to remain in Indochina, causing bloody struggle with Vietnamese nationalist guerrillas led by Ho Chi Minh.

• After defeat in 1954, France granted independence to Laos and Cambodia; Vietnam was temporarily divided, eventually causing Vietnam War.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism

• China under Communism– 2 governments:

Nationalists led by Chiang Kai-shek in southern and central China (supported by Americans) and Communists led by Mao Zedong in North China.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism

• China Under Communism (cont’d)– Full-scale war broke out in 1946.

– In 1949, Chiang’s government and 2 million of his followers fled to Taiwan.

– 1955: Chinese government collectivized all private farmland and nationalized most industry and commerce.

– Began radical program called Great Leap Forward in 1958 to increase productivity; it was a disaster.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism• China Under

Communism (cont’d)– Great Proletarian

Cultural Revolution lasted from 1966 to 1976.

– Red Guards wanted to eliminate “four olds” – old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits.

Asia: Nationalism and Communism

• China Under Communism (cont’d)– People began to turn

against revolution, and reformers seized power when Mao died in September 1976.

Vietnam

• French rule since 1880’s –rice, mining, and rubber exports

• Rise of foreign educated intelligentsia (Ho Chi Minh)

• Formation of Viet Minh in 1941

• Guerrilla War with France (1946-1954)

• Divided country in 1954 led to gradual US entry to contain communism.

Decolonization and Cold War Rivalries

• Independent nations found themselves caught in rivalry between US and USSR.

• Vietnam: northern half Communist-ruled and southern half supported by American financial and military aid.

Decolonization and Cold War Rivalries

• Many new nations, like India, attempted to remain neutral in Cold War.

• Neutral nations were put at odds with the U.S., who tried to mobilize all nations against the communist threat.

Decolonization and Cold War Rivalries

• Indonesia– President Sukarno allied himself with Communist

China and Soviet Union.– Relied on domestic support for Indonesian

Communist Party.– Overthrown by conservative Muslim army in 1965–Military government was established under

General Suharto.– Suharto re-established good relations with the

West and attempted to repair economy.

Women as leaders in the Movement

• Women fought alongside men in whatever capacities were permitted in Algeria, Egypt, China, Vietnam,India and elsewhere.

• China, 1942: “ The fighting record of our women does not permit us to

believe that they will ever again allow themselves to be enslaved whether by a national enemy or by social reaction at home.”

• Women given constitutional rights but social and economic equality rarely achieved in postcolonial developing nations.

Literature and Decolonization

• Expressions of nationalism and rejections of western superiority.

• Gandhi, “ I make bold to say that the Europeans themselves will have to remodel their outlooks if they are not to perish under the weight of the comforts to which they are becoming slaves.”

• Chinua Achebe, Things Fall Apart • Senghor, “Snow upon Paris”• Aime Cesaire, West Indian poet, founder of

Negritude “Return to my Native Land”

Challenges of Independence

• Ethnic disputes

• Dependent economies

• Growing debt

• Cultural dependence on west-> religious revivalism as backlash

• Widespread social unrest

• Military responses to restore order

• Population growth

• Resource depletion

• Lack of middle class in some locales

• Education deficit and later, brain drain.

• Neo-colonialism through economic debt.

Conclusions• Decolonization was sometimes a violent process-

dependent in large part on how many settlers had come to the colony.

• In many parts of world, decolonization was not revolutionary. Power passed from one class of elites to another. Little economic and social reform occurred.

• Significant challenges faced independent nations. • Western economic dominance of the global trade

system continued unabated. WHY?