ethnography and critical[1]

13
Ethnography and critical knowledge of education in Latin America Elsie Rockwell In the last fifteen years or so, ethnographic re- search in education has taken on greater signif- icance in Latin America. Although projects and publications are still relatively few in number, many university faculties and educational re- search centres are debating and testing the possi- bilities offered by this option. This article sets out to put forward some ideas on the ground covered by ethnographic re- search in Latin America. It starts by pointing to a number of features that distinguish ethno- graphic studies from other approaches to qual- itative research. It then attempts to recall the theoretical background to the purposes for that ethnographic research has been used in the re- gion and to outline some of its thematic trends and the theoretical contribution that it is making to critical knowledge of education. Elsie Rockwell (Mexico). Educational anthropolo- gist. Since 1973, she has been working as a resear- cher in the Educational Research Department at the Centro de Investigaci6n y de Estudios A vanzados of the Instituto Polit~'nico Nacional {Mexico City), wiv~e she has carried ou t and directed ethnographic studies in Mexican p rim ary schools, especially in connection rnith teaching work. Sh e is currently engaged in a project on the social uses of written lan- guage, from the combined historical and ethnogra- phic standpoints. Sh e is the author and co-author of numerous articles and research studies. What is ethnography? In the anthropological traditio n, ethnography occupies a precise place as the branch of the scie nce wh ose task is to descr ibe the m an y forms in which human bei ngs manage to survive, ive and give meaning to their lives. Starting out from this initial efinition, he term 'ethnogra- phy' takes on another meaning , in tha t i t can be said to be the whol e se t of t ools and practic es e- veloped to perform that task. However, it has never b een vizua lizcd as be ing a 'method' in the strict ense: it is rath er a particular ay of link- hag field xperience and analytical ork, which has given rise to considerable epistemological and theoretical debate, as wcU as to differing methodological approaches. Among the wide variety of ways in which ethnograp hy can bc visual ized, t is possible to fin d a nu mb er of featur es n commo n that define it by contrast with other forms of research. The main task of ethnography is to docu- ment the undocumented aspects of social real- ity. The original task of the ethnographer, which consists in giving an account of peoples with no written cultu re, gathers fresh impetus from switching the anthropological focus from 'others' onto 'ourselves'. n our 'literate' ocie- ties, tudie s are mad e of those environ ments that are not documented, such as school, whe re so- cial and power relationships re forged. ProsOecrs, Vol. XXI, No. 2. 1991

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Page 1: Ethnography and Critical[1]

8/3/2019 Ethnography and Critical[1]

http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ethnography-and-critical1 1/12

Ethnography and cri t icalknowledge o f educat ion

in Lat in AmericaE l s i e R o c k w e l l

I n t h e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s o r s o , e t h n o g r a p h i c r e -

s e a r c h i n e d u c a t i o n h a s t a k e n o n g r e a t e r si g n if -

i c a n c e i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . A l t h o u g h p r o j e c t s a n d

p u b l i c a t i o n s a r e s t i l l r e l a t i v e l y f e w i n n u m b e r ,

m a n y u n i v e r s i t y f a c u l t i e s a n d e d u c a t i o n a l r e -

s e a r c h c e n t r e s a r e d e b a t i n g a n d t e s t i n g th e p o s s i-

b i l i t i e s o f fe red by th i s op t ion .

T h i s a r t i c l e s e t s o u t t o p u t f o r w a r d s o m e

i d e as o n t h e g r o u n d c o v e r e d b y et h n o g r a p h i c r e -

s e a r c h i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . I t s t a rt s b y p o i n t i n g t o

a n u m b e r o f fe a t u r e s th a t d i s t i n g u i s h e t h n o -

g r a p h i c s t u d i e s f r o m o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s t o q u a l -

i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h . I t t h e n a t t e m p t s t o r e c a l l t h e

t h e o r e t i c a l b a c k g r o u n d t o t h e p u r p o s e s f o r t h a t

e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n u s e d i n t h e r e -

g i o n a n d t o o u t l i n e s o m e o f i ts t h e m a t i c t r e n d s

a n d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r i b u t i o n t h a t i t i s m a k i n g

t o c r i ti c a l k n o w l e d g e o f e d u c a t i o n .

E l s i e Rockw e l l (Mexico) . Educational anthropolo-

gist. Sinc e 1973, she has been working as a resear-

cher in the Educational Research Department at the

Centro de Investigaci6n y de Estudios A vanzados of

the Inst i tu to Poli t~'nico Nacional {Me xico City ),

wiv~e she has carried ou t and directed ethnographic

studies in M exican p rim ar y schools, especially in

connection rnith teaching w ork. Sh e is currently

engaged in a project on the social uses of written lan-

guage, fro m the combined historical and ethnogra-

phic s tandpoints . Sh e is the author an d co-author ofnumerous articles an d research studies.

W hat is ethnography?

I n t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t ra d it i on , e t h n o g r a p h y

o c c u p i e s a p r e c i s e p l a c e a s t h e b r a n c h o f t h e

s c i e n c e w h o s e t a s k i s t o de s c r i b e t h e m a n y f o r m s

i n w h i c h h u m a n b e i n g s m a n a g e t o s u r vi v e , i ve

a n d g i v e m e a n i n g t o t h e i r l i ve s . S t a r t i n g o u t

f r o m t h i s i n it i al e f i n i t io n , h e t e r m ' e t h n o g r a -

p h y ' t a k e s o n a n o t h e r m e a n i n g , i n t h at it c a n b e

s a i d t o b e t h e w h o l e s et o f to o l s a n d p r ac t i ce s e -

v e l o p e d t o p e r f o r m t h a t t a sk . H o w e v e r , i t h a s

n e v e r b e e n v i z u al i z c d a s b ei n g a ' m e t h o d ' i n th e

s t ri c t e n s e : it i s r a t h e r a p a r t i c u l a r a y o f l i n k-

h a g f i el d x p e r i e n c e a n d a n a l y ti c al o r k , w h i c h

h a s g i v e n r i s e t o c o n s i d e r a b l e e p i s t e m o l o gi c a l

a n d t h e or e t i ca l d e b a t e , as w c U a s t o d i f fe r in g

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h e s .

A m o n g t h e w i d e v a ri e t y o f w a y s i n w h i c h

e t h n o g r a p h y c a n b c v i s u a li z e d , t i s p o s s i b l e t o

f i nd a n u m b e r o f f e at u re s n c o m m o n t h a t d e fi n e

i t b y c o n t r a s t w i t h o t h e r f o r m s o f r e s e a r c h .

T h e m a i n t a s k o f e t h n o g r a p h y i s t o d o c u -

m e n t t h e u n d o c u m e n t e d a s p e c ts o f s o c ia l r e a l-

i ty . T h e o r i g i n a l t as k o f t h e e t h n o g r a p h e r ,

w h i c h c o n s i s t s in g i v i n g a n a c c o u n t o f p e o p l e s

w i t h n o w r i t t e n c u l t ur e , g a t h e r s f r e s h i m p e t u s

f r o m s w i t c h i n g t h e a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l f o c u s f r o m

' o t h e r s ' o n t o ' o u r s e l v e s ' . n o u r ' l i t e ra t e' o c i e -

t ie s, t u d i es a r e m a d e o f t h o s e e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t

a r e n o t d o c u m e n t e d , s u c h a s s c h o o l , w h e r e s o-c i a l a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s hi p s r e f o r g e d .

ProsOecrs , Vol. XXI, No. 2. 1991

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Ethnography and critical knowledge of education in Latin A merica I 5 7

E t h n o g r ap h i c r e s ea r ch i s b a s ed o n t h e d i -

r ec t an d p r o l o n g ed ex p e r i en ce g a i n ed b y t h e

e t h n o g r ap h e r i n a p a r t icu l a r lo ca li t y. T h e em -

p i r i ca l r e f e r en ce s y s tem o f an e t h n o g r ap h i c s t u -

d y r em a i n s c i r cu m s c r i b ed b y th e h o r i zo n o f t h e

d ay - t o - d ay p e r s o n a l r eac t i o n s b e t w een t h e r e -

s ea r ch e r an d t h e i n h ab i tan t s o f t h e l o ca l it y fo r

t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e n e e d e d t o n a r r o w d o w n t h e

q u e s ti o n s a n d c o m e u p w i th a n u m b e r o f a ns w -

e r s. I n e t h n o g r ap h y , ev e r y r e s ea r ch e r p e r f o r m s

b o t h t h e f i e ld - w o r k an d an a l y t ica l w o r k, w h i ch

are inseparab le par t s o f the sam e p rocess .

E t h n o g r ap h i c r e s ea r ch h as ad d r e s s ed s u ch

v a r i ed a s p ec ts o f h u m an l if e as can o e - b u i l d i n g

techn iques and in i t i a t ion r i t es , k insh ip p rac t ices

an d p r o d u c t i o n r e l a ti o n s h ip s , t h e d i s t r i b u t io n o f

p h y s i ca l s p ace an d t h e u s e s o f l an g u ag e . H o w ev -

e r , r eg a r d le s s o f t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y , th e

e t h n o g r ap h e r a t t em p t s t o g ra s p t h e ' l o ca l k n o w -

l ed g e ' ( G ee r t z , 1 98 3 ) o f t h e p h e n o m en o n b e i n g

s tud ied and in tegra te i t in to the descr ip t ion .

I n e t h n o g r ap h i c r e s ea rch , t h e m a i n p r o d u c t

o f t h e an a l y t ica l w o r k i s a d e s c r ip t i v e p ap e r . T h i s

analy t ica l descr ip t ion i s necessar i ly bu i l t up

f r o m a t h eo r e t i ca l co n cep t u a l i za t i o n , a l b e i t an

i m p l i c i t o n e . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e d es c r i p t i o n

m ad e i s o n e o f m a n y s u ch p o s s ib l e d e s c r ip t i o n s .

T h e ch a l l en g e l i e s i n w r i t i n g a p ap e r t h a t p r e -

serves the speci f ic local f ea tu res , whi le a t the

s a m e t i m e m a k i n g t h e p h e n o m e n o n s t u d i e d in -

t eU i g i b l e i n t h e b r o ad e r co n t ex t . E t h n o g r ap h y

s t ee rs t h e s ea r ch f o r an s w er s t o t h e m o r e g en e r a l

q u es t i o n s to w ar d s an u n d e r s t an d i n g o f t h e s p ec -

i fi c an d v a r i ed f o r m s o f h u m an l if e . U n l i k e l i te r -

a t ti r e o r j o u r n a l is m , t h e d es c r i p t io n o f t h e s e

f o r m s is i n h e r en t i n t h e t h eo r e t i ca l d eb a te . T h e

n eed t o co n f i n e t h e em p i r i ca l re f e r en ce s y s t em

o f th e s t u d y to a l o ca l i t y d o es n o t l i m i t t h e s co p e

o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n . P a r ad o x i ca ll y , i n an t h r o p o l -

o g y , t h e m o r e s u cces s f u l i t h a s p r o v ed t o u n -

der s tand the speci f ic i ty , o r ' in t r ins ic log ic ' o f a

p a r t i cu la r cu l t u r a l f o r m a t i o n , t h e m o r e p o s s i b l e

i t h a s b een t o an s w er w i d e r - r an g i n g q u es t i o n s

ab o u t t h e d i f f e r en t s o c i a l g r o u p s an d ack n o w -

l e d g e t h e i r c o m m o n h u m a n i t y .

I n t h e f ace o f w i d es p read em p i r i c i s t a tt i-

t u d es , i t h a s b een p o s s i b l e t o s h o w t h e i m p o r -

t an ce o f t h eo r e t i ca l w o r k in e t h n o g r ap h i c r e -

s ea r ch . B o t h d u r i n g t h e f i e l d - w o r k an d i n t h e

an a l y t ica l p r o cess , t h e co n s t r u c t i o n o f ca t eg o r i e s

an d co n cep t u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s m ak es i t p o s s i b l e

t o a r t i cu l a t e a m o r e t h o r o u g h an d i n t e l l i g i b l e

d es c r i p t i o n o f t h e r ea l -l i fe s i t u a t i o n b e i n g s t u -

d i ed . O w i n g t o t h e w ay i n w h i ch an a ly s is i s co n ~

d u c t ed i n e t h n o g r ap h i c r e s ea r ch , t h e p r o ces s

can , in f ac t , con t r ibu te to evo lv ing , qual i fy ing

an d ad d i n g t o t h e t h eo r e t i ca l co n cep t s t h a t a r e

i t s s ta r t ing-po in t (Er ickson , 1986 ; Hammers ley

and Atk inson , 1983) .

I n ed u ca t i o n a l r e s ea r ch , e t h n o g r ap h y h as

o p en ed u p an a r ea f o r t h e q u a l i t i t a t i v e r eco n -

s t r u c t i o n o f ed u ca t i o n a l p r o ces s e s an d r e l a t io n -

s h ip s , w i t h t h e a i m o f g a i n i n g an u n d e r s t an d i n g

o f h o w ed u ca t i o n i s b u i lt u p i n s o c i a l te r m s . T h i s

a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n a d o p t e d b y a n u m b e r o f di s-

c i p l in e s t ak i n g t h e s am e l i n e t o t h e s t u d y o f ed u -

ca t i o n a l p r oces s e s , i n c l u d i n g s o c i o l o g y an d p s y -

ch o l o g y .

A critical approach to ethnography

I n L a t i n A m e r i c a , th e p u r p o s e s f o r w h i c h e t h '

n o g r a p h y h a s c o m e t o b e u s e d s t e m m e d f r o m a

s e r i e s o f ex p e r i en ces an d d i s cu s s i o n s t h a t

s teered i t in a speci f ic d i r ec t ion .

T h e ed u ca t i o n a l p r o ces s e s ex i s t i n g i n t h e

r eg i o n i n t h e 1 9 7 0s p r o v i d ed a m e an i n g f u l co n -

t ex t f o r e t h n o g r ap h i c r e s ea r ch . I n t h o s e co u n -

t r i e s d o m i n a t ed b y m i l i t a ry reg i m es d u r i n g t h a t

p e r io d , a p op u l a r e d u c a t io n m o v e m e n t - i n t h e

s en s e t h a t i t l ay o u t s i d e t h e f o r m a l s y s t em -

cam e i n t o b e i n g , p r i m ar i l y t h r o u g h t h e l ead g i -

v en b y t h e t h i n k i n g o f P au l o F r e i r e , w i t h l i n k s

w i t h t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r ch an d p o l i t i c a l g r o u p s .

P r o j ec t s w e r e ca r r i ed o u t w h i ch p o s t u l a t ed t h a t

g r a s s r o o t s k n o w l ed g e s h o u l d b e t ak en a s t h e

s tar t ing-po in t fo r fos ter ing consciousness - r a i s -

i n g . A l t h o u g h , a t t h e o u t s e t , t h e p eo p l e i n v o l v ed

i n p o p u l a r ed u ca t i o n a r g u ed ag a i n s t t h e s t a t e -

r u n s ch o o l s y st em , w h i ch t h e y r eg a r d ed a s b e i n g

a n ' i n s tr u m e n t o f re p r o d u c t i o n ' , a s t h e p r o c e s s

o f d e m o c r a t iz a t i o n w e n t f o r w a r d t h e y b e g a n t o

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I5 8 Elsie Rockwell

s eek w ay s o f t r an s f e r r in g t o t h e s ch o o l s y s t em

t h e e x p e r i en ce o f p ed ag o g i ca l i n n o v a t i o n g a i n ed

i n n o n - f o r m a l ed u ca t i o n a l p r o j ect s .

T h e s i t u a t io n d i f f e r ed i n t h o s e co u n t r i e s

w h e r e a t t e m p t s w e r e m a d e t o r e fo r m t h e p u b l ic

ed u ca t i o n s y s t em , s u ch a s M ex i co , C o l o m b i a

an d P e r u i n t h e 1 9 7 0s an d o t h e r co u n t r ie s in t h e

ea r l y 1 98 0 s. T h es e r e f o r m s i n v o l v ed ed u ca t i o n -

i s ts w h o w er e c r i ti c a l o f t h e ex i s t in g ed u ca t i o n

s y s te m a n d w h o w e r e c o m m i t t e d t o th e t a s k o f

b r i n g i n g ab o u t a h i g h e r s t an d a r d o f p u b l i c ed u -

cat ion . In s uch ins tances , th i s l ed to the iden t i f i -

c a t io n o f a n u m b e r o f c o m m o n t h e m e s , s u c h a s

t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o t r an s f o r m s ch o o l i n g , t h e

n e e d t o b e c o m e f a m i l ia r w i th t h e t e a c h i n g p ro -

f ess ion and the r ea l - l i f e s i tua t ion in schoo ls , and

cu r r i cu l u m an d t each i n g p r o b l em s i n t h e c l a s s -

r o o m e n v i r o n m e n t .

A l m o s t a l l o f u s w h o h av e en g ag ed i n e t h -

n o g r ap h i c s t u d i e s i n t h e r eg i o n h av e h ad d i r ec t

ex p e r i en ce o f p o p u l a r ed u ca t i o n p r o j ect s o r r e -

f o r m s i n b a s i c ed u ca t i o n , an d o u r i n i t i a l q u es -

t i o n s an d co n c e r n s w er e h eav i l y m ar k ed b y th a t

ex p e r i en c e . S o m e o f u s w e r e an t h r o p o l o g is t s ,

w h i l e m o s t o f u s h ad a b ack g r o u n d i n ed u ca t i o n ,

s o c i o l o g y o r p s y ch o l o g y , b u t f ew o f u s h ad h ad

t r a i n i n g i n ed u ca t i o n a l e t h n o g r ap h y t h r o u g h

h av i n g d o n e p o s t - g r ad u a t e s t u d i e s i n E n g l i s h -

speak ing un iver s i t i es . Or ig inal ly , w i th some ex-

cep t i o n s , ed u ca t i o n a l e t h n o g r a p h y d i d n o t g ro w

u p i n t h e a c a d e m i c c l i m a t e o f a n t h ro p o l o g y o r

s o c i o l o g y b u t i n a n u m b er o f in t e r d i sc i p l i n a ry

ed u ca t i o n a l - r e s ea r ch cen t r e s , in w h i ch t h e co n -

d i t io n s ex i s t ed f o r ca r ry i n g o u t p r o j ec t s )

In these ins t i tu t ions , d i scuss ions were

q u i ck t o f o cu s o n t h e r ea l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n i n

schoo ls . I n th e 1970s , the r e- r ead in g o f the c las -

s i cs o f M ar x i s m , i n c l u d i n g L u k acs an d G r am s c i ,

w a s a c c o m p a n i e d b y t h e s t u d y o f c o n t e m p o r a r y

theore t ic ians such as A l thusser , Foucau l t , I ; - I e l -

l i e r , H ab e r m as , B o u r d i eu an d W i l l i am s , am o n g

o t h e rs , a ll o f w h o m r e p r e s e n te d i m p o r t a m r e fe -

r e n c e s f o r e th n o g r a p h i c r e s e a rc h i n L a t i n A m e r -

i ca . O t h e r s t an d p o i n t s w e r e a l s o ad o p t ed , s u ch

as t h o s e o f o r a l h i s t o r y , g en e t i c ep i s t em o l o g y

a n d p s y c ho - a n a ly s i s , e s p e c ia l l y t h r o u g h t h e

w o r k s o f L a c a n . I n t h e i ni ti al p p r o a c h e s t a k e n

b y e t h n o g r a p h y, t h e r e w a s i n ev i ta b ly s o m e d e -

b a t e b e t w e e n t h e s t r u c tu r a l a n d p h e n o m e n o l o g -

i ca l o u t l o o k s an d t h e s ea r ch f o r a v i ew o f t h i n g s

g o i n g b e y o n d t h e m .

H o w e v e r , t h e p a t h t a k en b y s o c ia l t h o u g h t

i n L a t i n A m er i ca ca r r i ed ev en m o r e w e i g h t . I n

t h e 1 9 7 0 s , t h e r e w e r e d i s cu s s i o n s o n t h e L e f t

ab o u t t h e r e l ev an ce o f M ar x i s t c a t eg o r i za t i o n t o

t h e L a t i n A m e r i c a n s i t u a t i o n . T h e p a t t e r n s

s p ec i f i c t o t h e r eg i o n , s u ch a s d ep en d en ce an d

t h e r u r a l ex o d u s , w e r e an a l y s ed an d d i s cu s s ed .

D i s cu s s i o n s i n L a t i n A m er i ca o n G r am s c i ' s t h e -

o ry (Ar ico , 1982 ; Pereya , 1984 ; Por tan t lero ,

1 97 7 ; e t a l. ) h ad an i n f l u en ce o n ed u ca t i o n a l r e -

s ea r ch . T h e m ac r o - s o c i a l an d p o l i t i c a l ap -

p r o ach e s g av e ad d ed s u b s t an ce t o t h e an a ly s is o f

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w ee n s ch o o l an d s o c i e t y i n

t h e w o r k o f s u c h L a t i n A m e r i c a n r e s e a rc h e r s a s

Garc la Huidobro (1985) , Tedesco (1987) , Sav ia-

n i (1984) , Rama (1979) , Brunner (1988) , Paiva

(1980) and Fuen tes (1979) . Th is theore t ica l

b a c k g r o u n d f e a t u re d p r o m i n e n t l y i n t h e o r ig i n s

o f e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h i n t h e r e g i o n a n d r e -

p r e s en t e d a s i g n i f i can t in f l u en ce p r i o r t o t h a t ex -

e r c i zed b y w r i t e r s i n t h e E n g l i s h - sp eak i n g t r ad i -

t ion , s uch as Yo ung (1971) , Ap ple (1982) ,

Giroux (1983) , Will is (1980) , Er ickson (1986)

a n d D e l a m o n t (1 98 3) w h o b e c a m e r e f e r e n c e s fo r

t h e e n s u i n g d e b a t e .

F r o m t h i s r an g e o f t h eo r e t ica l s o u r ces, e t h -

n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h i n L a t i n A m e r i c a s e t o u t

f r o m a n e p i s te m o l o g i c a l c o n c e r n w h i c h r e j e ct e d

t h e em p i r i c i s t ap p r o ach . M an y r e s ea r ch e r s w e r e

aw ar e t h a t d e s c r i p t i o n s a r e a l w ay s b as ed o n

s o m e f o r m o f c o n c e p t u a li z a ti o n a n d t h e r e f o re a t -

t em p t ed t o en s u r e a m eas u r e o f co n s is t en cy b e t -

w e e n e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h a n d t h e d e v e l o p -

m e n t s i n t h e o r y i n t h e r e g i o n . F r o m t h i s

s t an d p o i n t , t h ey an a l y s ed t h e e t h n o g r ap h i c s t u -

d i e s p r o d u c e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n s c h o o l o f a n -

t h r o p o l o g y an d d i s t an ced t h em s e l v es f r o m t h e

l a t t e r 's b a s i c co n cep t o f cu l t u ra l co n f l i c t . T h ey

s o u g h t w ay s o f b u i l d i n g i n t o e t h n o g r ap h i c s t u d y

a s o c i a l co n t ex t t h a t w as m o r e w i d e - r an g i n g an d

d i f fe r e n ti a t e d t h a n t h e ' c o m m u n i t y ' w h i c h h a d

l a r g e l y f ea t u r ed i n ed u ca t i o n a l e t h n o g r ap h y i n

t h e 1 9 7 0 s .

I n e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h i n s t i t ut i o ns , e t h -

n o g r a p h y h a d t o st a k e a p l a c e fo r i ts el f n d ,

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Ethnography and critical knowledge of education in La tin America 1 5 9

abov e a l l , e s t ab l i sh i t s l eg i t imacy in the face of

l o n g - s t a n d i n g t r a d it i o n s. A s w a s to b e e x p e c t e d ,

t h e r e w e r e , f o r a v a r i e t y o f re a s o n s, k e e n d e b a t e s

w i t h t h o s e e n g a g e d i n q u a n t i ta t i v e o r p a r ti c i p a -

tory resea rch . A d ia logue was a l so es t ab l i shed

w i t h o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s w i t h a q u a l it a ti v e o u t l o o k

w h o d i d n o t s e e t h e m s e l v e s a s e t h n o g r a p h e r s

( s ee , f o r e x a m p l e , P a r r a , 1 98 6 , N a m o d e M e l l o ,

1982) . W i th a few ex cept ions , 3 ex te rna l fun ding

f o r p r o j e c t s o f t h i s t y p e w a s l i m i t e d a n d t h e r e

was l i t t l e s cope for publ i sh ing the i r f ind ings .

P r o g r e s s s t a r te d t o b e m a d e w i t h t h e s e t ti n g u p

o f s m a l l t e a m s w h i c h w e r e d e t e r m i n e d t o c r e a te

t h e c o n d i t i o n s f o r c a r r y i n g o u t s tu d i e s. E t h n o g -

r a p h y i s n o w a c k n o w l e d g e d a s b e i n g a v a l id o p -

t i o n a n d t h e r e g i o n p r o b a b l y h a s m o r e t h a n 1 0 0

r e s e a r c h e r s e n g a g e d i n e t h n o g r a p h i c p r o j e c t s ?

I n L a t i n A m e r i c a , e t h n o g r a p h y t o o k o n

s p e c i f ic p r a c t i c e s a n d f o r m s o n a c c o u n t o f it s re -

l a t i o n s h i p w i t h o t h e r a c t iv i ti e s i n t h e e d u c a t i o n -

a l f ie l d . I t h a s b e e n i n t e g r a t ed i n t o v a r i o u s p r o -

j e c ts f o r p e d a g o g i c a l a n d c u r r i c u l a r i n n o v a t i o n .

I t h a s b e e n i n t r o d u c e d a s a s u b j e c t i n t h e n e w

c u r r i c u l a o f t e a c h e r - tr a i n i n g i n s ti t u ti o n s a n d

u s e d i n p r o j e c t s d e s ig n e d t o p u t f o r w a r d a l t e r n a -

t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o i n - s e r v ic e t e a c h e r t r a i n in g . I n

s i t u a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e s e , t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c w o r k

h a s g e n e r a l l y b e e n c o n f i n e d t o p r e p a r i n g q u a l i t -

i t a t ive record s for c las ses , wh ich a re subseq uent -

l y u s e d a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e s e s si o n s c o n -

d u c t e d w i t h t h e p a r t i ci p a n t s , in a b i d t o s p a r k o f f

i d e a s o r el s e d o c u m e n t t h e c h a n g e s i n p r a c t i c e .

I t h a s a l s o b e e n u s e d f o r f o l l o w - u p p u r p o s e s o r

f o r e v a l u a t i n g c u r r i c u l u m d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e ct s .

T h e r e c o rd s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p ro c e ss , w h i c h

i n c l u d e p h o t o g r a p h s a n d v i d e o s , h a v e m a d e i t

p o s s i b l e t o a m e n d p r o p o s a l s a n d c o m m u n i c a t e

f indings .

As the work proceeds , the d i f f i cu l t t a sk of

d r a w i n g t h e d i v i d i n g l in e b e t w e e n e t h n o g r a p h i c

p r o j e c ts a n d o t h e r t y p e s o f q u a l i ta t i v e r e s e a r c h i s

s t a r ti n g t o b e n a r r o w e d d o w n . A n u m b e r o f q u a l -

I t a t i v e s t u d i e s w h i c h a r e n o t c o n s i d e r e d e t h n o -

g r a p h i c ( A n s i o n , 1 9 90 , i n t e r a l ia ) , a r e in fac t ve ry

c l o s e - i n c o n t e n t a n d c o n t e x t - t o e t h n o g r a p h y ,

O n e s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e l a y i n t h e r e c o g n i t i o n

a n d a d o p t i o n o f e d u c a t i o n a l e t h n o g r a p h y i n a n -

t h r o p o l o g i c a l c i r c l e s i n s e v e r a l L a t i n A m e r i c a n

c o u n t r i e s , s u c h a s M e x i c o , B r a z il a n d A r g e n t i n a .

E t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d ie s w e r e t h e s t a r t i n g - p o i n t f o r

d i s s e m i n a t i n g n e w i d e a s o n e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s-

e s , w h i c h w e r e t a k e n u p b y r e s e a r c h e r s w h o h a d

b e e n m o s t r e l u c t a n t t o a c c e p t it s m e t h o d o l o g i c a l

h e t e ro d o x y . T h e c u l tu r e o f s c h o o l a n d s t u d e n t

c u l t u r e s , c o n c e a l e d a n d a c t u a l c u r r i c u l a , e v e r y -

d a y t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s a r e a l l

c o n c e p t s t h a t f o r m a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e e d u c a -

t i o n a l d e b a t e in t h e r e g i o n , b u t w h i c h c a n n o t b e

r e a d i l y g r a s p e d t h r o u g h s u r v e y s , c e n s u s e s o r h i s -

tor i ca l records .

I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o r e c a l l t h a t t h e g o a l o f e th -

n o g r a p h y i s , a b o v e a l l , t o d o c u m e n t d i v e r s i t y ,

a n d t h e t e m p t a t i o n h a s t o b e a v o i d e d o f m a k i n g

u n d u l y h a s t y s u m m a t i o n s . F e w s c h o o l s h a v e s o

f a r b e e n s t u d i e d ( a n d m o s t o f t h e s e h a v e b e e n a t

t h e p r i m a r y l e v el ) , t h o u g h p r e - s c h o o l s e c o n d a r y

a n d h i g h e r l e v e ls a r e n o w s t a r t i n g t o b e i n v e s t i-

g a t e d ? T h e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n i n s t r u m e n t a l i n

r a i s in g a g r e a t e r n u m b e r o f i s s u es t h a n t h o s e

t h a t e x i s t ed s o m e t e n y e a r s a g o . E v e n s o , t h e s t u -

d i e s c a r r i e d o u t f r o m d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t u a l s t a n d -

p o i n t s h a v e m a d e i t p o s s i b l e m b u i l d u p a s to c k

o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t o o u t l i n e t h e s p e c if i c r e a l -l i fe

f e a t u r e s o f e d u c a t i o n i n t h e L a t i n A m e r i c a n r e -

g i o n .

Thematic trends in educational

ethnography in Latin America

O w i n g t o t h e f a c t t h a t e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h i n

L a t i n A m e r i c a w a s q u i c k t o b e a s s o c ia t e d w i t h a

c r i t i ca l ou t look , inves t iga t ions t ended to be d i -

r e c t e d i n a n u m b e r o f sp e c i fi c d ir e c ti o n s . O n e o f

i t s in i t i a l t a rge t s was the pr imary-school sys tem

a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p i t b o r e t o t h e s o c i a l s t r u c -

t u r e o f L a t i n A m e r i c a n c o u n t r ie s . A l t h o u g h t h e

1970s saw quan t i t a t ive grow th and s igni f i cant re -

f o r m s i n c u r r i c u l a i n t h e r e g i o n , e d u c a t i o n a l r e -

s e a r ch c o n t i n u e d t o p o i n t t o h i g h d r o p - o u t, r e -

p e t i t i o n a n d i l l i te r a c y r a t es . T h e p r o b l e m s o f th e

q u a li ty o f t ea c h i n g w e r e c o m p o u n d e d b y g r o w -

i n g e v i d e n c e o f t h e a p p a r e n t i r r e l e v a n c e o f t h e

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I6 0 Elsie Rockwell

c o n t e n t s o f b a s ic e d u c a t i o n c u r r i c u l a to t h e b u l k

o f t h e u r b a n a n d r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n . I t w a s a c c o r d -

i n g l y i m p o r t a n t t o s t a r t to d i s e n t a n g l e t h e e v e r y -

d a y m e c h a n i s m s o f s c h o o l l if e. E t h n o g r a p h y w a s

s e e n a s b e i n g a s u i t a b le a p p r o a c h t o t a c k li n g t h is

p r o b l e m .

O f a l l t h e t h e m a t i c i s s u e s b r o a c h e d b y e t h -

n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h i n L a t i n A m e r i c a , t h e r e a r e

s i x th a t f e a t u r e m o s t p r o m i n e n t l y . A n a t t e m p t is

m a d e h e r e t o q u o t e e x a m p l e s o f t h es e t h e m a t i c

i s s u e s in r e l a t i o n t o s o m e o f t h e p r o j e ct s c a r ri e d

o u t , t h o u g h i t i s n o t p r o p o s e d t o e n g a g e i n a n e x -

h a u s t i v e r e v i e w o f a l l t h e w o r k p r o d u c e d . 6

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL REPRODUCTION

O n e i m p o r t a n t s t a n d p o i n t a d o p t e d i s t h e o u t -

c o m e o f t h e e a r l y i n t e r e s t t a k e n i n t h e p r o c e s s e s

o f so c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l r e p r o d u c t i o n . E t h n o g r a -

p h y w a s s u i t e d t o s t u d y i n g t h e c o n c e a l e d c u r r i -

c u l u m a n d t h e i m p l i c i t s o c i al i za t io n o f s c h o o l .

W h e n s c h o o l i n g f ir st b e g a n t o b e e x a m i n e d , i t

w a s p o s s i b l e to s e e t h e w a y in w h i c h e d u c a t i o n a l

p r a c t i c e r e - c r e a t e s t h e d i v i s io n o f m a n u a l a n d

i n t e l l e c tu a l w o r k a n d c o n v e y s id e o l o g i c al a t t i-

t u d e s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e d o m i n a n t c a p i t a l i s t

s t ruc tu re .

E v e n s o , a n u m b e r o f st u di e s c o n d u c t e d

a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s g a v e r is e t o s o m e d i s c u s s io n

o v e r t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m s u s ed . I t

w a s a r g u e d , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e i m p l i c i t f o r -

m a t i o n o f r e la t i o n s w i t h l a b o u r a n d a u t h o r i t y

t a k e s p r e c e d e n c e o v e r v o c a t i o n a l t e c h n i c a l

t r a in ing (Pa rad i se , 1979) . Fac to r s t ha t r e su l t i n

w h o l e p o p u l a t i o n g r o u p s b e i n g d e p r i v e d o f

s c h o o l i n g i s m o r e i n d i c a t i v e o f c u l t u r a l d e p r i v -

a t i o n t h a n o f t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f a n a r b i t ra r y sy s -

t e m o f s y m b o l s ( T a d e u d a S i lv a , 1 9 88 ). T h e w a y

i n w h i c h s u b j e c t s a r e s e t i n s c h o o l s c o n c u r s w i t h

t h e a l t e r n a ti v e c u l t u r a l r e f e r e n c e s y s t e m s o f t h e

po pu la r c l a sse s (Sa fa , 1986) . In t h e con tex t o f t he

m i l i t a r y r e g i m e s , s t r e s s w a s l a id m o r e o n t h e a s -

p e c t s b o u n d u p w i t h p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l t h a n w i t h

s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l r e p r o d u c t i o n . T h e s e a d v a n c -

e s i n t h i n k i n g c a l l i n t o q u e s t i o n t h e i d e a o f

s c h o o l a s b e i n g a d e v i c e t h a t e n s u r e s t h e d o m -

i n a t i o n o f t h e s t a t e a n d d e t e r m i n e s t o w h a t e x -

t e n t t h e s t a t e c a n b e e f f ec t iv e in t h e f i el d o f e d u -

c a t i o n . T h e m a n y q u e s t i o n s t o w h i c h t h i s

a p p r o a c h h a s g i v e n r i s e h a v e s t i l l n o t b e e n r e -

s o l v e d , a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y f a r - r e a c h i n g a n d c o n s i -

d e r e d t h o u g h t i s b e i n g g i v e n t o t h e i s s u e i n t h e

s t u d i e s c u r r e n t l y b e i n g c a r r ie d o u t .

SCHOOL FAILURE

T h e a l a r m i n g d e v e l o p m e n t w h e r e b y p u p il s a re

e x p e l l e d f r o m t h e e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m in L a t i n

A m e r i c a h a s c a u s e d m a n y e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i es

t o b e a d d r e s s e d t o t h e p r o b l e m o f s c h o o l f a i l u re .

I n t h e s e s t ud i e s, a n a t t e m p t h a s b e e n m a d e t o

i d e n t i f y t h o s e e d u c a t i o n a l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g

s u c h c a s e s o f fa i l u re , i n o p e n c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h

s t u d i e s g i v i n g p r o m i n e n c e t o s u c h e x o g e n o u s

f a c t o r s a s s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c l e v e l s ( A v a l o s ,

1986) and cu l tu ra l d i f f e rences o r de f i c i enc i e s

( S o u z a P a t t o , 1 9 9 0) . I t w a s f o u n d t h a t t h e r e w a s a

c o m p . l e x n e t w o r k o f i d e o l o g ic a l a n d p e d a g o g i c a l

p r a c t i c e s t h a t a r e b u i l t i n t o ' s c h o o l c u l t u r e ' ( L t -

p e z e t a l ., 1 9 83 ) a n d t h a t e x p l a i n h o w i n d i v i d u a l

f a i l u r e p a t t e r n s e v o l v e w i t h i n s c h o o l . O n t h e b a -

s i s o f th e s e s t u d ie s , t e a c h e r - t r a i n i n g m e t h o d s

w e r e d e s i g n e d t o f o c u s o n c r it i ca l t h i n k i n g a b o u t

t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s a n d t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f

p o p u l a r c u l t u r e s , a n d t h e s e i n t u r n w e r e t h e s u b -

j e c t o f e t h n o g r a p h i c a n a ly s i s.

T h e q u e s t io n s a s k e d a b o u t t h e q u a li ty o f

b a s i c e d u c a t i o n p r o m p t e d a s e a r c h i n t h e d i r e c -

t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t e a c h e r s a r e

t r a in e d . T h e s e s t u d ie s ( C a l v o a n d D o n n a d i e u ,

1982; Parra e t a l . , 1986; Tezanos, 1986) la id

s t r e s s o n t h e t r a i n i n g i m p l i c i t i n t h e e v e r y d a y

p r a c t i c e s a n d o u t l o o k t h a t a r e a f e a t u r e o f t e a c h -

e r - t r a l n i n g c o l l e g e s , b y s h o v i n g t h e i r c o n t i n u i t y

w i t h t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s i n p r i m a r y s c h o o l s ,

w h i c h s t a n d i n m a r k e d ~ :o nt ra st t o t h e a p p a r e n t

d i s c o n t i n u i t y a t t h e f o r m a l le v e l.

S o m e o f t h e r e s e a rc h e r s w h o a n a l y s ed t h e

p r o b l e m o f s c h o o l f a i l u r e s u b s e q u e n t l y e x a ~

m i n e d i ts c o u n t e r p a r t ( in t h e f o r m o f s c h o o ls

a n d t e a c h e r s t h a t w e r e r e g a r d e d a s g o o d ) i n a n

a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o n d i t io n s t h a t w o u l d

m a k e i t p o s s i b l e t o r e v e r s e th e t r e n d s . T h e y s t u -

d i e d p u p i l s w h o s u c c e e d e d i n c o m p l e t i n g t h e

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Ethnography and critical knowledge of education in Latin America 161

b a s i c e d u c a t i o n s ta g e , w i t h t h e a i m o f u n d e r -

s t a n d i n g t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e y h a d a d a p t e d t o

school , a s we l l a s s chool s in which innova t ive

p r o j e c t s h a d w o r k e d s u c c e s s fu l l y i n p o p u l a r o r

i n d i g e n o u s s i t u a t i o n s . T h e s e s t u d i e s s h o w t h a t ,

in sp i t e o f the obv ious soc ia l cor re la t ions o f fa i -

lure , educa t iona l resu l t s a re pa r t i cu la r ly respon-

s ive to d i f fe rences in the q ua l i ty of the e xp e-

r i e n c e g a i n e d a t s c h o o l , a n d h e n c e t h a t

i n v e s t m e n t i n s c h o o l c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d h a v e a

s i g n i f i c a n t b e a r i n g o n r e t e n t i o n a n d d e v e l o p -

m e n t r a t e s .

SCHOOLS AND THE UNDERCLASS

A n u m b e r o f e t h n o g r a p h i c s t u d i e s h a v e se t o u t

t o g a i n a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e o u t l o o k o f th e

m o r e d i s a d v a n t a g e d s e c to r s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n t o

s c h o o l i n g . I n s o m e o f t h e se , t h e a n a ly s i s w a s f o -

c u s e d o n p a r e n t s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e

teac her s (de C resp o et a l . , 1982; Sara, 1986; L 6-

pez e t a l . , 1983, Ro dr igue z Brand ao, 1983). In

o t h e r s , a s t u d y is m a d e o f c u l tu r a l k n o w l e d g e

( P a r a d is e , i n p r e s s ) a n d t h e e v e r y d a y k n o w l e d g e

o f c h i ld r e n a s o p p o s e d t o t h e k n o w l e d g e a c -

q u i r ed a t s c h o o l

As a ru le , i t has proved poss ib le to go

b e y o n d t h e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s c h o o l - c o m m u n i t y

d i c h o t o m y t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t

t h e s t a t e - ru n s c h o o l s y s t e m r e p r e s e n t s f o r d i ff e -

r e n t p o p u l a r s e c to r s . A l t h o u g h t h i s s ig n i f i ca n c e

d i ff e rs in e v e r y c o u n t r y a n d r e g i o n , d e p e n d i n g

o n t h e s p e c i fi c b a c k g r o u n d f a c to r s , t h e r e i s s o -

m e t h i n g t h o u g h t - p r o v o k i n g i n t h e i d e a t h a t

t h e r e i s p o p u l a r p a r t i c ip a t i o n i n t h e c o n s t r u c t io n

o f t h e s t a t e - r u n s c h o o l s y s t e m a n d i n t h e c o n -

s t a n t n e g o t i a t i o n s a i m e d a t e n s u r i n g t h a t i t w iU

c o n t i n u e t o b e f r e e a n d a t d e m a n d i n g q u a t i t y o f

s e r v i ce , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f i n d in g s o f a s t u d y c a r -

r i ed out in Mexico (Mercado, 1985) .

A n u m b e r o f s t u d ie s h a v e i n v e s t i g a te d t h e

p r e s e n c e o f l o c a l c u l tu r e s i n s c h o o l s , r e l a t in g t h e

' c u l t u r a l c o n f l i c t ' e x p l a n a t i o n a d v a n c e d i n t h e

U n i t e d s t a t e s i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h e t h n i c m i n o r -

i t i e s . I n L a t i n A m e r i c a , t h e p r o b l e m h a s b e e n

p o s e d f r o m t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f th e p o p u l a r c l as s e s

a s t h e m a j o r i t y u s e r s o f t h e b a s i c s c h o o l s y s t e m

a n d d i s c u s s io n s o n t h e i r d e m a n d s h a v e t a k e n o n

d i m e n s i o n s t h a t a r e a s m u c h i d e o l o g i c a l a n d

pol i t i ca l a s they a re cu l tura l .

EVERYDAY SCHOOL LIFE

A s a r e s u lt o f e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h , s c h o o l s ,

t h a t i s , e a c h i n d i v i d u a l s c h o o l r a t h e r t h a n t h e

s c h o o l s y s t e m a s a w h o l e , a r e s t a r t i n g t o b e m o r e

v i s ib l e a n d t h e y a r e n o l o n g e r t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d

o r a r e t h e s u b j e c t o f a p r i o r i s u p p o s i t i o n s ( E z -

p e l e t a , 1 98 6) . T h e s t u d y o f e v e r y d a y sc h o o l l i f e

i s c o m i n g t o o c c u p y a c e n t r a l p l a c e . W h a t h a d

o r i g i n a l l y s e e m e d t o b e ' c h a o s ' ( d e l a P e f i a ,

1981) , can be seen as be ing a complex ins t i tu-

t i o n a l n e t w o r k t h a t i s t h e o u t c o m e o f n e g o t i a -

t i o n s b e t w e e n m a n y d i f f e r e n t i n t e re s t s. D e s c r i p -

t i o n s h a v e a c c o r d i n g l y b e e n p r o d u c e d o f t h e

e f f e c ts o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d b u r e a u c r a t i c c o n t r o l

o n e v e r y d a y l if e i n s c h o o l . A s t a r t is b e i n g m a d e

t o i n v e s t i g a ti n g h o w e d u c a t i o n a l r e f o r m s f i lt e r

t h r o u g h t h e s u c c e s s i v e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e c h e l o n s

c lown to each t eacher . I t has been poss ib le to

f i n d p r o c e ss e s t h a t a r e a n i m p e d i m e n t t o c h a n g e

i n s c h o o l s o r e l s e c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e i r d e c l i n e .

F a c t o r s h a v e b e e n i d e n t if i e d w h i c h g o v e r n o r f a-

c i l i t a t e t e a c h i n g p r a c t i c e s , s u c h a s t h e i n t e r n a l

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f th e s c h o o l a n d n e g o t i a t io n s b e t -

w e e n d i r e c t o r s , p a r e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s ( A c h i l l i ,

1988; Ezpe le ta , 1989; Rockwel l and Mercado,

1986; Souza Pa t to , 1990; Qui roz , in pres s ) .

A l t h o u g h t h e i n i t ia l s t u d ie s s h o w t h a t p r a c -

t i c e s a r e s i m i l a r f r o m o n e s c h o o l t o a n o t h e r a n d

p e o p l e a r e s t a r t i n g t o s p e a k o f a g e n e r a l i z e d

' s c h o o l c u l t u r e ' , m o r e r e f i n e d c o m p a r i s o n s

m a d e b e t w e e n c o u n t r i e s o r r e g i o n s , a n d e v e n

b e t w e e n c l o s e l y a d j o i n i n g s c h o o l s , s h o w t h a t

t h e r e a r e s i g n i fi c a n t d i f fe r e n c e s. T h e s e c o n t r a s t,

f o r e x a m p l e , t h e f o r m s o f d i s c i p l i n e a n d t e a c h -

Lug t rad i t ions in d i f fe rent coun t r i es . Ea ch lo ca l -

i t y h a s s p e c i fi c w a y s o f c o m b i n i n g t h e i d e a s ,

k n o w l e d g e , c u s t o m s a n d r e s o u r c es t h a t g o t o

s h a p e s c h o o l s , in s p i t e o f t h e s t a n d a r d r u l e s a p -

p l y i n g t o t h e c o u n t r y a s a w h o l e . H o w e v e r , it c a n

b e s e e n f r o m t h e w i d e v a r i e t y o f s c h o o ls i n v e s t i-

g a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e r e c u r r e n t t h e m e s a n d s i m i -

l a r proces ses , a s we l l a s s igni f i cant d i f fe rence s in

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I6Z Elsie Rockwell

t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e e d u c a t i o n i n t e n d e d f o r d i f f e -

rent socia l c lasses.

TEACHERS AS WORKERS

A n o t h e r s p e c i f i c f e a t u r e t h a t h a s h a d a n i n -

f l u e n c e o n e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a rc h h a s b e e n t h e

L i n k a g e b e t w e e n r e s e a r c h e r s a n d t h e p r o c e s s e s

i n v o l v e d i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t e a c h e rs . T e a c h -

e r s ' p ro t e s t a n d p e d a g o g i c a l m o v e m e n t s in L a t i n

A m e r i c a i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s m a d e i t m a n d a t o r y t o

m a k e a l l o w a n c e f o r t h e i r p o i n t o f v i e w in d e -

sc r ip t ions o f l i f e a t school . Sch ool s ta r ted to be

s e e n a s a ' t e a c h e r s ' w o r k - p l a c e ' .

A l t h o u g h f r o m t h e v e r y fi rs t st u d ie s r e f e -

r e n c e w a s m a d e t o t h e d i f fi c u l t w o r k i n g c o n d i -

t i o n s e x p e r i e n c e d b y t e a c h e r s i n t h e s c h o o l s i n -

ves t iga ted , i t was necessa ry to r ede f ine the

c o n c e p t o f t e a c h i n g w o r k ( E z p e l e ta , 1 98 9; Ro c k -

we l l and M erca do , 1986). Pa r t o f the ta sk cons is t -

ed o f v i sua l iz ing teac he r s a s soc ia l sub jec ts and

o f c o n s i d e r i n g t h e i r s o c i a l b a c k g r o u n d a n d t h e

w a y i n w h i c h t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l i d e n t i t y t a k e s

s h a p e . I n a n e n d e a v o u r t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w

s c h o o l a s a n i n s t i t u ti o n c o n d i t i o n s t h e p r a c t i c e s

a d o p t e d b y t e a c h e r s , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w e r e c o n -

d u c t e d i n t o t h e e v e r y d a y p ro c e s s e s d e f i n i n g

t e a c h i n g w o r k a n d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s c o n d u c t e d

o n w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e t r a d e u n i o n a n d

school con tex ts (Agui la r , 1986; Sandova l , 1986;

Carva /a l , 1991). Grow ing in te re s t has been take n

i n a n u m b e r o f s t u d i e s o n m a t e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s

a n d c o n s t r a i n t s a n d p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n

school (Ezpe le ta , 1989; Tova r , 1989; Suni ra t s

a n d N o g a l e s , 1 9 8 9) . T h e s p e c i fi c k n o w l e d g e

c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t e a c h i n g w o r k a n d t h e f o r m a t i v e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e a c h e r s i s a l so a n i m p o r -

t a n t s u b j e c t a r e a t h a t i s b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y

opened up (Mercado , in p re ss ; Ta lave ra , 1 ,991) .

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , a n u m b e r o f t e a c h e rs h a v e

a d o p t e d e t h n o g r a p h y f o r t h e i r o w n p u r p o s e, i n a

b i d t o g a i n a c l o s e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e i r w o r k i n g

c o n d i t i o n s a n d p a t t e rn s .

T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e m a d e i t p o s s ib l e to i n s ti l

a f r e s h v i e w o f t e a c h e r s a s w o r k e r s , ra t h e r t h a n

a s ' a g e n t s f o r t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h e s t a te ' , a n d

t o s t a rt r e b u i l d i n g t e a c h i n g a s th e c e n t r a l fo c u s

o f t h e i r w o r k , f r o m a d i f f e r e n t s t a n d p o i n t t h a n

t h a t m a r k e d b y a s e t o f d id a c t i c p r e sc r i p ti o n s .

THE REAL KNOWLEDGE ACQUIRED IN SCHOOL

I n t h e L a t i n A m e r i c a n c r i t ic a l t r a d i ti o n , t h e i n -

te re s t o r ig ina l ly taken in ideo log ica l p rocesses is

g i v i n g w a y t o i n t e r e s t i n k n o w l e d g e i n s c h o o l

T h e r e a l c u r r ic u l u m i s r e p la c i n g t h e c o n c e a l e d

c u r r i c u l u m a s t h e f o c a l p o i n t o f an a l ys is . I n s t e a d

o f t h e i s s u e o f c o n s c io u s n e s s - ra i s i n g w h i c h w a s

top ica l in th e 1970s , the qua l i ty o f teac h ing i s

n o w r e g a r d e d a s b e i n g t h e f u n d a m e n t a l p o l i ti c a l

p r o b l e m o f e d u c a t io n i n t h e r e g i o n ( T e d e s c o ,

1 9 87 ). T h e h a n d i n g d o w n o f a c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e

t o a l l c h i l d r e n , w i t h o u t d e t r a c t i n g f r o m t h e i r

c u l t u r e o f o r i g i n , i s c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l t o s o c i al

c h a n g e .

T h i s u r g e n t t a s k p r o m p t e d s o m e e t h n o g -

r a p h e r s t o d e v o t e a t t e n t i o n , f r o m a n e a r l y st a g e,

t o t h e p r o c e s s e s o f te a c h i n g a n d t h e t r a n s m i s si o n

o f ld a o w l e dg e i n t h e s c h o o l e n v i r o n m e n t . I n t h i s

c o n n e c t i o n , s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n m a d e n o t s o

m u c h t o e v a l u a t e p r o p o s a l s f o r c u r r i c u l a o r i n -

n o v a t i v e t e a c h i n g s c i e n c e a s to u n d e r s t a n d h o w

t h e e d u c a t i o n a l p r o c e s s t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e h i s t o r-

i c a l l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s o f e a c h s c h o o l .

R i g h t f r o m t h e o u t s e t , s t ra i n s c o u l d b e s e e n

to ex is t be tw een of f ic ia l sy l labuses and t he

k n o w l e d g e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e c l a s s r o o m , a s w e l l a s

b e t w e e n t e a c h i n g m e t h o d s a n d c o n t e n t , a n d b e t -

w e e n t h e p r o p o s a l s m a d e b y t h e t e a c h e r s a n d

c h i l d r e n ' s a c t i v i t i e s . I t h a s b e e n n o t e d t h a t p u -

p i l s a d a p t t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n p a t t e r n s w i t h t e a c h -

e r s a s t h e y b e c o m e i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o n t e n t . Be -

s id e s r e s p o n d i n g to t h e f o r m a l d e m a n d s m a d e o f

t h e m , t h e y s e t u p a c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k

a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s, w h i c h f u n c t i o n s as t h e c o n -

t e x t f o r s c h o o l w o r k .

O n e c e n t r a l q u e s t i o n ra i s e d i n e t h n o g r a p h -

i c s t u d ie s i n t h e c l a s s ro o m i s h o w k n o w l e d g e i s

b u i l t u p i n s o c i a l t e r m s . D e s c r i p t i o n s h a v e b e e n

m a d e o f t h e u s e s o f w r i t t e n l a n g u a g e ( Roc k we U ,

1 98 2 ) a n d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s c i e n t if i c k n o w -

l e d g e i n t h e c l a s s r o o m ( Ca n d e l a , 1 9 8 9 , i n p r e s s;

Ro ckw e l l and Ga lve z , 1982) , a s weU as o f the

m e c h a n i s m s m i l i t a t i n g a g a in s t t h e l a s ti n g r e t c h -

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Ethnography and critical knowledge of education in Latin Am erica I63

t ion o f wh at i s l earn t , such as ways o f p resen t ing

an d ev a l u a t i n g k n o w l ed g e . T h e w ay s i n w h i ch

k n o w l ed g e i s ex p r e s s ed in t h e c l a s s r o o m an d t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w een t h e s u b j ec t s t au g h t an d

k n o w l e d g e h a v e b e e n t h e t h ru s t o f a n u m b e r o f

e t h n o g r ap h i c s t u d i e s ( A s s ae l an d N eu m an n ,

1987; BataLlan et al . , 1986; Edwards, 1985; Ta-

de u da S i lva , 1988) . S i tua t ions have bee n iden t i -

f i ed i n m o s t o f t h e s e s t u d i e s w h i ch a f fo r d g rea t e r

s co p e f o r t h e acq u i s i ti o n o f k n o w l ed g e b y p u p i l s ,

as wel l as t eac h ing s t r a teg ies adap ted to ch i ld re n

w h i ch f o s t e r s i g n i f i can t l e a r n i n g a t t a i n m en t .

T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th i s li n e o f r e s e a rc h h a s

p r o v i d ed a n u m b er o f i m p o r t an t c r it e r ia f o r c ri t-

i c i s m an d cu r r i cu l u m d ev e l o p m en t i n b a si c ed u -

ca t i o n .

The cr i t ica l perspec t ive

in La t in Amer ica

E t h n o g r ap h y i s a s t u d y r eq u i r in g t h e r e f o r m u l a -

t i o n o f t h eo r i e s , i n t u r n a l t e ri n g a t t it u d es t o t h e

o b j ec t o f s tu d y . L a t i n A m er i can e t h n o g r ap h e r s

h av e b ea t en t h e i r o w n p a t h s w i t h i n t h e c r i t i c a l

t r ad i t i o n f o r m i n g t h e f r am ew o r k f o r e t h n o -

g r ap h i c r e s ea r ch , an d m an y ad v an ces i n e t h n o g -

r ap h y i n t h e r eg i o n h av e o ccu r r ed r e l a t iv e l y i n -

d e p e n d e n t l y o f d e v e l o p m e n t s i n e t h n o g r a p h y i n

t h e A n g l o - S ax o n co u n t r i e s . T h e i n t en s i f i ca t i o n

o f e x c h a n g e s o f e x p e r i e n c e w it h E u r o p e a n a n d

N o r t h A m er i can r e s ea r ch e r s i n r ecen t y ea rs h a s

o ccu r r ed d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f co n so l i d a ti o n in L a -

t i n A m er i can e t h n o g r ap h i c r e s ea r ch , an d t h e r e

i s s o m e aw ar en es s o f t h e i n ap p r o p r i a ten es s o f

s t u d y i n g r ea l s i tu a t i o n s i n L a t i n A m er i ca i n t h e

l i g h t o f t h eo r i e s b a s ed o n s t u d y o f s i tu a t i o n s i n

t h e d ev e l o p ed co u n t r i e s . T h i s h a s s p a r k ed o f f a

d eb a t e i n t h e r eg i o n ab o u t u n i v e r s a l t h eo r e t i ca l

f r am es o f r e f e r en ce , f r o m w h i ch b o t h p a r t ie s

m ay h av e s o m e t h i n g t o l ea r n .

I n t h e p as t d ecad e t h e A n g l o - S ax o n s ch o o l

o f ' c r i t i c a l e t h n o g r ap h y ' ( S i m o n an d D i p p o ,

1986 ; Ander son , 1989) and r esearch in Lat in

A m er i ca h av e d ev e l o p ed a l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s ,

b o t h t en d i n g t o ca l l i n t o q u es t i o n t h e i n it i a l t h e -

o r i e s o f s o c i a l r ep r o d u c t i o n , b o t h i d en t i f y i n g

co n t r ad i c t o r y cu l t u r a l p r o ces s e s i n t h e s p h e r e s

o f e d u c a t i o n a n d b o t h s h o w i n g a d e t e r m i n a t i o n

t o u n d e r s t an d t h e t each i n g p r o f e s s i o n an d i t s

w o r k . N ev e r t h e l e s s , L a t i n A m er i can ed u ca t i o n -

a l ex p e r i en ce h as i n c l i n ed s ch o l a rs t o t ake ce r -

t a i n p o s i t io n s t h a t a r e w o r t h s u m m ar i z i n g .

A w a r e n e s s o f t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e p r o b l e m

o f p o p u l a r acces s t o f o r m a l b a s ic e d u ca t i o n ( co n -

s idered as an e nd in i t se l f) can be observed in La-

t i n A m e r i c a n e t h n o g r a p h y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e e m -

p i r ica l r ef er en t i s the da i ly l i f e o f ind iv idual

s ch o o l s . E t h n o g r ap h i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e u s u a l -

l y b ack ed u p b y a k n o w l ed g e o f t h e n a t i o n a l ed u -

ca t i o n a l an d p o l i ti c a l co n t ex t , w i t h o u t g l o s s in g

o v e r t h e h e t e r o g en e i t y o f ed u ca t i o n a l t ren d s i n

the var ious local i t i es and the d iver s i ty o f back-

g r o u n d s t h a t p r o d u c e th e m . I n L a t i n A m e r i c a ,

t h e r e f o r e , th eo r e t i ca l co n cep t i o n s h av e p r ed o m -

inated in w hich dai ly l i f e i s re la ted to socia l p ro -

cesses tak ing p lace a t h igher levels . 7

I n a r eg i o n ch a r ac t e r i zed b y s t ro n g i n d i g e -

n o u s an d p o p u l a r t r ad i t io n s an d b y a h i s to r y o f

c r ea t i o n o f n a ti o n a l i d en t i t i e s t h a t s i m u l t an eo u s -

l y i n co r p o r a t e t h e co l o n i a l h e r i t ag e an d h o l d i t

a t a r m ' s l en g t h , s ch o l a r s h av e f o u n d i t i n d i s -

p en s ab l e t o co n f r o n t t h e cu l t u r a l d i m en s i o n .

T h e c u l tu r a l c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e r e g i o n h a s

h e l p e d r e s e a r c h t o t r a n s c e n d t h e d i c h o t o m i e s

t h a t ch a r ac t e r i ze t h e w o r k o f m an y A n g l o - S ax o n

e t h n o g r ap h e r s , an d h as en ab l ed i t t o s ee t h e

s ch o o l s a s p o i n ts o f co n v e r g en ce an d r e f o r m u l a -

t i o n o f cu l t u r a l i n f l u en ces n o t co n f i n ed t o t h e

d o m i n an t m o d e l s , t h o u g h t h e s e , t o o , a r e v i g o -

r o u s l y p r o p o u n d ed b y ce r t a i n ed u ca t i o n a l p r ac -

t ices .

M an y e t h n o g r ap h i c s t u d i e s b a s ed o n r ep r o -

d u c t i o n t h eo r y ( e .g . W i l li s , 1 9 80 ) h av e em p h a -

s ized cu l tu ra l r es i s tance to schoo l ing as a bas -

i ca l ly ' s e l f - co n d em n a t o r y ' p ro ces s , i n t h a t i t

perpetuates c lass and power r e la t ionsh ips . In

L a t i n A m er i ca , a d i f f e r en t co n ce p t o f r e s i st an ce

can b e d i s ce r n ed i n m an y s t u d i e s . W h a t i s d e -

s c r i b ed i s t h e r e s i st an ce o f p a r en t s t o t h e d i s -

m a n t l i n g o f p u b l i c ed u ca t i o n an d t h e r e s i s tan ce

o f t e ach e r s t o t h e g r o w i n g b u r eau c r a t i za t io n o f

t h e i r w o r k . T h e r e i s a l so r e s is t an ce t o f a i lu r e o n

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I64 Elsie Rockwell

t h e p a r t o f t h o s e c h i l d r e n w h o o p t t o re ma in i n

scho ol and mak e sense o f i t , desp i te al l the d i f fi -

cu l t ie s involved .

A n o th e r d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n L a t i n A me r -

i c a n a n d A n g io - Sa x o n r e s e a rc h e m e r g e s i n s tu -

d i e s o f t h e t e a c h in g p r o f es s io n . W h i l e s o me w r i -

t e r s i n t h e s c h o o l o f c r i ti c a l e t h n o g r a p h y ( e .g .

Apple , 1982; Giroux , 1983) emphas ize the a l ie -

n a t i o n t h a t c h a r a c t er i z e s te a c h e r s ' w o r k in g p r a c -

t i ce s , r e s e a r c h i n L a t i n A me r i c a h a s c o n c e n t r a t -

e d o n t h e m a te r ia l c o n d i t i o n s i n w h ic h t e a c h in g

i s p e r f o r me d a n d o n t h e t e c h n iq u e s d e v e lo p e d

b y t e a c h e r s t o d e a l w i th t h e m . A n g lo - Sa x o n e th -

n o g r a p h y h a s a d o p t e d a c r i t i c a l a p p r o a c h t o

t e a c h in g m e th o d s , b a s e d o n t h e w o r k o f Pa u lo

Fr e i r e , w h ic h o f fe r s t e a c h e r s mo d e l s o f p e d a -

gogica l p rac t ice r ad ica l ly d i f f e ren t f rom those

th e y a r e a c c u s to me d t o u s in g . I n L a t i n A me r i c a ,

e th n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h h a s ma d e u s c o n s c io u s o f

t h e d i f f i c ul t y f t r a n s f e r r i n g o t h e p u b l i c e d u c a -

t i o n s y s t e m t h e m o d e l s o f p o p u l a r e d u c a t i o n

p r e v a l e n t i n t h e r e g i o n , a n d h a s p r o m o t e d t h e

s e a r c h f o r , a n d a s s e s s m e n t , o f w i d e l y a p p l i c a b l e

a l te r n at i v es a s e d o n t h e t e a c h e r s' s i t u a ti o n n d

b a c k g r o u n d .

T h e p r e s e n t u p g r a d i n g o f t h e t e a c h i n g p r o -

f e s s i o n i s v e r y t i m e l y . T h e s i t u a t i on i n t h e r e -

g i o n i s a l a r m i n g ; t h e m i s e r a b l e s a l a r ie s a i d t o

t e a c h e r s a n d t h e p ol i ti c al o v e t o w a r d s t h e r i g h t

i n r e c e n t r e f o r m s s e e m l i k el y t o r e s ul t i n t h e

c o m p l e t e d i s i n t eg r a t i o n f t h e t e a c h i n g p r o fe s -

s i on , w h i c h w o u l d o n l y a g g r a v a t e t h e s i tu a ti o n

i n e d u c a t i o n i n L a t i n A m e r i c a . B e t t e r c o n d i -

t i o n s o f e m p l o y m e n t f or t e a c h e r s a r e n o w r e c o g -

n i z e d t o b e t h e k e y t o a n y r e f o r m o f L a t i n A m e r -

i c a n e d u c a t i o n .

E t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h e n c o u r a g e s a w a r e -

n e s s b o t h o f t h e r e g i o n ' s e d u c a t i o n a l h er i t a g e

a n d i ts r i a ls n d t r i b ul a t i o n s n t h e p r e s e n t . h e

i n t e g r a t i o n o f e t h n o g r a p h i c a n d h i s t or i c a l r e -

s e a r ch , w h i c h i s b e g i n n i n g t o d ev e l o p i n t h e re -

g i o n s h o u l d g i v e a c l e a r er p i c t u r e o f t h e s o ci a l

p r o c e s s e s t h a t g a v e r i s e o p r e s e n t - d a y e d u c a t i o n

s y s t e m s a n d p r ac t ic e s. E t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h

c o u l d t h u s h e l p t o f o r e s e e t h e s i de - ef f ec t s f p u -

b l i c p o l i c ie s n d a c t i o n s, n d a v o i d i m p o s i n g r e -

f o r m s o n e d u c a t i o n s y s t e m s t h a t r e n o t p ro p e r l y

u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e i r x i s t i n g f o r m .

I n L a t i n A me r i c a , c r i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s h a v e

s u c c e e d e d i n e n h a n c in g t h e s t a tu s o f t h e s t at e -

r u n s c h o o l s y s t e m in t e r ms o f ef f e ct i v e d e m a n d

e ma n a t i n g f r o m th e g e n e r a l p u b l i c, r e g a rd l e s s o f

i t s ma n y ma te r i a l a n d t e a c h in g p r o b l e ms . W e

ma y r e c a l l Ra ma ' s ( 1 9 8 4 ) c l a im th a t ' i n L a t i n

A me r i c a , s c h o o l i n g h a s c o n t r i b u t e d mo r e t o

c r i t ica l r a t iona l i ty than to ins t rumenta l r a t iona l -

i ty ' . Whi le a ce r ta in c r i t ica l he r i tage tends to

c o n d e m n th e p l a c e o c c u p i e d b y t h e s t at e i n p u -

b l i c e d u c a t i o n a n d , i n s o d o in g , u l t ima t e ly

e c h o e s t h o s e a t t i tu d e s mi l i t a t i n g i n f a v o u r o f

pr iva t iza t ion , o the r c r i t ica l vo ices demand tha t

the s ta te fu l f i l i t s cons t i tu t iona l ob l iga t ion of

p r o v id in g b a s i c , f r e e q u a l i t y e d u c a t i o n t o t h e

p o p u l a t i o n a s a w h o le . E d u c a t i o n a l e t h n o g r a p h y

h a s e n d e a v o u r e d t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h a t s t r u g g le .

Notes

1 . I n La t i n Am er i ca , a l t hough t he r e has been c lo se con t ac t

be twe en an th r opo log i s t s and t hose r e spons ib l e f o r i nd ige -

nous ed uca t i on s i nce t he be g inn ing o f t he cen tu r y , l it t le

e thnog r a ph i c r e sea r ch was done on t he sc hoo l s t hem se lve s

be f o r e t he 19705 ( see , f o r exam ple , M. S aenz , Carapan( Mex ico Ci ty ) , S ep t em ber 1966 ). I n t he 1970s a num ber o f

e thnog r aph i c r e sea r ch p r o j ec t s on e duca t i on wer e s t a r t ed

a t t he C en t r o de I nves t igac i6n S uper io r o f t he I n s t i t u to Na-

c /ona l de An t r opo log l a e H i s to r i a and a t t he Dep ar t am en to

de I nves t i gac iones Educa t i ves ( DI E) o f t he Cen t r o d e I n -

vest igaci6n y de Estudlos Avanzados at the Ins t i tu to Pol i -

t~cn i co Nac ioua l i n Mex ico C i ty . S oon a f t e rwar ds p r o j ec ts

wer e ca r r i ed ou t i n o the r i n s t i t u ti ons wh ich a l r eady bad a

good d ea l o f expe r i ence i n i nves t i ga t i ng t he qua l i t y o f edu -

ca t i on . These i nc lude : t he P r og r am a I n t e r d i se ip l ina r io de

I nves t i gac i6n Educa t i va , S an t i ago , Ch i l e ; t he Cen t r o de

I nves t i gac i6n o f t he Un ive r s idad P edsgo g ica , Bogo tA , Co-

lom bia ; t he F acu l t ad La t i noam er i caua de C ienc i as S o -

c i a l e s , Buenos A i r es , Ar gen t ina ; t he F ondac i6n Car lo s

Chagas , S ~o P au lo , Br az i l ; t he Cen t r o Bo l iv i ano de I n -

vest igacio y Acci6n E ducaf iva, La Paz, Bol ivia .

2 . F o r e x a m p l e , th e s e r /e s o n e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y

p u b l i s h e d b y t h e T e a c h e r s ' C o l l eg e P r e s s , u n d e r t h e c o -

o r d ina t i on o f G . S p ind l e r .

3 . I n t he 1980s , t he I n t e r na t i ona l Deve lopm en t Resea r ch

Cen t r e ( CRD I ) , i n Canada , t ook t he i n i t ia t i ve o f f und ing

e thnog r aph i c r e sea r ch p r o j ec t s and suppo r t ed t he se t t i ng

u p o f t h e L a t i n A m e r i c a n N e t w o r k o f Q u a l it it a ti v e R e -s e a r c h o n E d u c a t io n a l R e a l it y , w h i c h w a s c o o r d i n a t e d b y

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E t h n o g r a p h y a n d c r i ti c a l k n o w l e d g e o f e d u c a t i o n i n L a t i n A m e r i c a I65

Rodr igo Var a , who se cou r ses and pub l i ca t i ons (Dialogan-

do ) wer e success f u l i n d i s sem ina t i ng e thnog r aph i c wor k.

T h e O A S , th e W o r l d B a nk a n d t h e U N E S C O R e g i o n a l

Of f i ce o f Educa t i on f o r La t i n Am er i ca and t he C ar ibbean ,

a long w i th sc i en t i f i c counc i l s i n seve ra l coun t r i e s ( CO-

N A C Y T , C O N I C E T ) , h a v e a ls o su p p o r t e d a n u m b e r o f

p r o j ec ts . A u se f u l con t ri bu t i on has been m ade by t h e co m -

par a t ive s t ud i es be tween coun t r i e s o f t he Reg ion , d i r ec t ed

by B. Avalos (Avalos, 1986; L6p ez et a t . , 1983; de Cre spo

et a t . , 1982; Tezanos aided by Nogales (1986) , and sup-

po r t ed by t he CR DI ; a s we l l a s s t ud ies by Ezpe l e t a (1989) ;

S ub i r a ts and Noga l es ( 1989 ) and T ovar ( 1989 ) pub l i shed

b y O R E A L C , w h i c h p r o v e d to b e v e ry u s e f u l I t w o u l d b e

m os t im por t an t t o s t r eng then t h i s com par a t i ve app r oach .4 . Th er e a r e cu r r en tl y g r oups engag ing in e thno g r aph i c s t u -

dies in o th er inst i tu t ions, notably th e following: in M exico ,

t he Un ive r s idad P edagog ica , t he Un ive r s idad Nac iona l

A u t o n o m a d e M e x i c o , t h e E s c u e l a N a c io n a l d e A n t r o p o lo -

gia e Histor ia , and several universi ties and te ache rs ' t ra in-

i ng co l l eges ; i n Br az il , t he Un ive r s i t i e s o f S io P au lo , R io

de Jane i r o , F lum inense , P o r to A leg r e and Minas Ger a i s ,

and t h e P on t i fi ca l Un ive r s i t i e s o f R io and S io P au lo ; and i n

Ar gen t ina , t he Rosa r io Cen t r e o f S oc ia l S c i ences Resea r ch

and t h e U n ive r s i t ie s o f C6 r doba and Buenos A i r es . The r e

a r e m os t p r obab ly m any o the r g r oups on wh ich we have n o

in f o r m a t ion .

5 . S ho r t age o f space and l im i t ed knowledge have m ade m e

con f ine m y a t t en t i on i n t h i s r ev i ew to s t ud i es o f t he sy s t em

of bas ic~ above a l l p r im ar y , educa t i on , t hou gh im por t an tr e sea r ch i s be ing done a t o the r l eve l s. R esea r che r s I have

n o t m e n t i o n e d i n c l u d e E . R e m e d i a n d E . W e i s s a n d t h e i r

co l l eagues and s t uden t s a t t he D epar t am en to de I nves t i ga -

c iones Educa t i vas ( DI E) , who a r e wor k ing on h ighe r and

t echn i ca l educa t i on , M. Ber t ely and A . Bar cena , wh o have

s tud i ed p r e - schoo l educa t ion , and co l l eagues i n t he S e m i -

na r io de I nves t i gac idn de l S a lon de C lase o f t he C I S E, U N-

AM in Mex ico . I n o the r coun t r i e s t oo , e t hnog r aph i c r e -

sea r ch on t he h ighe r l eve l s o f educa t i on i s unde r way .

Th er e i s a lso a g r owing num b er o f f o re ign r e sea r che r s who

have r ecen t l y p r oduced wor k based on l eng thy r e s idence i n

L a t i n A m e r i c a , a m o n g t h e m N . H o r n b e r g er , C . M a r t i n

and B . Lev in son .

6 . I n so b r i e f a p r esen t a t i on o f t he f i e ld , i t is im poss ib l e t o i n -

c lude a l l t he r e f e r ences . A lm os t a l l t he au tho r s m en t io ned

have engaged i n add i t i ona l s t ud i es and have d i r ec t ed a

l a r ge num ber o f pos tg r adua t e the .- ,e s . S om e o f t he com -

m en t s r e l a t e t o unpub l i shed o r ongo ing r e sea r ch wh ich

wou ld w ar r an t be ing m o r e w idely pub l i c ized .

7 . A m a jo r wor k on t he sub j ec t i s He l l e r, 1989 .

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