ethnobotanical implications of places of religious
TRANSCRIPT
ETHNOBOTANICAL IMPLICATIONS OF PLACES OF RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES IN CALCUTTA
THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE
DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN SCIENCE (BOTANY)
OF
THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN
2012
SRILATA DE
UGC CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDY
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN
BURDWAN-713104
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my deep sense of respect and gratitude to Professor Ambarish Mukherjee, Department of Botany, my revered supervisor, for his active inspiration and guidance which motivated me in this noble area of research. I convey my sincerest appreciation for the encouragement and untiring help that I have received from him. His personal care and the immense patience with which he has looked into my limitations and constrains during the course of my work as a part-time scholar enabled me to complete the work. I feel blessed to get him as my guide. I am also thankful to Dr. Jai Prakash Keshri, Head of the Department of Botany, Burdwan University for providing various facilities during the course of this work. I thank and acknowledge all teachers, librarian and staff of this department for their moral and academic support extended to me. I am thankful to my friends Dr, Debnath Palit, Dr. Goutam Bala, Dr.Archan Bhattacharya Sri Sujit Kumar Mandal, Ms. Irani Biswas, Ms. Soma Chanda, Ms.Tripti Bouri, Ms. Rimi Roy, Ms. Anasua Roy, Sri Animesh Maji , Joydeep Acharya, Bikash Jana, Sk. Sayantan and all others associated with the Ecotaxonomy Laboratory where I worked with their cooperation. I am indebted to Dr. S.K. Jain, D.C Pal, Priyadarshan Sen Sharma, Dr. Shakti M. Gupta and Dr. Roma Mitra ethnobotanists of great eminence for their blessings which has paved the pathway of this endeavour to complete the work. It will be injustice to my conscience if I do not mention here the immense help I received from Hon’ble Justice Toufique Uddin, who took much pain to accompany me as my elder brother to most of the Islamic religious places for collecting necessary information there from. I owe a special debt of gratitude to all the religious heads, gardeners, knowledgeable associates, informants, devotees and local councilors of Kolkata Municipality Corporation whom I approached for help, time and again, to undertake the present study in the religious sites. Most of them tried their best to assist me on hearing the objective of my work. I remember an old and infirm man who stood at the gates of a burial ground, asking for alms, got curious of my intentions and on hearing that it had an academic concern he guided me to the office of the Registrar and blessed me. The kind help received from all these persons is gratefully acknowledged. I must thank my colleagues of Rammohan Vidyamandir for Girls High School, Kolkata, where I have been recently appointed Headmistress, for their help and co-operation. I also remember with gratitude the encouragement I received from my ex-colleagues of Kapasdanga Satin Sen Vidyapith, Hooghly where I served previously as a Teacher. Last but not the least I would be failing in my duties if I do not mention the cooperation, encouragement and whole hearted support that I have received from my little son Parthiv and husband Ratan till the completion of this work. I specially remember my mother Smt. Reba De, Ex-Professor of Serampore College, who always lamented for not being able to complete her Ph.D thesis, to bring me up single handedly after the sad demise of my father, when I was a few months old. She always looked up to fulfill her dreams in me and constantly hammered my conscience to rise up to her level of expectation. …………………………………
( SRILATA DE) Date: Ecotaxonomy Laboratory UGC Centre of Advanced Study Department of Botany
Burdwan University.
CONT
Introdu
Chapte
Chapte
Chapte
Chapte
Chapte
Chapte
Chapte
Chapte
TENT
uction
er 1 : Ge
er 2 : K
an
er 3 : Re
er 4 : M
er 5 : Re
er 6 : Di
er 7 : Su
er 8 : Re
TS
eneral r
Kolkata
nd pres
eview o
Materials
esults
iscussio
ummar
eferenc
resume
at a G
sent
f Litera
s and M
on
ry
es
e
Glance :
ature
Methods
: It’s pa
s
ast
1-7
8-15
16-33
34-37
38-75
76-299
300-32
329-34
341-35
9
28
40
53
Ch
3.1
hapte
Land,
er 3.
people,
Revi
, cultur
iew o
re and p
of lite
plants o
eratu
of Kolk
ure
kata
Chap
4.1.1
4.1.2
pter
Ethn
Taxo
4. M
nobota
onomic
Mater
anical
c stud
rials
studi
dies
and
ies
Methhods
Chap
2.1 Lo
2.2 H
2.3 C
2.4 Po
2.5 R
pter
ocation
istory
limate
opulat
eligion
2. Ko It’
n
of Kol
ion an
ns and
olkat’s pas
lkata
nd lang
festiva
ta atst an
guages
als
t a glnd pre
anceesent
e : t
5.1 Bu
5.2 Ch
5.3 Fir
5.4 Gu
5.5 Gu
5.6 Ja
5.7 Mo
5.8 Nir
5.9 Sy
5.10 T
5.11 U
C
uddhis
hurche
re tem
urdwar
uru Ra
ain Tem
osques
rankar
ynagog
Temple
Upasan
Chap
st mona
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ple & T
ras
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mples
s and B
ri Man
gues
es and
nalayas
pter 5
asterie
emeter
Tower
s Mand
Burial
ndir
crema
s
5. Re
es & Ce
ries
of sile
dir
groun
atorium
esults
emeter
nce
ds
ms
s
ry
6.1 Re
6.2 Ind
tra
6.3 Th
6.4 Co
div
6.5 En
su
in
6.6 Ro
str
Ch
eligion
dia- vi
adition
he pres
ontribu
versity
nvironm
ustaine
Calcu
ole of s
ress re
hapte
and S
s-à-vis
ns
sent co
ution o
y of Ca
mental
ed in th
utta
sites of
elief
er 6.
cience
s. Calc
ontemp
of the s
alcutta
l impli
he plac
f religio
Disc
e
utta :R
plation
stock-t
cation
ces of r
ous act
cussi
Religiou
n
taking
s of th
religiou
tivities
on
us
of the
he plan
us acti
s in
plant
nts
ivities
7.1
7.2 T
7.3 T
7.4 C
Ch
The w
The co
The ou
Conclu
hapt
work a
oncep
utcom
usion
er 7.
at a gla
t and
me – an
. Sum
ance
objec
n over
mmar
tive
rview
ry
Contents
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 (a) Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2005.
Table 2.1 (b). – Rainfall data : Year 2005
Table 2.2 (a): Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2004
Table 2.2 (b). – Rainfall data : Year 2004
Table 2.3 (a). Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2003
Table 2.3 (b) – Rainfall data : Year 2003
Table 2.4 (a). Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2002
Table 2.4 (b) – Rainfall data : Year 2002
Table 2.5 (a). Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2001
Table 2.5 (b) – Rainfall data : Year 2001
Table 4.1 : A precise account of secondary sources to record information about tenets and
other perspectives, related to present work.
Table 4.2. An account of the field work performed along with details of study site.
Table 4.3: The list of knowledgeable informants used as primary sources in the present
work.
Table 5.1.1 (a): Details of study sites for Buddhist monasteries and cemeteries.
Table 5.1.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Table 5.1.2(a):The taxonomic census of plants found in Buddhist monasteries and
cemeteries.
Table 5.1.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Buddhist monasteries
and Cemeteries
Table 5.1.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Buddhist
monasteries and Cemeteries
Table 5.1.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Buddhist
beliefs and taboos
Table 5.1.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.1.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Buddhist monasteries and Cemeteries
Contents
Table 5.2.1 (a): Details of study sites of Churches and Cemeteries.
Table 5.2.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Table 5.2.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Churches and Cemeteries.
Table 5.2.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Churches and
Cemeteries.
Table 5.2.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Churches
and Cemeteries
Table 5.2.4: Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Christian
beliefs and taboos.
Table 5.2.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.
Table 5.2.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Churches and Cemeteries
Table 5.3.1 (a): Details of study sites of Fire Temple and Tower of Silence.
Table 5.3.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Table 5.3.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Fire Temple and Tower of
Silence.
Table 5.3.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Fire Temple and Tower
of Silence.
Table 5.3.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Fire Temple
and Tower of Silence
Table 5.3.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Zoroastrian
beliefs and taboos
Table 5.3.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.3.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Fire Temple and Tower of Silence.
Table 5.4.1 (a): Details of study sites of Gurudwaras
Table 5.4.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant Relationship
Table 5.4.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Gurudwaras
Table 5.4.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Gurudwaras
Contents
Table 5.4.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all
Gurudwaras
Table 5.4.4: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.4.5: Summary of Plant wealth of all Gurudwaras
Table 5.5.1 (a): Details of study sites of Guru Ravidas Mandir
Table 5.5.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Table 5.5.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Guru Ravidas Mandir
Table 5.5.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Guru Ravidas Mandir
Table 5.5.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Guru
Ravidas Mandir
Table 5.5.4: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.5.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Guru Ravidas Mandir
Table 5.6.1 (a): Details of study sites of Jain temples.
Table 5.6.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship
Table 5.6.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Jain temple study-sites
Table 5.6.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Jain Temples
Table 5.6.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all Jain
Temples
Table 5.6.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Jain beliefs
and taboos
Table 5.6.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.6.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Jain Temples
Table 5.7.1 (a): Details of study sites of Mosque and Burial grounds
Table 5.7.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship
Table 5.7.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Mosque and Burial grounds
Table 5.7.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Mosque and Burial
grounds
Table 5.7.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Mosques and
Burial grounds
Contents
Table 5.7.4: Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Islamic
religious beliefs and taboos
Table 5.7.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.7.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Mosques and burial grounds
Table 5.8.1 (a): Details of study sites of Nirankari temple.
Table 5.8.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant
relationship
Table 5.8.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Nirankari temple
Table 5.8.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Nirankari Temple
Table 5.8.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in
Nirankari Temple
Table 5.8.4: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.
Table 5.8.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Nirankari Temple
Table 5.9.1 (a): Details of study sites of Synagogues
Table 5.9.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship
Table 5.9.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Synagogues
Table 5.9.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Synagogues
Table 5.9.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all
Synagogues
Table 5.9.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Jews beliefs
and taboos
Table 5.9.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.9.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Synagogues
Table 5.10.1: An account of tree species associated with Hindu festivals and rituals
Table 5.10.2(a): Details of study sites of Hindu religious activities
Table 5.10.2(b): Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship
Table 5.10.2 (a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Hindu religious sites
Table 5.10.3(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Hindu
Temples and Crematoriums
Table 5.10.4 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in
Hindu Temples and Crematoriums
Contents
Table 5.10.5: Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with
the Hindu beliefs and taboos
Table 5.10.6: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.10.7: Summary of Plant wealth of Hindu Temples and Crematorium
Table 5.11.1 (a): Details of study sites of Upasanalayas of Brahmos
Table 5.11.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship
Table 5.9.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Upasanalayas of Brahmos
Table 5.11.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Upasanalayas of
Brahmos
Table 5.11.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Upasanalayas
of Brahmos
Table 5.11.4: Statistical analysis of plant wealth
Table 5.11.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Upasanalayas of Brahmos
Table 6.1: APTI values of important species in different places of religious species as
revealed from literature.
Contents
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. 2.1 – Location map of Kolkata
Fig. 2.2 – Location map of Kolkata in Kolkata Metropolitan area
Fig. 2.3 – Road network of Kolkata
Fig. 2.4 – Ward wise division of Kolkata
Fig. 2.5 – Population density of Kolkata 1991
Fig. 2.6 – Population density of Kolkata 2001
Fig. 2.7 – Land cover map of Kolkata 1998
Fig.5.1.1 (a) –(e) Percentage distribution of plants of all Buddhist religious sites in
different use categories.
Fig. 5.1.2 Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Buddhist Monasteries and
Cemeteries
Fig. 5.1.3 (a)–(c) Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Buddhist religious
sites
Figs.5.2.1 (a)-(c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Churches and Cemeteries in
different use categories.
Fig. 5.2.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Churches and Cemeteries
Fig 5.2.3(a)- (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Christian religious
sites
Fig 5.3.1 (a) - (c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Zoroastrian religious sites in
different use categories
Fig. 5.3.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Zoroastrian religious sites:
Fig. 5.3.3 (a) – (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Zoroastrian
religious sites
Fig. 5.4.1: Percentage distribution of plants of all Gurudwars in different use categories.
Fig. 5.4.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in all Gurudwaras
Fig. 5.4.3: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in all Gurudwaras
Fig. 5.5.1: Percentage distribution of plants of Guru Ravidas Mandir in
different use categories
Fig. 5.5.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Guru Ravidas Mandir
Contents
Fig. 5.5.3 (a)–(c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Guru Ravidas
Mandir
Fig. 5.6.1(a) –(f): Percentage distribution of plants of all Jain religious sites in different
use categories
Fig.5.6.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Jain Temples
Fig. 5.6.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Jain Temples
Figs.5.7.1 (a)-(c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Mosqes and Burial grounds in
different use categories
Fig. 5.7.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Mosques and Burial grounds
Fig 5.7.3(a)- (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Islamic religious sites
Fig. 5.8.1: Percentage distribution of plants of Nirankari Temple in different use
categories
Fig. 5.8.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Nirankari Temple
Fig 5.8.3(a)- (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Nirankari
Temple
Fig. 5.9.1(a) –(e): Percentage distribution of plants of all Synagogue sites in different use
categories
Fig.5.9.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Synagogues
Fig. 5.9.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Synagogues
Fig. 5.10.1 (a) – (c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Hindu temples and
crematoriums in different use categories
Fig. 5.10.2 : Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Hindu Temples and
Crematoriums
Fig. 5.10.3 : Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Hindu religious sites
Fig 9.11.1 (a) –(c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Upasanalayas of Brahmos in
different use categories
Fig 5.11.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in Upasanalayas of Brahmos
Fig. 5.11.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Upasanalayas of
Brahmos
Contents
LIST OF PLATES
Plate No. 4.1 – Herbarium sheet -1
Plate No. 4.2 – Herbarium sheet -2
Plate No. 4.3 – Herbarium sheet -3
Plate No. 4.4 – Herbarium sheet -4
Plate No. 4.5 – Herbarium sheet -5
Plate No. 4.6 – Herbarium sheet -6
Plate No. 4.7 – Herbarium sheet -7
Plate No. 4.8 – Herbarium sheet -8
Plate No. 4.9 – Herbarium sheet -9
Plate No. 4.10 – Herbarium sheet -10
Plate No. 4.11 – Herbarium sheet -11
Plate No. 5.1.1: Tanaka Bikshu at Nippon Zan, Myohoji, Buddha Mandir, Dhakuria
Kolkata.
Plate No. 5.1.2: Yin Yee Thong Cemetery (Site No. 106) with Hsuan Tsang
Buddhist Temple (Site No. 105) in the background.
Plate No. 5.2.1 : St. Paul’s Cathedral church (Site No. 82)
Plate No. 5.2.2: Rev. Subrata Fullonton at Baptist Mission Church (Site NO.18)
Plate No. 5.2.3 : Epitaph in memorial of army who laid their lives in World War II at
Bhowanipur Cemetery (SITE No. 81)
Plate No. 5.2.4 : Shade giving and Ornamental plants at Bhowanipur Cemetery
Plate no. 5.3.2: Site No. 20- Agni Mandir at Metcalfe Street
Plate No. 5.4.1: Tejinder Singh (Pujari/Granthi) at Behala Gurudwara (Site No. 26 )
Plate No. 5.4.2: A view of Gurdwara Sant Kutiya (Site No. 122)
Plate No.5.61: A view of Sri Parsanath Digambar Jain Tmple (Site No. 14)
Plate No. 5.7.1 Md. Kamal Hussain, Matwale of Waqf Masjid Rahamania at Site No. 6
Plate No. 5.7.2: Bagmari Burial Ground (Site No. 87)
Plate No. 5.7.3: Canopy of trees at Site No. 87
Plate No. 5.7.4: Site No. 94 – Wajid Ali Shah Mosque
Plate No. 5.9.1 : A view of the Maghen David Synagogue
Plate No. 5.10.1 : Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir (Site No. 24)
Contents
Plate No.5.10.2 : Keoratala Mahasmasan (Site No.10)
Plate No. 5.10.3 : Devotees at a Shiv Mandir of North Kolkata (site No. 83)
Plate No. 5.11.1A glimpse of one of the Brahmo Upasanalayas of Kolkata
1
INTRODUCTION
Man was born in the cradle of nature. From his very inception man has been
procuring elements of his livelihood from the vast resources of nature. The aesthetics and
diversity of nature has wondered him from time to time. But it also developed a fear-
psychosis within him when he had to encounter the occasional devastating phenomena of
nature which were mysterious and unpredictable to him. He felt powerless to deal with
many such events as flood, hurricane, drought, thunderstorm and many other perils of
nature and that filled him with fear and awe. As man faced disaster in the catastrophes of
nature, a feeling of helplessness, fear and anxiety subjugated him to some supernatural
powers of nature and eventually the cult of nature worshiping began. The wise groups of
men started understanding the nature and their empirical knowledge yielded the
realization that existence of man depends greatly on his attitude towards nature and
disregarding nature means precluding his own existence. So from the dawn of this
realization, the common men were induced to develop an instinct in the sub-conscious
state of his mind to conserve the nature.
Origin of religions dates back to the prehistoric phase of development of man
between 500,000 and 100,000 B.C.E. It was during this long period of human evolution
that religious emotions and motivations became hard-wired into the human brain. During
subsequent periods of human evolution, from hominoids to Neanderthal man and then to
Cro-Magnon man, these primitive forms of religion imbedded themselves ever more
firmly into the genes of human beings. The genes for susceptibility to religion and
superstition remain among of the most pervasive and powerful genomic motivators of
man. Ever since man started praying Gods, religion has grown as an institutional power.
Until the eighteenth century, the Age of Enlightenment, religion had organized itself into
the dominant power governing all spiritual and secular affairs of man. Incidentally prior
to 1700 AD, all affairs of society were under the domination of religious hierarchies.
Today approximately 80% of all people on earth are adherents of organized religions.
Humans, who were motivated by a God or Gods whom they feared and whom they were
willing to obey, acted with a high degree of cooperation. Apprehension of punishment
Introduction
2
from their God or his priests acted as a powerful force for socialized behavior. Priests and
magicoreligious practitioners established a moral code of conduct. Since the package of
moral code of conduct got associated with each of the organized religions and preached
by the priests, the belief in the supernatural power disseminated to enforce self-restraint,
morality and values amongst the followers.
During the prehistoric phase of development of man, he used to rely only
on his physical prowess and very primitive tools. Many millennia of environmental
hardships enhanced evolutionary progress and honed the thought processes of man. He
learned to rely on the power of his brain to an ever-increasing degree. Man’s
environmental conditions have changed drastically during the last 100,000 years. Science
has transformed nature from a force that man feared and held in awe, to a force that is
subservient to him. Untamed nature was, and still is, man’s greatest enemy. However,
man no longer fears nature as he had done earlier. Man has tamed nature and he now
dominates over nature to a very high degree. Rationality takes a major place in his belief
system along with the superstition and religious faith he inherited.
But religion is still powerful, though it has lost the all-pervasive stranglehold on
human affairs. Moreover, nature worship remains intermingled in religious beliefs. At all
ages religion has motivated men and all have followed the code of conduct laid down by
religion. Religious rituals are still being followed in which the objective of conservation
of plants and animals lay cryptic. Man, either unknowingly in the past or knowingly in
the present is in practice of performing some religious rituals daily which are
manifestations of man’s age long heritage of nature worshipping. This can be viewed as a
struggle against degradation of moral values and extinction of natural resources. So
religion at present can be seen in this perspective as a society linked value used as a tool
for optimizing nature through spiritual sustenance.
In the history of religions and cultures, nature worship as a definite and complex
system of belief or as a predominant form of religion has not been well documented.
Among primitive people the concept of nature as a totality was unknown; only individual
natural phenomena--e.g., stars, rain, and animals were comprehended as natural objects
or forces that influence them and were thus in some way worthy of being venerated or
placated. Nature as an entity in itself, in contrast with man, human society and culture, or
Introduction
3
even God, is a philosophical or poetic conception that has developed among advanced
civilizations. Nature Worship sprang from the unquestionable supremacy of Nature; and
it is believed that the five element Agni (fire), Jala (water), Vayu (wind), Prithvi (earth)
and Akash (space) have a great influence on life. They believe that in each village, any
large tree is revered as the power that sustains the community.
There developed a popular belief that all plants are conscious with distinct
personalities of their own for which they deserve consideration either as Gods or sacred
or abodes of Gods and Goddesses or even of supernatural powers, demons and devils.
And since time immortal, the grateful populace found it entirely logical to worship trees
that gave them food, fire, shelter, shade, clothing and medicine. In fact a seal discovered
during excavations at an Indus Valley site (the first-known ancient Indian civilization, c.
3000 BC - 1700 BC) shows the peepal tree being worshipped. The importance of trees is
also mentioned in the Puranas. Because they do not stop growing, trees symbolize
reproduction, especially the flowering and the fruit-bearing species. Therefore in villages,
any large tree is revered as the power that sustains the community. Trees play an
important role in almost all ceremonies, especially their twigs, leaves, exudates, fruits,
seeds, stems, wood, bark and roots.
Some trees are considered sacred for being the incarnation of a specific deity. For
example, all trees, which have trifoliate leaves, like the varun (Crataeva religious), are
believed to be associated with the Trimurti. The leaves of the bel, which are also
trifoliate, represent Shiva's three eyes and are offered to him in worship. Other trees are
held sacred because they are believed to be the homes of certain Gods. According to the
Padma Purana and the Brahma Purana, there was once a time when the demons
(Asuras) defeated the Gods. To save themselves, the Gods hid in various trees: Shiva in
the bel, Vishnu in the peepal and Surya in the neem . The SkandPurana a says that the
parijata (Nyctanthes arbortristis), the mango (Mangifera indica) and the banyan (Ficus
sp) emerged from the ‘samudra manthan’ the mythological event of Sea churning by
Gods and demons. In the Bhavishya Purana, durva (Cynodon dactylon) is believed to
have been produced from the hair on Vishnu's hands and thighs (other sources say it was
from his back). The Mandara mountain which he had supported during the samudra
manthan got rubbed against him forcing some of his hair to fall down which after getting
Introduction
4
touched by amrita, became the grass familiar in India as ‘durva’(Cynodon dactylon).
According to another myth, when the gods obtained Amrita (the divine semisolid food for
immortal life) from the ocean, they drank it quickly, before the demons could wrest it
away. In their haste, a few drops of amrita spilt on the grass below, which became
immortal. This grass was durva.
Because trees are sacred, it is an act of virtue for man to plant and water them.
Elaborate rituals precede the occasions of planting or cutting trees. Traditionally, trees are
cut only if at all it is absolutely necessary. Before being cut, the tree-spirit is prayed for
forgiveness. Various mantras (hymns or odes) are recited, so as to subdue God’s reaction
to the misdeed.
There are different beliefs associated with trees. It is believed that during
the Chaturmasya, the Gods rest in trees and plants. Therefore if trees are worshipped and
boons asked for during this time, the Gods are likely to be generous. Kalpavriksha, a
mythological tree mentioned in the Puranas, is believed to be a wish-granting tree. The
spirits that live in certain trees like the jackfruit are believed to wander from their
arboreal homes at night. For this reason, people avoid certain trees when it is dark.
Trees also help avert unhappiness. Boys and girls are often married to
trees by certain ethnic communities, if it has been foretold that their first marriage will be
unhappy or end with the spouse's death. The tree is considered the first spouse, who will
bear the effect of the prediction. The person is then married 'again', to a human spouse.
Since an unmarried girl cannot be cremated, a daughter who remains unwed past a certain
age, is married to a tree. These practices are still followed in our country, though rarely,
in remote areas.
Threads are tied around certain ‘key stone species’, like the peepal, to seek a
boon. After the boon is granted, the thread is untied and buried at the foot of the tree.
Because of their strong bonds with trees in general, people have been known to actually
lay down their lives in defense of trees. The Bishnois, people of a sect in Rajasthan, are
proud and aggressive environment worshippers who attack those who violate the
ecological rules and ethics, thereby contributing enormously to conservation of nature
and her creations especially in and around their hamlets.
Introduction
5
The efforts of environmentalists to build up a vocal and active force in India today
deserve mention. Environmental movements in India in the meantime has fetched some
success notable in records like saving from threatening destruction the rain forests of the
Silent Valley in Kerala and the Himalayan foothills, through the 'Chipko Andolan'
(literally 'hugging movement') in which village and city activists hugged trees to prevent
their felling. There have also been deeply concerned protests against the building of large
dams, which threaten to flood/inundate ecologically rich areas. Many consider the
demarcation of biospheres and sanctuaries, and execution of programmes for
reforestation and social forestry, as the appropriate and apt measures, blessed by the
Gods.
The intimate relationship between man and plants progressively developed in both
temporal and spatial scales through generations. The mysteries of nature and her
creations started getting progressively deciphered and interpreted by wise men in terms of
abstract philosophy and science. The theory and practice of the knowledge thus gained
got communicated progressively by the judicious scientists and philosophers to the
common men in the matrix of religion. The religious teachings, rituals, holy
performances, taboos etc. could so comprehensively conceptualize the general mass
about science that it became a part of common men’s traditions. The common people in
good number even today do neither dare nor find interest to detect science concealed in
religious capsule. However in the last few decades, there has been a wide realization of
the value of traditional knowledge still surviving through generations in the religious and
cultural practices of indigenous and conservative societies and the modern scientists have
started showing concern in such anthropological perspectives which have concern and
potential to contribute towards optimization of the life-sustaining system operating in
nature and improve quality of life. Aptly documentation and validation of the knowledge
sustained in traditions presently occupy position of significance in the research schedule
of the modern environmental scientists and ecologists. Moreover environmentalists have
been organizing their efforts to promote growth of environmental awareness, importance
of indigenous culture and traditions in preserving nature’s economy and conserving
biodiversity.
Introduction
6
The objective of the present work is to record detailed information related to man-
plant relationships prevailing in the places of worship and other ritualistic activities under
the domain of different religions integrated with the cultural heritage of an Indian
metropolis and reveal the scientific rationale cryptic in such relationships.
For fulfillment of this objective the city of Calcutta was selected, the reasons
being its cosmopolitan nature sustaining a unique composite culture designed by different
religious beliefs and faiths. Calcutta houses people of different faiths, such as Hinduism,
Islam, Christianity, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism, Brahmo-dharmo, Zoroastrianism, to
name a few. Settlement of the people from diverse beliefs can be traced back to the early
trade and traders who had come to the city with genuine motives to trade but later settled
in the city for its cordial hospitability, suitable climatic conditions and economy
prosperity. The present study has been kept concerned with the metropolitan city of
Calcutta following the geographical boundary as set up by Kolkata Municipal
Corporation. Plants grown and sustained in places of various religious activities and those
used while performing rituals in these places in Calcutta have been studied and recorded.
Since the expectancy of benevolent materialistic outputs, ecofriendly performances,
psychological motivations and aesthetic influences need immediate surveillance,
evaluation and documentation, the present anthropobotanical investigation was
undertaken which on scientific maneuvering and application is likely to optimize quality
of life and its ambience not only in Calcutta but also in other urban areas.
The objective would thus concern:
(i) Preparation of a taxonomic account of plants cultivated or maintained in gardens
associated with temples, mosques, churches, synagogues, crematories etc.
(ii) Preparation of a data base of bio-resources used in worships, rituals and
ceremonies in the places of religious activities selected for study.
(iii) Revelation of the utilitarian and aesthetic perspectives of such bio-resources.
(iv) Elucidation of the role of the areas of religious activities played in bio-diversity
conservation and management.
(v) Preparation of a data base for retrieving comparative account of shares of
different religious groups towards conservation biodiversity and plant genetic
resources.
Introduction
7
(vi) Setting of guidelines for undertaking of similar or more fruitful studies for other
metropolitan cities of the country.
The present work has been presented in eight chapters. The first chapter entitled General
résumé deals with a brief elucidation of the state of art of the subjects like ethnobotany,
traditional knowledge, anthropology of religion, religion, nature and ecology to lay the
foundation of the work. The second chapter entitled ‘Kolkata at a glance’ incorporates
information about the genesis and geographical location of the city, physical and
meteorological features, demography, cultural and other pertinent perspectives. Review
of literature covered in chapter three, gives an overview of the work so far done in the
present context. The fourth chapter deals with ‘Materials and Methods’ to include every
aspect of the work performed. Results of the work are presented in the fifth chapter each
and every aspect of which has been discussed in the sixth chapter entitled ‘Discussion’ so
as to reveal keeping parity with objective the significance and scope of the work. The
seventh chapter summarizes the work and concludes with precision, rationality and
contemporary pertinence. All the publications referred to in this work have been cited
under References in the eighth chapter.
1: GENERAL RÉSUMÉ
1. State of art of the subjects of concern:
Total scientific and technical knowledge currently available and pertinent to the title
of the present research work can be grouped into four broad categories, viz. ethnobotany,
traditional knowledge, anthropology of religion, and religions in conservation a precise
account of which is given in the following.
1.1 Ethnobotany
1.1.1. History
Though the term “Ethnobotany” was coined in 1895 by the US botanists John
William Harshberger, the history of the field began long before the event of its
nomenclature. In AD 1, the Greek surgeon Dioscorides published “ De Materia Medica”
which gave an account of about 600 plants occurring in the Mediterranean region. It also
included information on how the Greeks used the plants, especially for medicinal
purposes.
In the beginning, ethnobotanical specimens and studies were not very reliable and
sometimes not much helpful, but in the early twentieth century, botanists and
anthropologists finally collaborated mutually and the collection of reliable, detailed data
began.
Evolution of human life and culture has directly or indirectly been associated with
and influenced by the surrounding environment, especially the vegetal world. Primitive
man living closely associated with nature, mainly depended on it for his survival. His
dependence on the plants around him, made him to acquire the knowledge of economic
and medicinal properties of many plants by trial and error. Consequently he became the
store-house of knowledge of many useful as well as harmful plants, accumulated and
enriched through generations and passed on from one generation to another, without any
written documents. It is therefore, important that before this rich unwritten knowledge on
uses of plants and sustenance of plant resources is lost forever. It must be properly
documented and preserved.
Chapter 1: General resume
9
“Ethnobotany” appears to be an anthropocentric approach to botany which is
essentially concerned with gathering information on plants and their uses. Powers (1873-
1874) used the term “Aboriginal botany” to refer to the “study of all the forms of
vegetable world which the aborigines used for medicine, textile fabrics, ornaments etc.
The term was first time coined by Hershberger, in 1896 in the daily Evening
Telegraph, Philadelphia although concern with ethnobotany dates back to the dawn of
civilization.
“A truly broad concept emerged only when Robbins et al. (1916) defined the term as the
“study and evolution of the knowledge of all phases of plant life amongst primitive
societies and of the effect of the vegetal environment upon the life.”
Vestal and Schultes (1939) have employed the term “Economic Botany” to
include all plant products of use to man”, stating that, in this sense, economic botany is
more inclusive than ethnobotany, “ a term by which most investigators have designated
the plants used by aboriginal peoples”. They have adopted what they regard as the
broader term economic botany, “because not all the uses of plants by primitive people are
of necessity aboriginal in origin”.
Jones (1941) defined it as “the study of the interrelations of the primitive man and
plants”. Later, Schultes (1941) reiterated this point of view, stating that the member of
science of one or another school are agreeing rather unanimously to regard ethnobotany,
as “the study of the relationship between man and his ambient vegetation”.
Castetter (1944) confined ethnobotany to man in primitive state of culture and
stated that the “ethnobotany is sharply differentiated from economic botany in that it is
vitally concerned with the fundamental cultural aspects of plant utilization, while
economic botany practically ignores the cultural aspects in a very general way.”
1.1.2. Modern Ethnobotany
With the beginning of the 20th century, the field of ethnobotany
experienced a shift from the compilation of raw data to a greater methodological and
conceptual reorientation, which marked the beginning of academic ethnobotany. The
founding father of this organized discipline is Richard Evans Schultes (1941, 1960,
1962).
Chapter 1: General resume
10
The subject has been growing fast and undergoing ramification into various
sub-disciplines and anatomizing scientists of different disciplines so as to assume a
multidimensional structure with interdisciplinary configuration. The most valuable
contribution towards nourishment and development of the subject was from S.K. Jain
who would always be remembered with regards and gratitude for his dedication and
enormous contribution in ethnobotany. Some of his outstanding publications
(Jain,1963,1981,1987,1989,1991a & b,1997,1998,1999; Jain et al.,1984) have escalated
the significance of the subject. Other important publications covering diverse aspects of
ethnobotany including ancient literature, traditional art, sculptures and culture, myths,
religion and places of religious activities, rituals, festivals, ceremonies etc., which
deserve mention include those of Randhawa (1964), Schultes and Hofmann, (1979), Pal
(1980), Tarafder (1983a, b & c), Westling (1985), Vartak et al.,(1987), Rao(1989),
Shengji (1991), Sur et al. (1992), Gupta(1971, 1995a & b), Sensarma and Pal (1995),
Varghese (1996), Chaudhury and Pal (1997), Vartak and Gadgil(1997),Pal and
Jain(1998), Merat (2002), Mandal and Mukherjee(2003), Sensarma(1989, 1998,2003),
Godble and Sarnaik (2004), Basu(2007), Pandey and Saini (2007) and others.
The indigenous societies all over the world have developed their own
knowledge about the plants and animals in their surroundings and have integrated them
with their needs, cultural practices and developed mutually sustainable relationships.
Studies on direct man-plant and man-animal relationship have been given great
importance in composing a subject known as ethnobiology (Swaminathan,1996).
The coverage of the subject is much more extensive today. It is a multi-
disciplinary subject in one hand and intra and inter-disciplinary on the other hand
(Mukherjee and Hotwani,2006). Ethnobotany, the holistic approach to study all aspects of
direct man-plant relationship, has grown to the extent of its further ramifications into
different sub disciplines and flourished to build relationship with other disciplines
(interdisciplinary). Analysis of the direct man-plant relationship reveals five categories –
i) relationship useful to both plants and man. ii) useful to man but harmful to plants, iii)
useful to plants but harmful to man, iv) harmful to both and v) cultural relationships.
There are now many interdisciplinary approaches of Ethnobotany viz.,
ethnomedicine, ethnoveterinary, ethnocosmetics, ethnogastrology, ethnopharmacy,
Chapter 1: General resume
11
ethnopharmacology etc., the growth of each of which necessitates enrichment by
pertinent indigenous knowledge. So aptly the decade beginning from 1st January 1995,
was observed as the International Decade for the World’s Indigenous People with the
main objective of immediate documentation of the so long uncared indigenous
knowledge which would otherwise be extinct in future. The ethnobotanists realized the
necessity to develop methods that empower the people with whom they work. There is an
urgent need to record all ethnobiological information from the diverse ethnic
communities before the traditional cultures are completely lost. Ethnobotanists have to
shoulder the responsibility of stock taking the traditionally used- biological resources and
revitalizing the traditional beliefs for conservation of such resources.
Ethnobotany or the study of all aspects of direct relationship between man and
plant does not remain confined to primitive societies today since even a city dweller,
especially in a country like India, is still conservative about certain perspectives of this
relationship in his social and cultural traditions, religious activities and ways of life
(Mukherjee, 1997). While reviewing the cultural relevance of Indian plants Mukherjee
and Mukherjee (1995) realized that a thorough perusal of religio-ceremonial practices
and ancient art and literature can bring into light many useful attributes of man-plant
relationship, the scientific rationale of which can not only optimize human living but also
execute conservation.
1.1.3. Significance of Ethnobotany
The significance of Ethnobotany gets reflected in :
1. Use of man-plant relationship in developing human society.
2. Understanding of history and heritage of a community based on existing human
culture.
3. Identification of genetic pool of resistant crops for development of hybrid plant
species.
4. Scientific investigation of herbal practices existing among different ethnic
communities and tribal groups to discover new area of knowledge, treatment,
therapies and new drug development.
Chapter 1: General resume
12
5. Utilization of traditional technologies with scientific inputs for the benefit of artism
classes and for sustainable utilization of natural resources.
6. Indigenous knowledge can be used in alteration of both Linnean and Wallacean short
falls and augmentation of biodiversity documentation.
7. Ethnobotany promises to hand over phytoresources of diverse types for human
benevolence especially the medicinal plants together with the ways and means of their
sustenance.
8. The cultural perspectives of ethnobotany always have a direct bearing on conservation
of species and ecosystem as a whole.
9. Ethnobotany provides to handover phytoresources of diverse types for human
benevolence especially the medicinal plants together with the ways and means of their
sustenance.
10. Ethnobotany provides opportunities for identification of wild varieties of the present
day economic plants, which are likely to handover genotypes for disease and pest
resistance and pave the pathway towards sustainable agriculture.
11. Ethnobotany may generate guidelines for ecorestoration of degraded ecosystems.
1.2. Traditional Knowledge:
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) used the term “Traditional
Knowledge”- to refer the tradition based literacy, artistic or scientific work
performances, scientific inventions, discoveries, designs, marks, names and symbols,
undisclosed information and all other tradition based innovations and creations resulting
from intellectual activity in different scientific field. The Traditional Knowledge refers to
the knowledge systems which have generally been transmitted from one generation to
another by oral means only and are generally regarded as pertaining to a particular group
of people or community or its territory, they are constantly evolving in response to
changing environment. The message of science used to be communicated in the past
through religions so that all religions are potential repositories of scientific knowledge
emanating from experience and wisdom which survives through generations till today in
traditional rituals, faith, taboos and cultural performances. The traditional knowledge and
scientific rationale cryptic in different religions need to be worked out and documented
Chapter 1: General resume
13
immediately since there has been a progressive diminution of interests and involvements
in religions.
Documentation of Traditional Knowledge (TK) were carried out in India
under the “Man and Biosphere” Project. Traditional Knowledge can act as a source of
wisdom for decision making regarding various developmental activities. This is also
considered as a valuable asset of the community, helping them to shape and control their
own development.
In the current Intellectual Property Right (IPR) regime, documentation of TK with
appropriate protection can prevent misappropriation and wrong patenting. Documentation
of ethnomedicinal wisdom would further help the identification of promising plants/
other materials to be selected for detailed scientific investigation and validation.
It may also help in establishing linkages with the plan and process,
especially in the formation of innovative programmes and projects that can be
implemented at grass root level. Value addition of selected plants/ other materials may
help to enhance the socio-economic status of the knowledge providers/ custodians as well
as the community as a whole.
Considering the importance of TK in modern era- the scientists have shifted their field of
interest to the nature where still reside people with enormous knowledge.
So documentation of traditional knowledge is one of the thrust areas in scientific world
today.
The study of Ethnobiology presently gets the topmost priority in scientific research.
Places of religious activities in Kolkata, capital city of West Bengal State, are also ideal
places for studying ethnobotany for being the matrix of diverse religions and culture of
both indigenous and exotic origin.
1.3. Anthropology of religion:
The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation
to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across
cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between
magical thinking and religion (Manickam,1977) and that every religion is a cultural
product, created by the human community that worships it. In virtually every major
Chapter 1: General resume
14
anthropological work on religion, and in most if not all introductory textbooks in cultural
anthropology, the question of the truth or falsity of religious beliefs is evaded, ignored, or
de-emphasized in favor of questions concerning the social, psychological, ecological,
symbolic, aesthetic, and/or ethical functions and dimensions of religion. Considerations
of disciplinary integrity, public welfare, and human dignity demand that religious claims
be subjected to anthropological evaluation. It is precisely such areas as social,
psychological, ecological, symbolic, aesthetic, and ethical functions and dimensions of
religion where the anthropology of religion has made and continues to make its greatest
contributions. Nevertheless, the scientific study of religion will never be fully legitimate
until scientists recognize and proclaim the reality of religion (Lett, 1997).
1.4. Religion, nature and ecology:
By the 1990s, many scholars of religion had put their sincere endeavors to
generate scientific literature discussing and analyzing the envision of nature and its
valuation by different religious systems of the world. A landmark setting event took place
during 1996 - 1998 when a series of ten conferences on Religion and Ecology were
organized at the Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions under the
esteemed leadership of Professors Mary Evelyn Tucker and John Grim of Yale
University. More than 800 international scholars, religious leaders, and environmentalists
participated in the conference series. The conferences concluded at the United Nations
and at the American Museum of Natural History and eventually a series of ten books
(The Religions of the World and Ecology Book Series), one for each of the world's major
religious traditions, viz.. Buddhism (Tucker and Williams,1997), Christianity (Hessel and
Ruether,2000), Confucianism(Tucker and Berthrong, 1998), Daoism(Girardot et al.,
2001), Hinduism (Chapple and Tucker, 2000),Indigenous Traditions.( Grim, 2001),Islam
(Foltz et al., 2003), Jainism (Chapple, 2002), Judaism (Tirosh-Samuelson, 2002),Shinto
(Bernard, 2004). Other landmarks in the emerging field were the publication of the
Worldly Wonder: Religions Enter Their Ecological Phase by Tucker in 2003 and the
Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature by Taylor in 2005. Taylor also led the effort to
form the International Society for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, which was
Chapter 1: General resume
15
established in 2006, and began publishing the quarterly Journal for the Study of Religion,
Nature, and Culture in 2007.
Subsequent to the conferences, Tucker and Grim formed The Yale Forum on
Religion and Ecology which has been instrumental in the creation of scholarship, in
forming environmental policy, and in the greening of religion. In addition to their work
with the Forum, Tucker and Grim's work continues in the Journey of the Universe film,
book, and educational DVD series. It continues to be the largest international
multireligious project of its kind.
The American Academy of Religion has remained active since 1991, and a
number of universities, especially in North America are now offering courses on Religion
and The Environment. The peer-reviewed academic journal Worldviews: Global
Religions, Culture, and Ecology and the encyclopedia The Spirit of Sustainability have
been putting efforts to augment the scientific message of religion for optimization of
environment for peace, prosperity and improvement of qualities of life.
2 : KOLKATA AT A GLANCE - IT’S PAST AND PRESENT 2.1.Location:
The city Calcutta (the erstwhile Kolkata) curls lazily along a curve on the east
bank of the river Hooghly, a branch of the holy Ganges. It is located at Latitude 22º 32' N
and Longitude 88º 20' E in the state of West Bengal and it covers an area of
approximately 1480 Sq. km on the bank of Hooghly River at a height of 6m above the
mean sea level.
2.2.History:
The city has a history of great reputation and value. During the British rule Calcutta was
the capital city of India up to 1911 and after independence Calcutta (erstwhile Kolkata)
became the capital of West Bengal State. The city has turned out to be the intellectual
and cultural of India. In the late 17th century, Calcutta was a village which slowly grew
into a township and later into a city. Trading by the Europeans (the Portuguese, Dutch,
English and French operated at one time or the other) was conducted through “kuthi”
or trading outposts overseen by an “agent” since about the middle of the 17th century.
They brought, stored and shipped a variety of goods, such as saltpeter, cotton goods,
silk, spices and so on. The British trade was monopolized by the “Governor and
Company of Merchants of London Trading Into the East Indies”(commonly known as
the East India Company) which had received a Royal Charter in 1600 from Queen
Elizabeth - 1.They had commenced trade at Surat in Gujarat and in Madras. In 1653, the
Emperor Shah Shuja granted them the permission to start trading in Bengal as well.
The convenient location in respect of trade between East Asia and Europe and the
navigability of the Hooghly river in movement of trade attracted the Portuguese in the
mid 16th century, much before the British. The increased activity of the British,
especially the fortifications, aroused the ire of the then Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-
daula. He attacked the British in 1756 and drove them out from their outposts and he
burnt down large parts of the fort and adjoining areas including the Burrabazar. The
East India Company however would not let go so easily and invited General Robert
Clive (then Colonel) to take back the areas by force if necessary. Palace intrigue and
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
17
treachery by trusted officials coupled with inspired generalship by Clive led to the
defeat of Siraj-ud-daula, and the founding of the British empire in India in 1757. The
East India Company lost little time in consolidating its position at Kolkata. The
descendants of the Portuguese and the native Christians from Goa continued to play a
notable role in the social and economic life, particularly in education, sports,
confectioneries and eateries in the 1950/60’s.
Other traders and businessmen from overseas thronged to Kolkata. The first were
the Armenians who had set up business since the early 1700’s. From spices to muslin and
indigo, jute, shellac and to real estate, there was little that the enterprising Armenians did
not dabble at. The Jews followed. Although Jews had long being doing business in India,
Kolkata was a relatively new outpost, mainly comprising of the community from Syria
and Bagdad. Through their typical network, they traded between Kolkata, the Middle
East, Europe and China. Like their counterparts, the Armenians from Asia Minor, the
Jews branched into real estate and contributed noticeably to the social life and
philanthropic work in the growing city of Kolkata for the major part of the 19th century.
Another lot enterprising immigrants were the Parsis. A few of them came from Surat,
which was an early British trading post in western India. The earliest record of Chinese
settlers doing business in Kolkata goes back to about 1780. They entered the sugar mill
business with the encouragement of the British. But their skills and ingenuity really shone
in carpentry and cabinet–making, boat and ship repair, and last but not the least, shoe-
making. Chinese cuisine both literally and metaphorically has added a new dimension to
the taste of Kolkata.
Another major influence on Kolkata and its social and cultural life came in the wake of
two tragedies separated by about 60 years. The first was the defeat and decapitation of
Tippu Sultan in south India in 1795, following which his sons and family were moved by
the British authorities to Tollygunge in south Kolkata around 1806. Although Muslims
had long been living in Kolkata, their numbers, specially of the gentry, increased notably.
Mosques and mazhars to muslim saints came up in great numbers. The second was the
deposition and transportation of Wajed Ali Shah, the Nawab of Oudh in north India, in
1855 about the time of Sepoy Mutiny. Lucknow came to be transplanted in the
Watgunge and Metiaburz areas of south west Kolkata.
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
18
The growth and consolidation of British commercial interests together with added
responsibilities in revenue collection and maintenance of law and order were initially
under a Governor and then the Governor General, the first of whom was Warren Hastings
in 1772, followed by other illustrious administrators. Gracious mansions, churches,
avenues, theaters, gardens and parks sprang up, so much, that more than one visitor from
overseas was to remark on the “city of palaces “ and its splendour.
From this early history of Kolkata it is seen that the city has embraced people
from all religious beliefs through ages which contributed to the development of a rich
matrix of socioeconomic and cultural lives, cosmopolitanism in its truest sense and this is
aptly reflected in its regular religious activities. The city is dotted by churches, temples,
mosques, synagogues, gurdwara, upasanalays and worship spots of many other religions.
On visit to these places of religious activities it is observable that people from all
religions perform some rituals daily or periodically which are linked with man’s long
heritages of nature worshiping. Almost all religious places including the ‘Burning Ghats’
and cemeteries /crematoriums have boundaries with some amount of open space, at
times with large open areas even in the heart of the city. Some authorities of the place of
worship maintain beautiful gardens and even take care to introduce and sustain exotic and
rare plants. Some places are not presently so maintained but show signs of at one time
well organized gardens with diversity in species. There are others which have open
spaces with well maintained grass lawns or small bordering shrubberies for religious
gatherings, ceremonies and festivities. Above all, in these days when there is a boom in
real estate business and high rise multistoried complexes are flourishing here and there
over the city, nobody (not even Government bodies) dares to touch or acquire in the name
of development or real estate business, such vast open religious places with numerous
plants and water-bodies, and many elements of aesthetic pleasure due to the apprehension
of hurting the religious sentiments of the people.
2.3.Climate of Kolkata:
The weather of Kolkata is unusually the tropical wet-and-dry types. Mainly three
type of weather seasons are found here. The summer season is continued for long time
from March to July. In this season the temperature increases extremely high up to 48° C
and a destructive storm locally called as Kal-Baishakhi run over the city. It enters from
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
19
the northern sea of India called Bay of Bengal. The average temperature of Kolkata in
summer is approximately 36° C.
The Monsoon season appears at the end of July and continues to mid of September.
During this season temperature vary from 25° C to 40° C. The average rainfall of the city
is approximately 1,582 mm. The winter season starts from November and continues to
middle of February. The minimum temperature during this season is 12°C and the
average temperature of Kolkata in winter is approximately 18° C. The temperature,
rainfall and related data of Kolkata as recorded during 2001-2005 by the Alipur
Meteorological Station, Calcutta is tabulated in the following [ Tables 2.1(a) - 2.5 (a) &
2.1(b) to 2.5(b) ].
Table 2.1 (a): Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2005.
MONTH TEMPERATURE ( º C ) RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
More or less than normal temparature
More or less than
normal temparature January 30.5 + 4 12.8 -1 100 33
February 34.6 + 5 12.4 -3 99 25
March 36.5 + 4 18.9 -2 99 30
April 38.7 + 3 21.5 -4 98 20
May 39.3 + 3 20.3 -6 96 39
June 40.6 + 6 23.5 -4 100 37
July 34.8 + 3 23.7 -2 98 58
August 36.7 + 5 25 -1 98 55
September 34.8 + 3 23.7 -2 99 56
October 34.1 + 2 21.5 -2 100 44
November 32.5 + 2 14.9 -2 99 30
December 29.1 + 1 12.9 -1 97 29
Here + means above normal & - means below normal temperature.
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
20
Table 2.1 (b). – Rainfall data : Year 2005
MONTH TOTAL RAINFALL
(mm)
NO. OF DAYS OF
RAINFALL
MAX. RAINFALL IN
A DAY
January 22 2 14.9
February 0 0 0
March 70.7 6 27.9
April 112.9 8 56.8
May 99.1 12 50
June 331.9 15 84
July 330.7 25 54.1
August 252.1 26 43.7
September 247.8 19 103.2
October 449.5 20 115.6
November 0 0 0
December 0.2 1 0.2
TOTAL 1916.9 134
Total days of Rainfall includes days of Trace rainfall.
Table 2.2 (a): Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2004
MONTH TEMPERATURE ( º C ) RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
More or less than
normal temparature
More or less than
normal temparature January 26.7 + 2 9.4 -4 98 38
February 35.8 + 5 12.1 -2 99 25
March 37.7 + 4 17.8 -2 98 18
April 37.9 + 2 20 -4 100 36
May 40.6 + 5 20.4 -6 100 33
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
21
June 37.8 + 5 22 -5 100 50
July 35.8 + 3 23.2 -3 99 56
August 34.6 + 3 25.3 -1 100 59
September 35.0 + 3 22.5 -3 99 56
October 33.9 + 2 20.6 -2 100 40
November 31.8 + 2 17.5 -2 100 34
December 29.7 + 3 12.2 -2 100 36
Here + means above normal & - means below normal temperature.
Table 2.2 (b). – Rainfall data : Year 2004
MONTH TOTAL RAINFALL
(mm)
NO. OF DAYS OF
RAINFALL
MAX. RAINFALL
IN A DAY
January 0 0 0
February 21.2 2 21.1
March 30.8 4 21.1
April 66.9 9 34.1
May 34.5 10 23.9
June 230.5 13 38.5
July 209.94 26 25.44
August 488.5 24 163
September 276.1 25 64.3
October 345.4 13 177.2
November 0 0 0
December 0 0 0
TOTAL 1703.84 126
Total days of Rainfall includes days of Trace rainfall.
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
22
Table 2.3 (a). Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2003
MONTH TEMPERATURE ( º C ) RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
More or less than normal temparature
More or less than
normal temparature January 28.2 0 9.3 -5 97 28
February 33.6 +3 15.5 -1 100 34
March 36.5 + 4 16.0 -4 98 28
April 37.7 +2 21.0 -4 97 32
May 39.6 +5 22.0 -4 96 35
June 37.7 +3 24.7 -2 100 54
July 34.8 + 3 25.4 -1 98 63
August 35.4 +3 25.6 0 98 60
September 34.8 + 3 25.3 -1 98 62
October 34.5 +3 23.0 -1 100 39
November 32.5 +3 14.5 -1 98 44
December 28.5 +2 12.4 -2 100 31
Here + means above normal & - means below normal temperature.
Table 2.3 (b) – Rainfall data : Year 2003
MONTH TOTAL RAINFALL
(mm)
NO. OF DAYS OF
RAINFALL
MAX. RAINFALL
IN A DAY
January 0 0 0
February 1 1 1
March 55.1 9 16.3
April 83.4 10 30
May 242.3 10 73.4
June 231.1 17 64.7
July 281.3 27 92.2
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
23
August 189.3 22 26.6
September 166.5 19 32.3
October 381.7 19 149.2
November 0 0 0
December 22.1 5 11.4
TOTAL 1653.8 139
Total days of Rainfall includes days of Trace rainfall.
Table 2.4 (a). Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2002
MONTH TEMPERATURE ( º C ) RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
More or less than normal temparature
More or less than
normal temparature January 29.9 +3 12.7 0 100 31
February 33.6 +4 12.9 -2 98 26
March 36.5 +3 18.5 -1 98 21
April 37.0 +1 19.4 -6 98 31
May 43.0 +7 21.6 -5 97 21
June 38.1 +3 24.3 -3 99 32
July 37.6 +6 25.0 -1 98 44
August 34.7 +3 23.6 -2 98 57
September 35.4 + 3 24.0 -2 98 47
October 35.6 +4 19.4 -3 97 34
November 32.8 +3 17.3 -2 98 41
December 30.8 +4 12.2 -2 98 31
Here + means above normal & - means below normal temperature.
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
24
Table 2.4 (b) – Rainfall data : Year 2002
MONTH TOTAL RAINFALL
(mm)
NO. OF DAYS OF
RAINFALL
MAX. RAINFALL
IN A DAY
January 29.3 4 18.1
February 0 0 0
March 12.9 7 9.6
April 102.1 12 29.4
May 115.1 19 26.1
June 374.8 20 74.1
July 409.9 23 110.2
August 328.1 25 102.1
September 311.3 21 98.5
October 70.8 15 37.8
November 85.3 4 81.5
December 0 0 0
TOTAL 1839.6 150
Total days of Rainfall includes days of Trace rainfall
Table 2.5 (a). Temperature & Humidity Profile: Year 2001
MONTH TEMPERATURE ( º C ) RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
More or less than
normal temparature
More or less than
normal temparature January 30.3 10.7 100 32
February 34.6 13.5 100 30 March 36.6 17.3 98 22 April 38.9 22.9 98 16 May 37.7 21.3 98 39 June 34.4 24.6 98 48 July 33.7 24.5 98 62
August 34.6 25.5 100 59
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
25
September 35.6 24.0 98 49 October 35.4 23.4 98 46
November 33.7 19.2 98 42 December 31.2 12.7 98 36
Table 2.5 (b) – Rainfall data : Year 2001
MONTH TOTAL RAINFALL
(mm)
NO. OF DAYS OF
RAINFALL
MAX. RAINFALL IN
A DAY
January 0 0 0
February 5.8 1 5.8
March 61.4 6 29.8
April 37.3 10 15.4
May 218.9 14 99.5
June 381.1 24 41.7
July 215.5 30 30.3
August 224.6 25 61.5
September 219.1 15 77.3
October 126.7 17 33.9
November 14.7 6 5.6
December 0 0 0
TOTAL 1505.1 148
Total days of Rainfall includes days of Trace rainfall.
Chapter 2: Kolkata at a glance
33
2.4. Population and languages:
Kolkata is the eighth biggest city in the world with a population of 44,86,678 according
to the census of 2011. There are people speaking different languages. The people of
Calcutta mainly use the Bengali dialect as their spoken language, although many other
languages are also spoken here. These are Hindi, Urdu, Oriya, Haryanvi, Rajasthani,
Bhojpuri, Tamil, Assamese, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi and Gujarati.
Bengali, Hindi and English are used as official languages.
2.5. Religions and festival :
Being a cosmopolitan city, Calcutta represents a blend of different religions. Majority of
people inhabiting Calcutta are Hindus. The major religions of the city are Hinduism (73
%), Muslims (23 %), Christians (2 %) and the rest are Brahmas, Buddhists, Jains, Sikhs,
Mona Punjabis, Nirankaris, Jews, Zorastrians etc. All types of religion followers in
Kolkata city celebrate a number religious festival in their own custom.
The main religious festivals of the city are Durga Puja, Kali Puja, Saraswati
Puja, Lakshmi Puja, Jagadhatri Puja (Hindu festivals), Christmas Day, Good Friday
(Christian festivals), Holi, Janmastami, Ratha Yatra,Chhat Puja and Shivaratri (Hindu
festivals), Eid ul-Fitr (Muslim festival) and Moharram (Muslim festival). In addition to
these festivals, three more national festivals are also celebrated here with great
enthusiasm. These festivals are – the Independence day of India, The Republic day of
India and Gandhi Birthday.
3 : REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.1. Land, people, culture and plants of Kolkata:
Calcutta, the dreamland of Job Charnock with its long history and tradition, is a
remarkable city. On one hand, it is the pioneer centres of education, arts, culture, sports,
science, technology and trade and on the other hand, it is also the city of unending
processions, traffic snarls, unusual garbage, frequent power cuts and hazardous pollution.
( Bagchi, 1939; Nair, 1989 Gangopadhyay,1988). If greenery is selected as an index, one
can perhaps claim with some degree of confidence that it is more of a city of trees than
anything else. Ornamental plants not only adorn and beautify the city, but also create a
salubrious influence on the daily life of its residents. (Chakraborti, 1990; Randhawa,
1979). Plants from various corners of the globe have been introduce in the metropolis,
largely through the efforts of East India Company, which coupled with its indigenous
flora provide a remarkable admixture of eastern and western elements. ( Prain, 903-
1905). The site upon which Kolkata stands today, a very old forest existed nearly 300
years ago. ( Guha, 1953). It was full of sundari Heritiera fomes trees which lent their
name to the present Sunderbans. (Hooker, 1875-1897).
Job Charnock landed and formed a settlement on August 24, 1690 in the three small
villages – Suttanutte, Govindpur and Kalikata – at the bank of the river Hooghly. These
villages, alongside other contiguous marshy areas, were often inundated by tidal bores.
(Guha, 1935). From the early history of Kolkata we see that the city has embraced people
from all religious beliefs which have contributed to the city a rich background of social
and cultural life. (Bose, 1958, 1967). The city is dotted by worship spots from all
religious beliefs (Chattopadhyay, 1986) (Bandyopadhyay, 1988) and on visit to these
places of religious activities it is observed that people from all religions perform some
rituals daily whose roots are embedded in man’s long heritages in nature worshipping.
(Choudhuri, 1989; Basu, 1990). With the country attaining freedom in 1947, Calcutta was
confronted with a mass exodus of population from East Bengal (Bangladesh) which
threw out of gear the socio-economic life of the city. (Chatterji, 1968). The situation was
tackled on an emergency footing and programmes for settlements of new immigrants
were envisaged by expanding the township towards the north and the south. Therefore
Chapter 3: Review of Literature
35
Calcutta became the world’s second most thickly populated city. (Chaudhuri, 1990).
Since the existing amenities were highly insufficient to meet their demands, it resulted in
occasional epidemics. In order to bring cosmos into the chaos, a civic body was
established in 1961. It prepared a master plan covering broadly four aspects viz. water
supply, water and sewerage disposal, roads and transport, development of slums areas
and housing. (Siddiqui, 1969). For implementing the blue prints of the master plan, the
Calcutta Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) was created in 1970. One of
tasks of CMDA was regreening of Kolkata, where the policy of protection and
conservation of existing plant life of the city was attempted for the first time( Chaudhuri,
1990; Griffith, 1970). As the city stepped into the new millennium with overwhelming
population explosion, moral degradation and increased pollution the age long heritage of
nature worship survived through the daily religious rituals performed by man in the
different religious places dotting the city (Hasnat, 1989). With the increasing number of
skyscrapers in the populated city of Kolkata open spaces in the form of parks and gardens
must receive due attention. (Raha, 1987).
Calcutta has always been a place of cultural activities over the years. It is a living city
(Chaudhuri,1990).The history of Calcutta streets is just like the history of
man(Chattopadhyay, 1991). An excellent work was received from Chattopadyay as early
as 1936. The book was forwared by R.C. Majumdar and it deals with the social
conditions of the then Calcutta, babu culture etc. At the end of the book the bibliography
is very interesting. An account of in the 19th century Calcutta was received from Nair
(1989) from thirty five rare books to provide source materials for Calcutta's history. The
author has gathered almost all rare works on this city in this book. This is a unique
contribution to the history of Calcutta. Choudhuri (1989) has focused attention on
important streets of Kolkata and Ghatak (1989) dealt with the history of the street of
Kolkata. Bandyopadhyay (1988) gave us a book on Calcutta focussing on the religious
centres and interesting information on temples, masjids, churches in Calcutta. Basu
(1990) presented a book dealing with scientific research in Calcutta for three hundred
years. The study has been divided by period such as 1689-1784; 1784-1135; 1835-1876;
1876-1917; 1917-1947 and 1947- . D.Basu(1990) is to be credited for compilation of
seventeen articles covering various aspects of Calcutta. The articles are on : (i) Kolkatar
prachinnatta by Indrajit Chowdhury. (iii) Kalkatar mandir - Staphatya by Tarapada Santra
Chapter 3: Review of Literature
36
(iv) Kalkatar Jaina mandir by Ganesh Lalwani (v) Kalkatar native girja by Alak Ray (vi)
Kalkatar durga dalan by Bimal Kumar Pal. Chattopadhyay(1986) dealt with the details of
some important architectural buildings and institutions and lights on the dates on how
these were established.
An excellent work was received from Basu (1985) on anthropological profile on Muslims
of Kolkata The book consists of four chapters with three appendices and at the end a
bibliography. A bibliography on Calcutta (Anon, 1990) was compiled by the staff
members of Calcutta Metropolitan library which includes 465 English books and 115
Bengali books with location. The main part is arranged subject wise and other part is
author -title index. The work of Chakraborty (1990) would always prove useful to
researches on plants of Kolkata. His book deals with one hundred trees of Calcutta and it
also includes where these trees are available and the history of the trees, their flowers and
fruits. This edition is a good one to the tree lovers and it will help them to identify trees.
Some of these articles were published during 1970-72 in the Bengali daily newspapers.
Trees of South Calcutta have been dealt here with in large numbers.
Catley(1956) presented a short history on the Saint Paul's Cathedral, Calcutta, the
foundation stone of which was laid on 8th October, 1839 and consecrated on 8th
October, 1847.
Chaudhuri (1381 B. S)’s work is a souvenir of the Kalipuja of the Naba Yubak
Sangha. The pictures and photographs of Calcutta in the book are by courtesy of
Sukumar Roy. The topics dealt with here are: Kolikatar Barnona; Kolkata, Murshidabad
theke Kolkata, Job Charnock Prosonga, Itihaser Kolkata, Kolkatar pathghat, Janabasatir
Padakshep; Kabitai Kolkata; Utsab; Palaparbon; Amod promod; Samaj Chitra; Kolkatar
Mandir, Masjid, Girja, Kolkatar Sanskriti Kendra O darshoniyo Sthan, etc.
A fascinating history of the Jewish people in Calcutta can be known from the work of
David Horowitz. There are eight chapters of the book dealing with ancient origins and
Babylonian exile; Early settlers; Synagogues and institutions; Customs and usages;
communal affairs; prominent personalities; Asutosh hunter,
On the eve of the great city's ter-centenary Gangopadhyay(1988) released a book entitled
“Calcutta steps into 300 years with rich heritage, thus offering the tourist with an
accurate date and history of Calcutta. The names of some landmarks are interesting.
Other interesting items are (i) Around the city; (ii) Tourist information offices, (iii)
Chapter 3: Review of Literature
37
Travel agents, (iv) News media in Calcutta (v) Accommodation ; (vi) Ashrams and
Missions ; (vii) Restaurants ; (viii) News Agencies (ix) Imp Govt. offices.(x) Museum
Art Gallery (xi) Theatre Halls (xii) Auditorium/ PublicHalls (xiii) Theatre; (xiv) Cinema;
(xv) Sports.
Brahmo Samaj was established in 1818 and is increasing still now. Shri Shibnath Shastri
wrote the history of the Samaj in 2 volumes in 1911 in English and Dr. Ghosh wrote this
book in Bengali. The book consists of six chapters. The second chapter viz. KaliKata
Brahmo Samaj is noteworthy to trace the history of the Samaj in Calcutta.
The real name of the author is Amitabha, a graduate in mechanical engineering from
Jadavpur University. Calcutta may be called the first mechanized city. This book deals
with some Calcuttans who are mainly responsible for the mechanical development of the
city. The history of forgotten materials such as gas light, ball tower of Fort William iron
made art materials etc. are traceable from here. The book is fully illustrated. The book
presents, in brief, all that makes Calcutta of the present day with a rich historic, political,
commercial and intellectual legacy it has inherited from the eventful past. The city has
not only grown in its girth but can claim to be one of the ten cities of the world with
largest population exceeding ten million. It remains a city of contrasts, a mix up of light
and shade, a strange medley of the ancient and the modern, a muddle of the skyscrapers
and slums, rich and the poor’s heaven as seldom found anywhere in the world. The
contents of the book are: 1. The story of Calcutta. 2. Education and culture. 3. Trade and
industry 4. Transport and communication 5. Calcutta administration 6. Calcutta at a
glance and 7. Directory section.
Kemp (1918) prepared a Catalogue of the scientific serial publication in the
principal libraries of Calcutta.. This catalogue is designed for the use of those who have
occasion to consult the scientific periodicals represented in Calcutta libraries, whether
belonging to Govt. of private institution. This vol. deals with the collection of twenty four
libraries in Calcutta. Libraries catalogued, are mentioned in the context. By this catalogue
the readers may know the periodicals on Calcutta in the 24 libraries of Calcutta.
4 : MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present work is primarily based on thorough field survey in the study sites located in
Calcutta (Fig. Maps), and study of pertinent literature (Thomas, 1893, Seth, 1941,Thakur,
1952, Chatterjee, 1968; Anon.,1978,Siddiqui,1982, Nair,1984,1987, Ray, 1990a & b,), a
precise account of which is given in the chapter dealing with glimpses of Calcutta,
alternatively called Kolkata.
Keeping parity with the objective of studying direct man-plant relationship, field surveys
were conducted in places of religious activities, viz. Buddhist Monasteries, Churches and
Cemeteries, Fire Temples and Tower of Silence of Zoroastrians, Gurdwaras, Gurdwara
Mona Punjabi, Jain Temples, Mosques and burial grounds, Nirankari Temple,
Synagogues, Hindu temples and Burning Ghats, Upasanalayas [Table 4.2].
The study-schedule followed in this work covers two interrelated disciplines i.e.
ethnobotany and taxonomy for execution of which extensive field work was necessary
[Plate Nos. 4.1 – 4.11]. The brief tenets and history of each religion, important rituals,
festivals and other information having pertinence to the present work were also
documented from primary sources i.e. the knowledgeable informants during
ethnobotanical studies as well from secondary sources which include such important
publications as those of Cotterell (1999), Chapple and Tucker(2000), Ray(2001), Buck
(2002), Buddha Priya Bhikshu (2005) and others [Table 4.1]. The information thus
procured [Table 4.3] and experience gained through direct contact and observations along
with the emanating data have been compiled and systematically presented in the Chapter
5 entitled “RESULTS”.
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
39
Table 4.1 : A precise account of secondary sources to record information about
tenets and other perspectives, related to present work:
Religion Source
Buddhism 1. “Buddhism". 2009. In Encyclopædia Britannica.
Retrieved November 26, 2009, from Encyclopædia
Britannica Online Library Edition.
2. Bhikkhu Bodhi, "The Noble Eightfold Path. The Way
to the End of Suffering," Buddhist Information, at:
http://www.buddhistinformation.com/
3. Richard Gombrich. 1988 .Theravada Buddhism: A
Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern
Colombo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, page 49.
4. Garfinkel, Perry. 2005. "Buddha Rising". National
Geographic: 88–109.
5. Lily de Silva.5 June 2010 "The Buddhist Attitude
Towards Nature", Access to Insight, ,
http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/desilva/attit
ude.html
6. R. Chalmers, H.T. Francis, E.B. Cowell and W.H.D.
Rouse, 1990. The Jātaka, trans.
Christianity 1. Esler. The Early Christian World. p. 157f.
2. Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents.com.
http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.ht
ml. Retrieved 2009-05-05
3. Pelikan/Hotchkiss, Creeds and Confessions of Faith
in the Christian Tradition.
4. Barnes, Albert. Barnes' New Testament Notes, Entry
for Matthew 22:40.
http://www.ccel.org/ccel/barnes/ntnotes.iv.xxii.xl.html.
Retrieved 7 October 2012.
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
40
5. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/
holydays
6. http://www.catholic-saints.info/catholic-
symbols/plants-trees-christian-symbols.htm
7. Hunter, W.W. 1897. (The) Thackerays in India and
some Calcutta graves, Hewry Frowde, London.
8.Madge, E.W. 1909. Illustrated handbook of St.
John’s Church (Old Cathedral), Calcutta. Thacker,
Spink & Co., Calcutta.
9. Marak, K.C. and Aghamkar, A.Y. 1998. Ecological
challenge and Christian Mission, ISPCK, New Delhi.
10. Wenger, E. S. 1908. (The) Story of the Lall Bazar
Baptist Church Calcutta; being the history of Carey’s
Church from 24th April 1800 to the present day.
Edinburgh Press, Calcutta.
Zoroastrians 1.Boyce, Mary.1979. Zoroastrians: Their Religious
Beliefs and Practices, published by Routledge
and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, UK.
2.Rustomjee, Framroz, 1957. "Daily Prayers of the
Zoroastrians" published by Parsi Zoroastrian
Association, Calcutta, India,.
3.Dhalla, Maneckji K. 1963."History of
Zoroastrianism" published by K.R. Cama Oriental
Institute, Bombay, India,
4. Cavendish, Richard; Ling, Trevor Oswald,1980,
Mythology: an Illustrated Encyclopedia
5. http://www.heritageinstitute.com/zoroastrianism/
6. Zoroastrianism: Holy text, beliefs and practices".
2010-03-01.
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/zoroastrianism-i-
historical-review. Retrieved 2010-03-01
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
41
7. Goodstein, Laurie (06-09-2008). "Zoroastrians Keep
the Faith, and Keep Dwindling". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2006/09/06/us/06faith.html.
Retrieved 2009-10-03.
Sikhism 1. Singh, Khushwant ,2006. The Illustrated History of
the Sikhs. p. 15. Oxford University Press, India.
2. Adherents.com. "Religions by adherents" (PHP).
http://adherents.com/misc/rel_by_adh_CSM.html.
Retrieved 2003337-02-09.
3. Mann, Gurinder Singh,2001. The Making of Sikh
Scripture. p. 21.Oxford University Press: United States.
4. Brar, Sandeep Singh, 1998. "The Sikhism
Homepage: Sri Guru Granth Sahib — Authors &
Contributors". http://sikhs.org/granth2.htm. Retrieved
30 May 2006.
5.
http://www.sikhiwiki.org/index.php/Sikhism_and_the_
environment
6.Singh, R.K. 2000.The vitality of the Sikh Practice,
Abstracts of Sikh Studies, Vol.II, Issue 1, January –
March.
7. Singh, Prabhjot, 2006 ‘Sikhism is eco-friendly’,
The Tribune ;
http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060820/spectrum
/main3.htm
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
42
Ravidassia 1. Gerald Parsons, 1993. The Growth of Religious
Diversity: Traditions. pp. 227.Psychology Press,
Philadelphia, USA.
2. “Ravidass followers declare separate religion,
release separate Granth". SikhNet. 2010-02-01.
http://www.sikhnet.com/news/ravidass-followers-
declare-separate-religion-release-separate-granth.
Retrieved 2012-07-17.
3. Parsons, Gerald,1994. The Growth of Religious
Diversity: Britain from 1945. p. 227. Routledge,
Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB, UK.
4. “Religion, or a prayer for identity". Indian Express.
03-02-2010.
http://www.indianexpress.com/news/religion-or-a-
prayer-for-identity/574754/. Retrieved 2012-02-27
contd……
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
43
Jainism 1. Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999.
Jainism: An Indian religion of salvation. (Lala Sundar
Lal Jain research series) (English Edition).p.24. Motilal
Banarsidass Publ.Pvt.Ltd.,New Delhi.
2. Indian Census". Censusindia.gov.in.
http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Indi
a_at_glance/religion.aspx. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
3. The Jains. Routledge. p. 271. ISBN 0-415-26606-8,
9780415266062.
http://books.google.com/?id=5ialKAbIyV4C&pg=PA2
99&dq=jains+britain#v=onepage&q=jains%20britain&
f=false
4. "Parasnath Jain Temple Calcutta". Indian Heritage
Destinations. http://www.nighthawks.co.in/indian-
heritage-destinations/parasnath-jain-temple-
kolkata.html. Retrieved 23-09-2009.
5 Jain, P K. , DIETARY CODE OF PRACTICE
AMONGST JAINS : 2000,
http://www.ivu.org/congress/2000/jainism.html
Islam 1. "Accurate Information About Islamic Beliefs,
History and Civilization from Authentic Sources. The
Institute of Islamic Information and Education at
http://www.iiie.net/
2. Pillars of Islam, Oxford Islamic Studies Online
3.Chaudhury, R.A. 1988. Muslim Festivals and
Ceremonies. Islam International Publications Ltd.,
U.K.
4.Farooqi, M. I.H. 1995. Plants of the Qur’an. Sidrah
publishers, Lucknow, India.
5. Farooqi, M. I.H. 1995. Fruits mentioned in the
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
44
Qur’an. Sidrah publishers, Lucknow, India.
6. Rippin, Andrew,2001. Muslims: Their Religious
Beliefs and Practices (2nd ed.). Routledge,
Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4SB, UK.
7. Plants of the Noble Quran:
http://www.ummah.com/islam/taqwapalace/fitness/heal
th2.html
8. What does Islam mean? 2011. The Friday Journal,
(6 Feb 2011)Mumbai
Nirankaris 1. Singh, Sardar Harjeet.2009. Faith & Philosophy of
Sikhism. pp. 144.Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi.
2. Knott, Kim,1998. "The Religions of South Asian
Communities in Britain". In Hinnells, John R. A New
Handbook Of Living Religions (2nd ed.). pp. 756–774.
Penguin Books Canada Ltd. Mass: Cambridge.
3. "History | Baba Buta Singh Ji (1873–1943)". Sant
Nirankari Mission. Sant Nirankari Mandal (Regd.),
Delhi.
India:http://www.nirankari.com/modules/founder/baba
buta/. Retrieved 10 December 2010.
Judaism 1. "Knowledge Resources: Judaism". Berkley Center
for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs.
http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/tradition
s/judaism. Retrieved 22-11-2011
2. World Jewish Population, 2010. Hebrew University
of Jerusalem, Sergio Della Pergola.
3. The Thirteen Principles of the Jewish Faith". Hebrew
for Christians.
http://www.hebrew4christians.net/Scripture/Shloshah-
Asar_Ikkarim/shloshah-asar_ikkarim.html. Retrieved
22-08-2010.
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
45
4. "Tefillin", "The Book of Jewish Knowledge",
Nathan Ausubel, Crown Publishers, NY, 1964, p.458
5. “Judaism 101: Kashrut". Jewfaq.org.
http://www.jewfaq.org/kashrut.htm. Retrieved 22-08-
2010.
6. Seymour Rossel, "Basic Judaism: Jewish Holy
Days," at: http://www.rossel.net
Hinduism 1. Melton, J. Gordon; Baumann, Martin,2010.
Religions of the World, Second Edition: A
Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices,
p. 1324.ABC-CLIO, Santa Barbara, USA.
2. Brodd, Jefferey (2003), World Religions,: Saint
Mary's Press, Winona, MN,USA.
3. Vivekananda, Swami (2005), Jnana Yoga, Kessinger
Publishing, Whitefish, MT(Montana),USA.
4. The Philosophy of Hinduism : Four Objectives of
Human Life ; Dharma (Right Conduct), Artha (Right
Wealth), Kama (Right Desire), Moksha (Right Exit
(Liberation)), 2006.Pustak Mahal, New Delhi.
5. “Domestic Worship". Country Studies. The Library
of Congress. September 1995.
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+in0055).
Retrieved 2007-04-19
6. CIA-The World Fact Book,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/in.html
7. Kapoor, Satish,K. 2001.Sacred Trees of The
Hindus: Mythological and Social Linkages.
Prabhuddha Bharata, Chennai.
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
46
8. Harshananda, S., 2001, All about Hindu Temples,
Sri Ramkrishna Math, Chennai.
Brahmo
religion
1. Kenneth W. Jones, 1989. Socio-Religious Reform
Movements in British India" pp. 33-34, Cambridge
Univ. Press,UK.
2. Sarkar, H.C., -‘History of the Brahmo Religion’
(1906).Published in Calcutta.
3.Kopf, David, 1979. Brahmo Samaj and the Making of
Modern India. pp 43–57. Princeton University
press,USA.
4. Sastri, S.1911. History of the Brahmo Samaj. 2nd ed.
p.81. Published in Calcutta
5. Brahmo Samaj FAQ Frequently asked Questions".
Brahmo.org. 2011-07-25. Archived from the original
on 2011-07-25.
http://web.archive.org/web/20110725101858/http://bra
hmo.org/brahmo-faq.html. Retrieved 2012-10-15.
6.Brahmo Sammilan Barta, May 2003, Brahmo
Sammilan Samaj, Kolkata.
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
47
The ethnobotanical and taxonomic methods followed in this work are stated separately in
the following.
4.1.1 Ethnobotanical studies:
For ethnobotanical studies, the principles and practices communicated in the work of
Jones (1941), Shultes (1960,), Jain (1987, 1989, 1991), Rao (1989), Bellany (1993) and
Cotton (1996) were adopted and a questionnaire and data collection sheet was prepared.
While collecting data during field work emphasis was given on documentation of
traditional knowledge regarding use of plant resources sustained by each of the concerned
religions so as to assess the relationship with plants, its conservational implications and
attitude towards environmental optimization. Plants used by the followers of each
religion in worship, mythology, taboos, magico-religious practices, ceremonies etc. were
also given adequate attention, since cultural activities have an age-long strong traditional
integration with conservation of biodiversity.
Field surveys were planned in such a way so as to cover 123 religious sites linked with 11
religions in different seasons since 2003 [Table 4.2]. During field work adequate time
was spent through frequent visits to come in close acquaintance with 82 knowledgeable
informants among whom there were the religious Heads, priests, garden keepers,
gardeners, caretakers elderly devotees especially aged men and women and other
associates [Table 4.3], to gather data with their full consent about their knowledge related
to use of different trees, herbs, shrubs, vines etc. following standard ethnobotanical
method (Rao,1989) and recorded in the data collecting sheets or the questionnaire
prepared keeping adequate relevance to the present work, a sample of which is also
presented in the following.
DATA COLLECTING SHEET
1. Date of Visit:
2. a) Place:
b) Affiliated to:
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
48
3. a) Location:
i) heart of the city:
ii) outskirt::
iii) suburb:
4. Details of the place of visit:
i) Entrance ---Guarded/ unguarded?
ii) Compound wall – made of bricks, stone/
other/barbed wire fencing? :
iii) Height of Compound Wall:
iv) Maintained Garden – Yes/No:
v) Religious activity performed?
Daily/Seasonally/Occasionally:
vi) Management – Trustee/Board/
Organization Name:
vii) a) Head of the Institution/organization:
b) Designation:
c) Name:
viii) Name and other particulars of other informant(s)
ix) No. of devotees visiting the place daily:
x) No. of devotees visiting on particular occasion:
Name of occasion No. of visitors
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
xi) No. of residents
Religious Head:
Caretaker:
Guard:
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
49
Any other:
Total:
xii) Rules & Regulations/Taboos/Rituals etc.:
5. a) Total area of the place:
b) If water body is in the compound, it’s area:
c) Area of garden (if partly occupied):
6. Place connected with people of - :
(i) Particular religious group (Name):
(ii) All religious:
7. a) Whether connected with any international organization?:
b) If yes, Name:
8. a) Whether any garden in the compound? Yes/No:
b) If yes,
(i) Is the garden considered sacred?
(ii) (a) Specific plant(s) considered sacred?:
(b) Name of sacred species growing in the garden?:
(iii) Historical background:
(a) Name of the founder:
(b) Date of foundation:
9. Delivery of plants
Herbs:
Herbs & Shrubs:
Herbs, Shrubs & Trees:
Trees only:
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
50
10. Name of dominating species:
11. Name of most interesting species:
12. No. of specimens collected:
Names Field Nos.
13. Names of rare species sown in the garden:
14. Utilitarian aspect of the plants:
Ornamental:
Medicinal:
Economic:
Ornamental, Sacred & Shade giving:
All types:
Special type:
15. Activity of plants:
All of local origins:
All exotic:
Local & exotic both:
16. Part of the plant offered to deities:
Flower:
Fruit:
Seed:
Leaves:
Stem:
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
51
Roots:
17. How such plant is procured?:
18. (a) Whether kitchen garden present? Yes/No:
(b) If yes,
(i) Types of vegetables:
(ii) Any connection with offerings
(Viz, Bhoj, Nabanna etc.):
19. Photograph:
(a) Shrine/Institute – Yes/No:
(b) Plants of relevance – Yes/No:
20. Any other special points to mention:
Table 4.2 : An account of the field work performed with details of study-site:
Site No.
Date Place of Visit Address Religious belief
Esta- blishd
On 1 22-05-
2003 Kalighat Temple 9, Bhagabati Lane,
Kolkata - Hinduism Not
known 2 26-05-
2003 St. Teresa of Avila Church
92, A. J. C. Bose Road, Kolkata - 14
Christian 1897
3 28-05-2003
Gurudwara Jagat Sudha
31, Rashbehari Avenue, Kolkata - 26
Sikhism 1920
4 29-05-2003
Nippon Zan, Myohoji
29, Panchanantala Road, Kolkata -37
Buddhism 1935
5 05-06-2003
Laldada Ki Masjid
15/1 Hatibagan Road, Kolkata - 14
Islam Not known
6 05-06-2003
Wakf Masjid Rahamania
P 7 Surawardi Avenue, Kolkata - 17
Islam 1928
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
52
7 10-06-2003
Sacred Heart Church
720, M. G. Road, Thakurpukur, Kol- 63
Christian 1830
8 11-06-2003
Oxford Mission (St. Peter's Church)
Barisha, Kolkata - 8 Christian 1880
9 11-06-2003
Karunamoyee Mandir
32, M. G. Road, Kolkata - 82
Hinduism Not known
10 14-06-2003
Keoratala Mahasmashan
113, Tollygunge Road, Kolkata - 26
Hinduism Not known
11 14-06-2003
Aatharobari Nibasi Late Mohima Chandra Ray Choudhury Smashan Mandir
113/1 Tollygunge Road, Kolkata
Hinduism 1830
12 14-06-2003
Beth el Synagogue
26/1, Pollock Street, Kolkata -1
Jew Not known
13 14-06-2003
Maghen David Synagogue
109A, Biplabi Rash Behari Bose Street, Kolkata
Jew 1884
14 01-06-2003 & 15-06-2003
Sri Parasanath Digambar Jain Upavan Mandir
26, Belgachia Road, Kolkata
Jainism
15 02-06-2003 & 15-06-2003
Gulam Mohammad Mosque (well known as Tipu Sultan Mosque)
143, Deshpran Sasmal Road, Kolkata -33
Islam 1843
16 22-10-2003
Sacred Heart Church
3, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata - 13
Christian 1834
17 27-10-2003
Tipu Sultan Shahi Masjid
185, Dharmatola Street, Kolkata
Islam 1799
18 27-10-2003
Baptist Mission Church
42 & 43 A. J. C. Bose Road, Kolkata
Christian 1818
19 03-11-2003
Firingi Kalibari 244, B. B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata
Hinduism Not known/ 905 (Bangabda)
20 03-11-2003
Atash & Adaran (Fire temple)
91, Metcafe Street, Kolkata
Zorastrian Not known
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
53
21 30-11-2003
Tower of Silence 109, Beliaghata Main Road, Kolkata
Zorastrian Not known
22 18-02-2004
Gopal Mandir 93 & 93B Tollygunge Road, Kolkata -33
Hinduism 1252, 13th Falguna (Bangabda)
23 18-02-2004
Chandimatar Mandir
21, K. K. Roychoudhuri Road, Barisha, Kolkata -8
Hinduism 1694
24 18-02-2004
Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir
1B, Watgunge Street, Kolkata -23
Hinduism 1604
25 18-02-2004
Behala Siddheswari Kali Mandir
Behala, Kolkata. Hinduism 1170 (Bangabda)
26 18-02-2004
Behala Gurudwara
23, D. H. Road, Kolkata -53
Sikhism 1943
27 18-02-2004
Sri Ghanteswar Mahadev Mandir
274A, B. B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata -12
Hinduism Not known
28 18-02-2004
Ram Mandir Central Avenue, Kolkata
Hinduism Not known
29 02-03-2004
Sri Sri Gouranga Mandir
12, Gouranga Mandir Road, Kolkata -86
Hinduism 1952
30 02-03-2004
Basana Kalibari Garia, Kolkata -86 Hinduism Not known
31 02-03-2004
Aanandadham Aanandadham Joramandir, Kolkata -84
Hinduism 1355, 23rd Aswin (Bangabda)
32 02-03-2004
Adi Maha Smasaneswar Mandir
Garia Smasan, Kolkata
Hinduism Not known
33 02-03-2004
Rathtala Durgamandir
N. S. C. Bose Road, Kolkata
Hinduism Not known
34 07-03-2004
Ram Thakur Ashram
38, Central Road, Kolkata -32
Hinduism 1942, 26th February
35 07-03-2004
Bijoygarh Thakurbari
Kolkata -32 Hinduism Not known
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
54
36 07-03-2004
Baaro Bhuter Mandir
Bijoygarh, Kolkata -32
Hinduism 1358, 1st Magha (Bangabda)
37 07-03-2004
Bijoysri Mandir 2/56A, Sri Colony, Kolkata -92
Hinduism 1357 (Bangabda)
38 07-03-2004
Ram Thakur Ashram
E1/A, Bhaghajatin Stattion Road, Kolkata -86
Hinduism 1970 (23rd Poush)
39 07-03-2004
Sri Guru Ashram 11/2, Durga Prasanna Paramhansa Road, Naktala, Kolkata - 47
Hinduism 1960
40 13-03-2004
Nakuleswar Mandir
9, Bhagabati Lane, Kolkata -
Hinduism 1660
41 20-03-2004
Sadharon Brahmo Samaj
211, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata - 6
Bramho 1878
42 29-03-2004
Shahi Begum Masjid
49, D. H. Road, Kolkata - 27
Islam 1799
43 02-05-2004
Greek Orthodox Church
2A, Library Road, Klokata - 26
Christian 1833
44 02-05-2004
Dakate Kalibari 39/1A, Purna Das Road, Kolkata - 29
Hinduism 1904
45 02-05-2004
St. Lawrence Chappel
27, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata - 19
Christian Not known
46 02-05-2004
Sant Nirankari Mandal Satsangh
119, Bidhan Nagar, Picnic Garden, Kolkata - 39
Nirankari 1947
47 02-05-2004
Guru Ravidas Mandir
20/1 Guru Ravidas Sarani (Tiljala Road), Kolkata -46
Sikhism with idol worship
1939
48 02-05-2004
Brahmo Sammilan Samaj
1A, Dr. Rajendra Road, Kolkata
Bramho 1325, 11th Magha (Bangabda)
49 09-05-2004
Mahanirban Matha
113, Rashbehari Avenue, Kolkata -19
Hinduism 1905
50 23-05-2004
Lower Circular Road Cemetry
184, A. J. C. Bose Road, Kolkata -
Christian 1840
51 01-06-2004
St. Stephen's Cemetry, Kantapukur
49/5 Circular Garden Reach Road, Kolkata - 23
Christian 1820
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
55
52 01-06-2004
Tollygunge Cemetry
3A Russa Road (South), Kolkata - 33
Christian 1942
53 01-06-2004
Shiridi Simultala Burning Ghat (Sirity Smashan)
B.L. Shah Road, Kolkata -33
Hinduism Not known
54 06-06-2004
Church of Christ, the King
5, Syed Amir Ali Avenue, Kolkata - 17
Christian Not known
55 06-06-2004
Park Street Cemetery
52 South Park Street, Kolkata -14
Christian 1767
56 08-06-2004
Prabhu Jishu Girja
76, Rafi Ahmed Kidwai Road
Christian 1845
57 10-11-2004
Auxillium Church
8A Mahendra Roy Lane, Kolkata
Christian 1974
58 20-11-2004
Church of our Lady of Dolours
147, B. B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata -12
Christian 1810
59 26-11-2004
Thakurpukur Baptist Church
175/2 D. H. Road, Kolkta - 63
Christian 1968
60 26-11-2004
Church of the Epiphany (with Burial ground adjacent to the Church)
165/3 D. H. Road, Kolkata -63
Christian 1836
61 26-11-2004
Assembly of God Church
Keorapukur, Kabardanga Kabarsthan, Kolkata - 93
Christian 1981
62 26-11-2004
St. Paul's Church Keorapukur, 179, M. G. Road, Kolkata -82
Christian 1979
63 26-11-2004
St. Anthony's Church
R. C. Thakurani P.O., Kolkata -104
Christian 1968
64 26-11-2004
Infant Jesus Church
3, Sourin Roy Road, Kolkata -34
Christian Not Known
65 26-11-2004
St. Stephen's Church (St. Thomas School premises)
3 D. H. Road, Kolkata - 23
Christian 1870
66 26-11-2004
Sudder Street Church
15, Sudder Street, Kolkata - 16
Christian 1866
67 28-11-2004
Sri Jagannath Mandir
East Yard Gorasthan, CPT Compound, Khidderpore, Kolkata - 23
Hinduism 1948
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
56
68 28-11-2004
Bhukailash Rajbari Mandir
Babubazar, Bhukailash Rajbari, Kolkata - 23
Hinduism Not known
69 28-11-2004
Stella Maris Church
4, Nimak Mahal Road, Kolkata - 43
Christian 1947
70 28-11-2004
B. N. R. Masjid S. E. Railway Colony, Garden Reach, Kolkata - 43
Islam 1978
71 28-11-2004
Numania Masjid Tinwale
H-27, Garden Reach Road, Kolkata -24
Islam Not known
72 28-11-2004
Chhoti Masjid H-63/1 Paharpur Road, Kolkata - 24
Islam Not known
73 28-11-2004
Sahi Masjid Mammadi
I-116, Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24
Islam Not known
74 29-11-2004
St. John's Church
2/2 Council House Street, Kolkata -1
Christian 1784
75 29-11-2004
Union Chappel 137, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata -13
Christian 1817
76 29-11-2004
Bhowanipur Congregational Church
43, Lala Lajpat Rai Sarani Sarani, Kolkata -20
Christian 1868
77 29-11-2004
St. Mary's Church
44 & 45 Elgin Road, Kolkata - 20
Christian
78 29-11-2004
Osmond Memorial Church
56 B, S. N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata -14
Christian 1868
79 29-11-2004
Central Methodist Episcopal Church
131, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata -13
Christian 1923
80 04-12-2004
Queen of Peace Church
209/1 N. S. C. Bose Road, Kolkata -47
Christian Not known
81 04-12-2004
Bhowanipur Cemetry
15, Debendra Lal Khan Road, Kolkata -47
Christian 1907
82 12-12-2004
St. Paul's Cathedral
J. N. Road, Kolkata -71
Christian Not known
83 13-12-2004
Shibmandir 9/1 Ramanath Majumder Street, Kolkata
Hinduism 1212 Bangabda
84 08-03-2005
Don Bosco School Chapel (Sl.109)
23, Darga Road, Kolkata -17
Christian 1958
85 14-01-2006
Nimtala Crematorium &
2, Strand Bank Road, Kolkata -700007.
Hinduism Not known
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
57
Burning Ghat (Nimtala Mahasmasan)
86 14-01-2006
Cutchi Menon Jamat Waqf Estate, Maniktala Masjid
248, A. J. C. Bose Road, Kolkata -6
Islam Not known
87 14-01-2006
Bagmari Burrial ground
52, Bagmari Road, Kolkata -54
Islam 18th Century (exact date not known)
88 14-01-2006
Lal Masjid 253/C, A. J. C. Bose road, Kolkata -6
Islam Not known
89 14-01-2006
Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan
20, Mahendra Roy Lane, Kolkata - 46
Islam Not known
90 14-01-2006
Gore Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan
32, Gobra Gorasthan Road, Kolkata -46
Islam Not known
91 24-01-2006
Shibmandir M. N. Sen Lane, Kolkata
Hinduism Not known
92 13-02-2006
Armenian Holy Church & Nazerath
2, Armenian Street, Kolkata -1
Christian 1707
93 13-02-2006
Cathedral of the Most Holy Rosary
15, Portugese Church Street, Kolkata - 1
Christian Not known
94 05-03-2006
Wajid Ali Shah Mosque
P-35, Wajid Ali Shah road, Kolkata -24
Islam 1866
95 05-03-2006
Nawab Umda Mahal
P-35, Wajid Ali Shah road, Kolkata -24
Islam 1866
96 05-03-2006
Shahi Masjid 7B, Iron Gate Road, Kolkata -24
Islam Not known
97 05-03-2006
Firdous Mahal Masjid
B 48, Iron Gate Road, Metiaburuz, Kolkata -24
Islam Not known
98 05-03-2006
No. 1, Begg Burrial Ground
N-134, Rameswarpur Road, Koklkata -24
Islam Not known
99 05-03-2006
2 No. Gorasthan J 149, Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24
Islam 1958
100 05-03-2006
3 No. Burrial Ground
J-124/1, Ram Nagar.Lane, Kolkata -24
Islam Not known
101 05-03-2006
4 No. Burrial Ground
J-115/1, R. N .Lane, Kolkata -24
Islam 1919
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
58
102 05-03-2006
5 No. Burrial Ground
Ram Nagar Road, Kolkata -24
Islam Not known
103 05-03-2006
6 No. Burrial Ground
G-313/2, G 311, G269/1, Meher mazil, Garden Reach Road, Kolkata -24
Islam 1893
104 05-03-2006
Solo Aana Masjid & Burial Ground
70 A, Ekbalpur Road, Kolkata -
Islam Not known
105 15-04-2006
Yin Yee Thong Cemetry (Chineese Cemetry)
C. S. Dag No. 545 & 631; Mouza Nonadanga.
Buddhist 1885
106 15-04-2006
Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple (Chinese Buddhist Temple)
Chowbhaga, Kolkata - 105
Buddhist Not known
107 15-04-2006
Nalanda Bidyabhavan
50T/1C, Pottery Road, Kolkata - 15
Buddhist 1935
108 04-08-2006
St. Andrews church
15, B. B. D. Bag, Kolkata -
Christian Not known
109 17-02-2007
Haji Cassim Ariff Masjid
231, A. P. C. Road, Kolkata -4
Islam Not known
110 18-02-2007
Setwambar Jain Temple (Sitalnath Mandir)
Badreedas Temple Street, Kolkata
Jainism 1867
111 18-02-2007
Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir
Badreedas Temple Street, Kolkata
Jainism 1924
112 18-02-2007
Sri Jain Setwambar Dadaji Ka Mandir
Badreedas Temple Street, Kolkata
Jainism 1810
113 18-02-2007
Chandaprabhuji Ka Mandir
Badreedas Temple Street, Kolkata
Jainism 1895
114 18-02-2007
St. John's Church (Sealdah)
308, A. P. C. Road, Kolkata -4
Christian Not known
115 18-02-2007
Seventh Day Adventist Church
36 Park Street, Kolkata-16
Christian Not known
116 04-11-2008
Nakhoda Masjid Jacquaria Street, Kolutola, Kolkata - 7
Islam 1926
117 04-11-2008
Kashi Mitra Burning Ghat
1, Strand Road, Kolkata -700001
Hinduism Not known
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
59
118 04-11-2008
Cossipore Crematorium & Burning Ghat
5, Chandra Kumar Roy Lane, Kolkata -700036.
Hinduism Not known
119 05-11-2008
Gurdwara Garcha Sikh Sangat
4,Garcha 1st Lane & 22 Garcha 2nd Lane, Kolkata – 700019
Sikhism 1909
120 05-11-2008
Gurdwara Bari Sangat
172, M. G. Road, Kolkata -7000007
Sikhism 1510
121 05-11-2008
Chota Sikh Sangat
112, Cotton Street, Kolkata-7
Sikhism Not known
122 05-11-2008
Gurdwara Sant Kutiya
Harish Mukherjee Road, Kolkata-26
Sikhism Not known
123 05-11-2008
Topsia Hindu Burial Ground (Hindu Gorosthan)
1, Topsia Road, Kolkata -46
Hinduism Not known
Table 4.3: List of knowledgeable informants used as primary sources in the present work:
Sl. No.
Name Designation Address/Site
1 Mr. Ajoy Banarjee Executive Member
Kalighat Temple Committee
2 Mr. Debu Mukherjee Sebait Kalighat Temple Committee
3 Fr. Orson Wells Parish Priest St. Teresa Avila Church
4 Jasbir Singh Head Granthi Gurudwara Jagat Sudha 5 Tanaka Bikshu Bikshu Nippon Zan, Myohoji. 6 Sri Kailash Chand Jain Secretary Sri Digambar Jain
Baramandir Trust 7 Mr. Sasanka Sekhar
Mazumder Gardener Sri Parshvanath
Digambar Jain Upvan Mandir
8 Anwar Ali Shah Matawale Prince Gulam Mohammed Waqf Estate
9 Arshad Ali Mali Tipu Sultan Mosque 10 Javed Sahab President Intazamia Committee 11 Kamal Hussain Matawale Waqf Maszid
Rahamania 12 Father Henry Crasta Parish Priest Sacred Heart Church,
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
60
Thakurpukur
13 Mr. Arijit Roy Administrator Oxford Mission 14 Mr. Ananta Makhal Resorce
Person Oxford Mission
15 Mr. David Nahome Secretary Beth el Synagogue 16 Mr. Hansel De' Souza Parish Priest Sacred Heart Church 17 S. M. Noorur Rahaman
Barkati Shahi Imam Kolkata
18 Rev. Subrata Fullonton Pastor Baptist Mission Church 19 Mr. Bhupal Chandra
Bandopadhyaya Priest Firingi Kali Bari
20 Mr. Medora President Calcutta Zorastrian Community & Religious Charity Fund
21 Mr. Shorab Cotwal Head Priest Atash & Adaran 22 Mr. Ferozedhatigara Care Taker Atash & Adaran 23 Mr. Belly Balsara Care Taker Tower of Silence 24 Mr. Ranjan Samal Gardener Tower of Silence 25 Mr. Amitava Mondal Secretary Sri Sri Gopal Jew and
Sri Sri Sambhunath Jew Shiv Thakur Devottar Estate
26 Mr. santi Chandra Roy Choudhuri
Desecndent of Sabarna Roy Choudhury
Sri Sri Chandi Matar Mandir
27 Mr. Rakhal Chandra Chakrabarty
Sebait Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir
28 Mr. Dipak Bhattacharya Sebait Behala Siddheswari Kali Temple
29 Tejinder Singh Pujari Behala Gurudwara 30 Harpreet Singh Head Granthi Behala Gurudwara 31 Sri Khokan Das Devotee Sri Sri Gouranga
Mandir 32 Smt. Labanya Prava Devi Trustee Sri Sri Gouranga
Mandir 33 Sri Jyotirmoy
Bandopadhyaya Purohit Anandadham
34 Mr. Debasish Mukhopadhaya
In charge Ram Thakur Ashram
35 Mr. S. K. Bhattacharya Purohit Baro Bhuter Mandir 36 Mr. Binod Bihari Roy Devotee Bijoysri Mandir 37 Swami Bireswaranda President Sri Guru Ashram 38 Mr. Arun Kr. Das President Sadharan Brahmo
Samaj
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
61
39 Tahanubul Hussain Imam Shahi Begum Masjid 40 Father Konstanstions Priest Greek Orthodox
Church 41 Mr. Kanti Bhusan
Bhattacharya Tritiya Purush
Dakate Kali Bari, Purna Das Road
42 Fr. Anil Mitra Head Master St. Lawrence Chapel 43 Mr. Surjit Pal President Adi Dharam Seva
Samiti (Mona Panjabi), Guru Ravidas Mandir (Dalit's)
44 Mr. Rohit Ram Member Adi Dharam Seva Samiti (Mona Panjabi), Guru Ravidas Mandir (Dalit's)
45 Mr. Arjun Singh Zonal Incharge, Kolkata
Sant Nirankari Mondal Satsangh
46 Mr. Gurdeep Singh Informant Sant Nirankari Mondal Satsangh
47 Mr. Sankar Dasgupta Secretary Mahanirban Math, Rasbehari Avenue
48 Mr. Samar Narayan Roy Manager Mahanirban Math, Rasbehari Avenue
49 Mr. D. R. Bose Addl. Secretary
Christian Burial Board
50 Fr. Jose Pellisseny Burser Auxillium Church 51 Fr. Peter Rector Church of own lady of
Dolours, Boitakkhana 52 Mr. Hira Charan
Narginavi Pastor Thakurpukur Baptist
Church 53 Mr. Tapas Mondal Pastor Thakurpukur Baptist
Church 54 Rev. Subhas Adhikary Priest Church of the Epiphany 55 Mr. Alok Chowdhury Pastor Assembly of God
Church School, Keorapukur.
56 Bahadur Security Assembly of God Church School, Keorapukur.
57 Rev. A. J. Guria Priest St. Paul's Church, Keropukur
58 Rev. Fr. Faustine Brank Priest Anthony's Church, Keorapukur.
59 Mohan Modak Informant Anthony's Church, Keorapukur.
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
62
60 Fr. Victor Yardi Principal St. Stephen's Church at the premise of St. Thomas School.
61 Fr. Rev. Rmasih Priest Sudder Street Church 62 Fr. D. Mello Priest Church of Christ the
King. 63 Pundit Joydev Das Priest Sri Jagannath Mandir,
Khiderpore. 64 Mr. Vasanth Parish Priest Stella Maris Church. 4,
Nimak Mahal Road (Port Area).
65 Rev. Ashoke Biswas Pastor Union Chapel.
66 Rev. V. V. Gyan Priest Bhowanipore Congregatonal Church
67 Fr. J. N. Ali Priest St. Mary's Church 68 Rev. Issac Pastor Osmond Memorial
Church 69 Rev. Avijit Biswas Pastor in
charge Central Methodist Episcopal Church
70 Rev. Joseph Staff Queen of Peace Church 71 Rev. Simmick Priest St. Paul's Cathedral. 72 Phillip William Incharge Bhowanipur Cemetery 73 Fr. Kurian Priest Prabhu Jishu Girja
74 Mr. Kshudiram Goswami Priest Shivmandir, Mahendra dutta & Sons.
75 Dr. S. K. Ahmed Ali General Secretary
Cutchi Menon Jamat Waqf Estate
76 Dr. Kamrup Jamal Sub-Registrar Bagmari Burial Ground 77 Izar Zafari Devotee Sahi Maszid, Iron Gate. 78 Mr. Haik Sookias Chairman Armenian Holy Church
& Nazareth 79 Fr. Sunil Rosario Priest Cathedral of the Most
Holy Rosary, Murgihata.
80 Pragnajyoti Mahasthabir Monk Nalanda Bidyabhavan 81 Nabdeep Singh Granthi Gurdwara Garcha Sikh
Sangat 82 Sampoorna Singh Religious
associate Gurdwara Bari Sangat
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
63
4.1.2 Taxonomic studies:
During field work the specimens of plants sustained in the premises of places of religious
activities and rituals were considered for taxonomic studies. Weeds were totally ignored
in the present work since the present work was intended to find out the relationship of
followers of each religion with plants was studied in the context of the species sustained
willfully by them. The plants, plant parts and products procured from outside for offering
to the God, Goddess, supernatural power, soul, spirit etc. were also ignored. Since many
of the species under study are sustained under prohibitions and inhibitions emphasis in
such cases was given on observations and notes on them instead of plucking or damaging
them for herbarium preservation. When permission was received for collection and the
species was common and adequate to afford collections, then specimens were collected
from them for herbarium preservation and taxonomic work. Standard herbarium sheets
measuring 42 x 12 cm were used for mounting specimens after proper pressing, drying
and poisoning. With each specimen a label inscribing place of collection, field number,
and certain important phenotypic characters which usually disappear on preservation, was
affixed [Plate Nos. 4.1- 4.11]. Such specimens were submitted to the Ecotaxonomy
Laboratory of the department of Botany of Burdwan University (B.U.) for preservation.
The samples (material) used for taxonomic descriptions were the twigs, stem,
leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. Dry flowers collected from the specimens thus
preserved, were immersed in boiling water for a brief period for softening. In some cases,
wherever possible, fresh materials were worked out. Each material was placed on clean
glass slide and dissected. To the dissected part a few drops of aqueous glycerin solution
(10%) were added and covered with cover slips for observation under binocular
stereoscopic dissecting microscope. A brief description of each plant was prepared for
use in identification. The plants were identified accurately using pertinent literature and
checking up with authentic specimens preserved in the Central National Herbarium
(CAL) at Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, West Bengal. Nomenclature of each species
has been checked with that given in the latest publications (Hooker, 1875 -1897; Prain,
1903; Bailey, 1948; Mukherjee, 1960; Bennet, 1987; Guha Bakshi, 1984; Bose and
Chowdhury,1991; Bose et al.,1998;Murti and Panigrahi, 1999). Family citations have
Chapter 4: Materials and Methods
64
been confirmed with Mabberley, 2008). Standard abbreviations were used as and when
required.
The terms Leguminosae, used in the text stands for Fabaceae censu lato and other terms
like Scitamineae is treated equivalent to Musaceae + Ravenalaceae + Zingiberaceae +
Heliconiaceae; Palmae has Arecaceae and Gramineae equivalent to Poaceae.
.
.
5 : RESULTS
5.1 BUDDHIST MONASTERIES & CEMETERIES
5.1.1 Tenets:
Buddhism is a religion largely based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, who is
remembered and worshiped commonly as Lord Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in
Sanskrit and Pāli). The Lord Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of the Indian
subcontinent sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE.
Buddhism is the fourth-largest religion in the world behind Christianity, Islam and
Hinduism. The monks' order (Sangha), which began during the lifetime of the Buddha, is
among the oldest organizations on earth.
Buddhism, like most of the great religions of the world, is divided into a number of
different traditions. However, most traditions share a common set of fundamental beliefs.
One fundamental belief of Buddhism is often referred to as reincarnation -- the concept
that people are reborn after dying. In fact, most individuals go through many cycles of
birth, living, death and rebirth. A practicing Buddhist differentiates between the concepts
of rebirth and reincarnation. In reincarnation, the individual may recur repeatedly. In
rebirth, a person does not necessarily return to Earth as the same entity ever again. He
compares it to a leaf growing on a tree. When the withering leaf falls off, a new leaf will
eventually replace it. It is similar to the old leaf, but it is not identical to the original leaf.
5.1.2. Festivals:
The main Buddhist festival is Buddha Day / Vesak / Vaisakha, the celebration of
Buddha's birth. The days of His enlightenment and death are also observed. Followers
observe these festivals by decorating their homes and temples with lanterns made of
paper or wood. They also visit their local temples for services and teachings and giving
offerings to monks on these days.
5.1.3 Plants associated with Buddhism:
According to the Buddhist scriptures, the founder of Buddhism, Sakyamuni, always
stayed with plants in critical moments of His life: He was born under the sorrowless tree
Chapter 5: Results
77
Ashok(Saraca asoca De Wilde.). He became a Buddha under the sacred fig, i.e.,
Aswatha (Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq.) trees and He died under the Sal (Shorea
robusta A. DC.). Therefore, Buddhism has quite close relations with plants. According to
"the Birth Records of the 28th Generation of Buddha", Buddhism has altogether 28
generations of Buddhist masters; each master would rule 5000 years; and Sakyamuni is
the 28th Buddhist master.
Special woods are needed for the construction of Buddha temples, such as Teak (Tectona
grandis Linn. f.), Chukrasia velutina Roem., Gamari (Gmelina arborea Roxb.),
Paramichelia baillonii Hu., jackfruit or Kanthal (Artocarpus heterophylla Lan.) etc.
which are all upright and with hard woods, and at the same time mothproof. The wooden
carvings in the Buddhist temples, such as the statues of Buddha, holy wares and holy
animals, also must use these woods. The Buddhist lamps must use special oil extracted
from special seeds of woods, such as ironwood, i.e., Nageswar (Mesua ferrea L.) and
candle nut (Aleurites moluccana Willd.) etc. When boys desire to become monks or the
monks need to be enhanced to higher ranks, they must first take a bath in water boiled
with holy fragments of cinnamomum (Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume.) trees, sacred
beans and grasses, rose apple (Syzygium jambolanum DC.) and Acacia rugata Buch. –
Ham. etc. Among the plant-tributes for Buddha, there are fruits such as betelnuts (Areca
catechu L.), banana (Musa nana Lour.), Ba Jiao (Musa sapientum L.) and flowers of
water lily (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.), candock or lotus (Nymphaea lotus Aubl.), St.
Johns Lily (Crinum asiaticum Blanco. var. sinicum) and Hedychium chrysoleucum Hook.
etc., as well as leaves of Ficus religiosa etc. The tributes must also be dyed into red,
yellow and orange colors extracted separately from the roots of anatto tree (Bixa orellana
L.), Gardenia sootepense sootepensis Hutchinson. and Indian mulberry root (Morinda
officinalis How.) etc. There is a yard encircled by low walls and bamboo fences in each
Buddhist temple; their areas are different, and inside them, usually there are dozens or
hundreds of plants. Among these plants, except some fruit trees planted for the monks,
there must be the "trees of Buddha" and some usual plants used in Buddhist activities, as
well as plants where the Buddhist scriptures are written on, such as talipot palm
(Coryphyum braculifera) and paper-mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.) etc.
Chapter 5: Results
78
Though these plants could be more or less in the yards, they must include the "five
Buddhist trees and the five Buddhist flowers”. The five trees include: banyan (Ficus
religiosa Decne. Ex Miq.), council tree (Ficus altissima Blume.), talipot palm, betelnut
and plamyra palm (Borassus spp.) or coconut; and the six Buddhist flowers include water
lily, Crinum asiaticum var. sinicum, Hedychium chrysoleucum Hook., Michelia
champaca L., frangipani (Plumeria rubra L.) and hairyfruit musella (Musella lasiocarpa
C.Y. Wu.) etc.
5.1.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites:
1. Site characteristics: Out of three Buddhist monastries and one cemetary of the city
studied. Hsuan Tsang Buddist Temple is one having an area of about 1.5 bigha (2007 Sq
m), adjacent to which there is Yin Yee Thong Cemetery spread over an area of about 20
bighas (26766 Sq m) The other two temples which were established in 1935 cover lesser
area, of which Nippon Zen Myohoji at Dhakuria of south Kolkata is the smallest [Table
5.1.1(a)]. No water-body was found in all these religious places. Each temple has
residents ranging from 4 to 9 comprising of Bhikshus, followers and other associates.
Maximum number of regular devotees was found at Nippon Zen Myohoji. The main
festival of Buddhists is celebrated at these temples on the birthday of Lord Buddha which
is incidentally on the day of full moon of ‘Baisakha’ month. During festival days the
number of visiting devotees increases 10 - 20 times over those on other days [Table
5.1.1(b)].
2. Taxonomic documentation: A taxanomic analysis of plants sustained [Table 5.1.2(b)]
shows the dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former in
Buddhist sites being 1 : 2.13 at the family level, 1 : 1.93 at the genus level and 1 : 2 at the
species level. It is also interesting to note that at Site No. 4 (Nippon Zen Myohoji
Temple), the ratio of monocots to dicots at the genus, family and species levels is almost
1 : 1, which implies that it is a planned and maintained garden. Furthermore it is to note
that proportion of genera to species found in all Buddhist Monastries and Cemeteries of
Chapter 5: Results
79
Kolkata is found to be 1 : 1.02 in comparison with 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the
Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for Bengal.
The maximum number of plant species found in all four Buddhist religious places
of Kolkata is 44, out of which Yin Yee Thong Cemetery contributes the maximum of 19
species. Minimum number of species (6) was found in Nalanda Bidyabhavan. Ficus
religiosa L. was found to be the most dominant species in respect of all four Buddhist
religious sites.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants : It is evident that in respect of use
categories found in all Buddhist religious sites, the decorative plants which are mainly
used as to enhance aesthetic effect dominate the scenario with a share of 54.55% [Table
5.1.3]. The next share is of fruit-bearing plants (22.73 %) and shade-giving plants
(18.18%).Those decorative plants which are utilised for fencing/hedging constitute 9.09
% in totality. Percentage-distribution of plants according to their utility for each
individual temple gardens and in totality are also graphically shown [Fig. 5.1.1(a) to (e)].
(i) Decorative species like Plumera obtusa (Gulancha), Michelia champaca L. (Champa)
and Canna glauca L. (Kalabati) are found in two of the sites. As many as 13 plant species
are used to enhance aesthetic beauty in Yin Yee Thong Cemetery whereas 11 such plants
are found in Nippon Zen Myohoji.
Interestingly of the 4 plant species used for demarcating gardens, pathways etc.
inside the temple premises, it was Colocasia antiquorum Schott. (Kachu), which has been
found in two of the sites.
(ii) The shade-giving plants were found to be maximum (5) in Hsuan Tsang Buddist
Temple and minimum (1) in Nalanda Bidyabhavan. Amongst such species, Ficus
religiosa L. (Aswatha) was found in most of the sites.
(iii) Out of the (10) fruit bearing species, no less than five (5) are found in Yin Yee
Thong Cemetery. The Hsuan Tsang Buddist Temple was found to sustain three and rests
have only one species each.The tree of Aegle mamelos Corr. (Bael) are found in two of
the gardens.
(iv) No vegetable plants were found to be cultivated in any of the four sites.
Chapter 5: Results
80
(v) It may also be noted that about 4.55% of the plant species sustained in the four sites
which do not have utility discussed above. Typha elephantine Roxb. (Hogla), though
found only in one Buddhist site, deserves special mention since this species is unusual in
urban Gardens and Parks.
4. Association with sacred plants: The plants considered sacred by the followers of
Lord Buddha have been enumerated [Table 5.1.4] amongst which Ficus religiosa Decne.
ex Miq. (banyan) can be found in most of the temple gardens.
5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: A taxonomic
analysis of plant-diversity associated with Buddhist Monasteries and Cemeteries shows
that 17 dicotyledonus families having 27 generas and 28 species and 8
monocotyledonous families having 14 genera and 14 species are sustained in all Buddhist
religious sites [Table 5.1.6]. This represents 65.85% dicots and 34.15% monocots at
genera level and 66.67% dicots and 33.33% monocots at species level. Pteridophyta and
Gymnosperms each has a share of 3.70 % of total vascular plants [Fig. 5.1.2].
Percentage Distribution of different Vascular plants in the sites have been illustrated to
show the distribution of monocots and dicots at family, genus and species level [Fig.
5.1.3 (a) to (c)].
Of the 17 dicotyledonous families, it is Apocynaceae which has the highest number of
genera followed by Leguminosae. Maximum number of species were also noted in
Apocynaceae family, followed by Leguminosae.
Out of the 8 monocotyledonous families recorded it is Palmae which has the highest
number of genera and species, followed by Gramineae.
Only one family each of Gymnosperms and Pteridophyta could be recorded.
Chapter 5: Results
81
Table 5.1.1 (a): Details of study sites.
Sl No.
Date of visit
Name of site Esta-blished on
Address Area Key infor-mant
1. 29/05/2003 Nippon Zen, Myohoji
1935 29, Panchanantala Road, Kolkata -37
4 cottah
Tanaka Bhikshu
2. 15/04/2006 Nalanda Bidyabhavan
1935 50T/1C, Pottery Road, Kolkata – 15
10 cottah
Progya-jyoti Mahasthobir
3. 15/04/2006 Yin Yee Thong Cemetery
1985 C.S Dag No. 545 & 63, Mouza Nonadanga
20 bigha
Devotees
4. 15/ 04/2006 Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple
Chowbaga, Kolkata -105
1 bigha 10 cottah
Acchu (Priest)
Table 5.1.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies within the premises
No. of regular residents within the premises
No. of visiting devotees (approximate) Regular During
festivals 4 Nippon Zen,
Myohoji 0 06 50 200
105 Yin Yee Thong Cemetery
0 NA NA NA
106 Hsuan Tsang Buddist Temple
0 9 10 100
107 Nalanda Bidyabhavan
0 4 10 50
NA = Not available.
Chapter 5: Results
82
Table 5.1.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Buddhist monasteries and
cemeteries.
Family Species Local Name
Remarks Occu-rrence(Site No.)
DICOT Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume. Aam S, F 107 Annonaceae Polyalthia longifolia Benth
& Hook. f. ex Hook. f. Debdaru Or 105
Apocynaceae Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. Nerium odorum [Soland.] Plumeria obtusa Bert. ex A. DC. Plumeria rubra L. forma bicolor Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd.
Kurchi Karabi
Gulancha
Gulancha
Tagar
Or Or Or Or Or
105 105 105, 4 4 105
Asclepidaceae Calotropis procera [Dryand.]
Akanda Or 106
Compositae Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Parthenium Weed 106
Cucurbitaceae Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.ex Eckl.
Tarmuj F 105
Leguminosae Bauhinia acuminata Bruce.Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. & Zeyh. Tamarindus indica L.
Kanchan Sisso
Tentul
Or S S
4 106 106
Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Swarna champa
Fl, Or 105
Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Jaba Or 107, 4 Meliaceae Azadirahcta indica A. Juss. Neem S 106 Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L.
Syzygium cumini/ Skeels.
Peyara
Jam
F S, F
105, 106 106
Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F 105 Rhamnaceae Zizyphus 82jujuba Lam. Kul F, S 106 Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba
Miq. Ixora coccinea Comm. ex. Lam. Mussaenda roxburghii Hook.f.
Kadam
Rangan
Mussanda
S Or Or
105 4, 107 105
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa. Bel Or, F 105,
Chapter 5: Results
83
Citrus medica L. Murraya exotica Blanco.
Lebu
Kamini
F Or
107 4 105
Typhaceae Typha elephantina Roxb. Hogla
Eco 106
Urticaceae Ficus religiosa Decne. ex. Miq.
Aswatha S 105, 106, 4
MONOCOT Amaryllidaceae Crimum asiaticum Blanco. Or 105 Araceae Philodendron lacerum
Schott. Colocasia antiquorum Schott.
Kachu
Or Ls
4 106, 107
Cannaceae Canna glauca L. Kalabati Or 4, 105 Commelinaceae Setcreasea purpurea
Boom. Ls 4
Gramineae Andropogon aciculatus Retz. Bambusa nana Roxb.
Bans
Ls Ls, Or
106 105
Palmae Attalea cohune Mart. Cocos nucifera L. Latania loddigesii Mart. Phoenix sylverstrix Roxb.
Narkol
Khejur
Or F, Or Ls Or
4 105 107 106
Pandanaceae Pandanus sanderi Hort. Sand.
Or 4
Scitamineae Musa sapientum L. Ravenala madagascariensis J. F. Gmel.
Kala Panthapada
k
F Or
4 105
GYMNOSPERM Pinaceae Pinus longifolia Roxb. ex
Lambart. Pine Or 4
PTERIDOPHYTA Polypodiaceae Nephrolepis biserrata
furcans Or 4
Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; Dr. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having
economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering
plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing &
demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or –
Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd – Seed utilized; V
– Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed
Chapter 5: Results
84
Table 5.1.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Buddhist monasteries and Cemeteries.
SITE NO. (4) (105) (106) (107) TOTAL No. of Plant genera 14 19 13 06 43 No. of Plant species 15 19 13 06 44 Ratio of genera to species
1 : 1.07 1 : 1 1 : 1 1 : 1 1 : 1.02
No. of Gymnosperms Species
01 0 0 0 01
No. of Monocot families
06 05 03 02 08
No. of Dicot families 06 09 08 04 17 No. of monocot at genera level
06 05 03 02 14
No. of dicot at genera level
06 13 10 04 27
No. of monocot at species level
06 05 03 02 14
No. of dicot at species level
07 14 10 04 28
Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level
1 : 1.17 1 : 2.8 1 : 3.33 1 : 2 1 : 2
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level
1 : 1 1 : 2.6 1 : 2.67 1 : 2 1 : 1.93
Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level
1 : 1 1 : 1.8 1 : 2.67 1 : 2 1 : 2.13
Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites
Ficus religiosa L. (Aswatha)
Name of the site on which thrives maximum no. of species
Site No. 105 (Yin Yee Thong Cemetery) : Total 19 species
Chapter 5: Results
85
Table 5.1.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Buddhist monasteries and Cemeteries.
SITE NO. (4) (105) (106) (107) All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)
1 (6.67%)
2 (10.53%)
6 (46.15%)
1 (16.67%)
8 (18.18%)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)
0 (0%)
1 (5.26%)
2 (15.38%)
2 (33.33%)
4 (9.09%)
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)
11 (73.33%)
14 (73.68%)
2 (15.38%)
2 (33.33%)
24 (54.55%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples (% of total species)
0 0 0 0 0
3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)
0 0 0 0 0
4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits (% of total species)
2 (13.33%)
5 (26.32%)
3 (23.08%)
2 (33.33%)
10 (22.73%)
5. No. of species used as source
of consumable seeds (% of total species)
0 0 0 0 0
6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc. (% of total species)
0 0 0 0 0
7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal (% of total species)
0 0 2 (15.38%)
0 2 (4.55%)
Total 15 19 13 06 44
Fig.
diff
F
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
.5.1.1 (a) –(
ferent use c
Fig. 5.1.1(a)
Fig.5.1.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
1 2
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
45.00%
50.00%
1 2
(e) Percent
categories.
): SITE N
.1(c): SITE
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
C
tage distrib
NO. 4
E No. 106
9
Serie
9
Serie
hapter 5: Re
86
bution of pl
es1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
es1
esults
ants of all B
Fig. 5.1
Fig
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
1 2
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
1
Buddhist r
1.1(b): S
. 5.1.1(d):
2 3 4 5 6 7
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
religious sit
ITE No. 10
SITE No. 1
8 9
Se
8 9
S
tes in
05
07
eries1
Series1
Tab
Tab
Fig. 5.1.
Lgends beauty 8- Sour
ble 5.1.4 : P b
Name of sp
1. Ficus rel
2. Michelia
3. Plumeria
ble 5.1.5: S
Vaspla
Pterido
Total
Gymno
.1 (e): USEF
s for the ch, 4- Offerinrce of inco
Prevalencebeliefs and t
pecies susta
ligiosa Dec
a champaca
a rubra L.
Statistical a
scular ants F
ophyta
osperms
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
C
FUL PLAN
harts abovengs; 5-Vegsme of Trust
of plants ctaboos.
ained as sa
cne.ex.Miq.
a L. (swarna
(frangipani
analysis of p
No. of Families
D
1
Po
1
Pi
1 2 3
hapter 5: Re
87
NTS IN ALL
STU
: 1 – Shades. yielding, 6tees; 9 – Ot
considered
cred plant
(banyan),
a champa)
)
plant wealt
Details of fam
olypodiaceae
inaceae
4 5
esults
L BUDDHIDIED
-giving, 2 –6- Fruit-beathers.
sacred or a
th.
mily Nge
e
6 7 8
IST RELIG
– fencing, 3 aring 7 – Se
associated w
Si
10
No. of enera
1
1
1
9
GIOUS SITE
– Aestheticeeds used;
with the Bu
ite Nos.
5, 106, 4
105
4
No. of species
1
1
1
Series1
ES
c
uddhist
Chapter 5: Results
88
Total 1 1
Angiosperms
a) Monocot 8
Amaryllidaceae 1 1
Araceae 2 2
Cannaceae 1 1
Commelinaceae 1 1
Gramineae 2 2
Palmae 4 4
Pandanaceae 1 1
Scitamineae 2 2
Total 14 14
b) Dicot 17
Anacardiaceae 1 1
Anonaceae 1 1
Apocynaceae 4 5
Asclepiadaceae 1 1
Compositae 1 1
Cucurbitaceae 1 1
Leguminosae 3 3
Magnoliaceae 1 1
Malvaceae 1 1
Meliaceae 1 1
Myrtaceae 2 2
Passifloraceae 1 1
Rhamnaceae 1 1
Rubiaceae 3 3
Rutaceae 3 3
Typhaceae 1 1
Urticaceae 1 1
Total 27 28
Tab
Fig.Cem
Fig.
(a)
ble 5.1.6: S
Vascular p
1. Pteridop2.Gymnosp3. Angiospa) Monocob) Dicot
. 5.1.2 Percmeteries:
Legen
. 5.1.3 (a)
family –w
Summary o
plant
Nuhyta
permserms t
centage Dis
d: 1 - Fern
)–(c) Percereli
wise
Leg
1
2
C
of Plant wea
Families
mber %1 31 3
25 928 32
17 68
stribution o
ns , 2 -Gym
entage Disigious sites:
gend: 1- m
hapter 5: Re
89
alth of Bud
% Num3.703.702.592.008.00
of Vascular
mnosperm
Fig. 5.1.2
tribution o:
(b) genera
Fig. 5.1.3
monocot, 2
esults
ddhist mon
Genera
mber %1 21 2
41 9514 3427 65
r plants in B
ms and 3 -
2.
of monoco
a-wise
2- dicot.
1
2
nasteries an
% Num2.332.335.354.155.85
Buddhist M
Angiospe
ots and di
(c)
1
2
3
nd Cemeter
Species
mber % 1 2.21 2.2
42 95.414 33.328 66.6
Monasteries
erms.
icots at Bu
species-w
ries.
27 27 45 33 67
s and
uddhist
wise
1
2
Chapter 5: Results
90
Plate No. 5.1.1: Tanaka Bikshu at Nippon Zan, Myohoji, Buddha Mandir, Dhakuria, Kolkata.
Plate No. 5.1.2: YIN YEE THONG Cemetery (Site No. 106) with Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple (Site No. 105) in the background.
Chapter 5: Results
91
5.2 CHURCHES & CEMETERIES
5.2.1 Tenets:
Christianity, a monotheistic religion, is based on the life and teachings of Jesus as
presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings. Christianity regards
the Biblical canon, the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) and New Testament, as the
inspired words of God.
The mainstream Christian belief is that Jesus is the Son of God, fully divine and fully
human and the savior of humanity. Jesus' ministry, sacrificial death, and subsequent
resurrection are often referred to as the Gospel. The Gospel is the news of God, the
Father's eternal victory over evil and the promise of salvation and eternal life for all
people, through divine grace.
Christianity, beginning as a Jewish sect in the mid-1st century in the Levant region of the
Middle East (modern Israel and Palestine), quickly spread to Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia
Minor and Egypt. It grew in size and influence over a few decades, and by the end of the
4th century had become the official state church of the Roman Empire, replacing other
forms of religion practiced under Roman rule.
With around 2.2 billion adherents, split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant
and Orthodox, today Christianity is the world's largest religion. Among all Christians,
37.5% live in the Americas, 25.7% in Europe, 22.5% in Africa, 13.1% in Asia, 1.2% in
Oceania and 0.9% live in the Middle East. Christianity is India's third-largest religion,
with approximately 24 million followers, constituting 2.3 per cent of India's population.
Beliefs
The core Christian faith is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and
resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered
salvation and the promise of eternal life. Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the
pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life again.
According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead", he ascended to heaven, is
"seated at the right hand of the Father" and will ultimately return to fulfill the rest of
Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment and final
establishment of the Kingdom of God. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated
Chapter 5: Results
92
by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week which
includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday. The Apostles' Creed remains the most popular
statement of the articles of Christian faith that are generally acceptable to most Christian
denominations.
The Ten Commandments are a set of biblical principles relating to ethics and worship,
which play a fundamental role in Christianity like Judaism. They include instructions to
worship only God and to keep the Sabbath and prohibitions against idolatry, blasphemy,
murder, theft, and adultery.
5.2.2 Festivals: Different forms of Christianity celebrate different festivals and observe
different holy days, but all forms observe (though might not celebrate it in the same way)
the following 6 holy days:
Christmas: 25th December. Marks the birth of Jesus Christ.
Epiphany: 6 January. Marks the Journey of Three Kings to worship Jesus in
Bethlehem
Good Friday: The Friday before Easter (March/April), it commemorates Jesus’
passion (suffering) on the cross.
Easter: (March/April) Marks the resurrection of Jesus from the tomb.
Ascension: Forty days after Easter, the ascension of Christ to heaven is
commemorated.
Pentecost: The seventh Sunday after Easter. Marks the descent of the Holy Spirit
upon the apostles, which began the work of the Church.
5.2.3 Plants associated with Christianity: A list of plants, found reference in the Bible,
is given below:
Name of Plants Reference
Acacia, Spirale (Acacia raddiana Savi.) Exodus 25:10
Algum Tree, red sandalwood (Pterocarpus
santalinus Blanco.), white sandalwood -
(Santalum album L.)
(2 Chronicles 2:8; 9:10, 11)
Almug Tree (Pterocarpus santalinus Blanco.) 1 Kings 10:11
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93
Aloe, Aloe socctorina Schult.f. Proverbs 7:17
Barley (Hordeum spp.) Numbers 5:15
Beans (Vicia faba) Ezekiel 4:9
Bulrush (Typha spp.) or Papyrus (Cyperus
papyrus L.)
Exodus 2:3
"Cassia" (Cassia spp.) Exodus 30, Psalm 45:8, Job
42:14
Castor Oil Tree (Jonah's Gourd) - (Ricinus
communis L.)
Jonah 4
Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani Loud.) 1 Kings 5:10, 2 Kings 19:23
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum)
Blume.
Proverbs 7:17
Citron (Etrog) (Citrus medica L.)
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) Exodus 16:31
Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum L.) Esther 1:5
Crown Daisy (Chrysanthemum sp.) Isaiah 40:6
Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens L.) Isaiah 44:14
Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Song of Solomon 5:11; 7:7, 8,
John 12:13
Fig (Ficus carica L.) Joel 1:7
Fitches (Black Cumin) (Nigella sativa L.) Isaiah 28:23
Garlic (Allium sativum L.) Numbers 11:5
Henna (Lawsonia inermis L.) Song of Solomon 1:14
Jujube (Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf) Matthew 27:3
Lily (Iris palaestina Boiss.) 1 Kings 7:22
Mustard (Brassica nigra Koch.) Matthew 13:31
Nuts/Walnut (Juglans regia L.) Song of Solomon 6:11
Oak (Quercus calliprinos Webb.) Joshua 24:26
Oleander,( Nerium oleander L.) Ecclus., xxiv, 18; xxxix, 17
Olive (Olea europaea) Judges 9:9
Onion (Allium cepa) Numbers 11:5
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94
Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Song of Solomon 7:8
Pine Tree (Abies cilicica) 1 Kings, etc.
Pomegranate - (Punica granatum L.) Song of Solomon 7:12
Rose (Gladiolus ) "Rose of Sharon" (Song of Sol.
2:1)
Sage Three-Leafed (Salvia fruticosa Miller) Exodus 37:17
Sweet Cane (Saccharum officinarum L.) Jeremiah 6:20
Vine - Grape (Vitis vinifera L.) Isaiah 5:1
Wheat – (Triticum aestivum L.) Ezra 7:22
5.2.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites:
1. Site characteristics: Churches occupy smaller areas in comparison to Cemeteries
ranging from 0.5 acre (i.e. 2024 Sq m.) to about 100 bighas (i.e. 133829 Sq m.). Oxford
Mission Church at southern fringe of the city occupies the largest area. Church of our
Lady of Dolours at Central Kolkata is the smallest [Table 5.2.1(a)]. Amongst cemeteries
under study, the Bhowanipore Cemetery and Lower Circular Road Cemetery are the
largest in terms of area-occupancy, as both have almost the same area (100 bighas). Area
wise next comes Park Street Cemetery, but this is closed for the purpose of burial. Vast
area of St. Stephen Cemetery (situated at the Kolkata Port area), though having
comparatively smaller area (about one-twentieth of the two cemeteries named above)
remains under water during high tide of the river Ganges. Almost all churches and
cemeteries under study have residents ranging from 1 person to about 16 persons. They
include Father, Gardener, Chowkidar and other religious associates. It has also been
noted that the religious places under study have regular visitors ranging from 10 to 400
whereas during festivals the number ranges from 50 to even 40000 [Table 5.2.1(b)].
Normally cemeteries do not have regular visitors unless there is specific occasion or
funeral.
Chapter 5: Results
95
2. Taxonomic documentation: It can be seen [Table 5.2.2(b)] that the dicots dominate
over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former is 1 : 4.8 for the family level, 1 :
4.42 for the genus level and 1 : 4.59 for the species level. Furthermore the proportion of
genera to species found in all Christian religious study-sites of Kolkata was found to be 1
: 1.09 in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4
for Bengal.
Of all Church sites studied the Oxford Mission Church (Site No. 8) houses maximum
number i.e. 76 species whereas the Lower Circular Road Cemetery (Site No. 50) amongst
all cemeteries has the maximum number of plant species, i.e. 47 species. Polyalthia
longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. ex Hook. f. (Debdaru) )is found in maximum number of
Churches whereas Caesalpinia pulcherrima G. Don. (Krishnachura) is found in
maximum number of cemeteries. In respect of all 39 Christian sites studied Polyalthia
longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. ex Hook. f. happens to be the most dominant species.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants: The plants which enhance aesthetic
effect of the site constitute majority, i.e. about 84.62% amongst all [Table 5.2.3]. Next
comes Shade-giving plants which are about 12.31% of total species recorded. Fruit-
bearing plants and vegetables constitute 9.74% and 5.64% respectively. There are only
6.67% of total plants, the parts of which are utilized particularly for offering to God
during festivals or decorating the Churches/Cemeteries. As much as 2.05% of the total
plants are utilized as fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathways inside the premises
etc. Percentage distribution of plants according to their utility is graphically represented
separately for churches, cemeteries and in totality of the Christian religious sites [Fig.
5.2.1(a), 5.2.1 (b) and 5.2.1(c)].
(i) Of the 182 decorative plant species recorded, Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f.
(Debdaru) and Caesalpinia pulcherrima G. Don. (Krishnachura) are found in maximum
number of sites i.e. 27 and 25 respectively. Thuja orientalis is found in 22 sites while
Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam. (Rangan) is found in 22 sites followed by Vinca rosea L.
(Nayantara), Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Jaba), Mussaenda erythrophylla ‘Rosea’ Schum.
& Thonn. (Mussanda) each in 19 sites. It is Areca catechu L. (Supari) which is sustained
in17 sites. Other plants which enhances the aesthetic beauty of the place are
Chapter 5: Results
96
Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl. (Baganbilas), Borassus flabellifer L. (Tal), Jasminum
pubescens Buch.-Ham. ex Wall. (Belphool), Canna glauca L. (Kalabati) (each found in
14 sites), Murraya exotica Blanco. (Kamini) and Jacquinia ruscifolia Sesse & Moc.
(found in 13 sites), Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj) (found in 12 sites), Quisqualis indica
Blanco. (Madhabilata) and Dahlia Superflua Ait. (Dalia) (each found in 10 sites).
Out of 4 plant species used for fencing or demarcating gardens, roads etc. inside
the premises, Duranta plumeri Jacq. (Duranta) is found in 10 sites whereas Euphorbia
pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch. (Lalpata) is sustained in 3 sites and Pedilanthus
tithymaloides Poit. (Rangchita) in 1 site only.
There are 13 plant species utilized as offerings at ‘Churches’ or “Cemeteries” of
which Rosa centrifolia L. (Golap) is sustained in 14 sites.
(ii) Of 24 shade-giving plant species, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem) is sustained in
24 sites, Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) in 23 sites, Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers. (Jarul)
in 12 sites, Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Kadam) in 9 sites and Ficus benghalensis L.
(Bot) in 8 sites.
(iii) Out of total 19 fruit-yielding plant species Psidium guayava L. (Peyara) is found in
24 sites followed by Carica papaya L. (Pepe) having occurrence in 22 sites, Cocos
nucifera L. (Narkol) in 20 sites, Artocarpus integrifolia L. f. (Kanthal) in18 sites and
Musa paradisiaca L. (Kola) in 16 sites.
(iv) Out of a total of 11 plant species useful as vegetables, Murraya koenigii Spreng.
(Karipata) is present in 13 sites. Other species of importance are Colocasia antiquorum
Schott. (Kachu) found in 10 sites and Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. (Sajina) found in 7
sites.
(v) There is 2 (two) plant species, viz., Sesamum indicum L. and Cajanus cajan Druce.
recorded from Christian study-site, the seeds of which are useful as source of edible
sesame (Til) oil and pulses.
(vi) Some tree-species, precious mainly for their timber quality, like Shorea robusta
Gaertn (Sal) and Swetenia mahogonny Jacq. (Mahogony) are found in 3 sites and
Tectona grandis L. f. (Teak/Segun) in 2 sites.
Chapter 5: Results
97
The obnoxious weed, Parthenium hysterophorus L. (Parthenium), was found in
abundance in 3 cemeteries causing much concern to the authorities.
4. Association with sacred plants: List of plants considered sacred by the Christians or
referred to as the biblical plants includes 9 species [Table 5.2.4] of which Citrus
maxima Merrill. (Lebu), Nerium oleander L. ‘Roseum’ (Golapi Karabi) and Punica
granatum L.(Dalim) are found in 11, 7 and 4 Christian sites respectively.
5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: As many as 48
dicotyledonus families having 137 genera and 156 species and 10 monocotyledonous
families having 31 genera and 34 species have been recorded from all Christian study
sites [Table 5.2.6 ]. This represents 81.55% dicots and 18.45% monocots at generic level
and 82.11% dicots and 17.89% monocots at species level [Figs. 5.2.3(a), (b) & (c)].
Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms represent 4.62% and 6.15% of total vascular plants
[Fig. 5.2.2].
Out of 48 dicotyledonous families recorded, Leguminosae has the highest number
of genus, followed by Anonaceae. But maximum number of species has been noted in the
family Leguminosae, followed by that of Euphorbiaceae.
Out of 10 monocotyledonous families recorded, Palmae has the highest number of
genus and species, followed by Araceae and Scitamineae.
There are 4 families of Gymnosperms and 3 families of Pteridophytes, each group
having the number of genus and species same as that of the respective family. It is Thuja
odorata Doi. (Jhau) of Pinaceae family which is sustained in 22 sites. The next most
prevalent gymnosperm is Cycas revolute Bedd. of the Cycadaceae family.
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98
Table 5.2.1 (a): Details of study sites.
Sl No.
Date of visit
Name of site
Esta-blished on
Address Area Key informant
1. 26/05/2003 St. Terasa of Avila Church
1895 92, A.J.C. Bose Road, Kolkata -14
10 cottah
Fr. Orson Wells (Parish Priest)
2. 11/06/2003 Oxford Mission
1880 Barisha , Kolkata -8
63 bigha
Rev. Biswas
3. 10/06/2003 Sacred Heart Church, Thakurpukur
1830 720, M.G. Road, Kolkata -63
2 bigha
Father Henry Crasta (Parish Priest)
4. 22/10/2003 Sacred Heart Church
1834 3, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata -13
10 cottah
Hansel De’Sousa (Parish Priest)
5. 27/10/2003 Baptist Mission Church
1818 42 & 43, A.J.C. Bose Road, Kolkata -14
Half acre (2024 sqm.)
Rev. Subrata Fullonton (Pastor)
6. 02/05/2004 Greek Orthodox Church
Not available
2A, Library Road, Kolkata -26
1 bigha
Father Konstanstions
7. 02/05/2003 St. Lawrence Chapel
Not available
27, B.C. Road, Kolkata -19
3 bigha
Fr. Anil Mitra
8. 23/05/2004 Lower Circular Road Cemetery
Middle of 19th century
184, A.J.C. Bose Road, Kolkata
100 bigha
Mr. D. R.Bose, (Secre-tary, Christian
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99
Burial Board)
9. 01/06/2004 St. Stephen’s Cemetery
1820 49/5, C.G.R. Road, Kantapukur North Gate, Kolkata -23
5 bigha
Not available
10. 01/06/2004 Tollygunge Cemetery
Middle of 19th century
3A, Rassa Road (South), Kolkata -33
2 bigha
Mr. D.R.Bose, (Secretary, Christian Burial Board)
11. 08/03/2005 Christ the King Church
1944 5, Syed Amir Ali Avenue, Kolkata
2 bigha
Elias D’Mellow (Parish Priest)
12. 10/11/2004 Auxillium Church
1974 8A, Mahendra Roy Lane, Kolkata
3-4 bigha
Fr. Jose Pellissery (Burser)
13. 20/11/2004 Church of our Lady of Dolours
1810 147, B.B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata
3 acres (12144Sq m.)
Fr. Peter (Rector)
14. 26/11/2004 Thakupukur Baptist Church
1968 175/2, D.H. Road, Kolkata
1 bigha
Hira Charan Narginari (Paster)
15. 26/10/2004 Church of the Epiphany with adjacent burial
1836 165/3, D.H. Road, Kolkata -63
4 bigha
Rev. Subhas Adhikary
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100
ground
16. 26/11/2004 Assembly of God Church School
1981 Keorapukur, Kolkata -93
4 bigha
Alok Choudhury (Paster)
17. 26/11/2004 St. Paul’s Church
1979 179, M.G. Road, Kolkata -82
4 bigha
Rev. A.J. Guria
18. 26/11/2004 St. Antony’s Church
1968 Keorapukur, Kolkata - 104
2 bigha
Rev. Fr. Faustine Brank
19. 26/11/2004 Infant Jesus Church
Not available
3, Sourin Roy Road, Kolkata -34
1 bigha
Not available
20. 26/11/2004 St. Stephen’s Church
1870 3, D.H.Road, Kolkata -23
2 bigha
Fr. Victor Yardi
21. 26/11/2004 Sudder Street Church
1866 15, Sudder Street, Kolkata-16
10 cottah
Rev. Rmasih
22. 28/11/2004 Stella Maris Church
1947 4, Nimak Mahal Road, Kolkata -43
1 bigha
Vasanth (Parish priest)
23. 29/11/2004 St. John’s Church & Job Charnock’s Mausoleum
1784 2/2, Council House Street, Kolkata- 1
3-4 acre
Rev. Rmasih (Priest)
24. 29/11/2004 Union Chapel
1817 137, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata - 13
1 bigha
Rev. Ashok Biswas (Pastor)
25. 29/11/2004 Bhowanipur
1868 43,Lalalajpat Rai Sarani,
1 Rev. V.V.
Chapter 5: Results
101
Congregational Church
Kolkata - 20 bigha Gyan
26. 29/11/2004 St. Mary’s Church
Not available
44 &45, Elgin Road, Kolkata - 20
15 cottah
Rev. John Nelson Ali
27. 29/11/2004 Osmond Memorial Church
1868 56 B, S.N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata -14
12-14 cottah
Rev. Issac (Pastor)
28. 29/11/2004 Central Methodist Episcopal Church
1923 131, Lenin Sarani, Kolkata -13
15 cottah
Rev. Avijit Biswas (Pastor –in-Charge)
29. 04/12/2004 Queen of Peace Church
Not available
209/1, N.S.C Bose Road, Kolkata -47
1 bigha
Rev. Joseph
30. 12/12/2004 St.Paul’s Cathedral
Not available
J.N. Road, Kolkata -
10 bigha
Rev.Simmick (Priest)
31. 04/12/2004 Bhowanipur Cemetery
1907 15, Debendralal Khan Road, Kolkata -27
100 bigha
Phillip Williams
32. 06/06/2004 Park Street Cemetery
1767 52, South Park Street, Kolkata- 14
70 bigha
D.R. Bose (Secretary, Christian Burial Board)
33. 08/06/2004 Prabhu Jisu 1844 76, Rafi Ahmed Kidwai
1 Fr.
Chapter 5: Results
102
Girja Road, Kolkata -16
bigha Kurian
34. 13/02/2006 Armenian Holy Church & Nazareth
1707 2, Armenian Street, Kolkata - 1
15 cottah
Haik Sookias
35. 13/02/2006 Cathedral of the Most Holy Rosary
Not available
15, Portugese Church Stret, Kolkata -1
15 cottah
Sunil Rosario
36. 04/08/2006 St. Andrews Church
Not available
15. B.B.D. Bag, Kolkata
10 cottah
Fr. Andrews Samir
37. 08/03/2005 Don Bosco School Chapel
1958 23, Darga Road, Kolkata -17
10 bigha
Fr. Jacob, Principal
38. 18/02/2007 St .John’s Church (Sealdah)
Not available
308, A.P.C. Road, Kolkata
10 bigha
Not available
39. 18/02/2007 Seventh Day Adventist Church
Not available
36, Park Street, Kolkata -16
10 cottah
Rev. V. Rao
Table 5.2.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies within the premises
No. of regular residents at the premises
No. of visiting devotees (approximate)Regular During
festivals
(A) Churches 2 St. Terasa of
Avila Church 0 11 400 25000
8 Oxford Mission 4 16 150 1000 7 Sacred Heart 2 4 20 1000
Chapter 5: Results
103
Church, Thakurpukur
16 Sacred Heart Church
0 5 100 1000
18 Baptist Mission Church
0 5 200 1000
43 Greek Orthodox Church
0 2 30 1000
45 St. Lawrence Chapel
0 10 100 1000
54 Christ the King Church
0 1 200 1000
57 Auxillium Church
0 16 100 40000
58 Church of our Lady of Dolours
0 5 60 2000
59 Thakurpukur Baptist Church
0 6 100 1000
61 Assembly of God Church
0 2 100 2000
62 St. Paul’s Church
2 6 100 5000
63 St. Antony’s Church
1 4 150 500
64 Infant Jesus Church
0 3 50 1000
65 St. Stephen’s Church
0 Not available Not available
Not available
66 Sudder Street Church
0 4 70 100
69 Stella Maris Church
0 4 300 1000
74 St. John’s Church
0 2 70 1000
75 Union Chapel 0 2 50 500 76 Bhowanipur
Congregational Church
0 6 150 1000
77 St. Mary’s Church
0 2 50 500
78 Osmond Memorial Church
0 2 70 300
79 Central 0 2 50 200
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104
Methodist Episcopal Church
80 Queen of Peace Church
0 10 100 500
82 St.Paul’s Cathedral
0 6 300 10000
56 Prabhu Jisu Girja
0 10 50 200
92 Armenian Holy Church & Nazareth
0 4 20 100
93 Cathedral of the Most Holy Rosary
0 4 30 200
108 St. Andrews Church
0 0 10 100
84 Don Bosco School Chapel
0 6 100 200
114 St .John’s Church (Sealdah)
0 8 100 500
115 Seventh Day Adventist Church
0 2 10 50
(B) Cemetery 50 Lower Circular
Road Cemetery 0 4 20-30 100
51 St. Stephen’s Cemetery
Remains under water during high
tide
2 5-10 1000
52 Tollygunge Cemetery
0 2 10-20 100
60 Church of the Epiphany with adjacent burial ground
1 4 50 1000
81 Bhowanipur Cemetery
0 3 10 500
55 Park Street Cemetery
0 7 Closed for burial.
500
Chapter 5: Results
105
Table 5.2.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Churches and Cemeteries.
Family Species Local
Name
Remarks Occurre
nce (Site
No.)
DICOT
Acanthaceae Andrographis
paniculata Nees
Crossandra
undulaefolia Salisb.
Fittonia verschaffeltii E.
Coem.
Ruellia devosiana Hort.
Makoy. ex E. Morr.
Kalmegh
Crossandra
Patabahar
Patabahar
Or, M
Or
Or
Or
76
58
59
64
Amaranthaceae Celosia cristata L. Morugful or
Cock’s
comb
Or, Of
81, 50,
52,
Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale
L.
Mangifera indica
Blume.
Kaju
Aam
Or
F, S
8
6, 8, 16,
18, 43,
56, 58,
62, 63,
65, 74,
75, 77,
79, 82,
92, 93,
108, 114,
81, 50,
52, 55
Chapter 5: Results
106
Moringa pterygosperma
Gaertn.
Sajina
V
8, 18, 57,
58, 62,
74,
51
Anonaceae Anona squamosa Delile.
Artabotrys
odoratissimus Blume.
Polyalthia longifolia
Benth. & Hook. f. ex
Hook. f.
Ata
Kanthali
champa
Debdaru
F, Or
Or,
Or
58, 75
8, 18, 56,
64, 65,
66, 74,
75, 79,
82 50,
51, 52,
55
4, 8, 18,
43, 45,
54, 56,
58, 62,
63, 65,
66, 75,
76, 77,
79, 80,
82, 84,
93, 108,
114, 51,
52, 55,
61, 81
Apocynaceae Aedenium obesum
Roem. & Schult. var
‘Somalense’
Allamanda neriifolia
Hook.
Nerium
thick root
Allamanda
Or
Or, Of
54
43
Chapter 5: Results
107
Alstonia scholaris R. Br.
Carissa carandas L.
Hollarhena
antidysenterica Wall.
Nerium oleander L. var
‘Roseum’
Plumeria obtuse Bert.
Ex A. DC.
Tabernaemontana
coronaria R.Br.
Tabernaemontana
coronaria Flore-pleno.
Willd.
Thevetia peruviana K.
Schum.
Vinca rosea L.
Chhatim
Karamcha
Kurchi
Golapi
Karabi
Frangipani
Tagar
Double-
petal Tagar
Kolkeful
Nayantara
S, Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
8, 16, 82
8
8, 54,77
18, 54,
76, 79,
80, 82,
108.
45
8, 57, 62,
77, 82,
84, 93, 7,
50, 52,
55, 81
45, 56,77
8, 50.
2, 8, 16,
43, 54,
56, 58,
64, 76,
77, 84,
92, 93,
108, 7,
50, 52,
55, 81.
Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera
Dryand.
Swet-
Akanda
Or 55
Chapter 5: Results
108
Bignoniaceae Tecoma stans Griseb. Chameli Or, Fl 74, 77
Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia
Blanco.
Jhau Or 2, 50
Chenopodiaceae Basella rubra L. Puinsak V 8, 58, 62,
76
Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna
Wight & Arn.
Terminalia catappa L.
Quisqualis indica
Blanco.
Arjun
Kat badam
Madhabilata
S, Or
Or
Or, Fl
50
8, 56, 57,
82, 84
2, 18, 56,
58, 64,
66, 77,
93, 7, 55
Compositae Chrysanthemum
coronarium L.
Dahlia Superflua Ait.
Eclipta alba Hassk.
Helianthus annuus L.
Parthenium
hysterophorus L.
Tagetes patula L.
Vernonia anthelmintica
Willd.
Chandra-
mallika
Daliah
Kesut
Suryamukhi
Parthenium
Ganda
Somraj
Or, Of
Fl, Or, Of
M
Fl, Or, Of
Wd
Fl, Or, Of
Or
80
18, 63,
74, 75,
76, 82,
84, 114,
115, 61
7, 8
7, 93
50, 51,
52
8, 64, 74,
75, 76,
80, 82,
84, 114,
50
108
Chapter 5: Results
109
Wedelia calendulacea
Less.
Bhringaraj Or 50, 75,
84
Convolvulaceae
Evolvulus nummularius
L.
Ipomea purpurea Roth.
Jacquemontia
paniculata Hallier f.
Quamoclit pinnata Boj.
Bon akra
Morning
glory
Tarulata
Or
Or
Or
Or
108
108
50
54
Cornaceae Alangium lamarckii
Thw.
Ansfal F, S 8, 63
Crassulaceae Bryophyllum calycinum
Salisb.
Kalanchoe laciniata
DC.
Patharkuchi
Himsagar
Or
Or
8
16
Cucurbitaceae Cephalandra indica
Naud.
Cucurbita maxima
Duchesne
Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.
Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.
Telakachu
Kumra
Lau
Dhundul
Or, V
Or, V
Or, V
Or,V
7, 55
80
62
82
Dipterocarpacea
e
Shorea robusta A. DC. Sal S, Or,
Eco
16, 18,
114
Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L.
Acalypha hispida
Blume.
Codiaeum variegatum
Blume. Var Fire
Croton sparsiflorus
Morong.
Muktojhuri
Patabahar
Ban-tulsi
Or
Or
Or
Or
55
62
74
54
Chapter 5: Results
110
Emblica officinalis
Gaertn.
Euphorbia lactea Haw.
var ‘alba’.
Euphorbia pulcherrima
Willd. ex Klotzsch.
Euphorbia trigona Haw.
Hevea brasiliensis
Muell. Arg.
Jatropha gossypifolia L.
Pedilanthus
tithymaloides Poit.
Phyllanthus niruri
Blanco.
Amla
Lalpata
Cactus
Para rubber
Bherenda
Rangchita
Bhui amla
Ls
Or
Ls
Or
Or
Or
Ls
Wd
51
2
8, 63, 50
2
8
81
108
108
Geraniaceae Impatiens balsamina L.
Pelargonium hortorrum
L. H. Bailey. var ‘Genie
Irene’
Tropaeolum majus L.
Dopati
Garden
Nasturtium
Or, Fl, Of
Or
Or
50, 108,
115
62
76
Guttiferae Calophyllum inophyllum
L.
Sultan
champa
Or 16
Labiateae Ocimum sanctum L.
Leucas aspera Link.
Salvia coccinea
Buc’hoz. ex Etling.
Tulsi
Swetadrone
Salvia
Or
Or
Or, Of
54, 56,
77, 82,
84, 115,
55
55
8, 18
Lauraceae Cinnamomum Dalchini V 8
Chapter 5: Results
111
zeylanicum Blume.
Leguminosae Acacia arabica Willd.
Albizzia lebbek Benth.
Arachis hypogaea L.
Bauhinia acuminata
Bruce.
Caesalpinia
pulcherrima G. Don.
Caesalpinia coriaria
Willd.
Cajanus cajan Druce.
Cassia fistula Herbb. Ex
Oliver.
Clitoria ternatea L.
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
Desmodium gyrans DC.
Babul
Sirish
Badam
Kanchan
Krishnachur
a
Radhachura
Arhar
Badarlathi
Aparajita
Sisoo
Bon charal
S, Or
S, Or
Or
S, Or
Or
Or
Sd
Or
Or, Fl
Or
Or
50, 82
8, 63, 74,
75, 82
74
7, 55, 74,
82, 108
2, 8,16,
45, 56,
57, 65,
74, 75,
76,
77,79,
80, 82,
84, 93,
108, 114,
7, 50, 52,
55, 60,
61, 81
82, 7
55, 114
8, 45,
108, 81
16, 45,
66
54, 75
8, 54, 57,
62, 74,
108, 61
108
Chapter 5: Results
112
Leucaena glauca Benth.
Mimosa pudica L.
Pithecolobium dulce
Benth.
Saraca indica L.
Tamarindus indica L.
Xylia dolabriformis
Benth.
Subabool
Lajjabati
Jilepi gaach
Asoke
Tentul
S, Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
8, 54, 74,
55
8
52, 82
16, 65,
76
8, 45, 50
43
Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa
Pers.
Lagerstroemia thoreli
Gagnep.
Punica granatum L.
Jarul (pink
flower)
Pink &
White
flower Bilati
Jarul
Dalim
S, Or
S, Or
F
8, 45, 56,
62, 65,
75, 79,
82, 7, 50,
55, 81
51
8, 43,
114, 55
Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Swarna
Champa
Or 8, 45, 65
Malphigiaceae Malpighia glabra L. Barbdos
cherry
Or 81
Malvaceae Abelmoschus esculentus
Moench.
Bombax malabaricum
DC.
Gossypium herbaceum
L.
Hibiscus rosa sinensis
Dheros
Shimool
Kapas
Jaba
V
Or, Eco
Or, Eco
Or, Fl
7
8, 45,
108, 114,
52
74
2, 8, 18,
Chapter 5: Results
113
L.
Hibiscus mutabilis L.
Hibiscus schizopetalus
Hook. f.
Malvaviscus arboreus
Cav.
Sida cordifolia Forsk.
Sthal-
padma
Jhumko
Jaba
Lanka Jaba
Berala
Or, Fl,
Of
Or, Fl
Or, Fl
Or
43, 54,
56, 57,
58, 64,
65, 66,
75, 77,
82, 92,
115 7,
50, 51,
55,81
2, 56, 74,
78, 82
74
65, 77,
82
52, 81
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.
Juss.
Swietenia mahagoni
Jacq.
Neem
Mahogony
(economic)
S, Or
Eco, Or
8, 16, 18,
43, 45,
56, 58,
62, 65,
66, 74,
75, 77,
82, 84,
92, 93,
108, 114,
50, 51,
52, 55,
81
8, 62, 82
Chapter 5: Results
114
Myrtaceae Callistemon linearis
DC.
Couroupita guianensis
Aubl.
Eucalyptus globulus
Labill.
Eugenia malaccensis
Blanco.
Psidium guayava L.
Syzygium cumini Skeels.
Bottle brush
Cannon ball
Eucalyptus
Jamrul
Peyara
Jam
Or
Or
Or
F, S
F
S, F
18, 55,
81
8
50, 55,
57, 63,
65, 84
8
8, 16, 18,
43, 57,
62, 64,
66, 74,
75, 76,
77, 79,
80, 82,
84, 92,
108, 114,
50, 51,
52, 55,
60
8, 74, 92,
114, 50,
51
Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spinosa
Heimerl.
Baganbilash
Or
2, 8,
43,54,
57, 66,
75, 77,
82, 84,
93, 50,
55, 81
Chapter 5: Results
115
Mirabilis jalapa L. Sandhyamon
i
Or 7, 50, 58,
75
Oleaceae Jasminum pubescens
Buch.- ham. ex Wall.
Nyctanthes arbortristis
L.
Belphul
Seuli
Or, Fl, Of
Or, Fl, Of
2, 8, 45,
54, 56,
58, 66,
77, 78,
79, 80,
93, 51,
55
4, 8, 58,
74, 77,
79, 92
Oxalidaceae Oxalis hedysaroides H.
B. & K.
Patabahar Or 59
Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F, V 4, 8, 16,
18, 45,
56, 57,
58, 65,
66, 74,
75, 76,
77, 79,
80, 93,
114, 7,
52, 55,
81
Pedaliaceae Sesamum indicum L. Til Sd 52
Piperaceae Peperomia scandens
Ruiz. & Pav.
Patabahar Or 59
Plumbaginaceae Plumbago auriculata T.
H. Peng. var ‘alba’
Cape lead
wort
Or 81
Polygonaceae Muehlenbeckia Or 16
Chapter 5: Results
116
platyclados Meissn.
Rosaceae Rosa centifolia L. Golap Fl, Of 2, 8, 18,
58, 63,
74, 75,
76, 77,
82, 93,
114, 115,
51
Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba
Miq.
Gardenia florida L.
Hamelia patens Jacq.
Ixora coccinea Comm.
ex Lam.
Ixora parviflora Vahl.
Kadam
Gandharaj
Rangan
Sada
Or, S
Or, Fl, Of
Or
Or
Or
8, 45, 82,
84, 50,
52, 55,
60, 81
8, 54, 58,
64, 75,
76, 82,
93, 114,
50.
8, 74.
2, 8, 18,
43, 45,
56, 57,
58, 62,
63, 74,
75, 76,
77, 79,
80, 82,
84, 93,
115, 50,
52, 55,
61, 81.
43, 108
Chapter 5: Results
117
Mussaenda
erythrophylla Schum. &
Thonn. var ‘Rosea’
Mussaenda erythrophylla Schum. & Thonn. var ‘Queen sirikit’
Rangan
Mussanda
Or
Or
2, 8, 16,
18, 43,
62, 63,
74, 75,
76, 77,
79, 82,
84, 93, 7,
50, 55,
81
2, 8, 56
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa.
Citrus decumana L.
Citrus maxima Merrill.
Murraya exotica
Blanco.
Bel
Batabi lebu
Lebu
Kamini
Or, F
F
Or , F
Or
8, 45, 63,
66, 74,
75, 77,
92, 108,
114, 115,
51, 81
8, 45, 56,
65, 74,
77, 55
8, 58, 62,
63, 74,
75, 77,
79, 80,
115, 55
8, 18, 45,
56, 76,
82, 93,
114, 115,
Chapter 5: Results
118
Murraya koenigii
Spreng.
Karipata
Or, V
50.
18, 57,
65, 74,
75,77,
82, 93,
108, 115,
7, 50, 55
Sapindaceae Litchi chinensis Sonner. Litchi F, S 8
Sapotaceae Achras sapota L.
Madhuca indica J. F.
Mimosops elengi Boj.
Sabeda
Mohua
Bakul
S, F
Or
S, Or
63
51, 74
8, 43, 45,
74, 84,
108, 50,
55
Scrophulariaceae Antirrhinum majus L. Snapdragon Or 75
Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens L.
Cestrum nocturnum
Lam.
Petunia rupestris Dusen.
Solanum trilobatum L.
Lanka
Hashnahana
Petunia
Or, V
Or
Or
Or
76
7, 62
115
76, 84
Sterculiaceae Sterculia foetida L. Jungli
badam,
Kothila
Or 65, 66, 7,
81
Theophrastaceae Jacquinia ruscifolia
Sesse. & Moc.
Or 16, 43,
45, 56,
57, 74,
76, 77,
80, 84,
115, 55,
81
Tiliaceae Grewia asiatica L. Falsa F 8
Chapter 5: Results
119
Urticaceae Artocarpus integrifolia
L. f.
Pilea cadierei
Gagnep.& Gillaumin.
Streblus asper Lour.
Ficus benghalensis L.
Ficus cunia Buch.-Ham.
ex Roxb.
Ficus elastica Roxb. var
‘Decora’
Ficus hispida L. f.
Ficus infectoria Roxb.
Ficus glomerata Hort.
Ex Miq.
Ficus religiosa Decne.
ex Miq.
Kanthal
Sheorah
Bot
Dumur
Rubber
Kak dumur
Pakur
Jagna
dumur
Aswatha
S, F
Or
Or
S, Or
V, Or
Or
S, Or
S, Or
S, Or
S, Or
8, 16, 54,
57, 58,
65, 66,
74, 75,
76, 79,
92, 114,
50, 52,
55, 81
59
8
43, 45,
54, 74,
76, 82,
50, 55
50
8, 65, 74,
82, 84,
93, 7,
50,55
74, 82,
84, 93,
52,81
82
8, 45, 66
65, 114,
50, 51,
61, 81
Verbenaceae Duranta plumieri Jacq. Duranto Ls 45, 77,
Chapter 5: Results
120
Lantana camara L.
Premna integrifolia L.
Tectona grandis L. f.
Chotra
Gamar
Teak/Segoo
n/Sagoan
Or
Eco
Or, Eco
82, 84,
93, 50,
81
54, 84,
93, 50,
52, 55,
81
8
8, 62
MONOCOT
Amaryllidaceae Agave americana L.
Crinum asiaticum L.
Sisal
Baro-kanur
F
Or
8
7, 8, 54,
56, 57,
62, 74,
76, 80
Araceae Colocasia antiquorum
Schott.
Philodendron elegans
Hort. var ‘Emerald
Duke’
Philodendron lacerum
Schott.
Scindapsus aureus Engl.
var ‘Gold’
Scindapsus aureus Engl.
var ‘Marble Queen’
Kachu
Money plant
V
Or
Or
Or
Or
16, 43,
54, 58,
74, 76,
77, 50,
60, 61
16
59
2, 64
16, 43
Cannaceae Canna glauca L. var Kalabati Or 8, 18, 43,
Chapter 5: Results
121
Angusta 56, 57,
63, 65,
75, 80,
82, 108,
114, 51,
52
Commelinaceae Commelina
benghalensis Forsk.
Setcreasea purpurea
Boom.
Kanshira
Wd
Or
81
43, 54,
57, 58,
80, 84,
115, 81
Cyperaceae Cyperus rotundus
Benth.
Schoenoplectus acutus
A.& D. Love.
Mutha ghas
Patpati gach
Or
Or
7, 50, 81
54
Gramineae Andropogon aciculatus
Retz.
Bambusa nana Roxb.
Chorkanta
Bans
Wd
Or, Eco
108
18, 63,
55
Liliaceae Asphodelus tenuifolius
Cav.
Liriope muscari
[Decne.] Bailey f. var
‘Variegata’
Pleomele reflexa N. E.
Brown.
Pleomele reflexa N. E.
Brown. ‘Variegata”
Garden
plant
Or
Or
Or
Or
7, 52
59
16
63
Musaceae Heliconia humilis Jacq.
Or
59, 74,
82
Chapter 5: Results
122
Musa paradisiaca L.
Kola
F, Or
8, 18, 57,
58,
62,63,
65, 74,
77, 80,
82, 92,
50, 51,
55, 81
Palmae Areca catechu L.
Borassus flabellifer L.
Cocos nucifera L.
Supari
Tal
Narkol
Or
F, Or
Or, F
8, 43, 56,
57, 63,
64, 74,
75, 76,
79, 82,
84, 108,
7, 50, 51,
60
45, 62,
74, 75,
76, 80,
82, 93,
50, 51,
52, 55,
60, 81
8, 16, 18,
43, 57,
58, 62,
63, 65,
74, 80,
82, 84,
93, 114,
115, 51,
Chapter 5: Results
123
Dictyosperma album H.
Wendl. & Drude.
Latania loddigesi Mart.
Livistona chinensis R.
Br.
Metroxylon sagu Rottb.
Phoenix sylvestris L.
Ptychosperma
macarthurii H. Wendl.
Rhapis excels Henry ex
Rehder.
Thrinax parviflora
Maycock.
Palm
Palm
Palm
Sagu
Khejur
Palm
Palm
Palm
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
60, 81
16
79
7, 55, 81
8
8, 57, 62,
63, 65,
80, 82,
50, 51,
52, 81
18
45
2
Scitamineae Cureuma amada Roxb.
Globba bulbifera Roxb.
Ravenala
madagascariensis J. F.
Gmel.
Aamada
Kanda-
puspa
Panthopada
k
V
Or
Or
58
8
8, 45, 77,
79, 84
GYMNOSPERM
Araucariaceae Araucaria cookie de
Laubenfels. var luxurians
Or 43, 82,
115
Casuarinaceae Casuarina equisetifolia
Blanco.
Or 45
Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Bedd. Fern palm Or 8, 45, 56,
Chapter 5: Results
124
75, 76,
84, 93
Pinaceae Thuja odorata Doi.
Pinus longifolia Roxb. ex
Lambert.
Jhau
Pine
Or
Or
8, 16, 43,
54, 56,
57, 58,
62, 63,
66, 74,
75, 76,
79, 82,
84, 93,
114, 7,
50, 60,
81
2, 66
PTERIDOPHYTE
Marseliaceae Marsilea quadrifolia L. Susni Or 50
Polypodiaceae Adiantum raddianum Delta
maiden hair
Or 56, 115
Selaginellaceae Selaginella megaphylla Bisalyakara
ni
Or 8, 18
Note: Green coloured site nos. represent Cemeteries.
Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; D. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having
economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering
plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing &
demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or –
Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; V – Vegetable
yielding; Wd – Weed
Chapter 5: Results
125
Table 5.2.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Churches and Cemeteries.
SITE NO. Churches Cemeteries All Sites No. of Plant genera 161 82 176 No. of Plant species
173 90 198
Ratio of genera to species
1 : 1.08 1 : 1 1 : 1.13
No. of Gymnosperms Species
5 1 5
No. of Monocot families
10 9 10
No. of Dicot families
44 31 48
No. of monocot at genera level
27 15 31
No. of dicot at genera level
126 65 137
No. of monocot at species level
27 15 34
No. of dicot at species level
138 73 156
Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level
1 : 5.11 1 : 4.87 1 : 4.59
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level
1 : 4.67 1 : 4.33 1 : 4.42
Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level
1 : 4.4 1 : 3.44 1 : 4.8
Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites
Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. F. (Debdaru-22 sites) ) (21 sites)
Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw. (Krishnachura -7 sites)
Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. ex Hook. f. (Debdaru at 27 sites)
Name of the site on which thrives maximum no. of species
Oxford Mission (Site No. 8) Total
76 species
Lower Circular Road Cemetery (Site no.
50) Total 47 species
Site No. 8 (Oxford Mission) :
Total 76 species
Chapter 5: Results
126
Table 5.2.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Churches and Cemeteries.
SITE NO. Churches Cemeteries All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)
22 (12.72%)
14 (15.56%)
24 (12.31%)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)
03 (1.73%)
03 (3.33%)
04 (2.05%)
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)
149 (86.13%)
74 (82.22%)
165 (84.62%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples (% of total species)
11 (6.36%)
09 (10.00%)
13 (6.67%)
3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)
8 (4.62%)
6 (6.67%)
11 (5.64%)
4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits (% of total species)
19 (10.98%)
12 (13.33%)
19 (9.74%)
6. No. of species used as source of consumable seeds (% of total species)
1 (0.58%)
2 (2.22%)
2 (1.03%)
6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc. (% of total species)
0 0 0
7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal (% of total species)
6 (3.47%)
5 (5.56%)
9 (4.62%)
Total 173 90 195
Figs.5.2.1 (a)-(c): Percentage distribution of plants of all Churches and Cemeteries in
different use categories.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Fig. 5.2
Legends 5-Vegs.
Legends 5-Vegs.
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
1 2 3
2.1(a): CHU
: 1 – Shade-giyielding, 6- F
Fig. 5.
: 1 – Shade-giyielding, 6- F
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
C
URCH SITE
iving, 2 – fencFruit-bearing
.2.1(c) : All
iving, 2 – fencFruit-bearing
Series1
1 2 3
hapter 5: Re
127
ES
cing, 3 – Aest7 – Seeds use
l Christian r
cing, 3 – Aest7 – Seeds use
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
3 4 5
esults
Fig.
thetic beauty, ed 8- Source
religious sit
thetic beauty, ed 8- Source
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
1 2
6 7 8
5.2.1(b): CE
4- Offerings te of income o
es altogethe
4- Offerings te of income o
3 4 5 6 7 8
9
EMETERIE
to deity/decorof Trustees 9
er
to deity/decorof Trustees 9
8 9
Se
Series1
ES
ration – Others.
ration – Others.
ries1
Chapter 5: Results
128
Table 5.2.4: Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Christian beliefs and taboos.
Name of Plants considered sacred by followers of Christian or referred in the holy book ‘Bible’
Site Nos. where found
1. Nerium oleander L. var ‘Roseum’ (Golapi Karabi)
18, 54, 76, 79, 80, 82, 108
2. Chrysanthemum coronarium L. (Chandramallika)
80
3. Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume. (Dalchini) 8 4. Punica granatum L. (Dalim) 8, 43, 114, 55 5. Gossypium herbaceum L. (Kapas) 74 6. Ficus cunia Ham (Dumur) 50 7. Citrus maxima Merrill. (Lebu) 8, 58, 62, 63, 74, 75,
77, 79, 80, 115, 55 8. Phoenix sylvestris L. (Khejur) 50, 51, 52, 81 9. Pinus longifolia Roxb. ex Lambert. (Pine) 2, 66
Note: Green coloured site nos. represent Cemeteries.
Table 5.2.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.
Vascular plants
No. of Families
Details of family No. of genera
No. of species
Pteridophyta 3
Marseliaceae 1 1
Polypodiaceae 1 1
Selaginellaceae 1 1
Total 3 3
Gymnosperms 4
Araucariaceae 1 1
Casuarinaceae 1 1
Cycadaceae 1 1
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129
Pinaceae 2 2
Total 5 5
Angiosperms
a) Monocot 10
Amaryllidaceae 2 2
Araceae 3 5
Cannaceae 1 1
Commelinaceae 2 2
Cyperaceae 2 2
Gramineae 2 2
Liliaceae 3 4
Musaceae 2 2
Palmae 11 11
Scitamineae 3 3
Total 31 34
b) Dicot 48
Acanthaceae 4 4
Amaranthaceae 1 1
Anacardiaceae 3 3
Anonaceae 3 3
Apocynaceae 10 11
Asclepiadaceae 1 1
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130
Bignoniaceae 1 1
Casuarinaceae 1 1
Chenopodiaceae 1 1
Combretaceae 2 3
Compositae 8 8
Convolvulaceae 4 4
Cornaceae 1 1
Crassulaceae 2 2
Cucurbitaceae 4 4
Dipterocarpaceae 1 1
Euphorbiaceae 9 12
Geraniaceae 3 3
Guttiferae 1 1
Labiateae 3 3
Lauraceae 1 1
Leguminosae 16 17
Lythraceae 2 3
Magnoliaceae 1 1
Malphigiaceae 1 1
Malvaceae 6 8
Meliaceae 2 2
Myrtaceae 6 6
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131
Nyctaginaceae 2 2
Oleaceae 2 2
Oxalidaceae 1 1
Passifloraceae 1 1
Pedaliaceae 1 1
Piperaceae 1 1
Plumbaginaceae 1 1
Polygonaceae 1 1
Rosaceae 1 1
Rubiaceae 5 7
Rutaceae 3 5
Sapindaceae 1 1
Sapotaceae 3 3
Scrophulariaceae 1 1
Solanaceae 4 4
Sterculiaceae 1 1
Theophrastaceae 1 1
Tiliaceae 1 1
Urticaceae 4 10
Verbenaceae 4 4
Total 137 156
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132
Table 5.2.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Churches and Cemeteries.
(a) All Christian religious sites:
Vascular plants Families
Genera
Species
Number % Number % Number %
1. Pteridophyta 3 4.62 3 1.70 3 1.52
2.Gymnosperms 4 6.15 5 2.84 5 2.53
3. Angiosperms 58 89.23 168 95.45 190 95.96
a) Monocot 10 17.24 31 18.45 34 17.89
b) Dicot 48 82.76 137 81.55 156 82.11
(b) Distribution of plants in Churches and Cemeteries:
Vascular plants
Churches Cemeteries
Family Genera Species Family Genera Species
Angiosperms 54 153 165 40 80 88
Pteridophyta 2 2 2 1 1 1
Gymnosperms 4 5 5 1 1 1
Total 60 160 172 42 82 90
Fig.
Fig
(a)
. 5.2.2: Per
Legen
5.2.3(a)- (c
family –w
centage Di
d: 1 - Fern
c): Percentareli
wise
1
2
C
stribution o
ns , 2 -Gym
age Distribigious sites:
(b)
Legend:
hapter 5: Re
133
of Vascular
mnosperm
Fig. 5.2.2
ution of mo:
genus-wiFig. 5.2.31- monoc
esults
r plants in
ms and 3 -
2
onocots an
se
cot, 2- dic
1
2
Churches
Angiospe
d dicots at
(c) spec
cot.
and Cemet
erms.
Christian
cies-wise
1
2
3
teries:
1
2
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135
PLATE NO. 5.2.2: Rev. Subrata Fullonton at Baptist Mission Church (Site NO.18)
Chapter 5: Results
136
Plate No. 5.2.3 : Epitaph in memorial of army who laid their lives in World War II at
Bhowanipur Cemetery (SITE No. 81)
PLATE NO. 5.2.4 : Shade giving and Ornamental plants at Bhowanipur Cemetery
Chapter 5: Results
137
5.3. FIRE TEMPLE & TOWER OF SILENCE
5.3.1 Tenets:
Zoroastrianism is a religion and philosophy founded in the eastern part of ancient
Greater Iran, based on the teachings of prophet Zoroaster. India is the home of the largest
Zoroastrian population in the world. Zoroastrian communities comprise two main groups
of people: those of South Asian Zoroastrian background known as Parsis (or Parsees),
and those of Central Asian origin. In 2004, the number of Zoroastrians was estimated to
be 145,000 and 210,000. India's 2001 Census found 69,601 Parsi Zoroastrians,
representing about 0.006% of the total population of India.
Exactly when Zoroaster lived is debated, but it was probably around 1400 BCE that he
was believed to have been born. He was born in the regime of the Bronze Age culture
with a polytheistic religion, which included animal sacrifice and the ritualistic use of
intoxicants. Zoroaster rejected the religion of the Bronze Age Iranians, with their many
Gods and oppressive class structure, in which the Karvis and Karapans (princes and
priests) controlled the ordinary people. He also opposed animal sacrifices in rituals. He
taught that there is only ONE God whom he called Ahura Mazda. This composite term
consists of two Avestan (a language used during the time of Zarathushtra) words, Ahura
and Mazda. Ahura has a masculine gender while Mazda is feminine. Ahura has been
associated with ah meaning ‘being’ or ‘existence’ and angh meaning ‘life’, and this is
probably why Ahura, the life giving force, has been translated as Lord of Life. The new
word, Mazda, that Zarathutra introduced means super-intellect or supreme wisdom.
Mazda can also mean Great or Maximum Knowledge, as well as Great or Maximum
Giver. By using the term Ahura Mazda, a synthesis of a male and female name,
Zarathushtra wished to convey both the equality of the males and females before the
Creator and, also, the fact that the deity was beyond one particular sexual designation.
Many scholars have envisioned Ahura Mazda as Lord of Wisdom. According to
Zarathushtra, Ahura Mazda is the creator of life in this universe, he is omniscient, he is
super intelligent, he is the wisest and he knows everything. Zarathushtra taught that
Ahura Mazda has given every human being a Vohu Manoh (good mind) in order to help
Chapter 5: Results
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us follow this path of righteousness. The Human Mind is the best gift that Ahura Mazda
has bestowed upon us. With this Vohu Manoh people can not only think but can reason
and articulate and this is what makes human being so distinct from all other living species
on this planet. Zarathushtra composed the Ashem Vohu prayer, which contains 12 words
and the first and the last words are the same. Zoroastrians, usually start their prayers with
the words ‘Kshnotra Ahurai Mazdao’, which means glory be to Ahura Mazda. They
praise Ahura Mazda for creating this world, for creating the Sun that gives people light
and heat, for creating the air that people need to breathe, for creating the water that
people need to survive and for creating the animals, birds, plants, fruits and flowers that
bring joy and happiness to this earth. Zoroastrians believe that Ahura Mazda has no form,
shape or color attributed to him for which they never worship idols. To them, Ahura
Mazda is ever glowing eternal light from which emanates bounty and goodness.
In Zoroastrianism, water (apo, aban) and fire (atar, adar) are agents of ritual purity, and
the associated purification ceremonies are considered the basis of ritual life. In
Zoroastrian cosmogony, water and fire are respectively the second and last primordial
elements to have been created, and scripture considers fire to have its origin in the waters.
Both water and fire are considered life-sustaining, and both water and fire are represented
within the precinct of a fire temple. Zoroastrians usually pray in the presence of some
form of fire (which can be considered evident in any source of light), and the culminating
rite of the principle act of worship constitutes a "strengthening of the waters". Fire is
considered a medium through which spiritual insight and wisdom is gained, and water is
considered the source of that wisdom.
“Fire temple” or Agni Mandir is the Zoroastrians (Parsee) place for worship and offering
prayers. The Parsees (of India) are the followers of Zorathrushtra. Their origin is in
Persia. When the Islamic armies, under the first Caliphs, invaded Persia, those who were
unwilling to get converted themselves to Islam sought refuge, first in the mountains of
Northern Iran, then the regions of Yazd and its surrounding villages. Later, in the ninth
century CE, a group sought refuge in the western coastal region of India. At present, they
have mingled with the Indians and have spread sporadically all over India including
Kolkata.
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Since the religion, in its principles and philosophy, is in close ties with the biotic and
abiotic creations of Ahura Mazda ,it is quite likely the places of religious activities even
in Kolkata would reflect the attitude of the followers towards sustenance of plants for
conveying benevolence to its environment necessitating optimization.
5.3.2. Festivals: The most important festivals of Zoroastrians include Gahambars,
Jamshedi Navroz, Khordid Sal and Zarthost No Deeso. Gahambars, the most auspicious
festival are celebrated in the honour of Sky, Waters, Earth, Plants, Cattle and Man which
are responsible for the Earthly creation. There are six Gahambars in a year and each of
these Gahambars spans for five days. The celebrations of Gahambar festival is marked by
general get together for common feastings, paying tribute to the creator of the world and
remembering ancestors.
Jamshed E Navroz is the first day of the first month of the Zoroastrian year. Parsis
follow the Fasli calendar and their New Year commences with the Vernal Equinox. Parsis
offer special prayers on the day and greet each other. They wear new clothes on the day
and welcome the guests with a sprinkling of rosewater and rice and also applying tilak.
Khordid Sal having a stipulation on the sixth day of the Parsi month, Farvardin
(sometime in August or September) when the birthday of Prophet Spitaman Zarathusatra
is celebrated symbolically by the Zoroastrians. Parsis wear new clothes clean, decorate
their houses with fragrant flowers are arranged and prepare delicious meals.
Thanksgiving prayers or Jashan is offered in the temples.. A grand feast is arranged to
mark the Occasions.
Zarthost No Deeso is an Occasion of mourning observed by the Zoroastrians (Parsis) on
Khorshed roz, Dae mah i.e., on the 11th day of 10th month of the Zoroastrian calendar (
sometimes in June) . Prayers are recited by the Zoroastrians with religious discourses
focusing on the life and work of the Prophet in the Fire Temple.
5.3.3 Plants associated with Zoroastrianism: The creation myth of Zoroastrianism
concerns plants. According to the Zoroastrian story of creation, Ahura Mazda created
Gayomard and the first bull when Angra Mainyu, whose instinct is to destroy, miscreated
demons, evil yazads, and noxious creatures (khrafstar) such as snakes, ants, and flies and
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invaded the universe through the base of the sky, inflicting Gayomard and the bull with
suffering and death. The dying primordial man and bull emitted seeds. From the bull's
seed grew all beneficial plants and animals of the world, and from the man's seed, grew a
plant, the leaves of which became the first human couple Mashya and Mashyana.
Haoma, in Zoroastrianism, the sacred plant identified to be species of Ephedra and the
divine drink made from it, is the Avestan form of the Sanskrit ‘soma’. The preparation of
the drink from the plant by pounding and its consumption are the major events of
Zoroastrian ritual. Haoma is also personified as a divinity. It bestows essential vital
qualities—health, fertility, husbands for maidens, even immortality. The source of the
earthly haoma plant is a shining white tree that grows on a paradisiacal mountain. The
Hoama plant is advantageous both for the body and the soul, because all other
intoxicating drinks lead to anger, but the drink prepared from Haoma plant is stated to be
joy-giving and leads to holiness, and it renders the mind of the poor exalted. Today in
‘Yazashne’ ceremony of Zoroastrians, juice is extracted from Haoma twigs.
5.3.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites:
1. Site characteristics: Out of two Zoroastrian study-sites of Kolkata, one is Fire temple
having the total area of 0.5 bigha (670 Sq m.) and the other is Tower of Silence, covering
45 acres of land (i.e.182175 Sqm.) [Table 5.3.1(a)], where traditional Zoroastrian practice
of "ritual exposure of dead’ is strictly observed. No water-body could be found at Fire
temple , but one water-body is present at Tower of Silence. Each temple has residents
ranging from 2 to 5 comprising of Priest/Caretaker (Tower of Silence), gardener and
other associates mainly to look after the daily affairs of the temple, security and
maintenance of structures and adjoining gardens. Maximum number of regular devotees
found at Fire temple is 4, whereas during major Parsee festivals, i.e., on Gahambars,
Navroj etc,. Fire temple attracts large crowd of about maximum of 100 devotees [Table
5.3.1(b)]. Believers use Tower of Silence only to perform last rites of the deceased with
their near and dear ones with an assemblage upto 70 people.
Chapter 5: Results
141
2. Taxonomic documentation: It has been observed that the dicots dominate over the
monocots; the ratio of the later to the former is 1 : 3 for the family level, 1 : 3.07 for the
genus level and 1 : 3.13 for the species level in totality [Table 5.3.2(b)]. It is very
interesting to find that in the study-sites as many as 72 distinct plant species, out of
which only one species i.e., Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. (Tagar), found common
in both the sites. Furthermore it is to note that proportion of genera to species in the
Zoroastrian religious study-sites found to be 1 : 1.08 in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of
India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.
The garden maintained at the “Tower of Silence” solely contributes 51 species
whereas 20 species are contributed by the Fire temple. Pteridophytic and
Gymnospermous plants could be found only in ‘Tower of Silence’ garden.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants: Those species which are mainly used to
enhance aesthetic effect or ornamentation of the site, constitute majority amongst all, i.e.,
about 77.14% in totality [Table 5.3.3]. Next comes Fruit-bearing plants (14.29 %) and
Shade-giving plants (8.57%). Other decorative plants which are used for fencing and/or
demarcating gardens, roads and pathways inside the premises etc. constitute about 2.86%
of the total species found. Percentage-distribution of plants according to their utility for
each individual temple gardens and in totality are also graphically shown [Fig. 5.3.1(a)
to (c)]. Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. (Tagar) is found in both the temple-gardens
plenty in number.
(i) Out of a total of 54 plant species, being used to enhance aesthetic beauty of the
premises, 33 are found in ‘Tower of Silence’ and 19 in the ‘Fire temple’..
2 plant species Eucalyptus globosus Labille.and Duranta plumier Jacq. found in the
“Tower of Silence” which are used for fencing or demarcating gardens, roads etc. inside
the premises, but no such plant is present at the ‘Fire temple’.
(ii) All 10 fruit- bearing plants and most of shade-giving species (5 out of 6) are found
at “Tower of Silence”. It should be noted that this garden has many tall trees to facilitate
scavenger birds to have their abode there. Amongst such trees Eucalyptus globosus, Ficus
bengalensis L., Ficus religiosa L., Azadirecta indica A. Juss, Acacia arabica
Willd.(Babul), Albizza lebbek Benth (Sirish), Saraca indica L. (Ashoke), Tamariandus
Chapter 5: Results
142
indica L.(Tentul), Bombax malabaricum D. C are found in many numbers. Special to
note that within the premises of the stone surfaced tower (where the dead body is placed
for scavenger birds), which is separately demarcated with a wall within the garden of the
Tower of Silence, is found large number of trees of Eucalyptus globosus. There is no idea
of any other vegetation within that specialized compound as strictly no visitor is allowed
there.
(iii) No vegetable yielding plants were found to be cultivated in any of these religious
sites.
4. Association with sacred plants: Plants considered sacred by the Zoroastrians and
used while performing their rituals sustained at the study-sites has been enumerated
[Table 5.3.4]. All such plants, viz. Areca catechu (Supari), Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol),
Mangifera indica L. (Aam) and Rosa centrifolia Linn. (Golap) are found only in one site,
i.e., Tower of Silence.
5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: As many as 21
dicotyledonus families having 46 genera and 50 species and 7 monocotyledonous
families having 15 genera and 16 species could be identified in all Zoroastrian religious
sites. This represents 75.41% dicots and 24.59% monocots at generic level and 75.76%
dicots and 24.24% monocots at species level. Pteridophytes and Gymnosperms have
share of 3.23% and 6.45% of total vascular plants respectively [Table 5.3.6].
Out of 21 dicotyledonous families, Leguminosae has the largest number of genera
followed by Apocynaceae. Cactaceae and Rubiaceae simultaneously succeeds
Apocynaceae with the third highest number of genera and species. Maximum number of
species was also noted from Leguminosae family.
Out of 7 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genera and
species, followed by Araceae.
Only two families of Gymnosperm and one family of Pteridophyte could be recorded.
Chapter 5: Results
143
Table 5.3.1 (a): Details of study sites.
Sl
No.
Date of
visit
Name of site Esta-
blished
on
Address Area Key
infor-
mant
1 3/11/2003 Atash & Adaran
(Fire Temple)
1912 91, Metcafe
Street,
Kolkata.
0.5
Bigha
Mr.
Shorab
Cotwal.
2 30/11/2003 Tower of Silence 1912 109,
Beliaghata
Main Road,
Kolkata.
45
acres
of land
Mr.
Balsara
.
Table 5.3.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Site
No.
Study Site No. of water-
bodies within
the premises
No. of
regular
residents
No. of visiting devotees
(approximate)
Regular During festivals
20 Atash & Adaran
(Fire Temple)
0 2 3-4 75-100
21 Tower of Silence 1 5 0 50-70
Table 5.3.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Fire Temple and Tower of
Silence.
Family Species Local
Name
Remarks Occur-
rence
(Site
No.)
DICOT
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume Aam Or, F 21
Anonaceae Artabotrys odoratissimus
Blume
Kanthali
champa
Or
21
Chapter 5: Results
144
Polyalthia longifolia Benth
& Hook. f. ex Hook. f.
Debdaru Or 21
Apocynaceae Adenium obesum Roem. &
Schult. ‘Obesum’
Allamanda neriifolia Hook.
Nerium indicum Mill.
Tabernaemontana coronaria
Willd.
Thevetia peruviana K.
Schum.
Alamanda
Karabi
Tagar
Kalkaphul
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
20
21
21
20, 21
21
Araliaceae Polyscias balfouriana L. H.
Bailey ‘Albicans’
Golpata Or 20
Cactaceae Hamatocactus
hamatacanthus F. M. Knuth.
Lemaireocereus pruinosus S.
Britton & Rose.
Opuntia rufida Engelm.
Pereskiopsis velutina Rose.
Or
Or
Or
Or
20
20
20
20
Crassulaceae Crassula arborescens Willd.
Crassula falcate Wendl.
Or
Or
20
20
Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia milii Desmoul.
Euphorbia pulcherrima
Willd.ex Klotzsch ‘Starlite’.
Lalpata
Or
Or
20
21
Leguminosae Acacia arabica Willd.
Albizzia lebbek Benth
Bauhinia variegata L.
Cassia fistula Herbb. ex
Oliver.
Clitoria ternatea L.
Saraca indica L.
Babul
Sirish
Kanchan
Badar-lathi
Aparajita
Ashok
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
21
21
21
21
21
21
Chapter 5: Results
145
Tamarindus indica L. Tetul S 21
Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Swarna
Champa
Or 21
Malvaceae Bombax malabaricum D. C
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav.
Shimul
Lankajaba
Or
Or
21
21
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss Neem S, Or 20
Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L.
Syzygium cumini Skeels.
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Eugenia malaccensis Blanco.
Peyara
Jam
Eucalyptus
Jamrul
F
F
Ls
F
21
21
21
21
Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spinosa
Heimerl.
Bougainvill
ea
Or 21
Oleaceae Jasminum sambac [Soland.]
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.
Belphul
Seuli
Or
Or
21
21
Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F 21
Proteaceae Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. Silver Oak Or, Dor
tol
21
Rosaceae Rosa centifolia L. Golap Or 21
Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba
Miq.
Gardenia florida L.
Ixora coccinea Comm ex.
Lam.
Mussaenda erythrophylla
Schum. & Thonn. ‘Rosea’
‘Mussaenda’
Kadam
Gandharaj
Rangan
Musanda
Or
Or
Or
Or
21
21
21
21
Rutaceae Citrus decumana L.
Murraya exotica L.
Batabi lebu
Kamini
F
Or
21
21
Urticaceae Artocarpus integrifolia L. f. Kanthal F, S 21
Chapter 5: Results
146
Ficus benghalensis L.
Ficus hispida L.f.
Ficus religiosa Decne. ex
Miq.
Bot
Kak dumur
Aswatha
S
S
S
21
21
21
Verbenaceae Duranta plumieri Jacq.
Gmelina arborea Roxb.
Duranta
Gamari
Ls
Or
21
21
MONOCOT
Amaryllidaceae Agave lopantha Schiede.
‘Coerulescens’
Or 20
Araceae Alocasia cuprea C. Koch.
hybrid
Caladium hortulanum
Birdsey. ‘Attala’
Caladium humboldtii Schott.
Dieffenbachia amoena Hort.
ex Gentill. ‘Calcutta’
Dumb cane
Or
Or
Or
Or
20
20
20
20
Commelinaceae Setcreasea purpurea Boom. Or 20
Gramineae Bambusa arundinacea Ait. Bans Or 21
Liliaceae Aloe brevifolia Haw.
‘Varieagata’
Cordyline terminalis
‘Firebrand’
Or
Or
20
20
Palmae Areca catechu L.
Borassus flabellifur L.
Cocos nucifera L.
Latania lontaroides Gaertn.
Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
Supari
Taal
Narkol
Khejur
Or
F
F
Or
Or
21
21
21
20
21
Scitamineae Musa balbisiana Colla.
Ravenala madagascariensis
J. F. Gmel.
Kola
Pantapadap
F
Or
21
21
Chapter 5: Results
147
GYMNOSPERM
Coniferaceae Araucaria cookii R. Br. Ex
Don.
New
Caledonia
Pine
(Aurocaria)
Or 21
Pinaceae Thuja odorota Doi. Or 21
PTERIDOPHYTE
Polypodiaceae Adiantum raddianum C.
Presl.
Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.)
Schott. ‘Fucans’
(Maiden
hair Fern)
Or
Or
21
21
Legend: Con pl – Conserved plant; Dr tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having
economic importance etc. F – Fruit yielding; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing &
demarcating garden, road etc.; M- Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental;
Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd- Seeds utilized; Wd – Weed;
Table 5.3.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Fire Temple and
Tower of Silence.
SITE NO. (20) (21) All Sites
No. of Plant genera 19 48 65
No. of Plant species 20 51 70
Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.05 1 : 1.06 1 : 1.08
No. of Gymnosperms Species 0 2 2
No. of Monocot families 5 3 7
No. of Dicot families 6 17 21
No. of monocot at genera level 8 7 15
No. of dicot at genera level 11 37 46
No. of monocot at species level 9 7 16
Chapter 5: Results
148
No. of dicot at species level 11 40 50
Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level 1 : 1.22 1 : 5.71 1 : 3.13
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 1.38 1 : 5.29 1 : 3.07
Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 1.20 1 : 5.67 1 : 3.29
Name of the species which occurs at most
of the sites
Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd.
(Tagar)
Name of the site on which thrives
maximum no. of species
Site No. 21
(Tower of Silence) : Total 51 species
Table 5.3.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Fire
Temple and Tower of Silence.
SITE NO. (20) (21) All Sites
1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of
total species)
1
(5.00%)
5
(9.80%)
6
(8.57%)
2. Decorative:
(i) No. of species used for fencing &
demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total
species)
0 2
(3.92%)
2
(2.86%)
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty
(% of total species)
19
(95.00%)
33
(64.71%)
54
(77.14%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to
deities or decorating temples (% of total
species)
0 0 0
3. No. of species used as source of
consumable vegetables (% of total species)
0 0 0
4. No. of species used as source of
consumable fruits (% of total species)
1
(5.00%)
9
(17.65%)
10
(14.29%)
5. No. of species used as source
of consumable seeds (% of total species)
0 0 0
6
i
s
7
t
s
T
Fig
in d
% d
1
6. No. of sp
ncome for B
species)
7. No. of s
than all ab
species)
Total
5.3.1 (a) - (
different us
distribution
Fig.
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
1 2 3
pecies used
Board of Tr
species use
ove, e.g. m
(c): Percent
se categorie
of plants of
5.3.1 (a)
4 5 6 7 8 9
C
d directly as
rustees etc.
ed for purp
medicinal (
tage distrib
es.
f Site No. 20
Series1
hapter 5: Re
149
s source of
(% of total
poses other
(% of total
bution of pl
0
esults
f
l
0
r
l
0
20
lants of all
% distrib
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
0
0
51
Zoroastria
bution of pla
Fig. 5.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
0
0
70
an religious
ants of Site
.1 (b)
7 8 9
S
s sites
No. 21
eries1
TabZor
Legends for deity/decorati 5-Vegs. yield
ble 5.3.4 : Proastrian b
Name o
1. Areca
2. Cocos
3. Rosa
4. Mang
the charts abion ding, 6- Fruit-
Prevalenceeliefs and t
f Plants co
a catechu (S
s nucifera L
centrifolia L
gifera indic
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
C
bove: 1 – Shad
-bearing 7 – S
of plants ctaboos.
nsidered sa
Supari)
L. (Narkol)
L. (Golap)
a L. (Aam)
1 2 3
hapter 5: Re
150
Fig. 5.3.
de-giving, 2 –
Seeds used
considered
acred by Zo
4 5 6
esults
1(c)
fencing, 3 – A
8- Source of
sacred or a
oroastrians
6 7 8
Aesthetic beau
income of Tru
associated w
s No. ofNos. w
are i1 (2
1 (2
1 (2
1 (2
9
S
uty, 4- Offerin
ustees 9 – Oth
with the
f Sites (Sitewhere foundn bracket)
21) 22)
21)
21)
21)1 (22)
Series1
ngs to
hers
e d
Chapter 5: Results
151
Table 5.3.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth. Vascular Plants
concerned No. of
FamiliesDetails of
family No. of genera
No. of species
Pteridophyta 1
Polypodiaceae 2 2
Total 2 2
Gymnosperms 2
Coniferaceae 1 1
Pinaceae 1 1
Total 2 2
Angiosperms
a) Monocot 7 Amaryllidaceae 1 1
Araceae 3 4
Commelinaceae 1 1 Gramineae 1 1 Liliaceae 2 2 Palmae 5 5 Scitamineae 2 2
Total 15 16
b) Dicot 21 Anacardiaceae 1 1 Anonaceae 2 2 Apocynaceae 5 5 Araliaceae 1 1 Cactaceae 4 4 Crassulaceae 2 2 Euphorbiaceae 1 2 Leguminosae 7 7 Magnoliaceae 1 1
Malvaceae 2 2 Meliaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 3 4 Nyctaginaceae 1 1 Oleaceae 2 2 Passiflorae 1 1 Proteaceae 1 1 Rosaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 4 4
Rutaceae 2 2 Urticaceae 2 4 Verbenaceae 2 2 Total 46 50
Tab
Fig.
ble 5.3.6: S
Vasc
1. Pte
2.Gym
3. An
a) Mo
b) Dic
. 5.3.2: Perc
Legen
Summary o
cular Plant
eridophyta
mnosperms
ngiosperms
onocot
cot
centage Dis
nd: 1 - Fer
C
of Plant wea
FamNumber
1
2
28
7
21
stribution o
F
rns , 2 –G
hapter 5: Re
152
alth of Fir
mily % 3.23
6.45
90.32
25.00
75.00
of Vascular
Fig.5.3. 2
Gymnosper
esults
e Temple a
GenerNumber
2
2
61
15
46
r plants in
rms and 3
and Tower
ra % Nu3.08
3.08
93.85
24.59
75.41
Zoroastria
3 - Angios
of Silence.
Species umber %
2 2
2 2
66 94
16 24
50 75
an religious
sperms.
1
2
3
% 2.86
2.86
4.29
4.24
5.76
s sites:
Chapter 5: Results
153
Fig. 5.3.3 (a) – (c): Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Zoroastrian religious sites:
(a) family-wise (b) genera-wise (c) species wise
Fig. 5.3.3
Legend: 1- monocot, 2- dicot.
Plate no. 5.3.2: Site No. 20- AGNI MANDIR AT METCALFE STREET
1
2
1
2
1
2
Chapter 5: Results
154
5.4 GURDWARAS
5.4.1 Tenets:
Sikhism, the fifth-largest organized religion in the world, was founded in the fifteenth
century in Punjab on the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev and nine successive Sikh Gurus
after him, viz., Guru Angad, Guru Amar Das, Guru Ram Das, Guru Arjan, Guru
Hargobind, Guru Har Rai, Guru Harkrishan, Guru Tegh Bahadur, Guru Gobind Singh.
This system of religious philosophy and expression have been traditionally known as the
Gurmat (literally the counsel of the Gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. Sikhism believes in
equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the basis of caste, creed, and gender.
In Sikhism, God, termed Vahiguru, is shapeless, timeless, and sightless: nirankar, akaal,
and alakh. God has no gender in Sikhism.
The essence of Sikh teaching was summed up by Nanak in these words: "Realisation of
Truth is higher than all else. Higher still is truthful living". Nanak stressed that God must
be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate
to progress towards enlightenment. Guru Nanak Dev emphasized the revelation through
meditation, since its rigorous application permits the existence of communication
between the God and human beings. Nanak described God's revelation — the path to
salvation — with terms such as naam (the divine Name) and sabad (the divine Word) to
emphasise the totality of the revelation. Nanak said that one need not become a ‘sanyasi’
(saint) sacrificing one's family, to please God. He stressed ‘kirat karo’: that a Sikh
should balance work, worship, and charity, and should defend the rights of all creatures,
and in particular, fellow human beings. Sikhism believe neither in fasting nor in
pilgrimages.
Sikhs are encouraged to have a ‘chardi kala’, or optimistic, view of life. Sikh teachings
also stress the concept of sharing—‘vand chakko’—through the distribution of free food
at Sikh Gurudwaras, giving charitable donations, and working for the good of the
community and others. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of
the ten Sikh Gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the Holy Scripture entitled the
Chapter 5: Results
155
‘Guru Granth Sahib Ji’. The text was decreed by Guru Gobind Singh Ji, the tenth guru, as
the final guru of the Sikh religion.
The Guru Granth Sahib (also known as the Adi Granth) is truly unique among the
world's great scriptures. It is considered the Supreme Spiritual Authority and Head of the
Sikh religion, rather than any living person. It is also the only scripture of it's kind which
not only contains the works of it's own religious founders but also writings of people
from other faiths. Sikhism rejects idol worship, so the Guru Granth Sahib is not
worshipped as an idol, but rather emphasis is placed on respect of the book for the
writings which appear within.
5.4.2 Sikh Festivals: The festivals of Sikhs are generally associated with their Ten
Spiritual Gurus. They are celebrated on the birth anniversary of their Gurus called
‘Gurupurab’. The main occasions when Gurupurab are held are like Guru Gobind Singh
Jayanti, Guru Nanak Jayanti, Guru Arjandev Martyrdom day, Guru Tegh Bahadur
Birthday and Martyrdom. Usually these occasion are celebrated with “Akhand Path”
(continuously reading and reciting Guru Granth Sahib from beginning to end),
illuminating the Gurudwaras and procession around the city. All the festivals of Sikh are
celebrated with unabated joy and enthusiasm. “Langar” is an indispensable part of any
Sikh festival, where they serve different kinds of delicious foods to the passer bys. Some
other important festivals which Sikhs celebrate are described below:
Holla Mohalla is an annual Sikh martial festival and is celebrated in the month of
Phalguna (March), a day after Holi. Mock martial are organized on this day.
Baisakhi is celebrated as the remembrance of the establishment of the Khalsa Sect in
1699 by Guru Gobind Singh. This festival is also known as the harvest festival in Punjab
region. The Sikh, who is traditionally associated with the vocation of farming, celebrates
this occasion as the mark of their good harvest in the season and pays thanks to the
almighty for their benevolent gifts.
Gurta Gaddi Divas is celebrated to commemorate the day when the Guru Granth Sahib
was bestowed with the title of being the eternal and final Sikh Guru by Guru Gobind
Singh, the tenth and last living Guru of Sikhs.
Chapter 5: Results
156
Bandhi Chhor Diwas (The Celebration of Freedom): On this day Sikhs celebrate the
release from prison of their sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind, who also rescued 52 Hindu
kings held captive by Mughal Emperor Jehangir with him in the Gwalior Fort in 1619.
Traditionally the Sikhs celebrate this day by lighting their homes with lights and candles
and going to a Gurudwara to listen to Gurbani.
Lohri is a bonfire festival and is celebrated on January 13 every year to mark the
beginning of sun's journey towards Uttarayan (north). Lohri is celebrated with a lot of
zeal and fervor especially in the states of Punjab, Haryana and Delhi. Lohri jubilates
fertility and is celebrated with much more enthusiasm in families where a child has been
born.
5.4.3 Plants associated with Sikhism: Four most sacred trees associated with the Sikh
shrines are Beri of Dukh Bhanjani Beri, Beri of Baba Budha and Ilaiachi Ber of Sri
Harmandir Sahib and Beri of Gurudwara Ber Sahib of Sultanpur Lodhi. All these beris
(trees) are varieties of Ziziphus jujuba. The corner where the 440-year-old Ber Baba
Budha Sahib, 400-year-old Dukh Bhanjani Ber and 400-year-old Ilaichi Ber are located is
considered to be the most sacred place in Sri Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple Amritsar)
complex. It is believed that Baba Budha, the first head Granthi (priest) of Sri Harmandir
Sahib used to sit under this tree whilst supervising the construction of the Amritsar pool
which still stands in the precincts of the Golden Temple. Guru Arjan Dev Ji used to sit
under the Ilaichi Beri (a tree with very small fruit called Ber) and supervise the
construction of the Harmindar Sahib. A story of a leper cured from the dreaded disease
leprosy after having a dip into the Sarovar in the premises of the Golden temple is
associated with the Dukh Bhanjani Beri of Sri Harmandir Sahib who used to sit under the
said tree while his wife Rajni, an ardent devotee of Guru Nanakji, used to remain busy
with her work at the shrine. Guru Amar Das is said to have found 'a medicinal herb’
growing at the edge of the pool of Harmandar Sahib, which cured a skin ailment of his
master Guru Angad the 'second Nanak'.
Gurudwara Ber Sahib of Sultanpur Lodhi is built by the side of an old ber tree which is
believed to be the one under which Guru Nanak sat in meditation for 14 years 9 months
and 13 days. Guru Nanak performed his morning ablutions in the Bein river and then
Chapter 5: Results
157
used to sit under this ber (Zizyphus jujuba) tree to meditate daily. It was believed that
during one such ablution Guru Nanak disappeared into the stream and was not seen for
two days.
Gurbani (Guru Granth Sahib) refers to various species of trees, eulogizing species, which
are useful to the world and its various beings and creatures. The Gurus inferred that it is
not the girth, size, or beautiful flowers that determine the significance of a tree but its
usefulness that makes it important. The trees that have sanctity in Sikhism include Bohr
(Ficus bengalensis), Pipli (Ficus religiosa), Jand (Prosopis spicigera), Garna (Capparis
horrida), Karir (Capparis aphylla), Phalahi (Acacia modeta), Reru (Mimosa
leucophloea), Luhura (Cordia latifolia), Tahli (Dalbergia sissoo), Imli (Tamarindus
indica), Amb (Mangifera indica), Harian velan (green creepers- Ivy), Neem (Azadirachta
indica), Ritha (Sapindus mukorosa), Kalp (Mitragina parviflora) and Ber (Zizyphus
jujuba). Some of the Gurdwaras of India are even named after these plants, e.g.,
Gurudwara Pipli Sahib at Amritsar, Gurudwara Jand Sahib at Gumti Kalan (Bhatinda),
Gurdwara Garna Sahib at Dasuya (Hoshiarpur), Gurdwara Karir Sahib at Littar
(Ludhiana), Gurudwara Reru Sahib at Nandpur (Ludhiana) and Gurudwara Neem Sahib
at Akrah (Patiala).
It should also be noted that Zizyphus jujuba has sweet fruit; Jand (Prosopis spicigera)
has leaves that are used for feeding horses; Neem (Azadirachta indica) has medicinal
value; Tahli (Dalbergia sissoo), state tree of Punjab has wood; Imli (Tamarindus indica)
has both food and medicinal value.
5.4.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites:
1. Site characteristics: Out of 6 Gurudwaras visited, the oldest, biggest and historically
important is Gurdwara Bari Sangat comprising of a six-storeyed building on about 1.5
Bighas (i.e. 2007 Sq m.) of land. It is stated that Guru Nanakji and Guru Tegh Bahadur
Sahibji visited this Gurudwaras in the year 1510 and 1668 A.D. respectively. There are
about 30 regular residents in this Gurdwara complex comprising of Granthi/ Pujari,
Guard, Sweeper, ‘Kara Prasad’ distributors and religious associates, apart from a large
number of sikh pilgrims from other states. There are about 10-100 regular visitors in
Chapter 5: Results
158
these Gurudwaras daily (on Sundays and special days number of visitor increases), but
during festivals like Gurupurabs, Baisakhi etc. number of vistors rises even upto 2000
[Table 5.4.1(a) & (b)]. It is to be mentioned herein that most of the Gurudwaras visited
found to be almost covered with the concrete buildings and the entire area cemented and
having almost no open space for sustaining any vegetation. Plants were found only in two
Gurudwaras which were sustained in pots.
2. Taxonomic documentation: The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the
latter to the former is 1 : 2.5 for the family level, 1 : 2 for both the genus level and species
level [Table 5.4.2(b)]. Furthermore it is to be noted that proportion of genera to species is
found to be 1 : 1 at the Gurdwara premises in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 :
2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : From utilitarian point of view it was
found that almost all of the plants in these sites are for decorative purpose to enhance the
aesthetic beauty of the place. Only one species was found which belongs to Fruit-bearing
and Shade- giving category [Table 5.4.3]. Not a single plant was found, whose parts
(flower, fruit, seed etc.) are offered to the deity/God during festivals or for decorating the
shrine. No plant was utilised for fencing, demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the
premises or utilised as vegetables. Percentage distribution of plants in different use
categories have also been figured [Fig.5.4.1].
4. Association with sacred plants: Plants considered sacred by the Sikhs or found a
place of their Holy Guru Granth Sahib could not be detected at any of the site studied.
5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: 5 dicotyledonous
families having 6 genera and 6 species and 2 monocotyledonous families having 3 genera
and 3 species could be identified from these sites. The dicots represent 67% and
monocots 33% of the total number of Angiosperm species. No Pteridophyte was found at
any of the sites, but 2 families of Gymnosperms having 2 genera and 2 species could be
recorded [Table 5.4.5]. Percentage distribution of vascular plants concerned has also been
represented [Fig. 5.4.2 and Fig 5.4.3 (a) & (b)].
Out of 6 dicotyledonous families, Apocynaceae has the largest number of genera
and species.
There are 2 monocotyledonous family having 3 genera and 3 species in all.
Chapter 5: Results
159
Table 5.4.1 (a): Details of study sites.
Sl No.
Date of visit
Name of site Esta-blished on
Address Area Key infor-mant
1. 28/05/2003 Gurudwara Jagat Sudhar
(Sri Guru Singh Sabha)
1920 31, Rash Behari Avenue, Kolkata - 26
8 cottah
Jasbir Singh (Head Granthi )
2. 18/02/2004 Behala Gurudwara
1943 23, D.H. Road, Kolkata -53
20 Cottah
Tejinder Singh (Pujari)
3 05/11/2011 Gurdwara Garcha Sikh Sangat
1909 4,Garcha 1st Lane & 22 Garcha 2nd Lane, Kolkata – 700019
1 bigha (20 cottah)
Nabdeep Singh (Pujari)
4 05/11/2011 Gurdwara Bari Sangat
1510 172, M. G. Road, Kolkata -7000007
30 Cottah (approx)
Sampoorna Singh (Religious Associate)
5 05/11/2011 Chota Sikh Sangat
Not known
112, Cotton Street, Kolkata-7
7.5 cottah (approx)
Not available
6 05/11/2011 Gurdwara Sant Kutiya
Not known
Harish Mukherjee Road, Kolkata-26
3.0 cottah
Not available
Chapter 5: Results
160
Table 5.4.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship:
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies within the premises
No. of regular residents at the temple
No. of visiting devotees (approximate) Regular During
festivals 3 Gurudwara Jagat
Sudhar 0 20 50 1000
26 Behala Gurudwara
0 13 500 1000
119 Gurdwara Garcha Sikh Sangat
0 5000
120 Gurdwara Bari Sangat
0 30 100 2000
121 Chota Sikh Sangat
0 1 5-10 100
122 Gurdwara Sant Kutiya
0 2-3 20 500
Table 5.4.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Gurudwaras:
Family Species Local Name
Remarks Occurr-ence (Site No.)
DICOT Amaranthaceae Iresine herbstii Hook. Patabahar Or 119
Apocynaceae Allamanda neriifolia
Hook.
Vinca rosea L.
Allamanda
Nayantara
Or
Or
119
119
Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea
spinosa Heimerl.
Baganbilash Or 119
Urticaceae Ficus religiosa
Decne. Ex Miq.
Aswatha Or, S 121
Verbenaceae Duranta repeins L. Duranto Or 119
Chapter 5: Results
161
MONOCOT Palmeae Chrysalidocarpus
lutescens H. Wendl.
Latania lontaroides
H. E. Moore.
Palm
Palm
Or
Or
119
119
Scitamineae Musa paradisiacal L. Kola F, Or 121
GYMNOSPERMS Araucariaceae Araucaria cookie
Laubenfels. Var
Luxurians
Araucaria Or 119
Pinaceae Thuja odorata Doi Jhau Or 119
Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; D. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd- Seed producing; V – Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed
Table 5.4.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Gurudwaras:
SITE NO. (119) (121) Total
No. of Plant genera 9 2 11
No. of Plant species 9 2 11
Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1 1:1 1:1
No. of Gymnosperms Species 2 0 2
No. of Monocot families 01 01 2
No. of Dicot families 04 01 5
No. of monocot at genera level 02 01 3
No. of dicot at genera level 06 01 6
No. of monocot at species level 02 01 3
No. of dicot at species level 05 01 6
Chapter 5: Results
162
Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level
1 : 2.5 1:1 1:2
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 3 1:1 1:2 Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 4 1:1 1:2.5 Name of the family having maximum number of species
Apocynaceae, Palmae.
Table 5.4.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all Gurudwaras:
SITE NO.
All Gurdwara sites
1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)
01 (9.09 %)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)
0
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)
11 (100 %)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples (% of total species)
0
3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)
0
4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits (% of total species)
01 (9.09 %)
5. No. of species used as source of consumable seeds (% of total species)
0
6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc. (% of total species)
0
7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal (% of total species)
0
Total 11
Fig.cate
Lgendeity
T
. 5.4.1: Percegories.
nds for the chy/decoration 5-Vegs.
Table 5.4.4
Vasculconc
PteridopTotal Gymnos Total Angiospa) Mono Total b) Dicot
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
centage dis
Gur
harts above:
yielding, 6- F
4: Statistica
ar plants cerned phyta
sperms
perms ocot
t
00%
00%
00%
00%
00%
00%
00%
00%
00%
00%
00%
1
C
stribution o
rudwara site
1 – Shade-giv
Fruit-bearing 7
al analysis
No. of Families
0
2
2
5
2 3
hapter 5: Re
163
of plants of
es : Utilitari
ving, 2 – fencin
7 – Seeds used
of plant we
Detailfami
AraucariaPinaceae Palmae Scitamine
4 5 6
esults
f all Gurud
ian account
ng, 3 – Aesthe
d 8- Source
ealth.
ls of ily
aceae
eae
6 7 8
wars in dif
of plants
etic beauty, 4-
e of income o
No. of genera
0
112
213
9
fferent use
- Offerings to
of Trustees 9 –
No. of species
3
Series1
– Others
0
1 1 2
2 1 3
Tab
Fig.
Total
ble 5.4.6: S
Vascul
1. Pteri
2.Gymn
3. Angi
a) Mon
b) Dico
. 5.4.2: Perc
Legen
Summary o
lar plants
idophyta
nosperms
iosperms
nocot
ot
centage Dis
d: 1 – Pter
C
of Plant wea
Famil
Number
0
2
7
2
5
stribution o
ridophytes
hapter 5: Re
164
AmaranthApocynacNyctaginaUrticaceaeVerbenace
alth of all G
lies
% N
0.00
22.22
77.78
28.57
71.43
of Vascular
Fig. 5.4.2s, 2 -Gym
esults
haceae ceae aceae e eae
Gurudwar
Genera
Number
0
2
9
3
6
r plants in
2 mnosperms
121116
ras:
a
% Nu
0.00
18.18
81.82
33.33
66.67
all Gurudw
s and 3 - A
Species
umber
0
2
9
3
6
waras:
Angiosperm
1
2
3
1 2 1 1 1 6
s
%
0.00
18.18
81.82
33.33
66.67
ms.
Chapter 5: Results
165
Fig. 5.2.2: Percentage Distribution of Vascular plants in all Gurudwaras:
(a) family –wise (b) genera & species-wise Fig. 5.4.3 Legend: 1- monocot, 2- dicot. .
PLATE NO. 5.4.1: Tejinder Singh (Pujari/Granthi) at Behala Gurudwara (Site No. 26 )
1
2
1
2
Chapter 5: Results
167
5.5 GURU RAVIDAS TEMPLE
5.5.1 Tenets:
Guru Ravidas is the founder Guru of the Rai-dasi’s Sect, also known as Ravidasi. Several
Hindu sects consider him as ‘Sant’ and the Sikhs consider him as Guru Ravidas Ji. Guru
Ravidas (or, Ravidass) is by far the most revered among the scheduled castes, especially
dalits of Northwest and Central India. It is popularly believed that Guru Ravidas was
born on the Maghi Purnima day in 1376 A.D. at Seer Govardhanpur a sub-urban area of
Banaras. From childhood, he was immersed in spiritual activity and soon spearheaded the
fight against discrimination based on caste and preached the idea of equality. He was
born in a poor Kutbandhla Chamar caste family. His father was a leather merchant and he
himself was a shoemaker. He was the first to motivate his followers with his teachings
that one is distinguished not by one's caste, but by one's actions and that every person has
the right to worship God and read holy texts. He opened a frontal attack against the
system of ‘untouchability’. He rejected the tradition of Brahmin mediator to reach the
Supreme Being. He also said that one need not to hide his caste or leave his low
profession to reach God. He became a model for his fellow-beings to overcome the
hierarchical barriers of Brahminical social order and to establish “Begumpura” - a state
without fear and sorrows. Guru Ravidas elevated the status of the labour by emphasizing
on the fact that honest labour is empowering. He was a socio-religious reformer, a
thinker, a theosophist, a humanist, a poet, a traveler, a pacifist and a spiritual figure
before whom even head-priests of Varanasi (Benaras) lay prostrate to pay homage. The
queen of Chittorgarh is said to have been a disciple of him (this may be connected with
Meera, who was married to the ruler of Chittorgarh). Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh holy
book) contains 41 verses composed by Guru Ravidas. It was complied by Arjan Dev, the
fifth guru of the Sikhs. However, after the 21st-century conflict between Ravidasias and
Sikhs, the Ravidasias split from Sikhism, forming the Ravidasia religion with a new holy
book, ‘Amritbani Guru Ravidass Ji’. Based entirely on the writings and teaching of Guru
Ravidas, it contains 240 hymns and all Ravidasias temples utilize it.
History of Religious movements of India show that Dalits (Scheduled Castes) have
embraced Adi Dharm, Buddhism and other religions to get rid of the obscure system of
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untouchability as preached by the Orthodox Hindu Brahminical religious heads. The
recent Ravidasia assertion in Punjab and other parts of India spearheaded by the
followers of Guru Ravidas is to be seen in the same context. Dalits in Punjab — Sikhs
and non-Sikhs — are being encouraged to enlist Ravidasia as their religion in the 2011
census. The movement grew as a reaction to years of discrimination. Dalits, who tilled
the fields of Jat Sikhs, were not allowed inside the latter’s Gurdwaras. So small
Gurdwaras mainly for Dalits, called ‘Dera’ cropped up. Though Guru Granth Sahib, the
holy Sikh scripture, is placed in the Dera, unlike a Gurdwara, the idols of Guru Ravidass
and the late heads of the Dera Ballan are also installed in its premises and are worshipped
along with Guru Granth Sahib. In the Ravidas Deras, Ravidas is considered as Guru.
Dera Ballan is neither a Sikh institution nor are the Ravidasia Sants residing thereupon as
Sikhs. They look like Amritdhari (baptised) Sikhs. However, some of them were/are
clean-shaven. The Sants of Ravidas Deras and their followers are not necessarily Hindu
either. The Ravidasia samaj is different from both Hindu and Sikh religion. Since they are
not Sikhs, the Sikh code of conduct does not apply to them. Ravidassia Dharam, ‘Amrit
Bani Satguru Ravidass Maharaj Ji’ and ‘Qaumi Nishaan Har’ were announced on 30th
January 2010 in the presence of more than ten lakhs of devotees from India and
abroad, on the occasion of 633rd Guru Ravidass Jyanti Day at Shri Guru Ravidas Janam
Asthan Mandir, Seer Govardhanpur, Varanasi. Objective of the newly formed religion as
declared officially is to propagate the Bani and teachings of Satguru Ravidas Ji and to
respect all religions, love the mankind and lead virtuous life. Besides, the teachings and
thoughts of Maharishi Bhagwan Valmik Ji, Satguru Namdev Ji, Satguru Kabir Ji, Satguru
Trilochan Ji, Satguru Sain Ji, Satguru Sadna Ji are also propagated.
5.5.2 Festivals: Guru Ravidas Jayanti is celebrated on the birth anniversary of Guru
Ravidas. It is observed on Maghi Purnima day (January-February) every year. Guru
Ravidas Jayanti is one of the important festivals of the Sikhs also. On this occasion
devotees move in processions and dress up like the Ravidas and his disciples. Several
programs are held in his remembrance.
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5.5.3 Plants associated with Ravidassia religion: There is neither any document nor any
hearsay regarding association of any plant with the religious belief or rituals performed
by the followers of Ravidassia religion.
5.5.4. Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites:
1. Site characteristics: Guru Ravidas Mandir situated at South-eastern fringe of
Kolkata at Tiljala locality, where resides a sizable population of Scheduled Caste
community with livelihood dependent on the tannery works, is spread over an area of
about 1 Bigha, i.e., 1338 Sq m. [Table 5.5.1(a)]. There are 4 regular residents in the
temple complex consisting of 1 ‘Pujari’ (Priest), 1 ‘Gnaniji’ (Knowledgeable religious
head), 1 guard and 1 sweeper. There are about 20-25 regular visitors in the temple daily.
On Sundays number of visitor increases, which during festivals like Ravidas Jayanti
(birth anniversary of Guru Ravidas) rises to as high as 1000 [Table 5.5.1( b)].
2. Taxonomic documentation: The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the
latter to the former being 1 : 9 at the family level, 1 : 13 at both the genus level and
species levels [Table 5.5.2(b)]. Furthermore it is to note that the proportion of genera to
species in this study-site was 1 : 1 in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for
the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.
Species belonging to the Rubiaceae was found to be most dominant amongst others.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : Majority of the plants found in this site
are with decorative attributes which enhance aesthetic effect of the ambience, i.e.,
57.14%. Amongst others, fruit-bearing plants compose as much as 35.17% of the total
species.. Shade-giving trees constitute no less than 28.57% of total plants [Table 5.5.3].
No plant is found, the parts of which (flower, fruit, seed etc.) are utilised for offering to
the deity/God during festivals or for decorating the shrine. No plant was found to be
utilised for fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the premises or
utilised as vegetables. Percentage distribution of plants according to their utility is shown
in Fig. 5.5.1.
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(i) Out of the 8 plant species used to enhance aesthetic beauty of the site, Polyalthia
longifolia Benth & Hook. f. ex. Hook. f (Debdaru), Gardenia grandiflora Lour.
(Gandharaj), Nerium indicum Mill (Karabi), Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam. (Rangan)
and Ficus elastic Roxb. ‘Decora’ (Indian Rubber) may be named.
(ii) As many as five fruit-bearing plant species could be recorded viz., Psidium guayava
L. (Peyara), Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol), Artrocarpus integrifolia L. f. (Kanthal),
Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) and Achras sapota L. (Sabeda).
(iii) Out of a total 4 shade-giving plant species, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem,) and
Saraca indica L. (Asoke) are noteworthy.
4 Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: A total of 9
dicotyledonous families having 13 genera and 13 species and 1 monocotyledonous family
having with 1 genus and 1 species could be recorded which are sustained in the study-
site. The composition shows 92.86% of dicots and 7.14% monocots both at generic and
specific levels. Neither any pteridophyte nor any gymnosperms could be found at the site
(Table 5.5.5). Percentage distribution of vascular plants concerned has been revealed
diagrammatically [Fig. 5.5.2].
Out of the 9 dicotyledonous families, Rubiaceae has the largest number of genus,
followed by Leguminosae. Maximum number of species has also been noted in
Rubiaceae family, followed by that of Leguminosae.
There is sustenance of 1 monocotyledonous family having 1 genus and 1 species.
Table 5.5.1 (a): Details of study sites.
Sl No.
Date of visit
Name of site Esta-blished on
Address Area Key inform-ant
1. 02/05/2004 Guru Ravidas Mandir
1939 20/1, Guru Ravidas Sarani, Kolkata -46
1 bigha Chiranjit Singh
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Table 5.5.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies within the premises
No. of regular residents at the temple
No. of visiting devotees (approximate) Regular During
festivals 47 Guru Ravidas
Mandir 0 4 20-25 1000
Table 5.5.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Guru Ravidas Mandir:
Family Species Local Name
Remarks Occur-rence (Site No.)
DICOT
47
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica
Blume.
Aam S, F
Anonaceae Polyalthia longifolia
Benth & Hook f. ex
Hook. f.
Debdaru Or
Apocynaceae Nerium oleander L.var
Carnea
Karabi Or
Leguminosae Saraca indica L.
Xylia dolabriformis
Benth.
Asoke
Iron wood
(tree of
Burma)
Or, S
Or
Meliaceae Azadirahcta indica A.
Juss.
Neem S
Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L. Peyara F
Rubiaceae Gardenia grandiflora
Lour.
Gandharaj
Fl, Or
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172
Ixora coccinia
Comm. ex. Lam.
Mussaenda frondosa
Blanco.
Rangan
Mussanda
Or, Fl
Or
Sapotaceae Achras sapota L. Sabeda F
Urticaceae Artocarpus
integrifolia
Linn. f.
Ficus elastic Roxb.
‘Decora’
Kanthal
Indian
rubber
F, S
Or
MONOCOT
Palmeae Cocos nucifera L. Narkol F
Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; D. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd- Seed utilised; V – Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed
Table 5.5.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Guru Ravidas Mandir:
SITE NO. (47) No. of Plant genera 14
No. of Plant species 14
Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1
No. of Gymnosperms Species 0
No. of Monocot families 01
No. of Dicot families 09
No. of monocot at genera level 01
No. of dicot at genera level 13
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173
No. of monocot at species level 01
No. of dicot at species level 13
Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level 1 : 13
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 13
Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 9
Name of the family having maximum number of
species (in chronological order)
Rubiaceae
Table 5.5.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Guru Ravidas Mandir:
SITE NO. (47) 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)
04 (28.57%)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)
0
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)
08 (57.14%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples (% of total species)
0
3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)
0
4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits (% of total species)
05 (35.71%)
5. No. of species used as source of consumable seeds (% of total species)
0
6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc. (% of total species)
0
7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal (% of total species)
0
Total 14
Fig.
T
. 5.5.1: Perc
Lgends Offering8- Sourc
Table 5.5.4
Vascularconce
Pteridophy
Total
Gymnospe
Total
Angiosper
a) Monoco Total
b) Dicot
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
centage dis
different
Guru Rav
for the chargs to deity/dece of income
: Statistica
r plants erned yta
erms
rms
ot
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1
C
stribution o
t use catego
idas Mandi
rts above: 1 ecoration 5-Ve of Trustees
al analysis o
No. of Families
D
0
0
1 P
10
2 3 4
hapter 5: Re
174
of plants of
ories.
ir site : Util
– Shade-givVegs. yieldins 9 – Others
of plant we
Details of fa
Palmae
4 5 6
esults
f Guru Rav
litarian acco
ving, 2 – fencng, 6- Fruit-b
alth.
amily Nogen
6 7 8
vidas Mand
ount of plan
cing, 3 – Aesbearing 7 – S
o. of nera
Nsp
0
0
11
9
dir in
nts
sthetic beautySeeds used
No. of pecies
0
0
1 1
Series1
y, 4-
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175
Anacardiaceae 1 1 Anonaceae 1 1 Apocynaceae 1 1 Leguminosae 2 2 Meliaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 3 3 Sapotaceae 1 1 Urticaceae 2 2
Total 13 13
Table 5.5.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Guru Ravidas Mandir:
Vascular
plants Families Genera Species
concerned Number (%) Number (%) Number (%)
1.Pteridophyta 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
2.Gymnosperms 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
3. Angiosperms 10 100.00 14 100.00 14 100.00
a) Monocot 1 10.00 1 7.14 1 7.14
b) Dicot 9 90.00 13 92.86 13 92.86
Fig.
Fig.
. 5.5.2: Per
Legen
. 5.5.3 (a)–
(a) family
rcentage Di
d: 1 - Fern
–(c): PercenMa
y –wise
C
istribution
F
ns , 2 -Gym
ntage Distrandir:
Legend:
1
2
hapter 5: Re
176
of Vascula
Fig. 5.5.2
mnosperm
ribution of
Fig. 5.5.3
1- monoc
esults
r plants in
ms and 3 -
monocots
(b) gen
cot, 2- dic
Guru Rav
Angiospe
and dicots
nera & spe
cot.
idas Mand
erms.
s at Guru R
ecies -wis
1
2
3
1
2
dir:
Ravidas
se
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5.6 JAIN TEMPLES OF KOLKATA 5.6.1 Tenets:
Jainism is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living
beings. It has as many as 6 million followers in India. Jains, in spite of religious minority,
have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical, political and economic spheres in
India. They have the highest female literacy rate, 90.6% compared with the national
average of 54.16%. They follow the ‘dharma’ taught by the 24 Tirthankaras, the last of
whom was Mahavira. Jainism is mainly divided into two major sects, namely Svetambara
and Digambara. Jainism has a distinct idea underlying Tirthankara worship. The physical
form is not worshipped, but the characteristics of the Tirthankara (virtues, qualities) are
praised and emulated. Tirthankaras are not regarded as deities, but rather as pure souls
that have awakened the divine spiritual qualities that lie dormant within each human
being.
Jaina tradition identifies Rishabha (also known as Adinath) as the first tirthankar of this
declining time cycle (kalachakra). The 24th, and last Tirthankar is Mahavira, who lived
from 599 to 527 BCE. The 23rd Tirthankar, Parsva, lived from 877 to 777 BCE. The last
two Tirthankaras, Parshva and Mahavira are historical figures whose existence is
recorded.
Core beliefs:
The triple gems of Jainism—right vision or view (Samyak Darshana), right knowledge
(Samyak Gyana), and right conduct (Samyak Charitra)—provide the path for attaining
liberation from the cycles of birth and death. Jains believe that to attain enlightenment
and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one must practice the following ethical
principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action. These vows are:
Ahimsa (Non-violence), Satya (Truthfulness), Asteya (Non-stealing), Brahmacharya
(Celibacy) and Aparigraha (Non-possession, Non-materialism).
Jainism considers every living being as a soul. Every soul is potentially divine, with
innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss. When the soul sheds
its karmic bonds completely, it attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite
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knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (Moksha). Those who have attained moksha are
called siddhas, while those attached to the world through their karma are called samsarin.
The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened
thoughts, speech, and action. Non-violence (to be in soul consciousness rather than body
consciousness) is the foundation of right view, the condition of right knowledge and the
kernel of right conduct.
5.6.2. Festivals, rituals, customs and practices: Mahavir Jayanti (The birthday of
Mahavir, the last Thirthankar), Paryushana (during late August/September commencing
on the twelfth day of the fortnight of the waning moon cycle and ending in the fourteenth
of the fortnight of the waxing moon cycle- 18 days) and Diwali (which is celebrated on
the new moon day of Kartik, usually in late October or early November) are some of the
major festivals of Jains.
‘Navkar Mantra’, also known as ‘Namaskar Mantra’, is the fundamental prayer in
Jainism and can be recited at any time. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep
respect toward beings that are more spiritually advanced. The mantra also reminds
followers of the ultimate goal of reaching nirvana or moksha. There are basically two
types of prayers: (i) Dravya Puja (with symbolic offerings of material objects) and Bhav
Puja (with deep feeling and meditation). The material offerings made during the prayer
are merely symbolic and are for the benefit of the offeror. A bath should be taken before
the prayer. Saffron paste or sandal paste is applied on ring finger, earlobes, neck and the
forehead. Simple, clean washed clothes (preferably unstiched) are worn.
Jains are strict vegetarians. They avoid eating root vegetables in general, as cutting root
from a plant kills it unlike other parts of the plant (leaf, fruit, seed, etc.). Furthermore,
according to Jain texts, root vegetables contain infinite microorganisms called nigodas.
Followers of Jain dharma eat before the night falls. They filter water regularly so as to
remove any small insects that may be present and boil water prior to consumption. Jain
monks and nuns walk barefoot and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid killing
insects or other tiny beings. Jains are strictly forbidden to use any leather or silk products
since they are derived by killing of animals. Jains are prohibited from consuming root
vegetables such as potatoes, garlic, onions, carrots, radishes, cassava, sweet potatoes,
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turnips, etc., as the plant needed to be killed in the process of accessing these prior to
their end of life cycle. In addition, the root vegetables interact with soil and therefore
contain far more micro-organisms than other vegetables. Also, the root vegetables
themselves are composed of infinite smaller organisms, hence, consuming these
vegetables would mean killing all those organisms as well. However, they consume
rhizomes such as dried turmeric and dried ginger. Eggplants, pumpkins, etc. are also not
consumed by some Jains owing to the large number of seeds in the vegetable, as a seed is
a form of life. However, tomatoes are consumed normally as its seeds are difficult to be
killed (even at high temperatures/pressures). Mushrooms, fungus and yeasts are forbidden
because they are parasites, grow in non-hygienic environments and may harbor other life
forms. Jains are also not supposed to consume food left overnight because of
contamination by microbes. Apart from all these, Jains also follow strict diets on eleven
"teethees" (six days in Shukla Paksha - New Moon Fortnight and five days in Krishna
Paksha - Full Moon Fortnight). They do not eat greens on these days.
5.6.3 Plants associated with Jainism: Jains believe all of their 24 Tirthankars achieved
omniscience (Keval-gyan) under some trees. Those trees are considered sacred by them
and listed below:
Name of Tirthankar Tree under which believed to attain
‘Keval Gyan’
1. Rishabha Dev Bot
2. Ajitnath Saptaparno
3. Sambhavnath Shaal
4. Abhinandannath Saral
5. Sumatinath Priyangu
6. Padmaprabha Priyangu
7. Suparshvanath Shirish
8. Chandraprabha Nag
9. Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath) Achha (Bahera)
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10. Sheetalnath Dhuli
11. Shrevanshanath Palash
12. Vasupujya Tendu
13. Vimalnath Patal (Kadamba)
14. Anantnath Pippal
15. Dharmanath Dadhiparno (Kenth)
16. Shantinath Nandi
17. Kunthunath Tilak
18. Aranath Aamra & Aam
19. Mallinath Kankeli (Asoke)
20. Munisuvrata Champak
21. Naminatha Bokul
22. Neminath Mesh- Shrong
23. Parshvanath Dhava
24. Mahavira (Vardhamana) Shaal
5.6.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites:
Jain temples with adjoining gardens are mainly situated in the northern part of the city.
Five Jain temples, viz., Parasnath Digambar Jain Upavan Mandir, Setwambar Jain
Temple, Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir, Sri Jain Setwambar Dadaji Ka Mandir and
Chandaprabhuji ka Mandir were studied.
1. Site characteristics: Out of five Jain temple study-sites, Parasnath temple is the
largest one having area of 24163 Sq m [Table 5.6.1(a)], in which garden and water-body
constitutes approximately 15000 Sq m of area (i.e., about 62%) and the rest is the
temple. Area-wise, next is Badridas temple and then Chandra Prabhuji Ka Mandir which
is about 3000 Sq m of area, but it has least number of plant species. Much of the temple
area of this Chandra Prabhuji Ka Mandir found to be cemented and only in small areas
lining the boundary some plants had grown, but they were well maintained. Sri Jain
Swetambar Dadaji Ka Mandir is smallest in area but the oldest one, more than 200 years
old. Water-bodies found in all three temples having larger area than others. Each temple
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has residents ranging from 2 to 10 comprising of Secretary, gardener and other associates
mainly to look after the maintenance and security of temple and adjoining gardens. There
is none to be termed as main priest or Mohunts. There were about 500 regular devotees
at Setwambar Jain temple and , but during big festivals like Mahavir Jayanti and Diwali,
both the Parasnath Digambar Jain and Swetambar Jain temple attracts large crowd of
about 5000 devotees or more [Table 5.6.1(b)].
2. Taxonomic documentation: A taxanomic analysis of plants sustained [Table 5.6.2(b)]
reveals that the dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the later to the former is 1
: 4.60 for the family level, 1 : 2.88 for the genus level and 1 : 2.64 for the species level in
totality. It is also interesting to note that at Swetambar Jain Temple, the ratio of monocot
to dicot at the genus & species level is almost 1 : 1, which implies that it is a planned and
maintained garden. Furthermore it is to note that proportion of genera to species found in
all Jain religious study-sites of Kolkata found to be 1 : 1.19 in comparison to 1 : 7 for
whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.
The maximum number of plant species found in all five Jain temples of Kolkata is
87, out of which Parsanath Digambar Jain temple garden singly contributes 51 species.
Minimum number of species (07) found amongst all five temples is in Chandra Prabhuji
Ka Mandir. The Setwambar Jain Temple is having 24 genera of plants mostly of shrubs
and a few tree variety, whereas the Parsanath Digambar Jain temple had large number of
trees. Gymnospermous plants (4 in total) are found mostly in Parsanath Digambar Jain
temple garden and there is only one such species in Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir garden.
Mangifera indica Blume. and Rosa centrifolia Linn. each is found to be the most
dominant species in respect of all five Jain religious sites.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants : It has been noted that that in respect of
utility of the plants found in all Jain religious sites, the kind of decorative plants which
are mainly used as to enhance aesthetic effect or ornamentation of the site, constitute
majority amongst all, i.e., about 80.46% in totality [Table 5.6.3]. Next share is of Fruit-
bearing plants (9.2 %). Other decorative plants which are classified as (i) utilized as
offering to the deities or decorating the temples and (ii) utilised as fencing and/or
demarcating gardens, road inside the premises etc., each has share about 6.90% of the
total species sustained. Shade-giving plants constitute 2.3 % of the total species.
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Percentage-distribution of plants according to their utility for each individual temple
gardens and in totality are also graphically shown [Fig. 5.6.1(a) to (f)]. Rosa centrifolia
L. (Golap) is found almost in all temple-gardens in plenty of number, which not only
enhances the aesthetical beauty of the gardens but also used as offerings at the temple
during religious ceremony.
(i) Out of 70 Decorative plant species found which are used in the sites to enhance
aesthetic beauty, and Ixora coccinea Linn. (Rangan) are found in three temple-sites out
of five. 36 (thirty-six) plant species used to enhance aesthetic beauty were found in
Parsanath Digambar Jain temple whereas four (4) such plants found in Chandra Prabhuji
Ka Mandir [Table 5.6.3].
Out of 6 plant species found which are used for fencing or demarcating gardens,
roads etc. inside the premises, Duranta plumier Jacq. (Duranto) is present in most of the
sites (03).
Amongst 6 plants species, parts (flowers) of which are used as offerings during
performance of religious acts, Jasminum sambac Ait. (Belphul), Murraya exotica L.
(Kamini) and Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj) dominate the floristic scenario of the
temple-gardens apart from Rosa centrifolia L. (Golap).
(ii) The shade-giving plants were found only in Parsvanath Digambar Jain temple (2 in
number). Amongst such species, Mimusops elengi Boj. (Bakul) is also considered as
sacred by the Jains.
(iii) Seven (07) fruit bearing plants have been found in Parsanath Digambar Jain temple
whereas Setwambar Jain temple, Sri Jain Setwambar Dadaji Ka Mandir and Chandra
Prabhuji Ka Mandir each has only one such variety. Aegle marmelos Correa. (Bael) and
Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) are found in most of the gardens.
(iv) No vegetables or plants were found to be cultivated in any of the five Jain temples
from which consumable vegetables or seeds may be obtained for further cultivation or for
specific requirement of the temple for performing puja, bhog or aarti.
(v) It is seen that all five Jain temples utilises Paddy seeds (Oryza sativa L.), Chandan
paste (Santalum album L.), Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.) and Dry grapes
(Vitis vinifera L.) for offerings to deity or performing puja/aarti, but apart from
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(Anacardium occidentale L.) these plants are not grown or cultivated in any of the
gardens of the five temples, rather those plant products are procured from outside.
4. Association with sacred plants: Plants considered sacred by the believers of Jain
which sustained at the study-sites have been tabulated [Table 5.6.4]. Amongst those,
Mangifera indica L. (Aam) and Rosa centrifolia Linn. (Golap) is found in most of the
temple gardens.
Most of the sacred plants of the Jains were found in Setwambar Jain temple and
Parsanath Digambar Jain (6 species in each). Sri Jain Setwambar Dadaji Ka Mandir has
also 3 such plants. It may also be noted that , a rare species, Anacardium occidentale L.
was found getting conserved at Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple.
5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: A taxonomic
analysis of plant-diversity associated with with Jain temples shows 23 dicotyledonus
families having 49 genera and 58 species and 5 monocotyledonous families having 17
genera and 22 species are sustained in all Jain religious sites[Table 5.6.1]. This represents
74.24% dicots and 25.76% monocots at genera level and 72.50% dicots and 27.50%
monocots at species level. Pteridophyte and Gymnosperms represent 3.03% and 12.12%
of total vascular plants respectively. Percentage Distribution of different Vascular plants
along with the distribution of monocots and dicots at family, genus and species level are
also graphically represented [Fig.5.2.2 and Fig. 5.2.3(a), (b) and (c)].
Out of 23 dicotyledonous families, Leguminosae have the largest number of genus,
followed by Euphorbiaceae whereas maximum number of species were noted in
Euphorbiaceae family, followed by Leguminosae.
Out of 5 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genus and
species, followed by Liliaceae.
4 families of Gymnosperm and 1 family of Pteridophyta could be recorded.
Chapter 5: Results
184
Table 5.6.1 (a): Details of study sites of Jain Temples.
Sl. No.
Date of visit
Name of Site Esta-blished on
Address Area Key informant
1 1st June’03 15th June’03 11th Dec’04
Sri Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple
1821 26, Belgachia Road
24163 Sqm.
Sri Kailash Chand Jain
2 18/02/2007 20/10/2007
Setwambar Jain Temple
1867 Badridas Temple Street
4000 Sqm. (approx.)
Ms. Debi Mukherjee (Guide)
3 18/2/2007 20/10/2007
Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir
1924 Badridas Temple Street
2500 sqm. (approx.)
No Informant
4 18/2/2007 11/12/2007
Sri Jain Swetambar Dadaji Ka Mandir
1810 Badridas Temple Street
1500 sqm. (approx)
Harihar (Gardener)
5 18/2/2007 11/12/2007
Chandraprabhuji Ka Mandir
1895 Badridas Temple Street
3000 sqm. (approx.)
No informant.
Note : All the sites have well maintained gardens.
Table 5.6.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship:
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies within the premises
No. of regular residents at the temple
No. of visiting devotees (approximate) Regular During
festivals 14 Sri Parsanath
Digambar Jain Temple
02 10 500 2000 – 5000
110 Setwambar Jain Temple
01 6 1000 2000-5000
111 Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir
00 3 100-200 1000
112 Sri Jain Swetambar Dadaji Ka Mandir
00 2 100-200 1000
113 Chandraprabhuji Ka Mandir
01 2 100-200 1000
Chapter 5: Results
185
Table 5.6.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Jain temple study-sites:
Family Species Common Name
Remarks Occurrence
DICOT Anacardiaceae Anacardium occidentale
L. Mangifera indica Blume.
Kaju Aam
Ra, Or Or, Sc
14 14, 110, 112, 113
Anonaceae Anona squamosa Delile. Artabotrys odoratissimus Blume. Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook. f. ex Hook. f.
Ata Kanthali champa Debdaru
F Or Or
14 110, 112 14
Apocynaceae Nerium odorum [Soland.] Vinca rosea L. Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd.
Karabi Nayantara Tagar
Or Or Or
14 14 110, 113
Araliaceae Polyscias balfouriana L. H. Bailey. ‘Albicans’
Patabahar Or 111
Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera [Dryand.]
Akanda Or 112
Compositae Helianthus annuus L. Wedelia trilobata Hitchc.
Surya mukhi Kesaraj
Or, Of Wd
110 14
Euphorbiaceae Acalypha indica L. Acalypha wilkesiana Muell. Arg. ‘Celon’ Acalypha wilkesiana Muell. Arg. ‘Macrophylla’ Codiaeum variegatum Blume.‘Bangalore beauty’ Codiaeum variegatum Blume. ‘Glory’ Euphorbia contorta Leach. E.medusae Thunb. E.microphylla Heyne. ex Roth. E. pilulifera L. E. pulcherrima Willd. . ex Klotzsch. Jatropha gossypifolia L.
Khokli Patabahar Patabahar Cactus Patabahar Patabahar Lal bharenda Patabahar Chota- kerni Bara-kerni Patabahar
Wd Or Or Or Or Or Wd Ls Ls Ls Ls Or
14 111 111 111 111 112 14 14 14 14 14 111
Chapter 5: Results
186
Jatropha podagrica Hook. Manihot esculenta Crantz. variegata
Or
112
Labiateae Coleus blumei Benth. ‘Red wizard’ Ocimum sanctum L.
Patabahar Tulsi
Or Con pl., Or
112 14
Leguminosae Acacia auriculaeformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. Brya ebenus DC. Calliandra hystrix Griseb Cassia fistula Herbb. ex Oliver Inga dulcis Mart. Poinciana pulcherrima L.
Akasmoni Green ebony Sonajhuri Madras thorn Gold mohur
Or Or Or Or, Dr tol Or Or
14 14 14 14 14 14
Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers. Cuphea hyssopifolia Griseb.
Jarul Kufia
Or Ls
14 112
Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Champa Or 111, 113 Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Jaba Or 14, 113 Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L.
Syzygium cumini Skeels. Peyara Jam
F S, F
14 14
Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl.
Bougainvillea Or 14,110
Oleaceae Jasminum sambac [Soland.] Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.
Belphul Seuli
Or, Of Or, Of
14, 110 14, 113
Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F 14, 113 Rosaceae Rosa centifolia L. Golap Or, Of 14, 110,
111, 113 Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba
Miq. Gardenia florida L. Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam. Ixora parviflora Lam. Mussaenda roxburghii Hook. f.
Kadam Gandharaj Rangan (red) Rangan (white) Musanda
Or, Sc Or, Of Or Or Or
14, 110 14, 111, 11214, 110, 11214 14
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa. Bael Or, F 14, 110, 112
Chapter 5: Results
187
Citrus decumana L. Murraya exotica Blanco.
Batabilebu Kamini
F Or, Of
14 14
Sapotaceae Mimusops elengi Boj. Bakul Or, Sc 14, 111 Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum Lam. Hashnahana Or 14 Urticaceae Artocarpus integrifolia L.
f. Ficus elastica Roxb.
Kanthal Rabar bot
S, F Or
14 112
Verbenaceae Clerodendrum viscosum H. N.Moldenke. Duranta plumieri Jacq.
Ghetu Duranto
Or Ls
111, 112 14, 110, 112
MONOCOT Amaryllidaceae Furcraea gigantia Vent. Or 14
Araceae Philodendron elegans
Hort. P. lacerum Schott. P. mamei Andre P. selloum C. Koch. Scindapsus aureus Engl.’Gold’
Money plant
Or Or Or Or Or
14 14 14 14 110
Liliaceae Cordyline terminalis’ Kunth. ‘tricolor’ C.terminalis Kunth. ‘fireband’ Chlorophytum comosum Baker. ‘vittatum’ Dracaena deremensis Engl. Yucca aloifolia L.
Spider plant
Or Or Or Or Or
110 110 110 110 111
Palmae Areca catechu L. Cocos nucifera L. Chamaedorea elegans Mart. Dictyosperma album H. Wendl. & Drude. Licuala grandis H. Wendl. Livistona rotundifolia Mart. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. P. roebelenii O’ Brien. Rhapis excelsa Henry ex Render. Washingtonia filifera
Supari Narkol Palm Princess Palm Palm Khejur Palm Palm CaliforniaPalm
Or F Or Or Or Or Or , F Or Or Or
14 14, 111 110 110 111 110, 111 14 110 110 110
Chapter 5: Results
188
(Linden) Wendl. Scitamineae Ravenala
madagascariensis J. F. Gmel.
Pantapadap Or 14
GYMNOSPERM Coniferaceae Araucaria cookie R. Br.
ex D. Don. New Caledonia Pine
Or 14
Cupressaceae
Juniperus chinensis L. var pyramidalis
Jhau
Or 14
Cycadaceae Cycas revolute Bedd. Fern palm Or 14 Pinaceae Thuja odorata Doi. Jhau Or 111 PTERIDOPHYTEPolypodiaceae Nephrolepis biserrata
(Sw.)‘Fucans’ Polystichum setiferum (Forssk.) Woynar Pteris cretica L.
Fern Fern Fern
Or Or Or
110 110 110
Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; D. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd- Seed utilised; V – Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed
Table 5.6.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Jain Temples:
SITE NO. (14) (110) (111) (112) (113) TOTAL No. of Plant genera 47 24 12 13 7 73 No. of Plant species 51 25 16 13 7 87 Ratio of genera to species
1 : 1.085 1 : 1.042 1 : 1.33 1 : 1 1 :1 1 : 1.19
No. of Gymnosperms Species
03 0 01 0 0 04
No. of Monocot families
04 03 02 0 0 05
No. of Dicot families 20 10 07 10 07 23 No. of monocot at genera level
6 10 3 0 0 17
No. of dicot at genera level
37 11 9 13 07 49
No. of monocot at 9 11 4 0 0 22
Chapter 5: Results
189
species level No. of dicot at species level
41 11 11 13 07 58
Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level
1 : 4.56 1 : 1 1 : 2.75 1 :2.64
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level
1 : 6.17 1 : 1 1 : 3 1 :2.88
Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level
1 : 5 1 : 3.33 1 : 3.5 1 :4.6
Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites
Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) & Rosa centrifolia L. (Golap)
Name of the site on which thrives maximum no. of species
Site No. 14(Sri Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple); Total no. of species = 51
Table 5.6.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all Jain Temples: SITE NO. 14 110 111 112 113 All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)
2 (3.92%)
0 0 0 0 2 (2.3%)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)
5 (9.80%)
1 (4.00%)
0 2 (15.38%)
0 6 (6.90%)
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)
36 (70.59%)
24 (96.00%)
15 (87.50%)
10 (76.92%)
4 (57.14%)
70 (80.46%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or
5 (9,80%)
3 (12.00%)
1 (6.25%)
1 (7.69%)
0 6 (6.90%)
Chapter 5: Results
190
decorating temples (% of total species) 3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)
0 0 0 0 0 0
4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits (% of total species)
7 (13.73%)
0 1 (6.25%)
0 1 (14.29%)
8 (9.20%)
5. No. of species used as
source of consumable seeds
(% of total species)
0 0 0 0 0 0
6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc. (% of total species)
0 0 0 0 0 0
7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal. (% of total species)
3 (5.88%)
0 0 0 0 3 (3.45%)
Total 51 25 16 13 7 87
F
Lgenyield
Fig. 5.6.1
Fig. 5.6.1(a
Fig. 5.6.
Fig. 5.6.1(e) :
nds for the chding, 6- Fruit-
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
1
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
100.00%
1
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
1 3
1(a) –(f): Pe
dif
) : SITE NO.
1(c) : SITE N
SITE NO. 11
harts above: bearing 7 – S
3 5 7 9
3 5 7 9
3 5 7 9
C
ercentage d
fferent use
14
NO. 111
3
1 – Shade-givSeeds used 8
Series
Series1
Series1
hapter 5: Re
191
distribution
categories
Fig. 5.6.
ving, 2 – fencin8- Source of
1
2
4
6
8
10
1
0
20
40
60
80
0
20
40
60
80
100
esults
n of plants o
.
Fig. 5.6.1
Fig. 5.6
.6(f) : ALL FI
ng, 3 – Aestheincome of Tru
0.00%
20.00%
40.00%
60.00%
80.00%
00.00%
1 3
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
1 3
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
0.00%
1 3
of all Jain r
1(b) : SITE NO
.1(d) : SITE N
IVE JAIN SIT
etic beauty, 4-ustees 9 – Oth
3 5 7 9
5 7 9
5 7 9
religious sit
O. 110
NO. 112
TES IN TOTA
- Offerings5-Vhers:
Series1
Series1
Series1
tes in
ALITY
Vegs.
Chapter 5: Results
192
Table 5.6.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Jain beliefs and taboos.
Name of Plants considered sacred by Jains found in study-sites
No. of Sites (Site Nos. are in bracket)
1. Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. [Believed to be tree under which 13th Tirthankar Vimalnath achieved ‘Keval gyan’]
2 (14, 110)
2. Artabotrys odoratissimum R.Br. [Believed to be tree under which 23rd Tirthankar Parshvanath achieved ‘Keval gyan’]
2(110, 112)
3. Michelia champaca L. [Believed to be tree under which 20th Tirthankar Munisuvrata achieved ‘Keval gyan’]
3(111, 112, 113)
4. Mimusops elangi L. [Believed to be tree under which 21st Tirthankar Naminath achieved ‘Keval gyan’]
2 (14, 111)
5. Mangifera indica L. [Believed to be tree associated with venue of 18th Tirthankar Arahnath]
4 (14, 110, 112, 113)
6. Tree/plant(s) associated with their products offered as ‘Bhog’/ ‘Puja’/ ‘Arti’;
(i) Cocos nucifera L. 2 (14, 111)
(ii) Hibiscus mutabilis L. 1 (113) (iii) Helianthus annus L. 1 (110) (iv) Jasminum sambac Ait. 3 (14,110, 113) (v) Rosa centrifolia L. 4 (14, 110, 111, 113)
Table 5.6.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.
Vascular plants concerned
No. of Families
Details of family No. of genera
No. of species
Pteridophyta 1 Polypodiaceae 3 3 Total 3 3 Gymnosperms 3
Chapter 5: Results
193
Coniferaceae 1 1 Cupressaceae 1 1 Cycadaceae 1 1 Pinaceae 1 1 Total 4 4 Angiosperms 28 a) Monocot 5 Amaryllidaceae 1 1 Araceae 2 5 Liliaceae 4 5 Palmae 9 10 Scitamineae 1 1 Total 17 22 b) Dicot 23 Anacardiaceae 2 2 Anonaceae 3 3 Apocynaceae 3 3 Araliaceae 1 1 Asclepiadaceae 1 1 Compositae 2 2 Euphorbiaceae 5 13 Labiateae 2 2 Leguminosae 6 6 Lythraceae 2 2 Magnoliaceae 1 1 Malvaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 2 2 Nyctaginaceae 1 1 Oleaceae 2 2 Passiflorae 1 1 Rosaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 4 5 Rutaceae 3 3 Sapotaceae 1 1 Solanaceae 1 1 Urticaceae 2 2 Verbenaceae 2 2 Total 49 58
Tab
F
ble 5.6.6: S
Vascuplant
concern1. Pteridop
2.Gymnos
3. Angiosp
a) Monoco
b) Dicot
Fig.5.6.2: Pe
Legen
Summary o
lar ts ned
Nu
phyta
sperms
perms
ot
ercentage D
nd: 1 – Pteri
C
of Plant wea
Familie
umber
1
4
28
5
23
Distribution
dophyte , 2
hapter 5: Re
194
alth of Jain
s
% Nu
3.03
12.12
84.85
17.86
82.14
n of Vascul
Fig. 5.6.2
2 –Gymnosp
esults
n Temples:
Genera
umber
3
4
66
17
49
lar plants i
2
perms and 3
:
a
% Nu
4.11
5.48
90.41
25.76
74.24
in Jain Tem
3 – Angiosp
1
2
3
Species
umber %
3
4 4
80 9
22 2
58 7
mples:
perms
%
3.45
4.60
1.95
7.50
2.50
Chapter 5: Results
195
Fig. 5.6.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Jain Temples:
(a) family –wise (b) genera-wise (c) species-wise
Fig. 5.6.3
Legend: 1- monocot, 2- dicot.
PLATE NO. 5.6.1: A view of Sri Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple (Site no. 14)
1
2
1
2
1
2
Chapter 5: Results
196
5. 7 MOSQUES & BURIAL GROUNDS OF KOLKATA:
5.7.1 Tenets:
The term Muslim implies submission to “The God”. The Prophet Muhammad
experienced mystical revelations in AD 610 while meditating in a cave near Mecca in
Arabia. The monotheistic religion called Islam was thus revealed to him. He brought his
message to the Arab people and from Arabia it spread rapidly through the Middle East
and Central Asia and entered the Indus Valley, soon becoming a major world religion.
The core beliefs of Islam are that there is only one god – unitary and beyond
comprehension – and that Muhammad is the prophet of God. The Qur'an is upheld as the
eternal, literal word of God . Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed to
Muhammad through the angel Gabriel, and the belief in angels as God’s servants is part
of the Islamic tradition. The Islamic holy books are the records which, most Muslims
believe were dictated by the God to various prophets. Qur'an is divided into 114 suras, or
chapters, which contain 6,236 ‘aayat’, or verses. The Qur'an (literally, “Reading” or
“Recitation”) is viewed by Muslims as the final revelation and literal word of God and is
widely regarded as the finest piece of literary work in the Arabic language.
The Pillars of Islam are five basic acts considered obligatory for all believers. The Quran
presents them as the framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They
are (1) the shahadah (creed), (2) daily prayers (salat), (3) alms-giving (zakah), (4) fasting
during Ramadan and (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime. The
Shia and Sunni sects both agree on the essential details for the performance of these acts.
These beliefs and duties give the adherents of Islam a sense of unity and community. The
daily ritual of prayers takes place at dawn ( fazar), mid-day(dhuhr or zohar), afternoon
(asr), sunset (magrib) and evening (isha). These can be performed singly or communally
except on Friday mid-day when prayers are congregational and a sermon or khutba is
read beforehand from a pulpit or mimbar. Muslim prayers are preceded by ritual ablution
and performed facing in the direction of Mecca towards the orientation of the Ka'ba or
Home of God. The qibla in mosques gives the required orientation.
Chapter 5: Results
197
5.7.2. Festivals: Some of the major festivals celebrated by the Muslims of Kolkata are
Eid-ul-fitr, Eid-ul-zoha, Muhuram, Fate-wah-doaz-dohum and Sab-e-barat. Almost all
Islam followers observe meticulously the rituals of fasting for day-time during Ramadan
month. Mass prayer is organized at Red Road beside Fort William on the very day of Eid
in addition to the regular and special prayer service of individual mosque. Preceding the
festival of Muhuram, for some days, movement of vehicular traffic in some part of the
city has to restrict by the local administration to facilitate the devotees to organize
rehearsal for the colourful procession to be organised on the very day of Muhuram by
them.
5.7.3 Plants associated with Islam: Many fruits and fruit bearing plants have been
mentioned in the Qur’an, but it is the date-palm which finds maximum references. It has
been mentioned twenty times under the name Nakhl. The botanical name of date-palm is
Phoenix dactylifera L. and there are about 60 species of Phoenix distributed throughout
the warmer parts of Africa and Asia. In India, P.sylvestris is the most common species
found wild as well as in cultivation throughout the country. In view of the historical, and
cultural importance as well as nutritional and medicinal values, the date-palm may really
be taken as a “Favour of God” to Man and that is probably the reason for its repeated
mention in the Qur’an with reverence.
Some other references from the ‘Quran’ on centuries old man-plant relationship are as
follows -
Sura II (V.22), Allah says : “Who has made the earth your couch; and the heavens your
canopy; And sent down rain from heavens; And brought forth therewith fruits for your
sustenance; Then set not up rivals unto God which ye know (the truth)”.
Qur’an 16:11 – “With it He produces for you corn, olives, date-palms, grapes and every
kind of fruit: Verily in this is a sign for those who give thought”.
Qur’an 23: 20 – “Also a tree springing out of Mount Sinai, which produces oil, and
relish for those who use it for food”.
Qur’an 78 : 31 -32 - “Verily for the Righteous there will be a fulfillment of (The Heart’s)
desires; Gardens enclosed, and Grape vines”;
Chapter 5: Results
198
Qur’an 55 : 68 – “ In them will be fruits, and dates and pomegranates”
Qur’an 95 : 1-4 – “By the Fig and the Olive, and the Mount of Sinai, and this City of
Security, - We have indeed created man in best of moulds”
Apart from these tenets of the Quran, Quranic references as cited - in SURA II V:266,
SURA VI V:99, SURA VI V: 141, SURA XIII V : 4, SURA XVI V:11, SURA XVI V :
67, SURA XVII V :91, SURA XVIII V : 32, SURA XIX V : 23, SURA XIX V : 25,
SURA XX V : 71, SURA XXIII V: 19, SURA XXVI V :148, SURA XXXVI V:34,
SURA L V :10, SURA LIV V:20, SURA LV V:11, SURA LV V:68, SURA LXIX V : 7
and SURA LXXX V :29 l indicate a close man-plant relationship in their Verses.
5.7.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites: Mosques with adjoining
gardens and burial gardens dot both the northern and southern parts of the city of
Calcutta, especially areas of Maniktala, Bagmari, Park Circus, Tollygunge, Watgunge,
Metiaburz and Garden Reach. Under the cover of this work 27 Islamic religious sites
have been visited. Plant wealth as well as different aspects of man-plant relationship
associated with Islamic religious practices has been studied. Of the 27 sites, 17 sites are
mosques and the rest are burial grounds [Table 5.7.1(a)]. It is also important to mention
that most of the burial grounds have small mosques within the premises where regular
‘Azaan’ and ‘five-waqt Namaaz’ (five times prayers) are practiced. Taxonomic
enumeration of plants found in adjoining areas/gardens of mosques and burial grounds
was prepared. Study-sites have been characterized based on such numbers of water-
bodies, residents within the premises and visitors daily and on special occasions. The
utilitarian account of plants sustained in mosques and burial grounds have been dealt
with. List of plants considered sacred by the followers of Islam, those referred in their
holy book of Quran and their availablity in the study-sites was prepared with statistical
synopsis of plant wealth [Table 5.7.5 & 5.7. 6].
1. Site characteristics: Mosques occupy smaller green areas in comparison to Burial
grounds [Table 5.7.1(a)] except Maniktala Masjid (Site No.86 ) & Nakhoda Masjid (Site
No.116). It is also to be noted that even some very small mosques (Viz., Chooti Masjid –
Site no. 72) have regular attendance of about 30 devotees for ‘Namaaz’ (Prayer) where
Chapter 5: Results
199
almost no plant species exists as the whole area is cemented and there is not even any
‘potted plant’ maintained. Almost all burial grounds have a small mosque inside the
premises. As regards the position and number of residents at the mosques and burial
grounds, the former always have a residing Imam and a Mohzin, who calls the “Aazaan”
(the call for prayer). The other associates may be gardener and guards, whereas a burial
ground or a number of burial grounds under the same Waqf Estate, has essentially the
above residents of Imam, Mohzin, Gardener, Cleaner but also a Registrar and specialized
labour who are grave-diggers.
The number of visiting devotees at the site not only varies depending on whether it is a
regular or festival day, but also on whether it is a mosque or a burial ground.
‘Jummabar’ or Fridays are embraced with large number of followers of Islam at the
mosques whereas the burial grounds have visitors or persons accompanying the dead.
Large gatherings of believers are held at burial grounds during the festival of
‘Sabebarat’only, whereas large gatherings at Mosques are held on other festival days,
e.g., EId-ul- Fitr, Eid-ud-zoha etc.
In some Islamic religious sites the data relevant to site characteristics could not be
recorded by the present author for being a woman who are permitted either to enter the
site as per restriction imposed by the concerned religious authorities nor by custom. ‘Solo
Ana Masjid and burial ground’ (Site No.104) are one of such sites where women are not
allowed to enter. Being a woman, during the field work at Islamic religious sites, the
present worker had to keep her head covered with a piece of cloth all along while
collecting data of the sites or during conversations with the religious associates of the
site, as a custom to explicitly show respect to the Shrine. Photographs were prohibited in
most of the sites. Imams or key-informants present during the site visit refused to provide
any first-hand information without prior- permission from the Matowale of respective
Waqf Estates. Nevertheless, most of the concerned people extended co-operation after
getting convinced with the objective of the present work.
2. Taxonomic documentation: An analysis of the vascular plants at the study site
revealed that the dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former is
1 : 3.90 at the family level, 1 : 4.45 at the genus level and 1 : 5.14 at the species level
Chapter 5: Results
200
being [Table 5.7.2(b)]. Furthermore it is to note that the proportion of genera to species
sustained in all Islamic sites of Calcutta found to be 1 : 1.12 in comparison with 1 : 7 for
whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.
Of all the Mosque sites Prince Gulam Mohammed Mosque (Site No. 15) houses
maximum number of species whereas Solo –ana Masjid and Burial grounds (Site No.
104) amongst all burial grounds has the maximum number of plant species. Psidium
guajava L. is found in maximum number of mosques whereas Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
and Tabernaemontana coronaria R. Br. is found in maximum number of burial grounds.
Both Mangifera indica Blume. and Psidium guajava L. were found to be the most
dominant species in respect of all 27 Islamic sites.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : So far of the plants sustained in all
Islamic sites, decorative plants constitute the most important one among all others (65%).
Next comes the shade-giving and /or fruit-bearing plants which are no less than 12% of
the total species sustained. Decorative plants can be put into 3 categories, viz, (i) for
fencing and/or demarcating gardens, road inside the premises etc. (ii) for imparting
aesthetic beauty or ornamentation of the site and (iii) for offering to Almighty or
decorating the mosque. It shows that out of all decorative plants found in the Islamic
religious sites, minimum number (1.28%) of species particularly utilized for offering to
the Almighty or decorating the mosque whereas maximum number of species (i.e. 93%)
are utilized for enhancing the aesthetic effect of the site. Percentage distribution of plants
according to their utility are also graphically represented under [Fig. 5.7. 3]
(i) Out of the 109 decorative species used to enhance aesthetic beauty, Phoenix sylvestris
Roxb. (Khejur) found in 12 sites and Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Jaba), Murraya exotica
Blanco. (Kamini) and Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. (Tagar) each occurred in 11
sites. Ixora coccinea L. (Rangan) were found to occur in 9 sites whereas Anthrocephalus
cadamba Miq. (Kadam) and Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw. (Krishnachura) were found in
7 sites each. Ficus hispida L. f. (Kakdumur), Thuja orientalis (Jhau), Polyalthia
longifolia Benth & Hook. f. (Debdaru), Cestrum nocturenum L. (Hasnahana) and
Nyctanthes arbotristis L. (Seuli) are found in 6 sites each. Areca catechu L. (Supari),
Celosia cristata L. (Morugful) and Quisqualis indica L. (Madhabilata) are present in 5
sites. Vinca rosea L. (Nayantara), Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj) and Bambusa nana
Chapter 5: Results
201
Roxb. (Bans) are found in 4 sites each, whereas Artabotrys odoratissimum R. Br.
(Kanthali Champa), Leonurus sibiricus Linn. (Raktadrone), Canna indica L. (Kalabati)
and Livistona chinensis R. Br.. (Palm) are sustained in 3 sites.
Out of 5 plant species used for fencing or demarcating gardens, roads etc. inside the
premises, Lawsonia inermis Lamk. (Heena) is present in 7 sites and Jatropha
gossipifolia L. (Lal Varenda) found in 3 sites.
Only one plant species Rosa centrifolia L. (Golap) is offered at ‘Mazhar’ (small mosques/
tomb of religious exponents) in 6 sites.
(ii) Of all shade-giving and/or fruit-bearing species, Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) and
Psidium guajava L. (Peyara) are found in 15 sites each. Aegle mamelos Correa. (Bel) and
Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) in 10 sites, Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (Neem) in 9 sites each
and Carica papaya L. (Pepe) and Syzygium cumini Skeels.(Jam) in 8 sites each.
Artocarpus integrifolia L.f. is found in 7 sites while Borassus flabellifer L. (Tal) in 6
sites. Ficus religiosa Decne. Ex. Miq. (Aswastha) is found in 5 sites whereas Eugenia
malaccensis Blanco. (Jamrool), Musa paradisiaca L. (Kala), Punica granatum L.
(Dalim) and Zizyphus jujuba Lam. (Kul) is found in 4 sites each.
(iii) Out of a total of 12 species found which can be used as vegetables, Colocasia
antiquorum Schott. (Kachu) is present in 3 sites, Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.
(Sajina) and Murraya koenigii Spreng. (Karipata) in 2 sites each.
(iv) There is only one plant species, viz., Brassica juncea Coss.. (Sarisha /Mustard)
found in one Islamic site , seed of which can be used for economic benefit.
(v) There are certain number of very valuable plants which can be potential source of
revenue. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. (Mahogony) is one of such plants found in Gulam
Mohammed Mosque (Site No. 15), which was claimed to be planted in the gardens of the
Estate to generate revenue for bearing the repair and maintenance expenses of the
Mosques as well as the expenses incurred by the Waqf Estate for pending court cases.
Gossypium herbaceum L. (Kapas) and Papaver somniferum L. (Afim) are other two such
species found in one or two sites which have commercial importance. Inflorescence of
Mangifera indica Blume. and twig with leaves of Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. is
Chapter 5: Results
202
used to prepare medicine by a few “moulovis”, collected from the garden of Gulam
Mohammad Mosque.
Parthenium hysterophorus L.(Parthenium) a very obnoxious weed, was found in
5 out of 10 burial ground sites and Tragia involucrata L. (Bichuti), though found in a few
sites, is of concern as a weed in site no. 15.
It could be revealed through interrogation with the Key-informant at Site No. 15,
who claimed him to be the descendant of Tipu Sultan (7th generation) that one time bulk
quantity of ‘Aatar’(perfume) brought from Lucknow used to be stored in large tanks to
spray on the trees of Magnifera indica Blume. at Site No. 15 that thrived so that fruit
contained the specific scent.
4. Association with sacred plants: Plants considered to be sacred by the followers of
Islam as well as those mentioned in the holy Quran have been enumerated in Table 5.7.4
of which Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. are found in 12 sites. Lawsonia inermis L. in 7 sites,
Punica granatum L. in 4 sites and Brassica nigra Koch. in 1 site.
5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: Species found in
all Islamic religious study-sites have been enumerated according to their family, genera
and species. [Table 5.7.5] As many as 39 dicotyledonus families having 98 genera and
113 species and 10 monocotyledonous families having 22 genera and 22 species could
be recorded from all Islamic sites. The taxonomic analysis shows 81.67% dicots and
18.33% monocots at genus level and 83.70% dicots and 16.30% monocots at species
level. Not a single species of Pteridophyte is found in 27 sites. Gymnosperms represent
3.92% of total vascular plants [Table 5.7.6].
Out of 39 dicotyledonous families, Leguminosae has the largest number of genera,
followed by Euphorbiaceae, Rubiaceae and Compositae. Maximum number of species
were also noted in case of Leguminosae, followed by Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae.
Out of 10 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genera and
species, followed by Gramineae and Liliaceae.
Chapter 5: Results
203
Only 2 families of Gymnosperms, viz. Pinaceae and Cycadaceae could be recorded, each
with one genus and one species. Thuja odorata Doi. (Jhau) , which has ornamental value,
was found sustaining in 6 sites.
Table 5.7.1 (a): Details of study sites of Mosque and Burial Grounds.
Sl No.
Date of visit Name of site Esta-blished on
Address Area Key inform-ant
1. 05/06/2003 Lal dada ki Masjid
Not known
15/1, Hatibagan Road, Kolkata -14
10 cottah
Javed Sahab
2. 05/06/2003 Wakf Masjid Rahamania
1928 P-7 Surawardi Avenue, Kolkata -17
4-5 cottah
Kamal Husssain
3. 02/06/2003& 15/ 06/2003
Gulam Mohammad Mosque
1843 143, D.P.S. Road, Kolkata -33
9 bigha
Anwar Ali Shah
4. 27/10/2003 Tipu Sultan Shahi Masjid
1799 185, Dharamtala Street, Kolkata
7303 ft x328 ft
S.M.Noorur Rahman Barkati (Shahi Imam, Kolkata)
5. 29/03/2004 Shahi Begum Masjid
Not known
49, D.H. Road, Kolkata - 27
1.5 bigha
Tahahubul Hussain
6. 28/11/2004 B.N.R Masjid 1978 Eastern Railway Colony, Garden
10 cottah
Not available
Chapter 5: Results
204
Reach, Kolkata - 43
7. 28/11/2004 Numania Masjid Tinwale
Not known
H-27, Garden Reach Road, Kolkata -24
8 cottah
Not available
8. 28/11/2004 Choti Masjid Not known
H-63/1, Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24
5 cottah
Not available
9. 28/11/2004 Shahi Masjid Mammadi
Not known
I-116, Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24
10 cottah
Not available
10. 14/01/2006 Maniktala Masjid
Not known
248, A.J.C Bose Road, Kolkata -6
50 bigha
Dr. S.K. Ahmed Ali
11. 14/01/2006 Lal Masjid Not known
253/C, A.J.C Bose Road,Kolkata -6
9 bigha
Not available
12. 14/01/2006 Bagmari Burial Ground
17th century
52, Bagmari Road, Kolkata - 54
152 bigha
Dr. Kamrup Jamal (Sub-Registrar)
13. 14/01/2006 Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan
Not known
20, Mahendra Ray Lane, Kolkata - 46
3 bigha
Not available
14. 14/01/2006 Gore Gobra Not 32, Gobra 1 Not
Chapter 5: Results
205
Muslim Koborsthan
known Gorosthan Road, Kolkata - 46
bigha available
15. 05/03/2006 Wajid Ali Shah Mosque
1866 P,35, Wajid Ali Shah Road, Kolkata-24
10 cottah
Not available
16. 05/03/2006 Nawab Umda Mahal
Not known
P-35, Wajid Ali Shah Road, Kolkata -24
Not available
17. 05/03/2006 Shahi Masjid Not known
7B, Iron Gate Road, Kolkata - 24
10 cottah
Izar Zafri
18. 05/03/2006 Firdous Mahal Masjid
Not known
B 48, Iron Gate Road, Metiabruz, Kolkata -24
1 bigha
Not available
19. 05/03/2006 No.1, Begg Burial Ground
Not known
N-134, Rameswarpur Road, Kolkata -24
15 cottah
Not available
20. 05/03/2006 2No.Gorosthan
1958 J 149,Paharpur Road, Kolkata -24
8 bigha
Not available
21. 05/03/2006 3No. Burial Ground
Not known
J- 124/1, R.N. Lane,
2 bigha
Not available
Chapter 5: Results
206
Kolkata -24
22. 05/03/2006 4 No. Burial Ground
1919 J- 115/1,Ramnagar Lane, Kolkata - 24
15 cottah
Not available
23. 05/03/2006 5 No. Burial Ground
Not known
Ramnagar Road, Kolkata
15 cottah
Not available
24. 05/03/2006 6 No.Burial Ground
1893 G 313/2, G 311 & G 269/1, Meher Manzil, G. R. Road, Kolkata -24
10 bigha
Not available
25. 05/03/2006 Solo-ana Masjid & Burial Ground
Not known
70 A Ekbalpur Road, Kolkata
29 bigha
Not available
26. 17/02/2007 Haji Cassim Ariff Masjid
Not known
231, A.P.C. Road, Kolkata - 4
16-17 cottah
Not available
27. 16/03/2007 Nakhoda Masjid
1926 Jacquaria Street, Kolkata -7
20 bigha
Not available
Chapter 5: Results
207
Table 5.7.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies within the premises
No. of regular residents at the premises
No. of visiting devotees (approximate) Regular During
festivals
(A) Mosques 5 Lal dada ki Masjid 0 5 600-700 5000-6000 6 Wakf Masjid
Rahamania 0 3 40-50 200-250
15 Gulam Mohammad Mosque
1 (2.5 bigha)
7 100-150 1000 and above
17 Tipu Sultan Shahi Masjid
0 8 2000 5000
42 Shahi Begum Masjid 0 3 200 800 70 B.N.R Masjid 0 2 20 100 71 Numania Masjid
Tinwale 0 2 20 100
72 Choti Masjid 0 2 5-10 50 73 Shahi Masjid
Mammadi 0 2 5-10 50
86 Maniktala Masjid 4 5 100 1000 and more
88 Lal Masjid 0 2 10 100 94 Wajid Ali Shah
Mosque 0 2 10 100
95 Nawab Umda Mahal 0 2 5-10 50 96 Shahi Masjid 0 2 25 100 97 Firdous Mahal Masjid 0 2 20 100 109 Haji Cassim Ariff
Masjid 0 2 100 1000
116 Nakhoda Masjid 0 8 - 10 400 - 500 10000 (B) Burial grounds 87 Bagmari Burial
Ground 2 42 40-50 1 lakh &
above 89 Gobra Muslim
Kabarsthan 0 6 100 1000 and
above 90 Gore Gobra Muslim
Koborsthan 0 4 100 500 and
above 98 No.1, Begg Burial
Ground 0 2 5-10 100
Chapter 5: Results
208
99 2No.Gorosthan 0 20 20-30 500 100 3No. Burial Ground 0 3 20-30 300 101 4 No. Burial Ground 0 0 5-10 100 102 5 No. Burial Ground 0 0 5-10 50 103 6 No.Burial Ground 0 5 20-25 100 104 Solo-ana Masjid &
Burial Ground 1(1 bigha) 10 50-100 2000 and
above
Table 5.7.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Mosque and Burial grounds: Family Species Common
Name Remarks Occurance
(Site No.) DICOT Acanthaceae Andrographis paniculata
Nees. Ruellia prostrata Pav.ex Nees. Thunbergia grandiflora Roxb.
Kalmegh Nil-lata
Or, M Or Or
101 104 104
Amaranthaceae Achyranthes aspera Duss. Celosia cristata L.
Apang Morugful / Cock’s comb
Or Or
104 89, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume. Spondias dulcis Forst.f.
Aam Amra
F, S, M S, F
5, 15, 17, 42, 70, 88, 96, 97, 109, 87, 89, 98, 100, 101, 104 15, 88
Anonaceae Anona reticulate L. Anona squamosa Delile. Artabotrys odoratissimus Blume. Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook. f.ex Hook. F.
Nona Ata Kanthali Champa Debdaru
F, Or F, Or Or Or
88 88, 109 86, 88, 97 15, 42, 88, 96, 87, 104
Apocynaceae Nerium oleander ‘Album’ L.
Sada Karabi Golapi
Or
99
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209
Nerium oleander ‘Roseum’ L. Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. Tabernaemontana coronaria Flore-pleno Willd. Thevetia peruviana K.Schum. Vinca rosea L.
Karabi Tagar Double-petal Tagar Kolkeful Nayantara
Or Or, M Or Or Or
42, 88 15, 42, 95, 97, 87, 89, 98, 99, 100, 101, 104 15 15, 42, 89 89, 98, 99, 101
Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera [Dryand.]
Swet-Akanda
Or 100
Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum Linn.
Hatisur Or 99, 100
Capparaceae Cleome viscose L. Holdey hurhure
Or 104
Combretaceae Quisqualis indica Blanco.
Madhabilata Or, Fl 15, 95, 96, 87, 98
Cornaceae Alangium lamarckii Thw.
Ansfal F, S 15
Compositae Dahlia superflua Ait. Eclipta alba Hassk. Enhydra fluctuans Lour. Helianthus annuus Linn. Parthenium hysterophorus Linn. Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. Tridax procumbens L.
Daliah Kesut Hingcha Surya mukhi Parthenium Somraj Tridaksha
Fl, Or M V Fl, Or Weed Or Or
42 99, 100, 101 104 15 99,100, 102,103, 104 104 96
Cruciferae Brassica juncea Coss. Sarisha V & Sd 98 Cucurbitaceae Cephalandra indica
Naud. Cucurbita maxima Duchesne. Luffa aegyptiaca Mill.
Telakachu Kumra Dhundul
Or, V Or, V Or, V
104 100 15
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210
Dipterocarpaceae Shorea robusta A.DC. Sal S, Or, Eco 89, 99 Euphorbiacea Euphorbia pulcherrima
plennissima ‘Starlite’ Willd.ex. Klotzsch. Euphorbia tirucalli Forsk. Euphorbia trigona Haw. Jatropha gossypifolia L. Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poit. Phyllanthus niruri Blanco. Ricinus communis L. Tragia involucrata L.
Lalpata Lanka-sij Cactus Lal-bherenda Rangchita Bhui amla Rehri Bichuti
Ls Or Or Ls Or Or Ls Wd
15, 89 96 103 15, 88, 104 104 15, 104 88 15
Labiatae Ocimum sanctum L. Leonurus sibiricus L.
Tulsi Raktadrone
Or Or
96, 98 96, 87, 99
Leguminosae Acacia arabica Willd. Albizzia lebbek Benth. Arachis hypogaea L. Bauhinia variegata L. Butea monosperma Kuntze. Caesalpinia pulcherrima G.Don. Cassia occidentalis Hort.ex.Steud. Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. Mimosa pudica Linn. Pithecolobium dulce Benth. Pongamia glabra Vent.
Babul Sirish Badam Kanchan Palas Krishnachura Muktojhuri Sisu Lajjabati Jilepi gaach Karanja
S, Or S, Or S, Or Or Or Or Or S, Or Or Or Or
86, 89 15, 89 89 89, 101 87, 104 15, 88, 87, 89, 98, 101, 104 99 88 15 15 15
Lythraceae Lagerstroemia speciosa Pers. Lagerstroemia thorelii Gagnep.
Jarul (pink flower) Bilati Jarul (Pink & White flower)
S, Or S, Or
15, 101 15
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211
Lawsonia innermis L. Punica granatum L.
Mehendi Dalim
Or, Ls (Fencing) F
15, 86, 88, 109, 98, 100, 103 15, 88, 96, 98
Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Swarna Champa
Or 15, 109
Malvaceae Gossypium herbaceum L.Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Hibiscus mutabilis L. Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. Sida cordifolia Forsk.
Kapas Jaba Sthal- padma Lanka Jaba Berala
Or, Eco Or, Fl Or, Fl Or, Fl Or
86, 99, 101, 103 15, 42, 86, 95, 96, 116, 89, 100, 101, 102, 104 86, 101 15, 104 103, 104
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.
Neem Mahogony
S, Or Eco
5, 17, 88, 109, 87, 89, 98, 101, 102 15, 42
Moringaceae Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.
Sajina V 15, 88
Myrtaceae Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Eugenia malaccensis Blanco. Psidium guayava L. Syzygium cumini Skeels.
Eucalyptus Jamrul Peyara Jam
Or F, S F S, F
96, 104 15, 17, 95, 109 5, 17, 42, 70, 86, 88, 94, 96, 97, 109, 87, 89, 99, 103, 104 15, 96, 97, 109, 87, 89, 98, 101
Nyctaginaceae Boerhaavia repens L. Punarnaba Or 104
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212
Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl. Mirabilis jalapa L.
Baganbilash Sandhyamoni
Or Or
100, 116 88, 109, 101
Oleaceae Jasminum pubescens Buch.-Ham.ex Wall. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L.
Belphul Seuli
Or, Fl Or, Fl
15, 42 86, 88, 94, 89, 102
Pandanaceae Pandanus fascicularis Lam.
Keya Or 15
Papavaraceae Papaver somniferum L. Afim gaach M, Eco 15
Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F, V 42, 86, 88,94, 96, 109, 98, 100
Polygonaceae Polygonum hydropiper L.
Pakurmul Or 101
Rhamnaceae Zizyphus jujuba Lam. Kul F, S 15, 87, 98, 104
Rosaceae Rosa centrifolia L. Golap Fl, Of 15, 42, 96, 116, 98, 101
Rubiaceae Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. Dentella repeus Forst. Gardenia florida L. Hamelia patens Jacq. Ixora coccinea Comm.ex Lam. Ixora parviflora Lam. Mussaenda erythrophylla ‘Rosea’ Schum. & Thonn.
Kadam Bhuipat Gandharaj Rangan Sada Rangan Mussanda
Or, S Or Or, Fl Or Or Or Or
15, 88, 87, 89, 99, 104 104 86, 96, 99, 100 15 15, 96, 97, 109, 116, 87, 89, 100, 101 15, 104 15, 98
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos Correa.
Bel
Or, F
5, 42, 86, 95, 96, 109,
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213
Citrus decumana L. Citrus medica Linn. Murraya exotica Blanco. Murraya koenigii Spreng.
Batabi lebu Lebu Kamini Karipata
F Or , F Or Or, V
87, 98, 100, 101 15, 109, 98 15 15, 88, 95, 96, 109, 89, 98, 99, 100, 104 15, 88
Sapotaceae Achras sapota L. Mimusops elengi Boj.
Sabeda Bakul
S, F S, Or
109 87, 89
Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum Lam. Capsicum frutescens L. Physalis minima L. Solanum trilobatum L.
Hashnahana Lanka Bon-tepari Roadside plant
Or Or, V Or Or
5, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101 96 15 99
Sterculiaceae Sterculia foetida L. Jungli badam Or 87
Urticaceae Artrocarpus integrifolia Linn. f. Streblus asper Lour. Ficus benghalensis Ficus cunia Ham Ficus elastica ‘Decora’ Ficus hispida L. f. Ficus infectoria Roxb. Ficus religiosa
Kanthal Sheorah Bot Dumur Rubber Kak dumur Pakur Aswatha
S, F Or S, Or V, Or Or S, Or S, Or S, Or
5, 17, 86, 96, 97, 109, 98 15 88, 104 15 88 87, 99, 100, 101, 103, 104 15 15, 86, 95 89, 104
Verbenaceae Duranta plumieri Jacq. Lantana camara L. Vitex negundo L.
Duranto Chotra Nishinda
Ls Or Or
15, 42 104 15
Vitaceae Vitis triphylla Hyata. Amal-lata Or 104 MONOCOT Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum Baro-kakur Or 15
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214
Blanco. Araceae Colocasia antiquorum
Schott. Kachu V 88, 96, 87,
99, 104 Cannaceae Canna glauca L. Kalabati Or 15, 109, 29 Commelinaceae Commelina benghalensis
Forsk. Kanshira Wd 104
Cyperaceae Cyperus alterniflorus R.Br.
Ghas Or 98, 104
Gramineae Bambusa nana Roxb. Eragrostis cynosuroides Beauv.
Bans Kush
Or Or
88, 87, 89, 104 104
Liliaceae Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Hemerocallis fulva Linn.
Or Or
104 104
Scitamineae Musa paradisiaca L.
Kola F, Or 5, 86, 87, 89.
Orchidaceae
Vanda roxburghii R.Br. Vanda Or 70
Palmae Areca catechu L. Borassus flabellifer L. Caryota urens Blanco. Cocos nucifera Linn. Corypha elata Roxb. Licuala peltata Roxb. Livistona chinensis R. Br. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Pritchardia pacifica Seem.& H.Wendl.
Supari Tal Fish-tail palm Narkol Tail-pot palm Palm Palm Khejur Palm
Or F, Or Or, F Or, F Or Or Or Or Or
15, 42, 70, 109, 100 15, 86, 87, 89, 101, 104 104 5, 15, 42, 86, 88,96, 87, 89, 99, 104. 104 104 70, 96, 104. 15,42,86, 88, 109, 87, 89, 100, 101,102, 103,104. 89, 103
Chapter 5: Results
215
Rhapis excels Henry ex. Rehder. Thrinax parviflora Maycock.
Palm Palm
Or Or
15, 98 15, 87
GYMNOSPERM Pinaceae Thuja odorata Doi. Jhau Or 15, 96, 89,
98, 99, 101 Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Bedd. Fern palm Or 15
Note: Green coloured site nos. represent Burial Grounds.
Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; Dr. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc; M – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving;Sc – Sacred; Sd – Seed utilised; V – Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed
Table 5.7.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in all Mosque and Burial grounds:
SITE: (A) Mosques (B) Burial grounds
Total
No. of Sites 17 10 27 No. of Plant genera 81 90 122 No. of Plant species 90 97 137 Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.11 1:1.08 1:1.12 No. of Gymnosperms Species 2 1 2 No. of Monocot families 7 9 10 No. of Dicot families 29 34 39 No. of monocot at genera level 12 20 22 No. of dicot at genera level 67 69 98 No. of monocot at species level 12 20 22 No. of dicot at species level 76 76 113 Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level
1 : 6.33 1:3.80 1 : 5.14
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level
1 : 5.58 1 : 3.45 1 : 4.45
Chapter 5: Results
216
Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level
1 : 4.14 1 : 3.78 1 : 3.90
Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites
Psidium guayava Linn. (Peyara) (10 sites)
Phoenix Sylvestris Roxb. (Khejur) & Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar) (7 sites)
Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) & Psidium guayava Linn.(Peyara) (all together 15 sites)
Name of the site on which thrives maximum no. of species
Site No. 15; Gulam
Mohammad Mosque (Total 61 species)
Site No.104; Solo-ana Masjid & Burial Ground (Total 45 species)
Site No. 15 : Total 61 species
Table 5.7.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Mosques and Burial grounds:
SITE NO. Mosque Burial Grounds
All Sites
1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)
17 (18.89%)
15 (15.46%)
22 (16.06%)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)
5 (5.56%)
4 (4.12%)
5 (3.65%)
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)
71 (78.89%)
78 (80.41%)
109 (79.56%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples (% of total species)
1 (1.11%)
1 (1.03%)
1 (1.73%)
3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)
7 (7.78%)
9 (9.28%)
12 (8.76%)
4. Ncon
6. N of cspec
6. NsourTru7. Nothe(% o
Tota
Figs
in d
F
4
No. of speciesumable fru
No. of speciconsumablecies)
No. of sperce of incstees etc. (%
No. of specer than all of total speci
al
s.5.7.1 (a)-(
different us
Fig. 5.7.1(a)
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
1 2
es used as suits (% of tot
ies used as se seeds (% o
ecies used come for
% of total spe
cies used foabove, e.g
ies)
(c): Percent
se categorie
): MOSQU
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C
source of tal species)
source of total
directly asBoard of
ecies) or purposes. medicinal
tage distrib
es.
UE SITES
9
Seri
hapter 5: Re
217
16 (17.78%
0 (0%)
s f
1 (1.11%
s l
4 (4.44%
90
bution of pl
Fig.
es1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
esults
%) (11
) (1
%) (
%) (4
lants of all
5.7.1(b): B
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
1 2
11 1.34%)
1 .03%)
0
(0%)
4 4.12%)
97
Mosqes an
BURIAL GR
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
18 (13.14
1 (0.73%
1
(0.73%
8 (5.84%
137
nd Burial gr
ROUND S
9
Series
4%)
%)
%)
%)
7
rounds
ITE
s1
Not
Fig. 5.7
Lgends 4- Offer 8- Sour
Table 5.7
Name
of Isla
1. Pho
2. Ficu
3. Law
4.. Bra
te: Green
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
7.1(c): Mosq
for the charrings to deity
rce of incom
7.4: Prevale Islami
of Plants
am or refer
oenix dactyl
us carjca L.
wsonia inerm
assica nigra
n coloured
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1
C
que and Bur
rts above: 1 y/decoration
me of Trustee
ence of planc religious
considered
rred in the h
lifera Linn.
. (Fig)
mis L.(Hen
a Koch. (Mu
site nos. r
2 3 4
hapter 5: Re
218
rial Ground
– Shade-giv 5-Vegs. ys 9 – Others
nts considebeliefs and
d sacred b
holy book ‘
(Date-Palm
nna)
ustard)
represent
4 5 6
esults
d sites : Utili
ving, 2 – fencyielding, 6- Fs
ered sacredd taboos.
y followers
‘Quran’
m)
Burial Gro
6 7 8
itarian acco
cing, 3 – AesFruit-bearing
d or associa
s Site Nos
found
12 [15,4
109, 87,
101, 102
104]
1 [15]
7 [15, 86
98, 100,
1 [98]
ounds.
9
ount of plant
sthetic beautyg 7 – Seeds
ated with th
s. where
42,86, 88,
89, 100,
2, 103,
6, 88, 109,
103]
Series1
ts
y, used
he
Chapter 5: Results
219
Table 5.7.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.
Vascular plants No. of
Families Details of family No. of genera No. of species
Pteridophyta 0
Total 0 0
Gymnosperms 2
Pinaceae 1 1
Cycadaceae 1 1
Total 2 2
Angiosperms
a) Monocot 10 Amaryllidaceae 1 1
Araceae 1 1
Cannaceae 1 1
Commelinaceae 1 1
Cyperaceae 1 1
Gramineae 2 2
Liliaceae 2 2
Scitamineae 1 1
Orchidaceae 1 1
Palmae 11 11
Total 22 22
b) Dicot 39
Acanthaceae 3 3
Amaranthaceae 2 2
Anacardiaceae 2 2
Anonaceae 3 4
Apocynaceae 4 6
Asclepiadaceae 1 1
Boraginaceae 1 1
Chapter 5: Results
220
Capparaceae 1 1
Combretaceae 1 1
Cornaceae 1 1
Compositae 6 6
Cruciferae 1 1
Cucurbitaceae 3 3
Dipterocarpaceae 1 1
Euphorbiacea 6 8
Labiateae 2 2
Leguminoseae 11 11
Lythraceae 3 4
Magnoliaceae 1 1
Malvaceae 4 5
Meliaceae 2 2
Moringaceae 1 1
Myrtaceae 4 4
Nyctaginaceae 3 3
Oleaceae 2 2
Pandanaceae 1 1
Papavaraceae 1 1
Passifloraceae 1 1
Polygonaceae 1 1
Rhamnaceae 1 1
Rosaceae 1 1
Rubiaceae 6 7
Rutaceae 3 5
Sapotaceae 2 2
Solanaceae 4 4
Sterculiaceae 1 1
Chapter 5: Results
221
Urticaceae 3 8
Verbenaceae 3 3
Vitaceae 1 1
Total 98 113
Table 5.7.6: Summary of Plant wealth of Mosques and burial grounds
(a) All Islamic religious sites:
`Vascular plants
Families
Genera
Species
Number % Number % Number % 1. Pteridophyta 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
2.Gymnosperms 2 3.92 2 1.64 2 1.46
3. Angiosperms 49 96.08 120 98.36 135 98.54
a) Monocot 10 20.41 22 18.33 22 16.30
b) Dicot 39 79.59 98 81.67 113 83.70
(b) Distribution of plants in Mosques and Burial grounds:
Vasclar plant concerned
Mosques Burial Grounds
Family Genera Species Family Genera Species
Angiosperms 36 79 88 43 89 96
Pteridophyta 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gymnosperms 2 2 2 1 1 1 Total 38 81 90 44 90 97
Fig.gro
Fig
a) f
. 5.7.2: Perunds:
Legen
5.7.3(a)- (c
family –w
centage Di
nd: 1 – Pteri
c): Percentasite
wise
1
2
C
stribution o
idophyte ( 0
age Distribes:
(b) ge
Fi
Legend:
hapter 5: Re
222
of Vascular
Fig. 5.7.2
0 %) , 2 –Gy
ution of mo
enera-wis
ig. 5.7.3
1- monoc
esults
r plants in
2
ymnosperm
onocots an
e
cot, 2- dic
1
2
Mosques a
ms and 3 – A
d dicots at
(c) specie
cot.
and Burial
Angiosperm
Islamic rel
es-wise
1
2
3
ms
ligious
1
2
Chapter 5: Results
223
Plate No. 5.7.1: Present author with Md. Kamal Hussain, Matwale of Waqf Masjid Rahamania at Site No. 6
PLATE NO. 5.7.2: Bagmari Burial Ground (Site no. 87)
Chapter 5: Results
224
PLATE NO. 5.7.3: Canopy of trees at Site No. 87
PLATE NO. 5.7.4: Site No. 94 – Wajid Ali Shah Mosque
Chapter 5: Results
225
5.8 NIRANKARI TEMPLE
5.8.1 Tenets:
Nirankari is a reformist movement in Sikhism. There is no official record of the number
of adherents to this religion, except that in the 1891 census wherein 14,001 Hindus and
46,610 Sikhs declared themselves as 'Nirankaris'. Nirankaris trace their origin to Baba
Dyal Singh (1783-1855). Baba Dyal preached against the assimilation of other religious
traditions (particularly Hinduism) into Sikhism. Baba Dyal was particularly vociferous on
the subject of idolatry, a facet of Hinduism which was creeping into Sikh practice as a
result of the close association of the two cultures. He thus emphasized the formless
quality of Akal Purakh (nirankar or nirankari), which gave rise to the movement's name.
Baba Dayal was himself a Sahaj-dhari Sikh, (shaven) as were most (though not all) of his
followers. Baba Dyal reportedly experienced enlightenment at the early age of 18, when
he entered meditation and heard a voice saying: "Give up this ritualistic practice. You
have been commissioned to expel the darkness of ignorance. You are a true Nirankari, as
you are a believer of God as spirit, without bodily form".
His original movement was confined to the Rawalpindi area, its followers being mainly
Khatris and Aroras by caste. The movement expanded in northwest Punjab, Dayal
Singh’s native region, under the leadership of his successors Darbara Singh (1855–70)
and Ratta Ji (1870–1909). Unlike mainstream Sikhs, but like other groups closely related
to them such as the Namdharis, Nirankaris accept the authority of a living Guru (spiritual
guide) and recognized Dayal Singh and his successors as Gurus. Its members differ from
other Sikhs in their disapproval of the militant brotherhood of the Khalsa. Nirankaris
were typically traders and shopkeepers, and these occupations they were expected to
continue while focusing their attention on remembrance of the divine name.
Baba Dayal left his Nirankaris with a brief manual of instruction, called a hukam-nama
(although its form and contents are modeled on a Rahit-nama). The contents of Rahit
emphasize the teachings of Guru Nanak without mentioning the khalsa of Guru Gobind
Singh.] The essence of the Nirankari Hukam-nama is contained in the words which every
Chapter 5: Results
226
adherent is commanded to utter again and again: "dhan dhan nirankar" ("Glory be to
Nirankar").
The main practice of the Nirankari movement is the mental repetition of the mantra: dhan
dhan Nirankar ("Glory, glory to the Formless One"). They reject idolatry and ritual in
favour of personal religious practice. They do not subscribe to the orthodox Sikh view
that Adi Granth was the last and the only eternal Guru for all Sikhs.
Nirankaris do not bury or cremate their dead, instead simply throw the bodies into a
river. They believe that the death of one's human form is an event to be rejoiced and not
mourned. Drinking alcohol is prohibited, as well as smoking. They do not eat any meat.
They were against begging and emphasized the need to work for earning.
The chief contribution of the Nirankari movement is its standardization of rituals
connected with birth, marriage, and death based on the Sikh scriptures. The Nirankaris
believe that women are not impure at childbirth, that marriages and other important
events should not be arranged according to the predictions of paid astrologers, that
dowries should not be publicly displayed, and that no fee should be charged for
performing ceremonies (as is the custom for Brahmin priests). The Anand marriage
ceremony has been the most long-lasting contribution of the Nirankari movement to Sikh
culture. Initiated by Baba Darbara Singh, it has since been adopted by orthodox Sikhism
and is now the standard Sikh marriage ceremony.
5.8.2: Sant Nirankari Mission
In 1929, one segment of the movement, now known as the Sant Nirankari, disassociated
itself from mainstream Sikhism and became an independent organisation. The Sant
Nirankari Mission, also known as Universal Brotherhood Mission, is a religious or
spiritual organisation based in India. The Sant Nirankari Mission identifies itself as
"neither a new religion nor a sect of an existing religion, but an all-embracing spiritual
movement dedicated to human welfare”. Its leader, Baba Hardev Singh, provides spiritual
guidance for Nirankari devotees; the group is characterised by its focus on a living leader.
The Avtar Bani outlines the key philosophy of the Sant Nirankari Mission, and serves as
Chapter 5: Results
227
the group's primary text, though not necessarily a holy book. The Avtar Bani contains
376 hymns which describe the qualities of Formless God (Nirankar), the important role
of spiritual dedication in attaining God-realisation, the kindness and grace of the "True
Master", the purpose of human life, the five fundamental principles, true devotion and
how a man can lead a saintly life. Gurbachan Singh was declared as the Satguru ("True
Master") by his father Avtar Singh on 3rd December 1962. At the two conferences of the
Mission in Mussorie (1965 and 1973), he made important changes to the organization and
established a code of conduct. He was assassinated on 24th April 1980, by one Ranjit
Singh, a member of the Akhand Kirtani Jatha, an orthodox sikh organisation who
considered Nirankaris as heterodox.
5.8.3 Festivals: Apart from daily kirtan and prabachan, each year on 24th April “Manav
Ekta Dibas” is celebrated on the occasion of death anniversary of Gurubachan Singhji,
who was one of the Satgurus of Sant Nirankari Mission and regarded as a Martyr after
his assasination in the year 1980.
5.8.4 Plants associated with Nirankari religion: There is neither any document nor any
hearsay regarding association of any plant with the religious belief or rituals performed
by the followers of Nirankari religion/Mission.
5.8.5 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites: The findings having
significant bearing on man-plant relationship are mentioned below:
1. Site characteristics: The Sant Nirankari Satsang Mandal is situated at South-eastern
fringe of Kolkata covering about 5 Bighas (i.e. 6692 Sq-m.) of area. There are 4 regular
residents, of whom 2 are in-charge of the Mission, 1 Caretaker and another is an
associate. ‘Kirtan’ and ‘Prabachans’ are held there regularly. ‘Satsanghs’ are held every
Sunday. There are regular visitors ranging from 200 to 2000 (on Sundays), but during
festivals the figure rises to 3000 according to the official spokesman. [Table 5.8.1(a) &
(b)].
2. Taxonomy and distribution: The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the
latter to the former is 1 : 6 at the family level, 1 : 6.5 at the genus level and 1 : 7 at the
species level [Table 5.8.2(b)]. Furthermore it is to note that the proportion of genera to
Chapter 5: Results
228
species sustained in this study-site was found to be 1 : 1.063 in comparison with 1 : 7 for
whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.
Species of Annonaceae, Leguminosae and Rubiaceae were found to be dominating in
this religious site.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : From utilitarian aspect, it is evident that
majority of the plants (55.88%) found in this site are decorative plants enhancing the
aesthetic effect of the site. The fruit-bearing plants which have a share of 23.53% of the
total species is found. Shade-giving plants constitute 17.64% of total plants. Plants
utilized for fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathways inside the premises etc. were
found to be 2.94% of the total species. Plants utilized as vegetables also have the same
share, i.e., 2.94 % [Table 5.8.3]. No plant could be found, whose parts (leaves, flowers,
fruits seeds) are utilized for offering to the deity/God during festivals or for decorating
the shrine. Percentage distribution of plants into different use categories are also
illustrated in Fig.5.8.1.
(i) Out of the 19 plant species used in the sites to enhance aesthetic beauty, Polyalthia
longifolia Benth & Hook. f. ex. Hook. f (Debdaru), Artabotrys odoratissimus
Blume.(Kanthali Champa), Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj), Jasminum pubescens Buch.-
Ham. ex Wall. (Belphool), Quisqualis indica Blanco. (Madhabilata), Nerium indicum
Mill. (Karabi), Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam. (Rangan) and Cestrum nocturnum Lam.
(Hashnahana) are remarkable.
Only 1 species i.e., Canna glauca L. v. angusta (Kalabati) was found getting used in
fencing or demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the site.
(ii) Out of a total 8 fruit-bearing plant species, Psidium guajava L. (Peyara), Carica
papaya L. (Pepe), Citrus decumana L.(Batabi Lebu), Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol),
Artrocarpus integrifolia L. f. (Kanthal) and Phoenix Sylverstris Roxb. (Khejur) etc.
deserve mention.
Chapter 5: Results
229
(iii) Out of a total of 6 shade-giving species recorded, Mangifera indica Blume (Aam),
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem,) Albizzia lebbek Benth (Sirish) in large numbers,
Mimusops elengi Boj. (Bakul) and Ficus hispida L. f. (Kakdumur) deserve mention.
(iv) Only 1 plant species could be found which are used as vegetable, viz. Momordica
charantia L. (Karala).
(v) An area within the premises was specifically earmarked and prepared for undertaking
cultivation of medicinal plants, especially the anti-diabetic plants to convey the
benevolence to mankind. This is one of the most remarkable aspects of man-plant
relationship borne by the Nirankaris.
4. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: The taxonomic
analysis reveals that there are 18 dicotyledonous families having 26 genera and 28
species and 3 monocotyledonous families having 4 genera and 4 species. This shows
representation by 86.67% dicots and 13.33% monocots at generic level and 87.50%
dicots and 12.50% monocots at species level. Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms each
represenst 4.35% of the total vascular plants sustained [Table 5.8.5]. Percentage
distribution of vascular plants in different taxa has also been diagrammatically shown
[Fig. 5.8.2 & 5.8.3(a) to (c)].
Out of the 18 dicotyledonous families recorded, Annonaceae, Leguminosae and
Rubiaceae have the highest number of genera, followed by Cucurbitaceae. Highest
number of species has also been noted in each case of Annonaceae, Leguminosae &
Rubiaceae, followed by Cucurbitaceae.
Out of 3 monocotyledonous families recorded, Palmae has the highest number of genera
and species.
There is only1 family each from Gymnosperm and Pteridophyta. Incidentally both have
having one genus and one species at their disposal.
.
Chapter 5: Results
230
Table 5.8.1 (a): Details of study sites of Nirankari temple.
Sl No.
Date of visit
Name of site Esta-blished on
Address Area Key infor-mant
1. 02/05/2004 & 25/12/2009
Sant Nirankari Mandal Satsang
1947 119, Bidhan Nagar, Picnic Garden, Kolkata -39
5 bigha
Arjun Singh
Table 5.8.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship:
Site No.
Study Site
No. of water-bodies within the premises
No. of regular
residents at the temple
No. of visiting devotees (approximate)
Regular During festivals
46 Sant Nirankari Mandal Satsang
0 4 200 (Wed)-2000 (on Sundays)
3000
Table 5.8.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Nirankari temple:
Family Species Local Name
Remarks Occurrence
DICOT
One
temple
(Site
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume. Aam S
Anonaceae Anona squamosa Delile.
Polyalthia longifolia Benth &
Hook. f. ex. Hook.f
Artabotrys odoratissimus
Blume.
Ata
Debdaru
Kanthali
champa
S
Or
Or
Apocynaceae Nerium indicum Mill. Karabi Or
Chapter 5: Results
231
Cucurbitaceae Cephalandra indica Naud.
Momordica charantia
Descourt.
Telakochu
Karala
Wd
V
No. 46)
Combretaceae Quisqualis indica Blanco. Madhobila
ta
Or
Labiateae Ocimum sanctum L. Tulsi Or
Leguminosae Albizzia lebbek Benth.
Clitoria ternatea L.
Xylia dolabriformis Benth.
Sirish
Aparajita
Iron wood
(tree of
Burma)
S
Fl, Or
Or
Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Jaba Fl, Or
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A. Juss Neem S
Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L. Peyara F
Oleaceae Jasminum pubescens Buch.-
Ham. ex Wall.
Belphul
Fl, Or
Passifloraceae Carica papaya L. Pepe F
Rosaceae Rosa chinensis Jacq. Golap Fl, Or
Rubiaceae Gardenia florida L.
Ixora coccinea Comm. ex
Lam.
Mussaenda erythrophylla
Schum. et Thonn ‘Rosea’..
Gandharaj
Rangan
Musanda
Fl, Or
Or
Or
Rutaceae Citrus decumana L.
Citrus medica L.
Batabilebu
Lebu
F
F
Sapotaceae Mimusops elengi Boj. Bakul S
Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum Lam. Hashnaha
na
Or
Urticaceae Artrocarpus integrifolia L. f.
Ficus elastic Roxb. ’Décor’
Kanthal
Rabar bot
F
Or
Chapter 5: Results
232
Ficus hispida L. f.
(Rubber)
Kakdumur
S, Or
MONOCOT
Cannaceae Canna glauca L. var angusta Kalabati Ls
Palmae Cocos nucifera L.
Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.
Narkol
Khejur
F, Or
F, Or
Scitamineae Musa paradisiaca L.var
prospec. C. Jeffrey
Kala F
GYMNOSPERM
Cupressaceae Juniperus chinensis var
pyramidalis
Jhau
Or
PTERIDOPHYTA
Marsileaceae Masilea quadrifolia Sushni sak Wd
Legend : Con pl – Conserved plant; D. tol – Drought tolerant; Eco – Plant having economic importance to the Trustee/board etc; F – Fruit yielding; Fl – Flowering plant used by devotees for offerings; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc; Med – Medicinal; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; S – Shade giving; Sc – Sacred; Sd- Seed utilised; V – Vegetable yielding; Wd – Weed
Table 5.8.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Nirankari Temple:
SITE NO. (46) No. of Plant genera 32 No. of Plant species 34 Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.063 No. of Gymnosperms Species 01 No. of Monocot families 03 No. of Dicot families 18 No. of monocot at genera level 04 No. of dicot at genera level 26 No. of monocot at species level 04 No. of dicot at species level 28
Chapter 5: Results
233
Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level 1 : 7 Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 6.5 Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 6 Name of the family having maximum number of species (in chronological order)
Anonaceae, Leguminosae & Rubiaceae
Table 5.8.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Nirankari Temple:
SITE NO. (46) 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)
06 (17.64%)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)
01 (2.94%)
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)
19 (55.88%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples (% of total species)
0
3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)
01 (2.94%)
4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits (% of total species)
08 (23.53%)
5. No. of species used as source of consumable seeds (% of total species)
0
6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc. (% of total species)
0
7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal (% of total species)
02 (5.88%)
Total 34
Fig. 5.8
Lgendsbeauty, 7 – See
Table
Va
Pterid Total Gymn Total Angioa) Mo
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
8.1: Percent differe
Nirankari r
s for the ch4- Offering
eds used; 8
5.8.4: Stati
ascular placoncerned
dophyta
nosperms
osperms nocot
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1
C
tage distribent use cate
religious sit
harts abovegs to deity/d8- Source of
istical analy
ants d F
2 3 4
hapter 5: Re
234
bution of plegories.
te : Utilitari
Fig. 5.8.1
: 1 – Shadedecoration, f income of
ysis of plan
No. of Families
1M
1C
3 CP
4 5 6
esults
lants of Nir
ian account
-giving, 2 –5-Vegs. yief Trustees,
nt wealth.
Details ofamily
Marsileacea
Cupressacea
CannaceaePalmae
6 7 8
rankari Te
of plants
– fencing, 3 elding, 6- Fr
9 – Others.
of No. gene
ae
ae
9
mple in
– Aestheticruit-bearing.
of era
No. ospecie
1 1
1 1
1 2
Series1
c g
of es
1 1
1 1
1 2
Chapter 5: Results
235
Scitamineae 1 1 Total 4 4 b) Dicot 18 Anacardiaceae 1 1 Anonaceae 3 3 Apocynaceae 1 1 Cucurbitaceae 2 2 Combretaceae 1 1 Labiateae 1 1 Leguminosae 3 3 Malvaceae 1 1 Meliaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 1 1 Oleaceae 1 1 Passifloraceae 1 1 Rosaceae 1 1 Rubiaceae 3 3 Rutaceae 1 2 Sapotaceae 1 1 Solanaceae 1 1 Urticaceae 2 3 Total 26 28
Table 5.8.5: Summary of Plant wealth of Nirankari Temple:
Vascular
Plants Families Genera Species
concerned Number % Number % Number % 1. Pteridophyta 1 4.35 1 3.13 1 2.94 2.Gymnosperms 1 4.35 1 3.13 1 2.94 3. Angiosperms 21 91.30 30 93.75 32 94.12 a) Monocot 3 14.29 4 13.33 4 12.50 b) Dicot 18 85.71 26 86.67 28 87.50
Fig.
Fig
(a)
. 5.8.2: Per
Legen
g 5.8.3(a)- (
family –w
centage Di
d: 1 - Fern
(c): Percen Temple
wise
L
1
2
C
stribution o
ns , 2 -Gym
tage Distrie:
(b) gen
Legend: 1-
hapter 5: Re
236
of Vascular
mnosperm Fig. 5.8.2
bution of m
nera-wise
Fig. 5.8.3
- monocot
esults
r plants in
ms and 3 -
2
monocots an
t, 2- dicot
1
2
Nirankari
Angiospe
nd dicots a
(c) specie
.
1
2
3
Temple:
erms.
at Nirankar
es-wise
1
2
ri
Chapter 5: Results
237
5.9 SYNAGOGUES
5.9.1 Tenets:
Judaism is the religion, philosophy and way of life of the Jewish people. Jews compose
an ethno religious group which includes those born as Jewish and follow Judaism. In
2010, the world Jewish population was estimated to be 13.4 million, i.e., roughly 0.2% of
the total world population. About 42% of all Jews reside in Israel and nearly 42% reside
in the United States and Canada, with most of the remainder living in Europe. In India
Jews happen to be a religious minority.
Judaism was one of the first foreign religions to arrive in India in recorded history. The
better-established ancient communities have assimilated a large number of local
traditions through cultural diffusion. Of the total Jewish population in India, about half
live in Manipur and Mizoram and a quarter live in the city of Mumbai. Unlike many parts
of the world, Jews have historically lived in India without any instances of antisemitism
from the local majority populace, the Hindus. The Jews settled in Kodungallur
(Cranganore) on the Malabar Coast, where they traded peacefully, until 1524. Jews have
held important positions under Indian (Hindu) Princes in the past and even after
independence from British Rule, have risen to very high positions in the government,
military and industry. In addition to Jewish expatriates and recent immigrants, there are
five native Jewish communities in India, viz., (I )The Cochin Jews ( arrived in India
2,500 years ago and settled down in Kerala as traders), (2) The Bene Israel ( arrived in
the state of Maharashtra 2,100 years ago), (3) The Baghdadi Jews ( arrived in the city
Mumbai from Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan, and Arab countries about 250 years ago), (4)
The Bnei Menashe ( Mizo and Kuki tribesmen in Manipur and Mizoram who claim
descent from the tribe of Manasseh) and (5)The Bene Ephraim (also called "Telugu
Jews", a small group who speak Telugu; their observance of Judaism dates to 1981).
As one of the oldest monotheistic religions originating in the Hebrew Bible (also known
as the ‘Tanakh’) and exploring in later texts such as the Talmud, Judaism is considered
by religious Jews to be the expression of the covenantal relationship that God established
with the Children of Israel. Judaism claims a historical continuity spanning more than
3,000 years. Unlike other ancient Near Eastern Gods, the Hebrew God is portrayed as
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unitary and solitary; consequently, the Hebrew God's principal relationships are not with
other Gods, but with the world, and more specifically, with the people He created.
According to the Hebrew Bible, God promised Abraham to make of his offspring a great
nation. Many generations later, he commanded the nation of Israel to love and worship
only one God;
Core beliefs:
The most popular formulation is Maimonides' thirteen principles of faith, developed in
the 12th century. According to Maimonides, any Jew who rejects even one of these
principles would be considered an apostate and a heretic. Thirteen Principles of Faith that
Jews have to swear are:
1. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the Creator
and Guide of everything that has been created; He alone has made, does make,
and will make all things.
2. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is One, and that
there is no unity in any manner like His, and that He alone is our God, who was,
and is, and will be.
3. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, has no body,
and that He is free from all the properties of matter, and that there can be no
(physical) comparison to Him whatsoever.
4. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, is the first and
the last.
5. I believe with perfect faith that to the Creator, Blessed be His Name, and to Him
alone, it is right to pray, and that it is not right to pray to any being besides Him.
6. I believe with perfect faith that all the words of the prophets are true.
7. I believe with perfect faith that the prophecy of Moses our teacher, peace be upon
him, was true, and that he was the chief of the prophets, both those who preceded
him and those who followed him.
8. I believe with perfect faith that the entire Torah that is now in our possession is
the same that was given to Moses our teacher, peace be upon him.
9. I believe with perfect faith that this Torah will not be exchanged, and that there
will never be any other Torah from the Creator, Blessed be His Name.
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10. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, knows all the
deeds of human beings and all their thoughts, as it is written, "Who fashioned the
hearts of them all, Who comprehends all their actions" (Psalms 33:15).
11. I believe with perfect faith that the Creator, Blessed be His Name, rewards those
who keep His commandments and punishes those that transgress them.
12. I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah; and even though he may
tarry, nonetheless, I wait every day for his coming.
13. I believe with perfect faith that there will be a revival of the dead at the time when
it shall please the Creator, Blessed be His name, and His mention shall be exalted
for ever and ever.
Synagogues are Jewish houses of prayer and study. Some traditional features of a
synagogue are:
(i) The ark where the Torah scrolls are kept (the ark is often closed with an
ornate curtain outside or inside the ark doors);
(ii) The elevated reader's platform where the Torah is read;
(iii)The eternal light, a continually lit lamp or lantern used as a reminder of the
constantly lit menorah of the Temple in Jerusalem
(iv) The pulpit, or amud, a lectern facing the Ark where the ‘hazzan’ or prayer
leader stands while praying.
A Sefer Torah is a handwritten copy of the Torah or Pentateuch, the holiest book within
Judaism. It must meet extremely strict standards of production. The Torah scroll is
mainly used in the ritual of Torah reading during Jewish services. At other times, it is
stored in the holiest spot within a synagogue, the Aron Kodesh ("Holy Ark"), which is
usually an ornate curtained-off cabinet or section of the synagogue built along the wall
that most closely faces Jerusalem, the direction Jews face when praying.
Torah reading from a sefer Torah is traditionally reserved for Monday and Thursday
mornings, as well as for Shabbat and Jewish holidays.
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5.9.2 Jewish festivals, ethics, customs and rituals: Jewish ethical practice is typically
understood to be marked by values such as justice, truth, peace, loving-kindness,
compassion, humility, and self-respect. Specific Jewish ethical practices include practices
of charity and refraining from negative speech.
Traditionally, Jews recite prayers three times daily, Shacharit, Mincha, and Ma'ariv with
a fourth prayer (Mussaf) added on Shabbat and holidays. At the heart of each service is
the Amidah or Shemoneh Esrei. Another key prayer in many services is the declaration of
faith, the Shema Yisrael (or Shema). The Shema is the recitation of a verse from the
Torah Deuteronomy 6:4): Shema Yisrael Adonai Eloheinu Adonai Echad—"Hear, O
Israel! The Lord is our God! The Lord is One!"
Most of the prayers in a traditional Jewish service can be recited in solitary prayer,
although communal prayer is preferred. Communal prayer requires a quorum of ten adult
Jews, called a minyan. In nearly all Orthodox and a few Conservative circles, only male
Jews are counted toward a minyan; most Conservative Jews and members of other Jewish
denominations count female Jews as well.
Dietary laws: kashrut: The Jewish dietary laws are known as kashrut. Food prepared in
accordance with them is termed kosher, and food that is not kosher is also known as
treifah or treif. People who observe these laws are colloquially said to be "keeping
kosher".
Jewish holy days (chaggim), celebrate landmark events in Jewish history, such as the
Exodus from Egypt and the giving of the Torah, and sometimes mark the change of
seasons and transitions in the agricultural cycle. The three major festivals, Sukkot,
Passover and Shavuot, are called "regalim" (derived from the Hebrew word "regel", or
foot). On the three regalim, it was customary for the Israelites to make pilgrimages to
Jerusalem to offer sacrifices in the Temple.
Passover (Pesach) is a week-long holiday beginning on the evening of the 14th day of
Nisan (the first month in the Hebrew calendar), that commemorates the Exodus from
Egypt.
Shavuot ("Pentecost" or "Feast of Weeks") celebrates the revelation of the Torah to the
Israelites on Mount Sinai. Also known as the Festival of Bikurim, or first fruits, it
coincided in biblical times with the wheat harvest. Jews celebrate this festival by reading
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the Book of Ruth, decorating homes and synagogues with greenery, and wearing white
clothing, symbolizing purity.
Sukkot ("Tabernacles" or "The Festival of Booths") commemorates the Israelites' forty
years of wandering through the desert on their way to the Promised Land. It is celebrated
through the construction of temporary booths called sukkot that represent the temporary
shelters of the Israelites during their wandering. It coincides with the fruit harvest, and
marks the end of the agricultural cycle. Jews around the world eat in sukkot for seven
days and nights. Sukkot concludes with Shemini Atzeret, where Jews begin to pray for
rain and Simchat Torah, "Rejoicing of the Torah", a holiday which marks reaching the
end of the Torah reading cycle and beginning all over again. The occasion is celebrated
with singing and dancing with the Torah scrolls. Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah are
technically considered to be a separate holiday and not a part of Sukkot.
Other than above, Jews celebrate Rosh Hashanah ("Day of Remembrance"), Yom Kippur
("Day of Atonement") Purim and Hanukkah (known as the Festival of Lights). Holiday
customs include reciting prayers, blowing the shofar, or ram's horn, in the synagogue,
eating apples and honey, and saying blessings over a variety of symbolic foods, such as
pomegranates.
5.9.3 Plants associated with Judaism: Four different species of plants which are known
to have symbolic significance during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot, a citron, a palm
branch, three myrtle twigs and two willow branches. In Leviticus 23:40, which comes
directly after a discussion of Sukkot, the Torah tells us: "On the first day you shall take
the product of hadar trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of
the brook, and you shall rejoice before Adonai your God seven days."
During Sukkot the four species are brought together in the form of an etrog and the lulav.
The etrog is a kind of citron, while the lulav is a composed of three myrtle twigs
(hadassim), two willow twigs (aravot) and a palm frond (lulav). Because the palm frond
is the largest of these plants, the myrtle and willow are wrapped around it.
The Four Species are waved together along with special blessings as part of the
synagogue service during Sukkot. They can also be waved at home or near the sukkah.
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Traditionally the Four Species are not waved on Shabbat because doing so would violate
the prohibition against carrying things during the sabbath.
Olives have made an indelible impression on the Jewish soul and on the customs and
writings of the Jewish people. According to the Bible, olives were cultivated in the land
we now call Israel even before the settlement of the Israelites. (Deuteronomy 6:11).
Olives are one of the seven “native” fruits with which the land of Israel is blessed. In
Deuteronomy 8:8, the definition of a good land is given as: such a land is one in which
there is sufficient water to sustain wheat, barley, vines (grapevines), fig trees,
pomegranates, olive oil and honey.
Jews mark the day of Tu B’Shevat by eating fruit, particularly from the kinds that are
singled out by the Torah in its praise of the bounty of the Holy Land: grapes, figs,
pomegranates, olives and dates. On this day Jews remember that “man is a tree of the
field” (Deuteronomy 20:19).
5.9.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites: The findings having
significant bearing on man-plant relationship are mentioned below:
1. Site characteristics: Of the two concerned sites one is total area of 130 Sft. (12.08
Sqm.) and the other has 26.23 Cottah of land (i.e. 55.17 Sq m.). No water-body was
found in any of these sites. Each Synagogue has 4 residents comprising of caretakers and
other associates (non- Jews) mainly to look after the daily affairs of the Synagogues,
security and maintenance of structures and adjoining gardens. 4 to 5 devotees are usually
found on every Jews Holidays, but during major festivals the number rises to 25 or more
[Table 5.9.1 (a) & (b)].
2. Taxonomic documentation: The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the
latter to the former being 1 : 3.67 at the family level, 1 : 3.5 at the genric level and 1 :
3.75 at the species level [Table 5.9.2(b)]. The two religious sites of Jews of Kolkata have
a total of 20 distinct plant species out of which 17 species are contributed by Maghen
David Synagogue. Bethel Synagogue, though having very small open area, has 8 species
at its disposal. Species like Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam), Azadirachta indica A.Juss.,
Carica papaya L., Citrus decumana L., Bentinckia nicobarica Becc. are shared by both
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the sites. Furthermore it is to note that proportion of genera to species was found to be 1
: 1.053 in comparison to 1 : 7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4
for West Bengal.
Gymnospermous plants Juniperus chinensis var pyramidalis could be found in
the garden of Maghen David Synagogue.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : In the synagogue studies the plants used
for ornamentation and generation of aesthetic pleasure dominate the scenario with as
many as 47.37% of the total number of species [Table 5.9.3]. The fruit-bearing and
Shade-giving plants have shares of 31.58% and 15.79% respectively. Other decorative
plants which are used for fencing and interior demarcations of passages and blocks inside
the premises contribute 5.26% of the total species found. Percentage distribution of plants
according to their utility are also graphically represented [Fig. 5.9. 3].
(i) Out of total 9 plant species being used to enhance aesthetic beauty of the premises, 7
are found in Maghen David Synagogue. Lawsonia alba Lam. (Mehendi) is found in the
Maghen David Synagogue which used for fencing or demarcating gardens, roads etc.
inside the premises.
(ii) Out of 6 fruit- bearing plants 5 are found at Maghen David Synagogue.
(iii) There are 3 shade-giving plants in all Azadirecta indica A. Juss (Neem) and
Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) are found in both the sites.
(iv) No vegetable yielding plants were found to be sustained in these religious sites.
4. Association with sacred plants: Punica granatum L. (Pomegranate) mentioned in
several religious texts of Jews is sustained in Maghen David Synagogue [Table 5.9.4].
5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: A statistical
analysis of plant-diversity associated with synagogues reveals 11 dicotyledonous families
represented by 14 genera and 15 species and 3 monocotyledonous families having
representation in form of 4 genera and 4 species [Table 5.9.6]. This represents 77.78%
dicots and 22.22% monocots at genus level and 78.95% dicots and 21.05% monocots at
species level. There is no Pteridophyte in any of the sites. Gymnosperms prevail in the
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form of only one family, genus and species which constitute 6.67% of the total vascular
plants in the study sites. Percentage Distribution of different Vascular plants along with
the distribution of monocots and dicots at family, genus and species level are also figured
[Fig.5.2.2 and Fig. 5.2.3(a), (b) and (c)].
Out of total 11 dicotyledonous families, Annonaceae, Myrrtaceae and Lythraceae has
has two genera and two species while each of eight remaining family has a single genus.
Out of the 3 monocotyledonous families recorded, two is monogenic with single
species while Liliaceae has 2 genera and 2 species.
Table 5.9.1 (a): Details of study sites of Synagogues.
Sl No.
Date of visit
Name of site
Esta-blished on
Address Area Key infor-mant
1 14/6/2003 Bethel Synagogue
26/1 Pollock Street, Kolkata-1
130 Sft. David Nahoame (Secretary)
2 14/6/2003 Maghen David Synagogue
1884 109A Biplabi Rash Behari Bose Street, Kolkata.
26.23 Cottah
David Nahoame
Table 5.9.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship:
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies
within the premises
No. of regular
residents at the temple
No. of visiting devotees (approximate)
Regular During festivals
12 Bethel Synagogue
0 4 4-5 on Holidays
25
13 Maghen David Synagogue
0 4 4-5 on Holidays
25
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Table 5.9.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in all Synagogues:
Family Species Local Name
Remarks Occurr- ence (Site Nos.)
DICOT Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume Aam S 12, 13
Anonaceae Anona squamosa Delile.
Artabotrys odoratissimus
Blume.
Ata
Kanthali
champa
S
Or
13
12
Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana
coronaria Willd.
Tagar Or 12
Labiateae Ocimum sanctum L. Tulsi Or 13
Lythraceae Lawsonia alba Lam.
Punica granatum L.
Mehendi
Dalim
Ls
Or
13
13
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Neem S 12, 13
Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L.
Syzygium cumini Skeels.
Peyara
Jam
F
F
13
13
Passiflorae Carica papaya L. Pepe F 12, 13
Rubiaceae Gardenia florida L. Gandhar
aj
Or 13
Rutaceae Citrus aurantium L.
Citrus decumana L.
Lebu
Batabi
Lebu
F
F
13
12, 13
Urticaceae Artocarpus integrifolia L. f. Kanthal F 12
MONOCOT
Liliaceae Aloe abyssinica Lam.
Yucca aloifolia L.
Ghritaku
mari
Cactus
Or
Or
13
13
Palmae Bentinckia nicobarica Becc. Palm Or 12, 13
Scitamineae Ravenala madagascariensis
J.F Gmel.
Panthap
adap
Or 13
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GYMNOSPERM
Cupressaceae Juniperus chinensis var
pyramidalis
Jhau
Or
13
Table 5.9.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Synagogues:
SITE NO. (12) (13) All Sites No. of Plant genera 08 16 19 No. of Plant species 08 17 20 Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1 1 : 1.063 1 : 1.053 No. of Gymnosperms Species 0 01 01 No. of Monocot families 01 03 03 No. of Dicot families 07 09 11 No. of monocot at genera level 01 03 04 No. of dicot at genera level 07 11 14 No. of monocot at species level 01 04 04 No. of dicot at species level 07 12 15 Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level
1 : 7 1 : 3 1 : 3.75
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level 1 : 7 1 : 3.67 1 : 3.5 Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level 1 : 7 1 : 3 1 : 3.67 Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites
Mangifera indica Linn. (Aam), Azadirecta indica L., Carica papaya L., Citrus decumana L., Bentinckia nicobarica
Name of the site on which thrives maximum no. of species
Site No. 13 (Maghen David Synagogue) : Total 16
species
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Table 5.9.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in all Synagogues
SITE NO. (12) (13) All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species
02 (25.00%)
03 (18.75%)
03 (15.79%)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc.
0 01 (6.25%)
01 (5.26%)
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty
03 (37.50%)
07 (43.75%)
09 (47.37%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples
0 0 0
3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables
0 0 0
4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruits.
03 (37.50%)
05 (31.25%)
06 (31.58%)
6. No. of species used as source of consumable seeds.
0 0 0
6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc.
0 0 0
7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal
0 0 0
Total 08 16 19
Fig.
use
Leg5-V
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
. 5.9.1(a) –(
categories
ends for theegs. yielding
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
1 3
(e): Percent
.
Fig. 5.9.1
e charts abog, 6- Fruit-be
3 5 7 9
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
C
tage distrib
(a)
ve: 1 – Shadearing 7 – Se
Series
0.00%
5.00%
10.00%
15.00%
20.00%
25.00%
30.00%
35.00%
40.00%
45.00%
50.00%
1 2
hapter 5: Re
248
bution of pl
Fig. 5.9.1
de-giving, 2 –eeds used
s1
1
2
3
4
5
2 3 4 5 6
esults
lants of all
Fig. 5.
(c)
– fencing, 3 –8- Source of
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
1 3
7 8 9 10
Synagogue
.9.1(b)
– Aesthetic bf income of
3 5 7 9
Series
e sites in di
beauty, 4- OfTrustees 9 –
Series
s1
fferent
fferings – Others:
s1
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249
Table 5.9.4 : Prevalence of plants considered sacred or associated with the Jews beliefs and taboos.
Name of Plants considered sacred by the Jews No. of Sites (Site Nos. are in bracket)
1. Punica granatum L. (Pomegranates) 1 (13) 22)
Table 5.9.5: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.
Vascular Plants concerned
No. of Families
Details of family
No. of genera
No. of species
Pteridophyta 0 Total 0 0 Gymnosperms 1 Cupressaceae 1 1 Total 1 1 Angiosperms a) Monocot 3 Liliaceae 2 2 Palmae 1 1 Scitamineae 1 1 Total 4 4 b) Dicot 11 Anacardiaceae 1 1 Anonaceae 2 2 Apocynaceae 1 1 Labiateae 1 1 Lythraceae 2 2 Meliaceae 1 1 Myrtaceae 2 2 Passiflorae 1 1 Rubiaceae 1 1 Rutaceae 1 2 Urticaceae 1 1 Total 14 15
Table 5.9
VasPl
conc
1. Ferns
2.Gymn
3. Angio
a) Mono
b) Dicot
Fig.5.9.2
Leg
9.6: Summa
scular ants cerned
s
osperms
osperms
ocot
: Percentag
gend: 1 - F
C
ary of Plan
Famil
Number
0
1
14
3
11
ge Distribu
Ferns , 2 -G
hapter 5: Re
250
nt wealth of
lies
%
0.00
6.67
93.33
21.43
78.57
ution of Vas
Fig. 5.9.2
Gymnospe
esults
f Synagogu
Gener
Number
0
1
18
4
14
scular plan
2
erms and
ues:
ra
% N
0.00
5.26
94.74
22.22
77.78
nts in Synag
3 - Angio
1
2
3
Species
Number
0
1
19 9
4 2
15 7
gogues:
sperms.
%
0.00
5.00
5.00
1.05
8.95
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251
Fig. 5.9.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Synagogues:
(a) family –wise (b) genera-wise (c) species-wise
Fig. 5.9.3
Legend: 1- monocot, 2- dicot.
Plate No. 5.9.1: A view of the Maghen David Synagogue
1
2
1
2
1
2
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5.10. TEMPLES & CREMATORIUMS
5.10.1 Tenets:
Hinduism, with about one billion followers, is the world's third largest religion, after
Christianity and Islam. Hinduism is a major religion in India and according to the 2001
Census, Hinduism was followed by around 960 million adherents which is about 80.5%
of our country's population of 1.21 billion (2012 estimate).
The word "Hindu" comes from the name of the river Indus, which flows 1800 miles from
Tibet through Kashmir and Pakistan to the sea. Hinduism is formed of diverse traditions
and has no single founder, nor any prophets. Hinduism does not have a "unified system of
belief encoded in declaration of faith or a creed", but is rather an umbrella term
comprising the practices of a variety of different religions originating and based on the
Vedic traditions. Hinduism includes Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Śrauta among numerous
other traditions. It also includes the ‘Kapalikas’ (a sect, worshiper of goddess Kali and
once used to sacrifice live human body before The deity).
Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta
(conclusion of the Veda). Most Hindu traditions revere a body of religious or sacred
literature, the Vedas, mainly comprised of hyms or mantras written in the Sanskrit
language. The oldest Veda is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE. The Vedas center
on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Homa (Yagna) ritual
(Fire-sacrifices with chanting of Vedic mantras). There are two main categories of the
Hindu scriptures. One is ‘Shruti’ (that which is heard) consists of the four Vedas and
Upanishads and other is ‘Smriti’ (that which is remembered) composed of traditional
texts, including the Dharma Shastras (legal and ethical texts), the Puranas, and the
folk/historical legends known as the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
Hindus believe in a universal soul or God called ‘Bramha’. ‘Bramha’ takes on many
forms that some Hindus worship as gods or goddesses. The three most important forms of
Bramha are ‘Bramha’ (known as the Creator), ‘Vishnu’ (known as the Preserver) and
‘Shiva’ (or Siva, known as the Destroyer). Hindus believe that there is a part of Bramha
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in everyone and this is called the ‘Atma’ (Soul). Hindus believe in reincarnation - a belief
that the soul is eternal and lives many lifetimes, in one body after another. The soul is
sometimes born in a human body, sometimes in an animal body and sometimes in a plant
body etc. Hindus believe that all forms of life contain a soul, and all souls have the
chance to experience life in different forms. Hindus believe that the soul passes through a
cycle of successive lives and its next incarnation is always dependent on how the
previous life was lived. ‘Karma’ is the cause of our particular destiny. Misfortunes in our
present life are the result of acts that we have committed in the past. In the same way, our
actions in our present lives will determine our fate in the lives that follow. Hindus
therefore aim to live in a way that will cause each of their lives to be better than the life
before.
For many Hindus there are four goals in human life (‘Purushartha’) : ‘Moksha’,
‘Dharma’, ‘Artha’ and ‘Karma’. The spiritual goal of a Hindu is to merge one’s soul
(‘Atma’) with the universal soul ‘Brahma’. This freedom of soul from ‘Samsara’ (rebirth)
is referred to as ‘Moksha’. ‘Dharma’ is the code for leading one's life. ‘Artha’ is the
pursuit of material gain by lawful means. ‘Karma’ is the pure acts, knowledge and
devotion through which one can reincarnate to a higher level.
The temples (or “Mandirs”) are dedicated to different Gods and Goddesses which happen
to focus the form of religious life. The building at which Hindus perform communal
worship is called ‘Mandir’ (Hindu Temple). Worshippers repeat the names of their
worshipped Gods, Goddesses, and the Mantras. Most Hindus worship (perform Puja)
every day at home and have a shrine there. A shrine can be anything from a room, a small
altar or simply pictures or statues. Devout Hindus perform daily chores at dawn after
bathing which usually includes lighting a lamp and incense, offering foodstuffs before the
images of deities and recitation from religious scripts, singing devotional hymns,
meditation, chanting mantras, reciting scriptures etc. Family members often worship
together. At the shrine, Hindus make offerings to a ‘Murti’. A ‘Murti’ is a sacred statue
of God, or a god or goddess. But these observations of rituals greatly vary among regions,
villages, and individuals.
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5.10.2. Festivals: Hinduism has many festivals throughout the year. The festivals
typically celebrate events from Hindu mythology, often coinciding with seasonal changes
Some widely observed Hindu festivals are : Maha Shivaratri, Pongal, Holi, Vasant
Panchami, Thaipusam, Ram Navami, Krishna Janmastami, Ganesh Chaturthi, Shigmo,
Dussera, Durga Puja, Diwali, Gudi Padwa, Ugadi, Bihu, Bonalu, Rath Yatra, Guru
Purnima, Raksha Bandhan, Onam, Gowri Habba, Chhath.
5.10.3 Plants associated with Hinduism: From time immemorial Hindus have
worshipped trees, tied sacred threads, held social ceremonies around them, offered water,
milk and sometimes even cow-dung as part of the rituals. Tulsi leaf (Ocimum sanctum L.)
is considered most sacred by Hindus. Every day the ground near it is covered with a layer
of cow-dung and in the evening a lamp is lit near it. It is a common custom to place a
sprig of Ocimum sanctum L. near the head of a dying person and two of its leaves on the
eyes after death. Some of the important trees and plants associated with God or Goddess
as found in the ‘Puranas’ are Aswatha (Ficus religiosa Decne.ex Miq.), Fig tree (Ficus
hispida L.f.), Chandramallika (Chrysanthemum coronarium L.), Naga Keshara (Mesua
ferrea L.), Ashoka (Saraca indica L.), Bokul (Mimusops elengi Boj.), Champaka
(Michela champaca L.), Vata (Ficus benghalensis L.), Sri-phala/Bel (Aegle marmelos
Correa.), Kadam (Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.), Phanimanasha (Opuntia dillenii Haw.)
Kusha Grass (Poa cynosuroides Retz.) and Durva Grass (Agrostis linearis Retz.) etc. In
Sanskrit, the name for the coconut palm "Kalpa vriksha", which means "the tree which
provides all the necessities of life" or "wish-fulfilling tree". The coconut tree Cocos
nucifera L. is given a special place in most Hindu households and great care is taken to
nurture the tree. To break a coconut in the beginning of any event is considered to be very
auspicious by the Hindus. A "Purnakumbha" is a pot filled with water and topped with
fresh mango leaves (Mangifera indica Blume.) and a coconut and considered to be the
"staphna" of the puja. The pot symbolizes Mother Earth, water is the life giver, coconut
the divine consciousness and the mango leaves symbolizes life. The whole
"Purnakumbha" symbolizes Goddess Lakshmi and good fortune. The Neem tree
(Azadirachta indica A.Juss.), besides having various medicinal benefits is a highly
revered tree among the Hindus. In Bengal, Neem is considered to be the tree which is the
Chapter 5: Results
255
abode of "Sitala" (the great Pox-mother goddess who can cause or cure this disease as
believed). The customary treatment of pox is therefore to rub the body with Neem leaves
while making prayers to Sitala. It is also said that the smoke of burning Neem protects
both the living and the dead from evil spirits. Leaves of Kakdumur (Ficus hispida L.f.) is
part of offerings into “Hom”, with chanting of mantras while performing puja and in
Hindu marriage and thread ceremony. Haldi ( Curcuma longa L.) is used in almost every
puja and auspicious occasion. Tamal (Garcenia xanthochymus Hook. f & T. Anderson.)
is one of the five sacred trees grown together called “Panchavati”, comprising of Bel,
Kadam, Neem, Tamal and Ashok. A vast number of Hindu women observe ‘Vratas’ ( a
kind of observance of rituals through fasting) on many occasions or Hindu festivals.
Some of such ‘Vratas’ are directly related with the worshipping of trees or offering of a
particular plant product to the respective god or goddess [Table 5.10.1].
Table 5.10.1: An account of tree species associated with Hindu festivals and rituals:
Name of the
Tree
Related
Festival or
Vrata
Time of Celebration and Rites performed
Amala (Emblica
officinalis
Gaertn.)
Amala
Ekadasi
11th day of Phalguna Shukla; Bath with
water soaked in amala fruit; eating it;
worshipping it; and worship of Radha-
Krishna.
Amra or Mango
(Mangifera
indica Blume.)
Amra-puspa
Bhaksana
Vrata
1st day of Chaitra Shukla; Eating of mango
blossoms and worship of Kamadeva.
Asoka (Saraca
indica L.)
Asoka
Pratipada
1st day of Chaitra Shukla; Only women
worship the Tree; they also observe fast,
seeking longevity.
Bakula
(Mimusops elengi
Boj.)
Bakula
Amavasya
Bakula flowers are offered to the manes,
seeking Their blessings.
Chapter 5: Results
256
Vata (Bot) or
Bargad (Ficus
benghalensis L.)
Vata Savitri
Vrata
Jaisthya purnima or amavasya day; Having
fasted for three previous days, married
women worship the Vata tree by
circumambulating, tying with the sacred
protective thread (raksa sutra), and listening
to the sacred Savitri-Satyavan story; some
women stay awake during the night and
complete the vow feeding a brahmin; in
western parts of India, devout women
observe this vow for five consecutive years
Bilva or Bel
(Aegle marmelos
Correa.)
Bilva Tri-
ratri Vrata
On a Tuesday of Jaisthya purnima. Worship
of the Bel tree for three consecutive nights
as per Hemadri’s story depicted in the
Skanda Purana; the vow comprises bath
with water mixed with mustard seeds,
partaking of sacred ‘swattik’ food
(havisyanna), adorning the tree with two
pieces of red cloth and placing the image of
Uma-Mahesvara beneath it; ‘homa’ is
performed and 1,008 bilva leaves are
offered; Brahmins are fed.
Bilva or Bel
(Aegle marmelos
Correa.)
Sravana
Krisna
Ekadasi
Ceremonial offering of water to the Bel tree.
Bilva or Bel
(Aegle marmelos
Correa.)
Bhadra
Shukla
Chaturthi
Offering of trifoliate leaves of Bel to Lord
Ganesha.
Bilva or Bel
(Aegle marmelos
Correa.)
Bilva
Nimantrana
Aswina Shukla sasthi; Summoning the tree-
goddess and worshipping the Devi.
Bilva or Bel Bilva Aswina Shukla saptami; A twig of Bel,
Chapter 5: Results
257
(Aegle marmelos
Correa.)
Saptami bearing two fruits, is offered to Devi.
Bilva or Bel
(Aegle marmelos
Correa.)
Bilva Navami Aswina Shukla navami; Bel leaves are
offered to Siva.
Karavira or
Kaner or
Oleander
(Nerium indicum
Mill.)
Karavira
Vrata
Jaisthya Shukla prathama tithi; Kaner roots
and branches are bathed and adorned with
red cloth; offerings of seven cereals (sapta
dhanya) and fruit are made followed by
fasting; Savitri, Satyabhama and others ( in
‘Purana’) performed this when they were in
trouble.
Kadali or Kela
(Musa
paradisiaca L.)
Kadali Vrata Vaisakha, Magha or Kartika Shukla
chaturdasi. A Banana tree is planted and
nurtured till it bears fruit; wishing the
welfare of one’s family, a person should
worship the tree with flowers, fruit, etc and
circumambulate it.
Kadali or Kela
(Musa
paradisiaca L.)
Yaksa-
samantaka
Kadali Vrata
A golden Banana tree is worshipped and
offered to a brahmin on any auspicious day.
Kevada or Screw
Pine (Panadanus
odoratissimus
Blume.)
Kevada Teej Bhadra Shukla trtiya; Soliciting unbroken
married life, women offer Kevada leaves to
Lord Siva.
5.10.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites: The findings having
significant bearing on man-plant relationship are mentioned below:
1. Site characteristics: As many as 23 temples, 4 ‘Guru-ashramas’, 6 crematoriums and
one burial ground of the city which are associated with the Hindu religion were surveyed
Chapter 5: Results
258
amongst which Kalighat Temple is the largest one spread over an area of about 595 bigha
(7, 96,283 Sq m), though mostly covered by structures and little of greenery [Table
5.10.2(a)]. Other temples cover comparatively much lesser area ranging from 11 chhatak
(46 Sq. m) (Firingi Kalibari) to 10.5 bigha (14052 Sq. m) (Gopal Mandir). There are
many ‘Guru-ashramas’ in and around Kolkata worshiping Hindu deities along with the
respective ‘Gurudeva’ by establishing ‘Temple/Moth/Ashrama’ under the aegis of the
concerned religious sect or trustee or the governing body. Ram Thakur Ashram, Shri
Guru Ashram and Mahanirvan Moth belong to this category with a vast green area
around their temple structure even covering upto 100 bigha (1,33,829 Sq. m.) All the
Crematoriums or Burning Ghats, places of performance of last rites, are invariably
situated beside the Hooghly River or the “Adi Ganga”, the “Holy Ganges” of India.
Water-body was found only in five temple sites out of 27 concerned. Some temples do
not have any resident at all, but where there are residents, it ranges from 1 to 20
comprising of priest, watchman, followers and other associates. All ‘Ashramas’ have
residents ranging from 16 to 50 which includes disciples of the respective ‘Guru’.
Number of regular devotees ranges from 10 (Shibmandir at South Kolkata) to 10000
(Kalighat Temple) [Table 5.10.2(b)]. There are many festivals of Hindus and therefore,
celebration of main festival at these temples varies from date to date depending upon the
deity worshiped at the concerned temple. During festival days the number of visiting
devotees increases manifold over those on other days, to the extent of about 1,00,000 at
‘Kalighat temple’ on the day of Kalipuja, Bengali New Years Day and ‘Baro Bhuter
Mandir’ on the days of fair organized during ‘Bano-Durga Puja’ on and from 1st Magha
to 7th Magha (Bengali Calendar) (i.e. around 15th of January) each year at the temple.
2. Taxonomic documentation: A taxonomic analysis of plants sustained reveals the
dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former in Hindu temple
sites being 1 : 5.63 at the family level, 1 : 5.53 at the genus level and 1 : 6.12 at the
species level [Table 5.10.3(b)]. Proportion of genera to species found in all Hindu
temples and Crematoriums studied is found to be 1 : 1.09 in comparison to 1 : 7 for
whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4 for West Bengal.
Chapter 5: Results
259
Of all Hindu temple sites studied Mahanirvan Moth (Site No. 49) houses highest number
i.e. 65 species whereas it is Keoratala Mahasmasan (Site No. 10) amongst all crematories
which has the highest number of species, i.e. 23. Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) and
Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol), these two species are found in maximum number of temples
whereas Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq. (Aswatha) can be found in maximum number of
Burning Ghats. In respect of all 34 Hindu religious sites studied Mangifera indica Blume.
(Aam) seems to be the most dominant species.
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of Plants: The plants which enhance aesthetic
effect of the site constitute majority, i.e. about 67.48% amongst all. Next to come are the
fruit-bearing plants which constitute about 17.07% of total species recorded. Furthermore
there are 14.63% of total species, the parts of which are utilized particularly for offering
to God during festivals or considered as sacred. Shade-giving plants and vegetables
constitute 13.08% and 11.38% of the total number of species respectively. As much as
3.25% of the total plants are utilized in fencing and/or demarcating gardens, paths inside
the premises etc.[Table 5.10.4]. These findings have also been figured for temples,
crematoriums and in totality of the Hindu religious sites [Figs. 5.10.1(a) – (c)]
(i) Of the 83 decorative plant species recorded, Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (
Tagar) and Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Jaba) are found in maximum number of sites i.e.
10 out of 34. Gardenia florida L (Gandharaj) is found in 9 sites while Murraya exotica
Blanco. (Kamini) is found in 8 sites followed by Michelia champaca L. (Champa), Rosa
centrifolia L. (Golap) each in 6 sites. Other plants to have been taken care of include
those which enhance the aesthetic beauty of the place, viz. Ixora coccinea Comm. ex
Lam. (Rangan), Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Seuli), Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl.
(Baganbilash), Jasminum pubescens Buch Ham. (Belphool), Canna glauca L.
(Kalabati), Quisqualis indica Blanco (Madhabilata) and Dahlia Superflua Ait. (Dalia).
Out of 4 plant species used for fencing or demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the
premises, Jatropha gossypifolia L. (Bherenda) was found to be most commonly used.
Chapter 5: Results
260
There are 17 plant species utilized as offerings at Hindu temples of which Hibiscus rosa
sinensis L. (Jaba) is sustained in maximum number of sites (10). Hibiscus mutabilis L.
(Sthal-padma),
Malvaviscus arboreous (Lanka Jaba), Gardenia florida L. (Gandharaj), Ocimum sanctum
L. (Tulsi), Datura metel L. (Dhutura) and Butea monosperma Kuntze (Palas) are other
noteworthy species (according to usage).
(ii) Out of a total of 21 fruit-yielding species Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) and Mangifera
indica L. (Aam) are found in maximum number of sites (11). Artrocarpus integrifolia L.
f. (Kanthal), Musa paradisica L. (Kola), Aegle marmelos Correa. (Bel), Citrus decumana
L. (Batabi lebu) and Psidium guayava L. (Peyara) are also found in considerable
number of sites.
(iii) Of 16 shade-giving plant species, Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Neem), Mangifera
indica L. (Aam), Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Kadam) , Ficus benghalensis L. (Bot),
Ficus hispida L. f. (Kakdumur) and Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq.(Aswatha) are found
in most sites.
(iv) Out of a total of 14 species found useful as vegetables, Carica papaya L. (Pepe),
Colocasia antiquorum Schott. (Kachu), Murraya koenigii Spreng. (Karipata) and
Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn. (Sajina) can be placed sequentially in the order of their
prevalence in the sites.
(v) No species could be recorded from the Hindu religious sites, the seeds of which were
found getting used.
(vi) Economically important species like Swietenia mahagoni L. (Mahagony) and Shorea
robusta A. Dc. (Sal) were found sustained in some of the sites. Obnoxious Parthenium
hysterophorus L. (Parthenium) was found in huge number in one ‘Ram Thakur Ashrama’
and Papaver somniferum L. (Aafim gaach), used as drug/narcotics, was found in one
Shibmandir, though open cultivation of this species is banned by the Govt.
4. Association with sacred plants: A list of 14 plants could be prepared which are
considered sacred by the Hindus [Table 5.10.5] of which Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam)
Chapter 5: Results
261
and Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) are found in most of the sites (12 and 11 sites
respectively). Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq. (Aswatha) and Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
(Neem) are found in 10 sites, Ocimum sanctum L. (Tulsi) and Musa paradisiaca L.
(Kola) in 9 sites and Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Kadam) and Aegle marmelos
Correa. (Bel) in 7 sites out of a total of 34 sites surveyed.
5. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: As many as 45
dicotyledonous families having 94 genera and 104 species and 8 monocotyledonous
families having 17 genera and 17 species could be recorded from all Hindu study sites
[Tables 5.10.7]. In the taxonomic census the dicots represents 84.68% and monocots
15.32% at generic level and 85.95% and 14.05% respectively at species level [Figs.
5.10.3 (a), (b) & (c)]. Gymnosperms represent 1.85% of the total vascular plants and not
a single pteridophyte was found getting willfully sustained [Fig. 5.10.2].
Out of 45 dicotyledonous families recorded, Leguminosae has the highest number of
genera, followed by Apocynaceae. Maximum number of species has also been noted in
case of Leguminosae, followed by that of Apocynaceae.
Out of 8 monocotyledonous families recorded, Palmae and Scitamineae has the highest
number of genera and species, followed by Gramineae.
As many as 2 families of Gymnosperms (Cupressaceae and Cycadaceae) were found to
have representation in form of 2 genera and 2 species. Thuja odorata Doi. (Bilati Jhau)
was found sustained in 4 sites and Cycas revoluta Bedd. (Fern palm) could be recorded
from only one crematorium.
Table 5.10.2(a): Details of study sites of Hindu religious activities.
Sl No.
Date of visit
Name of the site
Esta-blished on
Address Area Key informant
1. 22/05/2003 Kalighat Temple
N. A. 9, Bhagabati Lane, Kolkata
595 bigha
Debu Mukherjee (Sebait)
Chapter 5: Results
262
2. 11/06/2003 Karunamoyee Mandir
N. A. 32, M.G. Road, Kolkata -82
1 bigha
N. A.
3. 14/06/2003 Keoratala Mahaswasan
N. A. 113, Tollygunge Circular Road, Kolkata -26
1.5 bigha
N. A.
4. 14/06/2003 Atharo Bari Nibashi Mohima Chandra Ray Chowdhury Swasan Mandir
1852 113/1, Tollygunge Road, Kolkata
7 cottah
Ashit Bhattacharjya
5. 03/11/2003 Firingi Kali Bari
905 (Bengali year)
244, B.B. Ganguly Street,Kolkata
11 chhatak
Bhopal Chandra Bandyopadhyay
6. 18/02/2004 Gopal Mandir 1252 Bengali
93 & 93 B, Tollygunge Road, Kolkata – 33
10.5 bigha
Amitava Mondal and Madhabilata Mondal
7. 18/02/2004 Chandi Matar Mandir
1953 (renovated)
21, K.K. Ray Chaudhuri Road, Barisha , Kolkata – 8
3 bigha
Santi Chandra Roychowdhury
8. 18/02/2004 Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir
1612 1B, Watgunge Street, Kolkata – 23
5-6 cottah
Rakhal Chandra Chakraborty (Sebait)
9. 18/02/2004 Behala Siddeswari Kali Mandir
1170 Behala, Kolkata.
3-4 cottah
Dipak Bhattacharjee
10. 18/02/ 2004
Sri Ghanteshwar Mahadeb Mandir
N. A. 274 A, B.B. Ganguly Street, Kolkata – 12
10 Cottah
N. A.
11. 18/02/2004 Ram Mandir N. A. Central Avenue
30 Cottah
N. A.
Chapter 5: Results
263
12. 02/03/2004 Sri Sri Gourango Mandir
1952 12, Gourango Mandir Road, Kolkata - 86
11 cottah
Khokon Das (Gardner)
13. 02/03/2004 Basona Kalibari
N. A. Basana Kalibari, Garia, Kolkata -86
6 cottah
Probhat Kumar Bandyopadhyay
14. 02/03/2004 Anandadham 1355 bengali
Joramandir, Kolkata - 84
7 cottah
Jyotirmoy Bandhyopadhyay (Purohit)
15. 02/03/2004 Rathtala Durgamandir
1966 265, N.S.C. Bose Road, Kolkata - 47
3 cottah
Ramanath Dey Sarkar
16. 02/03/2004 Adi Maha Swasneswar Mandir
N. A. Boral Road, Garia, Kolkata-84.
1 bigha
N. A.
17. 07/03/2004 Ram Thakur Ashram
1942 38, Central Road, Kolkata - 32
1.5 bigha
Debasish Mukhopadhyay (Purohit)
18. 07/03/2004 Bijoygarh Thakur bari
N. A. Bijoygarh Thakurbati Kolkata -32
20 cottah
N. A.
19. 07/03/2004 Baro Bhuter Mandir
1358 bengali
Bijoygarh, Kolkata -32
1 cottah 10 chatak
S.K.Bhattacharya (Purohit)
20. 07/03/2004 Bijoysree Mandir
1357 bengali
2/56A,Sri Colony, Kolkata -92
10 cottah
Binod Behari Roy
21. 07/03/2004 Ram Thakur Ashram
1970 E1/A, Baghajatin Station Road, Kolkata -86
1 bigha
Sukharanjan Chakraborty
22. 07/03/2004 Sri Guru Ashram
1960 11/2, Durga Prasanna Paramhansa Road, Naktala, Kolkata -47
3 bigha
Swami Bireshwarananda
23. 13/03/2004 Nakuleshwar 1600 9, Bhagabati 2 Ajoy
Chapter 5: Results
264
Mandir Lane, Kolkata -26
cottah Banerjee
24. 02/05/2003 Dakate Kali Bari
1903 39/1, Purna Das Road, Kolkata -29
10 cottah
Kanti Bhusan Bhattacharjee
25. 09/05/2004 Mahanirban Math
1900 113, Rashbehari Avenue, Kolkata -19
100 bigha
Sankar Das Gupta (Secterary)
26. 01/06/2004 Shiridi Simultala Burning Ghat (Sirity Smasan)
N. A. B. L. Saha Road, Kolkata -700033
1 Bigha
N. A.
27. 28/11/2004 Sri Jagannath Mandir
1948 East Yard Gorosthan, CPT Compound, Khidderpore, Kolkata - 23
1 bigha
Pandit Jaydev Das
28 28/11/2004 Bhukailash Rajbari Mandir
N. A. Babubazar, Bhukailash Rajbari, Kolkata -23
6 bigha
Ghosal Parivar
29. 13/12/2004 Shibmandir 1212 (Bengali Year)
9/1 Ramanath Majumder Street, Kolkata
2 cottah
Khudiram Goswami (Priest)
30 14/01/2006 Nimtala Crematorium & Burning Ghat
N. A. 2, Strand Bank Road, Kolkata -700007.
7-8 cottah
N. A.
31 24/01/2006 Shibmandir N. A. M.N.Sen Lane, Kolkata
10 cottah
N. A.
32 04/11/2008 Kashi Mitra Burning Ghat (Bagbazar Smasan)
N. A. 1, Strand Road, Kolkata -700001
15 cottah
N. A.
33 04/11/2008 Cossipore Crematorium & Burning Ghat
N. A. 5, Chandra Kumar Roy Lane, Kolkata -36.
1 bigha
N.A.
Chapter 5: Results
265
(Ramakrishna Mahasmasan)
34 05/11/2008 Topsia Hindu Burial Ground
N. A. 1, Topsia Road, Kolkata -46
1 bigha
N. A.
Table 5.10.2(b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship.
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies within
the premises
No. of regular
residents in the
premises
No. of visiting devotees (approximate) Regular During
festivals
(A) Temples 1 Kalighat Temple 01 05-10 10000 100000 9 Karunamoyee
Mandir 0 03 20-30 100-200
11 Atharo Bari Nibashi Mohima Chandra Ray Chowdhury Swasan Mandir
0 5 members
of one family
10-15 1000
19 Firingi Kali Bari 0 08 1000 10000 22 Gopal Mandir 0 01 20-30 1000 23 Chandi Matar
Mandir 01 One
family 10-20 1000
24 Khidirpur Panchanan Mandir
0
05 500-1000 3000
25 Behala Siddheswari Kali Mandir
0 0 100 500-600
27 Sri Ghanteshwar Mahadeb Mandir
0 0 30-40 1000
28 Ram Mandir 0 01 100-150 1000 29 Sri Sri Gourango
Mandir 0 05 50-70 200-300
30 Basona Kalibari 0 01 20-25 1000 31 Anandadham 0 02 10-15 200 33 Rathtala
Durgamandir 0 One
family 10 1000
34 Ram Thakur Ashram (Jadavpur)
0 32 1000 5000
Chapter 5: Results
266
35 Bijoygarh Thakurbari
0 01 50 200
36 Baro Bhuter Mandir
0 0 100-200 100000
37 Bijoysree Mandir 0 05 10-20 500 38 Ram Thakur
Ashram (Baghajatin)
0 08 50 300-400
39 Sri Guru Ashram 0 50 200 500 40 Nakuleshwar
Mandir 01 04 10000 100000
44 Dakate Kali Bari 0 One family
50 1000
49 Mahanirban Math 01 20 800-900 100000 67 Sri Jagannath
Mandir 0 04 150-200 1000-1500
68 Bhukailash Rajbari Mandir
01 One family
10 1000
83 Shibmandir (of North Kolkata)
0 0 20-25 1000
91 Shibmandir (of South Kolkata)
0 0 10 500
(B) Crematoriums 10 Keoratala
Mahaswasan 0 16 100-200 5000-7000
32 Adi Maha Swasneswar Mandir
0 One family
20 1000
53 Shiridi Simultala Burning Ghat
0 One family
10-20 100
85 Nimtala Crematorium & Burning Ghat
0 03 25 500
117 Kashi Mitra Burning Ghat
0 03 10-20 50-100
118 Cossipore Crematorium & Burning Ghat
0 03 10-20 50-100
123 Topsia Hindu Burial Ground
0 N. A. 0-3 20-50
NA = Not available.
Chapter 5: Results
267
Table 5.10.2 (a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Hindu religious sites.
Family Species Local Name
Remarks Occurrence (Site No.)
DICOT Acanthaceae Adhatoda vasica Nees.
Andrographis
paniculata Nees.
Basak
Kalmegh
Or, M
Or, M
34, 49,
123
49, 123
Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica
Blume.
Aam F, S, Of 9, 11, 29,
30, 31,
34, 38,
39, 44,
49, 67,
123
Anonaceae Annona reticulata
Linn.
Annona squamosa
Delile.
Artabortrys
odoratissimus Blume.
Polyalthia longifolia
Benth & Hook. f. ex
Hook. f.
Nona
Ata
Kanthali
Champa
Debdaru
F
F
Or
Or
34
44
10, 11,
49
10, 11,
32, 34,
41, 49,
67
Apocynaceae Aednium obesum
Roem. & Schult.var
obesum
Allamonda neriifolia
Hook.
Dwarf
Karabi
Allamanda
Or
Or
91
34
Chapter 5: Results
268
Carissa carandas L.
Nerium oleander L.
var album
Nerium oleander L.
var roseum
Tabernaemontana
coronaria Willd.
Tabernaemontana
coronaria Willd. cv.
Flore-pleno
Thevatia puruviana
K. Schum.
Vinca rosea L.
Karamcha
Sada
Karabi
Golapi
Karabi
Tagar
Double
Petal Tagar
Kolkeful
Nayantara
F
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
Or
49, 123
31, 91
29, 49
10, 11,
29, 30,
31, 32,
34, 38,
44, 49,
123
49
11, 34,
39,
49,123
10, 49,
123
Asclepiadaceae Calotropis procera
[Dryand.]
Swet-
Akanda
Or, Of 37, 123
Bignoniaceae Tecoma graudis
Kranzl.
Sonapatti Or 91
Boraginaceae Heliotropium indicum
L.
Hatisur Or 34, 49,
123
Cactaceae Opuntia dillenii Haw. Phanimana
sa
Sc, Or 30, 32,
49, 123
Chenopodiaceae Basella rubra L. Puinsak V 9, 123
Combretaceae Terminalia arjuna
Wight & Arn.
Arjun
S, Or
30, 34
Chapter 5: Results
269
Quisqualis indica
Blanco.
Madhabilat
a
Or, Fl 10, 33,
49
Compositae Chrysanthemum
coronarium L.
Dahlia Superflua Ait.
Eclipta prostrata L.
Helianthus annuus L.
Parthenium
hysterophorus L.
Tagets patula L.
Wedelia
calendulaceae Less.
Chandrama
llika
Daliah
Kesuth
Surya
mukhi
Parthenium
Ganda
Bhringaraj
Or
Fl, Or
Or
Fl, Or
Weed
Fl, Or
Or
9
34, 38
49, 123
9, 10, 34
91,123
9, 31, 39,
49, 91
34, 49,
123
Convolaceae Ipomea batatas Poir. Ranga Alu V 10
Cornaceae Alengium lamarckii
Thw.
Ansfal F, S 11
Crassulaceae Bryophyllum
calycinum Salib.
Patharkuch
i
Or 31
Cruciferae Raphanus sativus L. Mula V 38
Cucurbitaceae Cucurbita maxima
Duchesne.
Kumra V
49
Dilleniaceae Dillenia indica
Blanco.
Chalta V 34
Dipterocarpacea
e
Shorea robusta A. Dc. Sal S, Or,
Eco
11
Euphorbiaceae Emblica officinalis
Gaertu.
Euphorbia
pulcherrima Willd. ex
Klotzsch.
Amloki
Lalpata
F, S
Or
39
91
Chapter 5: Results
270
Euphorbia trigona
Haw.
Jatropha gossypifolia
L.
Bherenda
Or
Ls
34
10, 11,
34, 123
Guttiferae Garcinia
xanthochymus Hook.
F. & T. Anderson.
Tamal Sc, Or, S 39
Labiateae Leornurus sibiricus L.
Salvia splendens Ker –
Gawl.
Ocimum sanctum L.
Raktadrone
Salvia
Tulsi
Or
Or
Sc, Of
32, 123
34
9, 29, 30,
33, 34,
35, 38,
39, 123
Lauraceae Cinnamomum tamala
T. Nees & Eberm.
Cinnamomum
zeylanicum Blume.
Tejpata
Dalchini
V
V
34, 49
49
Leguminosae Albizzia lebbek Benth.
Bauhinia acuminata
Bruce.
Butea monosperma
Kuntze.
Caesalpinia
pulcherrima G.Don.
Cassia fistula Horbb.
ex Oliver.
Clitora ternatea L.
Delonix regia Rafin.
Sirish
Kanchan
Palas
Krishnachu
ra
Badarlathi
Aparajita
S, Or
Or
Or, Of
Or
Or
Or, Of
Or
34
38, 49
34
9, 10, 34,
49, 91,
123
37
31, 32,
49
49
Chapter 5: Results
271
Erythrina indica Lam.
Pisum sativum L.
Saraca Indica L.
Tamarindus indica L.
Palitamada
r
Matar
Asoke
Tentul
Or
Or, Sd
Or, Sc
S, Or
31, 123
30
31, 34,
39
30, 34
Lythraceae Punica granatum L. Dalim F, Or 39, 49
Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Swarna
Champa
Or 9, 10, 29,
34, 38,
49
Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis
L.
Hibiscus mutabilis L.
Malvaviscus
arboreous
Jaba
Sthal-
padma
Lanka Jaba
Or, Of
Or, Of
Or, Of
9, 30, 32,
33, 34,
38, 39,
44, 49,
91,123
9, 31, 32,
49
30
Meliaceae Azadirachta indica A.
Juss.
Swietenia mahagoni
L.
Neem
Mahogony
S, Or, Sc
Or, Eco
11, 30,
32, 34,
38, 39,
44, 49,
67,123
9,123
Myrtaceae Couroupita guianensis
Aubl.
Eucalyptus globulus
Labill.
Psidium guayava L.
Cannon
ball
Eucalyptus
Peyara
Or
Or
F
34, 39,49
29
11, 31,
49,123
Chapter 5: Results
272
Syzygium malaccense
Merrill & Perry.
Jamrul
F, S
39,
49,123
Moringaceae Moringa
pterygosperma Gaertn.
Sajina V 32,
49,123
Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spinosa
Heimerl.
Mirabilis jalapa L.
Baganbilas
h
Sandhyamo
ni
Or
Or
32, 34,
91
31, 49,
123
Oleaceae Jasminum pubescens
Buch. –Ham.ex Wall.
Nyctanthes arbor-
tristis L.
Belphul
Seuli
Or, Of
Or, Of
9, 49
11, 32,
38, 39,
49
Papavaraceae Papaver somniferum
L.
Afim gaach M, Eco 34
Passiflorae Carica papaya L. Pepe F, V 9, 31, 34,
35, 39,
49,123
Rhamnaceae Ziziphus jujuba Lam. Kul F, S 33, 123
Rosaceae Rosa centrifolia L. Golap Or 9, 10, 32,
34, 49,
91
Rubiaceae Anthocephalus
cadamba Miq.
Gardenia florida L
Kadam
Gandharaj
S, Or &
Sc
Or, Of
10, 32,
34, 44,
67,68
91,123
9, 29, 31,
33, 34,
38, 39,
49, 91
Chapter 5: Results
273
Hamelia patens Jacq.
Ixora coccinea Comm.
ex Lam.
Mussaenda
erythrophylla Schum.
& Thonn. ‘Rosea’
Rangan
Mussanda
Or
Or
Or
10
34, 44,
49, 91
10, 49
Rutaceae Aegle marmelos
Correa.
Citrus decumana L.
Citrus medica L.
Murraya exotica
Blanco.
Murraya koenigii
Spreng.
Bel
Batabi
Lebu
Lebu
Kamini
Karipata
Sc, F
F
F
Or
Or, V
11, 30,
34, 38,
39, 49,
67
30, 32,
38, 39,
49
9, 38, 39,
49, 123
10, 29,
30, 31,
32, 34,
39, 49
10, 11,
30, 31,
49
Santalaceae Santalum album L. Swet
Chandan
Or, Of,
Con pl
49
Sapindaceae Litchi chinensis
Sonner.
Litchi F, S 49
Sapotaceae Mimosops elangi Boj. Bakul S, Or 29
Solanaceae Capsicum frutescens
L.
Cestrum nocturnum
Lam.
Lanka
Hashnahan
a
V
Or
10, 30,
49
11, 49
Chapter 5: Results
274
Datura metel L.
Petunia integrifolia
Schinz & Thellung.
Solanum melongena
L.
Dhutura
Petunia
Begun
Or, Of
Or
V
91, 123
34
49, 123
Sterculiaceae Pterospermum
acerifolium Benth.
Kanak
Champa
Or 34
Urticaceae Artrocarpus
integrifolia Linn. f.
Ficus benghalensis L.
Ficus hispida L. f.
Ficus religiosa Decne.
ex Miq.
Kanthal
Bot
Kakdumur
Aswatha
S, F
S, Sc
F, Sc
S, Sc
11, 29,
30, 31,
32, 34,
39, 49
1, 30, 32,
34, 36,
44, 123
11, 34,
44, 49,
91, 123
1, 10, 32,
36, 53,
67, 68,
117, 118,
123
Verbenaceae Duranta plumieri
Jacq.
Lantana camara L.
Duranto
Chotra
Ls
Or
9, 10, 49,
91
34, 123
Violaceae Viola tricolor L. Pansy
(Eng.)
Or 34
MONOCOT
Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum
Linn.
Baro-kakur Or 29
Araceae Colocasia antiquorum Kachu V 11, 30,
Chapter 5: Results
275
Schott.
Pistia stratiotes L.
Toka-pana
Or
34, 38,
49, 123
123
Cannaceae Canna glauca L. Kalabati Or, Ls 10, 123
Commelinaceae Setcreasea purpurea
Boom.
Pata-bahar Or 49
Gramineae Bambusa nana Roxb.
Saccharum
officinarum L.
Bans
Ankh
Or, Of
F
10, 49
49
Liliaceae Asparagus racemosus
Willd.
Satomuli Or 30
Palmae Areca catechu L.
Borassus flabellifer L.
Cocos nucifera L.
Livistona chinensis R.
Br.
Phoenix sylvestris
Roxb.
Supari
Tal
Narkol
Palm
Khejur
Or, Ls,
Of
F, Or
F, Sc, Of
Or
Or, F
11, 30,
31, 34,
38, 39,
44, 123
123
9, 11, 29,
30, 31,
34, 38,
39, 44,
49, 68
11, 49,
67
29, 32,
49, 123
Scitamineae Curcuma longa L.
Globba bulbifera
Roxb.
Musa paradisiaca L.
Holud
Kanda-
puspa
Kola
V, Sc, Of
Or
F, Sc, Of
30, 49
34
11, 30,
33, 37,
38, 49,
Chapter 5: Results
276
Ravenala
madagascariensis J. F.
Gmel.
Panthopada
k
Or
67, 123
9, 10, 49,
91
GYMNOSPERM
Cycadaceae Cycas revoluta Bedd.
Fern palm
Or
10
Cupressaceae Thuja odorata Doi. Bilati Jhau Or 32, 38,
49, 91
Note: Green coloured site nos. represent Crematoriums including Burrial Ground.
Legend: Con pl – Conserved plant; Dr tol – Drought tolerant; F – Fruit yielding; Ls – Landscaping : used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc.; Of – Offered to deity; Or – Ornamental; Ra –Rare species; Sc – Sacred; S – Shade giving; Sd- Seeds utilized; Wd – Weed; Eco – Plant having economic importance etc.
Table 5.10.3(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Hindu Temples and Crematoriums.
SITE NO. Temples Crematoriums All Sites
No. of Plant genera 106 52 113
No. of Plant species 116 56 123
Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.094 1 : 1.077 1 : 1.09
No. of Gymnosperms Species
1 2 2
No. of Monocot families 7 5 8
No. of Dicot families 44 26 45
No. of monocot at genera level
14 8 17
No. of dicots at generic level 91 42 94
No. of monocot at species level
14 8 17
No. of dicots at species level 101 46 104 Ratio of monocot to dicots at species level
1 : 7.21 1 : 5.75 1 : 6.12
Chapter 5: Results
277
Ratio of monocot to dicots at generic level
1 : 6.5 1 : 5.25 1 : 5.53
Ratio of monocot to dicots at family level
1 : 6.29 1 : 5.2 1 : 5.63
Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites
Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) & Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) )sites)
Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq. (Aswatha -5)
Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam) & Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol)sites
Name of the site on which thrives maximum no. of species
Site No. 49 : Total
species(65)
Site No. 10 (23) Site No. 32 (20)
Site No. 49 : Total
species(65)
Table 5.10.4 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in
Hindu Temples and Crematoriums.
SITE NO. Temples Crema-
toriums
All Sites
1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of
total species)
16
(13.79%)
11
(19.64%)
16
(13.01%)
2. Decorative:
(i) No. of species used for fencing &
demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total
species)
3
(2.59%)
3
(5.36%)
4
(3.25%)
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic
beauty (% of total species)
79
(68.10%)
38
(67.86%)
83
(67.48%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to
deities or decorating temples (% of total
species)
18
(15.52%)
6
(10.71%)
18
(14.63%)
3. No. of species used as source of
consumable vegetables (% of total species)
13
(11.21%)
7
(12.50%)
14
(11.38%)
4. No. of species used as source of
consumable fruits (% of total species)
21
(18.10%)
6
(10.71%)
21
(17.07%)
Fig.
crem
Fi
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
5. No. of sp
of consum
6. No. of s
of income
total species
7. No. of s
than all ab
species)
Total
. 5.10.1 (a)
matoriums
ig. 5.10.1 (a
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
1 2
pecies used
mable seeds (
species use
for Board o
s)
species used
bove, e.g. m
– (c): Perc
s in differen
a): TEMPL
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
C
d as source
(% of total sp
ed directly a
of Trustees
d for purpo
medicinal (%
entage dist
nt use categ
LE SITES
Series
hapter 5: Re
278
pecies)
as source
etc. (% of
oses other
% of total
tribution of
gories.
Fig
s1
esults
0
0
2
(1.72%)
116
f plants of a
. 5.10.1(b):
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
1 2
0
0
0
56
all Hindu t
CREMAT
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
0
2
(1.63%
123
temples and
TORIUM S
9
Series
%)
d
ITES
s1
Fig. 5.10.
Lgend: 1 5-Vegs.
Table 5
Na
1. F
2.
3.
4. An
5.
6.
7. A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1 (c): USEF
1 – Shade-giviyielding, 6- F
5.10.5: Prev the Hindu
ame of spec
Ficus religi
Mangifera
Opuntia dil
Garcinia nderson. (Ta
Ocimum sa
Saraca Indi
Azadirachta
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
1
C
FUL PLANT
ing, 2 – fencinFruit-bearing
valence of pu beliefs an
cies sustain
iosa Decne.
indica Blum
llenii Haw.(
xanthochymamal)
anctum L. (T
ica L. (Asok
a indica A.
2 3
hapter 5: Re
279
TS IN ALL
ng, 3 – Aesthe7 – Seeds use
plants consnd taboos.
ned as sacre
. ex Miq. (A
me. (Aam)
(Phanimaan
mus Hook
Tulsi)
ke)
Juss. (Neem
4 5 6
esults
L HINDU R
etic beauty, 4-ed 8- Source
sidered sac
ed plant
Aswatha)
nasa)
k. F. & T
m)
7 8
RELIGIOUS
- Offerings e of income o
red or asso
Sit
1, 10, 3267, 68, 1123
9, 11, 2934, 38, 367, 123
30, 32, 4
T. 39
9, 29, 3035, 38, 3
31, 34, 3
11, 30, 3
9
S SITES ST
of Trustees 9
ociated with
te Nos.
2, 36, 53, 117, 118,
9, 30, 31, 39, 44, 49,
49
0, 33, 34, 39, 123
39
32, 34, 38,
Series1
TUDIED
– Others.
h
Chapter 5: Results
280
39, 44, 49, 67, 123
8. Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. (Kadam) 10, 32, 34, 44, 67,68 91, 123
9. Aegle marmelos Correa. (Bel) 11, 30, 34, 38, 39, 49, 67
10. Ficus benghalensis L. (Bot) 1, 30, 32, 34, 36, 44, 123
11. Ficus hispida L. f. (Kakdumur) 11, 34, 44, 49, 91, 123
12. Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol) 9, 11, 29, 30, 31, 34, 38, 39, 44, 49, 68
13. Curcuma longa L.(Holud) 30, 49
14. Musa paradisiaca L. (Kola) 11, 30, 33, 37, 38, 49, 67, 123
Note: Green colored site nos. represent Crematorium
Table 5.10.6: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.
Vascular plants No. of Families
Details of family No. of genera
No. of species
Pteridophyta 0 0 0
Total 0 0
Gymnosperms 2
Cycadaceae 1 1
Cupressaceae 1 1
Total 2 2
Angiosperms
a) Monocot 8
Amaryllidaceae 1 1
Areaceae 2 2
Cannaceae 1 1
Commelinaceae 1 1
Gramineae 2 2
Chapter 5: Results
281
Liliaceae 1 1
Palmae 5 5
Scitamineae 4 4
Total 17 17
b) Dicot 45
Acanthaceae 2 2
Anacardiaceae 1 1
Anonaceae 3 4
Apocynaceae 7 9
Asclepiadaceae 1 1
Bignoniaceae 1 1
Boraginaceae 1 1
Cactaceae 1 1
Chenopodiaceae 1 1
Combretaceae 2 2
Compositae 7 7
Convolaceae 1 1
Cornaceae 1 1
Crassulaceae 1 1
Cruciferae 1 1
Cucurbitaceae 1 1
Dilleniaceae 1 1
Dipterocarpaceae 1 1
Euphorbiaceae 3 4
Guttiferae 1 1
Labiateae 3 3
Lauraceae 1 2
Leguminosae 11 11
Lythraceae 1 1
Magnoliaceae 1 1
Malvaceae 2 3
Meliaceae 2 2
Myrtaceae 4 4
Moringaceae 1 1
Nyctaginaceae 2 2
Oleaceae 2 2
Chapter 5: Results
282
Papavaraceae 1 1
Passiflorae 1 1
Rhamnaceae 1 1
Rosaceae 1 1
Rubiaceae 5 5
Rutaceae 3 5
Santalaceae 1 1
Sapindaceae 1 1
Sapotaceae 1 1
Solanaceae 5 5
Sterculiaceae 1 1
Urticaceae 2 4
Verbenaceae 2 2
Violaceae 1 1
Total 94 104
Table 5.10.7: Summary of Plant wealth of Hindu Temples and Crematorium.
Vascular
plants
Families
Genera
Species
Number % Number % Number %
1. Pteridophyta 0 0.00 0 0.00 0 0.00
2.Gymnosperms 1 1.85 2 1.77 2 1.63
3. Angiosperms 53 98.15 111 98.23 121 98.37
a) Monocot 8 15.09 17 15.32 17 14.05
b) Dicot 45 84.91 94 84.68 104 85.95
Fig.Cre
Fig.
. 5.10.2 : Peematoriums
Legen
. 5.10.3 : Pe
(a) family
ercentage Ds:
d: 1 - Pter
ercentage D
y –wise
C
Distribution
ridophyta
Distribution
(b)
Legend:
1
2
hapter 5: Re
283
n of Vascul
, 2 -Gymn
Fig. 5.10.
n of monoc
) genera-w
Fig. 5.10.
1- monoc
esults
lar plants i
nosperms
.2
cots and dic
wise
.3
cot, 2- dic
1
2
in Hindu T
and 3 - An
cots at Hin
(c) spec
cot.
Temples and
ngiosperm
du religiou
cies-wise
1
2
3
d
ms.
us sites:
1
2
Chapter 5: Results
285
PLATE NO. 5.10.2: Keoratala Mahasmasan (Site No. 10)
PLATE NO. 5.10.3: Devotees at a Shib Mandir of North Kolkata (Site no. 83)
Chapter 5: Results
286
5.11 UPASANALAYAS OF BRAHMOS
5.11.1. Tenets:
Ram Mohan Roy initiated the Brahmo Sabha (Association of Brahmins) along with
Dwarkanath Tagore in 1828. The objective of this association was to publicize the true
Vedanta which had been corrupted by Buddhist and Brahmanical influences. On 20th day
of August, 1828 the first assembly of the Brahmo Sabha (progenitor of the Brahmo
Samaj) was held at the North Calcutta house of the ‘Feringhee’ Kamal Bose. The Sabha
met every Wednesday at Kamal Bose’s house in Chitpur and later moved to their own
premises at Chitpur Road in 1830 (purchased by the Dwarkanath Tagore). These
meetings were open to all Brahmins and there was no formal organisation or theology as
such. On 8 th January, 1830 influential progressive members of the closely related Kulin
Brahmin clan of Tagore (Thakur) and Roy (Vandopadhyaya), the zameendar families
mutually executed the Trust deed of Brahmo Sabha for the first Adi Brahmo Samaj
(place of worship) on Chitpore Road (now Rabindra Sarani), Kolkata with Pandit Ram
Chandra Vidyabagish as first resident superintendent. On 23rd January 1830 or 11th
Magha, the Adi Brahmo premises were publicly inaugurated (with about 500 Brahmins
and 1 Englishman present). With Rammohun's departure for England in 1830, the affairs
of Brahmo Sabha were effectively managed by Trustees Dwarkanath Tagore and Pandit
Ram Chandra Vidyabagish, with Dwarkanath instructing his ‘diwan’ to manage affairs.
Weekly services were held consonant with the Trust directive, consisting of three
successive parts: recitation of the Vedas by Telugu Brahmins in the closed apartment
exclusively before the Brahmin members of the congregation, reading and exposition of
the Upanishads for the general audience, and singing of hymns. By the time of
Rammohun's death in 1833 near Bristol (UK), attendance at the Sabha declined and the
Telugu Brahmins revived idolatry. The Zameendars, being preoccupied in business, had
little time for affairs of Sabha and flame of the Sabha was almost extinguished. On 6th
October, 1839 Debendranath Tagore, son of Prince Dwarkanath Tagore, established the
Tattwabodhini Sabha. Initially confined to immediate members of the Tagore family, in
two years it diffused over 500 members. In 1840 Debendranath published a Bangla
translation of ‘Katha Upanishad’. On 7th Pous 1765 Shaka (1843) Debendranath Tagore
Chapter 5: Results
287
and twenty other Tattwabodhini stalwarts were formally invited by Pandit Vidyabagish
into the Trust of Brahmo Sabha. From this day forth, the Tattwabodhini Sabha dedicated
itself to promoting Rammohan Roy's creed. In 1859, the most respected and beloved
Secretary of the Tattwabodhini Sabha Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar resigned from the
Brahmo Sabha in the face of Debendranath's vacillation. Hemendranath Tagore, the third
son of Debendranath, then a boy barely 15 years in age, and the favourite pupil of
Vidyasgar, was commonly acclaimed as Debendranath's successor to head the
Tattwabodhini. In the course of time he would have become the Maha Acharya (the Great
Teacher). Disgusted by politics within the Tagore family and the support to K.C.Sen's
faction by his own brother Satyendranath Tagore, Hemendranath took the bold decisions
to expand his Sabha beyond Calcutta. His close associate Pandit Nobin Chandra Roy was
tasked to spread Brahmoism in Upper India and rescue Christian converts to the fold of
the national religion. With a predominantly monotheistic populace following Islam and
Sikhism it was perceived as fertile soil for execution of Rammohun's message. The
Tattwabodhini decreed that the uncorrupted faith of the original 1830 Trust Deed would
be known there as the Adi Dharm to distinguish it from the distorted versions of the
squabbling factions of Calcutta. The steps taken by Hemendranath Tagore was to institute
in 1860 a suit before the Supreme Court to restore the title "Brahmo Samaj" to his
faction. After losing in this suit in 1861, Keshub Sen's faction altered the name of their
Samaj from "The Brahmo Samaj of India" to "Navabidhan (or the New Dispensation)".
With victory in this suit and the promulgation of his Brahmo Anusthan (Code of
Brahmaic doctrine and practice) in 1861, Hemendranath's Samaj-ists are henceforth
known as the "Anusthanic" Brahmos (or Brahmos who follow the Code). The other
factions were designated as "Ananusthanic" Brahmos (or those who do not follow the
Code). On May 5, 2004 the Supreme Court of India, by order of the Chief Justice,
dismissed the Government of West Bengal's 30 year litigation to get Brahmos classified
as Hindus. The matter had previously been heard by an 11 Judge Constitution Bench of
the Court (the second largest bench in the Court's history). As of 2007 the statutory
minimum age for Brahmos to marry is 25(M)/21(F) versus 21(M)/18(F) for Hindus.
The Brahmo religion stands for the following tenets :
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288
Followers shall love Him and do His will and worship the one Absolute
Prambrahma, the Creator, Preserver, Destroyer who is the giver of all good in this
world and the next who is All knowing, All pervading, Formless and Beneficent
Followers shall not adore any created thing, thinking it to be the supreme one
Followers should perform good deeds - and it is through these good deeds one can
serve God
He is the One, alone and Absolute – Ekamevadityam
The Samaj is to be meeting ground for all sects for the worship of the one true
God
No object of worship or a set of men shall be reviled or contemptuously spoken of
or alluded to in any way
No graven image statue or sculpture carving painting picture portrait or the
likeness of anything shall be admitted within
No object animate or inanimate that has been or is or shall become or be
recognised as an object of worship
No sacrifice offering oblation of any kind or thing shall ever be permitted
Promote charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and strengthen the bonds of
union between men of all religions and creed
The book entitled “Manual of Brahmo rituals and devotions” was written by Sitanath
Tattabhusan and was first published in 1924 with its second edition in1971 by the
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in the year 1971. It contains the procedure to be adopted for
rituals of (i) Deeksha – initiation into Brahmoism (ii) Jatakarma or birth ceremony (iii)
Namkaran & Annaprasana – Naming and Rice giving ceremony to the new born (iv)
Vivaha – Marriage ceremony (v) Badhubaran –Welcoming the newly married bride (vi)
Anteysthi – funeral (vii) Shradha –Requiem.
In all fields of social reform, including abolition of the caste system and of the dowry
system, emancipation of women, and improving the educational system, the Brahmo
Samaj reflected the ideologies of the Bengal Renaissance. It also supported social reform
movements of people not directly attached to the Samaj, such as Pandit Iswar Chandra
Vidyasagar’s movement which promoted widow re-marriage.
Chapter 5: Results
289
5.11.2. Festivals : Brahmos observe the following main festivals amongst others:
Maghotsav: The main festival of Brahmos is celebrated on 11th Magha of each year
according to Bengali calender to mark the anniversary of Brahmo Samaj. The celebration
commemorates the inaugeration of the first Brahmo Sabha by Raja Rammohun Roy on
23rd January 1830, which was the 11th Magha according to the Bengali calender. It is
celebrated by prayers and singing of devotional hymns. In Kolkata, which is now the
main seat of Brahmoism, week long celebrations are carried out in the three principal
Samajes. Traditional Food viz. Khichudi, mixed vegetable and chutney is also provided
and distributed among the poor on this special day of celebration.
Bhadrotsav is another important festival of the Brahmos which commemorates the 6th
Bhadra of 1234 (according to Bengali calender ) or 20th August 1828, the day the first
Brahmo Samaj was opened by Raja Rammohun Roy with Tarachand Chakrabarty as its
first Secretary.
In addition to these festivals, the Samajees observe special days according to the state
that they are in. The Brahmos of Kolkata also celebrate Bengali New Years Day, Birth
and death anniversary of Raja Rammohun Roy, Keshub Chandra Sen, Rabindranath
Tagore, Shivnath Sastri. Besides, Brahmo Sammilani Samaj also celebrates Nabanna or
Harvest festival of Bengal. Keeping with the tradition of universalism the birth
anniversary of Buddha, Jesus Christ are also celebrated by them.
5.11.3. Plants associated with Brahmo religion: There is no document found relating to
association of any plant with the religious belief or rituals performed by the followers of
Brahmo religion.
5.11.4 Man-plant relationship revealed from study sites: The findings having
significant bearing on man-plant relationship are mentioned below:
1. Site characteristics: Two Brahmo Upasanalayas of Kolkata under study [Table5.11.1
(a)] cover about 3 and 7 cottah (i.e. 200 and 474 Sqm) of area. There are 5-7 regular
residents in one of the Upasanalayas, consisting of 1 ‘Acharya’ (Head of the religious
sect), 2 caretakers and 3-4 orphans and the other had only one caretaker at the time of site
Chapter 5: Results
290
survey. About 15-20 visitors daily assemble in the Upasanalayas for prayers and
discourses while during festivals like Maghotsav and Bhadrotsav, No. of visitors rise to
as high as 500 [Table 5.11.1(b)]. One orphanage having an area of 4000 sq ft “Sadhan
Ashram” is stated to be patronized and maintained by “Sadharan Brahmo Samaj”.
Brahmo Sammilan Samaj also publishes a monthly magazine named “Brahmo Sammilan
Barta” from Kolkata.
2. Taxonomic documentation: A taxonomic analysis of the concerned plants reveals that
the dicots dominate over the monocots, the ratio of the latter to the former being 1 : 4.67
at the family level, 1 : 3.6 at the genus and 1 : 3 at the species levels [Table 5.11.2(b)].
Furthermore, proportion of genera to species in two study-sites in all was found to be
1:1.043 in comparison to 1:7 for whole of India, 1 : 2.2 for the Gangetic Plain and 1 : 2.4
for West Bengal.
Out of two Brahmo Upasanalayas studied, Brahmo Sammilan Samaj has the maximum
number of species (17 out of 23).
3. Utilitarian aspect / Usage pattern of plants : From utilitarian point of view it appears
that majority of the plants recorded i.e., 87.50% are decorative plants which enhance
aesthetic effect of the site. To come next are the fruit-bearing plants which are about
16.67% of the total species. Shade-giving plants constitute 4.16% of total plants [Table
5.11.3]. No plant is particularly found, whose parts (flower, fruit, seed etc.) are utilized
for offering to the deity/God during festivals or decorating the shrine. No plant was also
found getting utilized for fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathways etc. inside the
premises or utilized as vegetables. Percentage-distribution of plants in each use-category
for each temple garden have also been diagrammatically recorded [Fig.5.11.1(a) to (c)].
Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar) is found in plenty in both the temple-
gardens.
(i) 21 out of 24 species are used in the sites to enhance aesthetic beauty. In this regard
mention may be made of Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook.f.ex Hook.f. (Debdaru),
Allamanda cathartica L., (Allamanda), Holarrhena anidysenterica Wall., Plumeria rubra
L., Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar), Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. (Jaba),
Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl. (Bougainvillea), Ixora coccinea Comm. ex Lam.
Chapter 5: Results
291
(Rangan) Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. (Seuli) and Cestrum nocturnum Lam. (Hashnahana)
amongst others. Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook. f. ex Hook.f (Debdaru) and
Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar) are common to both Upasanalayas.
(ii) There are a total of 4 fruit-bearing plant species viz. Aegle marmelos Correa. (Bael),
Mangifera indica Blume (Aam), Psidium guajava L. (Peyara), and Achras sapota L.
(Sabeda), of which first two are found in both the study sites.
(iii) Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) is the only shade-giving species found in both the
sites.
4. Family-wise distribution of plants and synopsis of plant wealth: As many as 14
dicotyledonous families having 18 genera and 18 species and 3 monocotyledonous
families having 5 genera and 6 species could be recorded from the two sites. This
composition shows contribution from 78.26% dicots and 21.74% monocots at generic
and 75% dicots and 25% monocots at species level. Neither any Pteridophyte nor any
Gymnosperm could be recorded at any of the sites [Table 5.11.6]. Percentage
distribution of monocots and dicots at family, generic and species levels has also been
diagrammatically documented [Fig.5.11.3 (a) to (c)]
Out of 14 the dicotyledonous families documented, Apocynaceae has the highest number
of genera and species, followed by Myrtaceae.
There are 3 monocotyledonous families, of which Palmae has the highest number of
genera and species.
Chapter 5: Results
292
Table 5.11.1 (a): Details of study sites.
Sl. No.
Date of visit
Name of site Esta-blished on
Address Area Key informant
1. 02/05/2004 Brahmo Sammilon Samaj
Beng. 1325
1A, Dr. Rajendra Road, Kolkata - 20
3 Cottah
Not available
2. 20/03/2004 Sadharon Brahmo Samaj
1878 21, Bidhan Sarani, Kolkata -6
5100 Sq. ft
Arun Kr. Das (President)
Table 5.11.1 (b) : Study site characteristics likely to affect the man-plant relationship:
Site No.
Study Site No. of water-bodies within the premises
No. of regular residents at the temple
No. of visiting devotees (approximate)Regular During
festivals
41 Sadharon Brahmo Samaj (Brahmo Mandir)
0 5 - 7 15-20 (On Sundays)
500
48 Brahmo Sammilon Samaj
0 1 100
Table 5.9.2(a): The taxonomic census of plants found in Upasanalayas of Brahmos:
Family Species Local Name
Remarks Occur-rence (Site No.)
DICOT Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica Blume Aam S, F 48, 41
Anonaceae Polyalthia longifolia Debdaru Or 48, 41
Chapter 5: Results
293
Benth & Hook.f. ex Hook.
f.
Apocynaceae Allamanda cathartica L.
Holarrhena
anidysenterica Wall.
Plumeria rubra L.
Tabernaemontana
coronaria Willd.
Allamonda
Kurchi
Gorurchampa
Tagar
Or
Or
Or, Fl
Fl , Or
48
48
48
48, 41
Geraniaceae Pelargonium hortorum L.
H. Bailey.
Or 48
Leguminoseae Bauhinia parviflora Vahl. Kanchan Or 48
Magnoliaceae Michelia champaca L. Champa Fl, Or 48
Malpighiaceae Hiptage madhablota
Gaertn.
Or 41
Malvaceae Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. Jaba Or 48
Myrtaceae Psidium guayava L.
Syzygium malaccense
Merril & Perry
Peyara
Jamrool
F
F
41
48
Nyctaginaceae Bougainvillea spinosa
Heimerl.
Bougainvill
ea
Or 41
Oleaceae Nyctanthes arbortristis L. Seuli Fl, Or 41
Rubiaceae Ixora coccinea Comm. ex.
Lam.
Rangan Or 48
Rutaceae Aegle mamelos Correa. Bel F, Or 48
Solanaceae Cestrum nocturnum Lam. Hashnahana Or 41
MONOCOT
Amaryllidaceae Crinum asiaticum Blanco. Lily Or 41
Araceae Scindapsus aureus Engl.
Gold.
Scindapsus aureus Engl.
Money plant
Money plant
Or
Or
48
48
Chapter 5: Results
294
Marble queen
Palmae Cocos nucifera L.
Mascarena lagenicaulis
L.H . Bailey
Phoenix roebelinii O’
Brien.
Palm
Palm
Or
Or
Or
48
41
48
Table 5.11.2(b): Taxonomic analysis of plants found sustained in Upasanalayas of Brahmos:
SITE NO. (48) (41) All Sites
No. of Plant genera 16 10 23
No. of Plant species 17 10 24
Ratio of genera to species 1 : 1.062 1 : 1 1 : 1.043
No. of Gymnosperms Species 0 0 0
No. of Monocot families 02 02 03
No. of Dicot families 10 08 14
No. of monocot at genera level 03 02 05
No. of dicot at genera level 13 08 18
No. of monocot at species level 04 02 06
No. of dicot at species level 13 08 18
Ratio of monocot to dicot at species level
1 : 3.25 1 : 4 1 : 3
Ratio of monocot to dicot at genera level
1 : 4.33 1 : 4 1 : 3.6
Ratio of monocot to dicot at family level
1 : 5 1 : 4 1 : 4.67
Name of the species which occurs at most of the sites
Mangifera indica Blume. (Aam), Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook.f. ex Hook. f., (Debdaru) and Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar)
Name of the site on which thrives maximum no. of species
Site No. 48
(Brahmo Sammilan Samaj) : Total 17 species
Chapter 5: Results
295
Table 5.11.3 : The account of utilitarian perspectives of plants sustained in Upasanalayas of Brahmos:
SITE NO. (48) (41) All Sites 1. No. of shade giving plant species (% of total species)
01 (5.88%)
01 (10%)
01 (4.16%)
2. Decorative: (i) No. of species used for fencing & demarcating garden, road etc. (% of total species)
0 0
0
(ii) No. of species used for aesthetic beauty (% of total species)
15 (88.24%)
08 (80%)
21 (87.50%)
(iii) No. of species used for offering to deities or decorating temples (% of total species)
0 0 0
3. No. of species used as source of consumable vegetables (% of total species)
0 0 0
4. No. of species used as source of consumable fruit (% of total species)
03 (17.65%)
02 (20%)
04 (16.67%)
7. No. of species used as source of consumable seeds (% of total species)
0 0 0
6. No. of species used directly as source of income for Board of Trustees etc. (% of total species)
0 0 0
7. No. of species used for purposes other than all above, e.g. medicinal (% of total species)
0 0 0
Total 17 10 24
Fig in d
L 5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9.11.1 (a) –different us
(a)
(c) All B
Lgends for th-Vegs. yieldin
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
1 2
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
–(c): Percense categorie
Site No.48
Brahmo Up
e charts abovng, 6- Fruit-be
3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
1 2
C
ntage distres:
pasanalaya s
Fig. 5
ve: 1 – Shade-earing 7 – See
9
Serie
3 4
hapter 5: Re
296
ribution of p
sites: Utilita
5.11.2
-giving, 2 – feeds used 8-
es1
5 6 7
esults
plants of al
(b) S
arian accoun
encing, 3 – Ae Source of in
0.00%
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
1
8 9
ll Upasana
Site No.41
nt of plants
esthetic beautyncome of Trust
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Series1
layas of Br
y, 4- Offeringstees 9 – Othe
9
Seri
rahmos
s ers
ies1
Chapter 5: Results
297
Table 5.11.4: Statistical analysis of plant wealth.
Vascular plants concerned
No. of Families
Details of family No. of genera
No. of species
Pteridophyta 0
Total 0 0
Gymnosperms 0 0
Total 0 0
Angiosperms
a) Monocot 3
Amaryllidaceae 1 1
Araceae 1 2
Palmae 3 3
Total 5 6
b) Dicot 14
Anacardiaceae 1 1
Anonaceae 1 1
Apocynaceae 4 4
Caesalpiniaceae 1 1
Geraniaceae 1 1
Magnoliaceae 1 1
Malpighiaceae 1 1
Malvaceae 1 1
Myrtaceae 2 2
Nyctaginaceae 1 1
Oleaceae 1 1
Rubiaceae 1 1
Rutaceae 1 1
Solanaceae 1 1
Total 18 18
Table 5.1
Vascularconcerne
1. Pterid
2.Gymno
3. Angio
a) Mon
b) Dico
Fig 5.11.
L
11.5: Summ
r plants ed
N
dophyta
osperms
osperms
nocot
ot
2: Percent of Brahm
Legend: 1 -
C
mary of Pla
Familie
Number
0
0
17
3
14
age Distribmos:
F
- Ferns , 2
hapter 5: Re
298
ant wealth o
es
(%) Nu
0.00
0.00
100.00
17.65
82.35
bution of V
Fig. 5.11.22 -Gymnos
esults
of Upasana
Genera
umber (
0 0
0 0
23 10
5 2
18 78
ascular pla
2 sperms an
alayas of B
(%) Num
0.00 0
0.00 0
00.00 2
1.74 6
8.26 1
ants in Upa
nd 3 - Ang
1
2
3
Brahmos:
Species
mber (%
0 0.0
0 0.0
24 100
6 25.0
18 75.0
asanalayas
giosperms.
%)
00
00
.00
00
00
Chapter 5: Results
299
Fig. 5.11.3: Percentage Distribution of monocots and dicots at Upasanalayas of Brahmos:
(a) family –wise (b) genera-wise (c) species-wise
Fig. 5.11.3
Legend: 1- monocot, 2- dicot.
Plate No. 5.11.1: A glimpse of one of the Brahmo Upasanalayas
1
2
1
2
1
2
6 : DISCUSSION
6.1. Religion and science
Religion was picked up very judiciously by the wise men of every community in the past
to communicate the message and convey the blessings of science to the common people
of contemporary and future generations. The message mainly has concern with the nature
and her creations which technically meant the ecosystem to which the community
belonged. The then naturalists, more precisely the earth-scientists who through their
dedications could discover many perspectives of the natural phenomena, processes and
activities having pertinence to origin and sustenance of life, nature’s economy and they
could work out ways and means to ensure health and ecological welfare which was rather
difficult and impossible in the initial stages of discovery to convince and elucidate the
general mass. So it was the religion which was realized to be the best and most stable
solvent to dissolve the faith and confidence of men in science. Religious practices,
services, rituals, taboos etc. were formulated for practical application of the knowledge
thus gained. The different religions in course of time induced the sense of gratitude and
salutation to the creator of nature, developed human ethics, social attributes, attitudes and
culture to survive in traditions over generations. Many of the indigenously developed
religions started flourishing through two phases of growth: the dynamic phase of
dispersal to other places and the static phase of dispersion or distribution at other places.
Certain places attracted the followers of different religions and continue to do so to attain
a state of heterogeneity of tenets and philosophies ultimately leading to the state of
secularity and development of a culture of great esteem which has acquired such virtues
to have earned cordial acceptance acquired perpetuality and developed the sense of
tolerance, mutual respect, fraternity and symbiosis. Calcutta, contemporarily Kolkata, in
course of time has turned out to be in true sense of the term a hub of diverse religions
with a synthetic culture and traditions the principal tenet of which is the sense of
humanity. Here the followers of each religion have been preserving their own tenets and
traditions as much as possible and adapting to the local situation and provisions. The
ethics as well as the man-man, man-animal and man-plant relationship developed by each
Chapter 6: Discussion
301
religion are likely to have persisted in the cultural traditions of the followers settled in
Kolkata and get reflected in their activities especially in the places of their religious
activities. Since study of all aspects of direct man-plant relationship is familiar as
‘ethnobotany’ the term has been linked with the title of the present work. Since Calcutta
is a very large city showing signs of the modern life style it is rather not very usual to
find linkage of the term ethnobotany with Calcutta. Since ethnobotany has been growing
fast and is no more restricted to the study of the relationship of the aborigines or the
primitive human communities with plants. Since ethnobotany is in principle concerned
with the study and documentation of the age long relationship of man with plants and the
impact of plants on their history, culture, traditions , knowledge and wisdom it can
justify its relevance to urban situations. Religion for being very conservative is certain to
preserve and exercise certain aspects of its tenets related to man-plant relationship. In
view of this the places of religious activities of no less than 11 religions in Calcutta were
picked up to communicate the ethnobotanical messages remaining so long preserved in
them in the metropolis. The name Calcutta has been retained in the present work as it
seemed to the author to be more expressive than Kolkata about its history, heritage and
global familiarity. The present ethnobotanical document, new of its kind, not only
conveys the religious messages to improve the man-plant relationships and attitude
towards them for optimization of the environment deranged with the heavy load of
pollution, population, health hazards and restlessness. Moreover the present study also
puts into record the contribution of each places of religious activity towards the floristic
scenario of a great city like Calcutta nee Kolkata.
6.2.India-vis-a vis Calcutta: Religious traditions
Parallelism between the diversity in religious traditions of India, a country of great
heritage of antiquity, and that of Calcutta, a city just over 300years of age, is worth
mentioning. India is the country wherefrom four of the world's major religious traditions;
namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism had their origin. Religion has always
been an important part of the country's culture perpetuating through ages maintaining
unity in diversity through religious tolerance are both established in the country by law
Chapter 6: Discussion
302
and custom. A vast majority of Indians associate themselves with a religion. According to
the 2001 Census, Hinduism is the majority religion with 80.5% of the population of
India. Islam (13.4%), Christianity (2.3%), Sikhism (1.9%), Buddhism (0.8%) and Jainism
(0.4%) are the other minor religions followed by the people of India. Zoroastrianism and
Judaism also have an ancient history in India and each has several thousand Indian
adherents. India has the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism and
Bahá'í Faith anywhere in the world. (Smith 2008; Chary,2009). Many other world
religions also have a relationship with Indian spirituality.
The Constitution of India declares the nation to be a secular republic that must uphold
the right of citizens to freely worship and propagate any religion or faith (with activities
subject to reasonable restrictions for the sake of morality, law and order, etc.)[Source:
The Constitution of India Art. 25-28] The Constitution of India also declares the right to
freedom of religion as a fundamental right.
The scenario of religious traditions and heterogeneity of population composition brings
Calcutta to such a state of existence so as to reflect India in a miniature form. Calcutta
was established as early as 1690 to function as the administrative centre of the Indian
subcontinent. Calcutta ,the city of talent and passion, officially also called Kolkata, soon
started to be intellectual hub of the country .The mixed Indian and European population
of Calcutta gave rise to a secular outlook which continues even today. The religious
places in the city reaffirm the synthetic religious nature of its residents. It is not
uncommon to see temples and mosques existing collaterally in the same compound. The
present day religious places in Kolkata often reflect the remains of the faith, wisdom and
culture of indigenous origin as well as those brought from near and faraway lands. Truly
like a cosmopolitan city it shows a blend of different religions and reflects socio-cultural
and other perspectives of life including religions and customs. The major religions of the
city are Hinduism (73 %), Muslims (23 %), Christians (2 %) and the rest are Buddhists
and Jains. These values are not far removed from those recorded for India
Kolkata was known as Calcutta up to 2001 but it was changed by West Bengal
Government.
Chapter 6: Discussion
303
6.3.The present contemplation:
The historical, cultural, architectural and botanical aspects of the religious spots in
Kolkata have a vast coverage. This work reveals certain important aspects of the
ethnobotanical implications of the diversified religious practices associated with
Buddhist Monasteries, Churches and Cemeteries, Fire Temples and Tower of Silence of
Zoroastrians, Gurudwaras, Gurudwara of Mona Punjabi, Jain Temples, Mosques and
Burial Grounds, Nirankari Temple, Synagogue, Temples and Burning Ghats of Hindus,
Upasanalayas of Brahmos which have been functioning for more than 50 years within the
metropolitan city of Calcutta. There are some family deities, especially in the Hindu joint
families of north Kolkata which have not been considered in this study. There have been
a few discrepancies in records of historical events, personages and places in the city
which have not caused any hindrance to the fulfillment of the objective of the present
work. However participatory appraisal of the knowledgeable persons involved with the
administration of the monuments, personal interview of the religious heads or persons
performing regularly the rites at the place, have been given much importance although
in some cases their views were found to be restricted to their own limited experiences
lacking exposure to the new vistas of science. The findings of the present work recorded
in Chapter 5 are discussed in the following on a religion wise basis.
6.3.1.Buddhism
Ahimsa / Non violence forms the basic principle of Buddhism. Buddhist temple gardens
are serene, clean, decorated and well maintained. Just as the Sermons of Buddha which
preach for the systematic life style of His followers, decoration and orientation of the
plants in the temple gardens of the monasteries also seem to follow this silent message.
The garden is generally nurtured in the care of the followers or devotees who explicitly
look into the cleanliness and the aesthetic beauty of the open space. This creates a
peaceful ambience with the chanting of prayers and the beating of drums. Regular
weeding, pruning and watering and a touch of care is seen in all the temple gardens with
separate persons engaged for the purpose. Tanaka Bhikshu of Nippon Zan, Myohoji
emphasized that the religion symbolizes enlightenment and purity of mind and heart. Just
Chapter 6: Discussion
304
as Buddha obtained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa Decne.ex Miq.)
and the white lotus (Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.) growing in unclean water, but keeping
itself pure and spotless, man is also asked to maintain similar purity in this polluted
world. Plants symbolize tolerance and similar values are drawn from plant life to be
inculcated and reflected into human life and nature, such is the interpretations of the
teachings of the Buddha through the religious heads. The author is impressed with the
concept of development of such values in man which forms the basic roots of man-plant
relationship being embedded to mankind through the teachings of the religion. Since the
religion has spread all over the world and climatic conditions do not support the growth
of similar species in the tropics, sub-tropics, and temperate zones, plant species
considered sacred for followers in the Northern parts of the world is not similar to those
in South Asian countries. But plants associated with the birth, enlightenment, life time
activities and death of Buddha are believed strongly to be sacred to Buddhist all over the
world and all sects of Buddhism spread and practiced, in any part of the world stick to the
sacredness of trees in their belief, their values and regular life activities. Nalanda
Bidyabavan has a small garden with few plants thriving in the front open space.
Pragyajyoti Mahasthabir informed that along with regular prayers and the teachings of
Buddha, this autonomous Buddhist organization teaches Pali. According to Acchu, Priest
of Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple, the architectural structures of the monasteries are such
that the tombs and extension of terraces are pointing to the sky which indicates the
vastness of the religion spread to all parts of the world. Even the cemetery tombs with
epitaphs are very differently designed in comparison to tombs of other religious beliefs.
The single Buddhist cemetery visited, has large area of open land almost free from weeds
with a few medium sized shrubs, and covered with green velvety grass. The cemetery has
a high boundary wall and a peaceful atmosphere prevails within. This lone Buddhist
cemetery in the city is adjacent to Hsuan Tsang Buddhist Temple, which has continuous
flow of devotees specially on occasions, still a lonely place where among the graves
thrive only green grass and to add to the sanctity of the air, flows in the morning and
evening chanting of prayers along with the sonorous beating of drums from the adjacent
Monastery. This burial ground has special significance as it is unique of its kind in
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Kolkata in respect to architectural designs, greenery, peace and tranquility even in the
busy and noisy metropolis.
6.3.2.Christianity
33 Churches and 6 Cemeteries have been visited and observations intricate to man-plant
relationship in respect to belief, rituals performed and plants thriving in the gardens have
been recorded. Prior to any observations discussed, it is to be noted that all chapels,
churches, missions and cemeteries had acquired large areas in respect to construction of
monuments with adjacent open spaces on all sides, in the most sophisticated areas, in the
heart of the city.
This may be interpreted in terms of the long British rule from 1757 to the middle of the
20th century when the East India Company consolidated its position at Calcutta. A
“white” township flourished at Calcutta and the city derived its very special flavor of
unrestrained opulence, indolence and a certain genteel culture of the Bengali gentry. The
rule was initially under a Governor General, first of whom was Warren Hastings in 1772,
followed by other illustrious administrators. Gracious mansions, churches, chapels and
missions sprang up during this period along with the splendor of its gardens.
Most churches and cemeteries studied express the artistic excellence of British architects
who were deeply influenced by the Renaissance and Palladian styles of Rome and north
Italy in the 16th and 17th centuries. Luxurious gardens thrive in almost all the church
premises visited, mostly ornamental plants and a few shade bearing trees dot the small to
large gardens of the churches. To the north of the intersection of a busy crossing in the
heart of the city is St. John’s Church. Its distinction lies in its graceful architecture,
modeled by Lt. James Agg and its grounds bear numerous monuments relevant to the
history of the city. The shady mango tree Mangifera indica Blume. and the decorative
dicotyledonous shrubs holding the identity cards of Tecoma gaudichaudi DC., Bauhinia
acuminata Bruce., Codiaeum variegatum Blume. cv. Fire, Hibiscus schizopetalus
Hook.f., Malvaviscus arboreus Cav., Gardenia florida L., Ixora coccinea Comm.ex
Lam., Mussaenda erythrophylla Schum.& Thonn. var rosea and monocotyledonous
Heliconia humilis Jacq. and the gymnosperm Thuja odorata Doi. beautify the garden
and to the south, the spire of St. John’s, made of Chunar sandstone, rises in front. The
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church holds Sunday regular services and the congregation is mainly Indian, but
relatively thin, as most residential areas are at somewhat of a distance.
The Church of Holy Nazareth (originally made of wood in that location) was built in
1707. This got burnt down after some years and was re-built in brick and mortar in 1724.
In the hustle and bustle of the Old China Bazar Street, the church is like an oasis of
peace. There are several old mango (Mangifera indica Blume.) and jamun trees
(Syzygium cumini Skeels.) in the compound and a large number of graves with ornate
tomb-stones. Many of the inscriptions are in Cyrillic and therefore cannot be easily read.
An inscription in English reads the tomb of Rezabeebeh, wife of late Charitable Sookias
who departed from this world on 11th July 1630 AD. Mr Haik Sookias, Chairman, spoke
on behalf of the Church Committee that if this date is true then this is the oldest Christian
grave in Kolkata. It could otherwise be that Rezabeebeh died elsewhere and was
subsequently re-interred here. Portraits and photographs of Armenian gentry and more
details about the community, crowd the walls of the church.
Set in a small compound , the Cathedral of the Holy Rosary, was the first Catholic place
of worship in Calcutta, having being set up in 1747. Fr. Sunil Rosario guided the present
author around the Church. Interestingly, nearly thirty wooden panels made from wood of
Shorea robusta A.DC. depicting the various stages of the Passion of Christ and stages of
the Cross, grace the walls of the chapel. These do bear spending a little time to appreciate
the devotion and artistry built into the panels. There is another beautiful freestanding
wooden statuary made from wood of Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. of Mary bringing Jesus
down from the Cross.
At the base of Sealdah fly-over, and past few shops of Boitakhana bazar, is the Church of
Our Lady of Dolours. It was established in 1809 for the indigent Catholic community of
that area, especially the Goan and other native Catholics. It is a simple yet imposing
structure, with flat Doric pillars. The garden sustains 25 species of vascular plants taken
care by a gardener. Of the 25 species, 19 are of dicotyledons, 5 of monocotyledons and 1
of gymnosperms. There is regular Sunday service and Mass.
The St Paul’s Cathedral is set within huge grounds bounded by a 6ft boundary wall with a
large number of ancient trees. One interesting tree is that of Pithecolobium dulce Benth.
which is found here and only in another cemetery.
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307
As many as 92 species of plants are sustained in Oxford Mission, which is on 63 bigha of
land with 4 water bodies. The estate manager David Mondal guided the author to Ananta
Makal, the Head gardener of the Mission. A few fruit yielding plants have been detected
here which are not commonly found, at least not found in any of the Christian sites
studied. These are Anacardium occidentale L., Alangium lamarckii Thw., Carissa
carandas L., Grewia asiatica L. , Litchi chinensis Sonner. and Agave americana L.
Another tree, Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume,the bark of which is used as condiment
could be detected at this site. The Mission has its garden on either side of Diamond
Harbor Road and the Mission has also an orphanage in the premises. Of all Christian sites
studied, Oxford Mission sustains the highest number of plant species.
The Christian Cemeteries have extensive grounds, with a few stately trees. Almost all the
cemeteries have boundary walls and well maintained premises. The noteworthy feature is
that most of the cemeteries have vegetation composed by seasonal flowers or small
flowering herbaceous plants which bloom colorfully around the graves. Numerous people
visit the cemeteries either for burial or to offer prayers, flowers and fragrant fumes from
incense sticks to the departed souls of their loved ones. It becomes evident from this, that
the way of showing respect even in death is through offering of flowers. This is an
expression of the direct relationship that a Christian maintains with plants in different
events of his life including death. Mr. D. R. Bose, Addl. Secretary, Christian Burial
Board also informed that relatives of some of the dead, make regular payments to the
gardeners, to keep clean and make the area weed free and also to plant small flowering
plants around the grave of their loved ones. In general, the cemeteries are well looked
after as far as gardening is concerned. Removal of weeds, planting and caring of
ornamental herbs and shrubs come under the regular work of the gardeners engaged in
the cemeteries. A few stone pamphlets with carvings on them speak of noble men and
their gallant deeds with a tear of remembrance laced with flowers around the cenotaphs.
It is observed that large number of species, viz. Celosia cristata L., Vinca rosea L.,
Quisqualis indica Blanco., Wedelia calendulacea Less., Sida cordifolia Forsk., Jasminum
pubescens Buch.-Ham. Ex Wall., Lantana camara L., Crinum asiaticum Blanco., Canna
glauca L. var angusta, Tagetes patula L. ornament and thrive lustrously among the
mortal remains of the departed souls. Among the shade giving trees Mangifera indica
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308
Blume., Caesalpinia pulcherrima G.Don,, Cassia fistula Herbb. ex Oliver., Azadirachta
indica A.Juss. and ornamentals like Polyalthia longifolia Benth.& Hook.f.ex Hook.f.,
Acalypha indica L., Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch., Lagerstroemia speciosa
Pers. deserve mention. Even in eternal abode man contributes as biomass to the soil on
which thrive plants having specific utility. Each and every cemetery is kept silent and
somber and every step forward enthralls the visitor with the spirit of the dead, that creeps
between the lush green grass and embraces the breeze, that whispers to the leaves
swaying them to frequently nod to establish their invisible presence. Almost all the
cemeteries have network of pathways and branches there from which meander to reach
the graves. The Bhowanipur Cemetery has a separate enclosure to preserve the mortal
remains of the immortal soldiers of the World War II. The Park Street Cemetery, which
opened in 1767 and closed in 1790, does not presently allow any burial. Here the graves
are marked by obelisks of varying heights and sizes, or by domes or by simple caskets or
tablets. The notable grave is that of Maj. Gen. Sir Charles Stuart (1758-1828) in the form
of a small Hindu temple in black granite, with a “shikhara” and lotus motif. Recently it
has been reported that Parthenium hysterophorus L. is causing menace in Tollygunge
Cemetery and even uprooting and burning the whole plant have failed to control the
growth of the weed.
Numerous acres of cemetery land remain in the heart of the city of Kolkata thus
contributing open space, which would never get encroached by realtors and continue to
give the same soothing ambience to the locality for centuries to come. The cemeteries
which sleep in silence and in fond remembrance, have substantial environmental
contribution even in the busiest areas of the city.
6.3.3. Zoroastrians
An early British trading post in Western India was Surat. The Parsees migrated from
Persia and soon made familiarity with the British business in Surat, which made it
possible for them to grow rapidly into a major commercial force. Henceforth they moved
in good number from Surat to Kolkata to locate new avenues in trading. If industry
coupled with enterprise is a virtue, then the Parsees settlers in Kolkata had a surfeit of it.
They traded in shipping, textiles, jute, confectioneries and in broking trades of all sorts.
Mr. Medora of Calcutta Zoroastrian Community and Religious Charity Fund informed
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the present author that the early Parsee immigrants to India mainly for trade, had
committed to the then Hindu King Judo for permission to trading only and not to spread
their religion. As such no Fire Temple in India allows the entry of devotees from other
religious beliefs, whereas Fire Temples all over the world do not observe such
obligations.
The Zoroastrians of Kolkata visit the Fire Temple of Metcalfe Street to offer prayers. The
other temple at Ezra Street is abandoned and presently entrance is forbidden. For just a
visit to the Tower of Silence (a place for disposal of dead bodies for feed to scavenger
birds) one has to seek written permission from Calcutta Zoroastrian Community and
Religious Charity Fund. Mr. Shorab Cotwal, Panthaki / Head Priest of Fire Temple
“Atash & Adaran”, was cordial and shared every information needed by the present
author. Although the temple location is in one of the busiest commercial parts of the city
and there is no garden within the temple premises but the construction of the temple is
architecturally interesting with ironic pillars in front and a wide arch on the front facade.
The main entrance has concrete flooring and the sides are lined with potted plants. There
is a shrub Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. at the corner of the entrance and further
inside a tree Azadirachta indica A.Juss. and a palm Latania lontaroides (Geartn.). The
potted plants are well maintained and these plants require less of watering. The Head
Priest confirms that he himself looked after the plants and the temple is visited by 3-4
persons daily. Since the number of Parsees in Kolkata has considerably decreased, with
the present number being 750, marriage occasions and death rituals are seldom. He
further adds that Fire symbolizes “Purity” and it is in constant burning with a liberal
supply of wood on the first floor of the temple. A supplier is engaged to supply this
firewood 3 times a year and the wood is preserved with special care. Earlier it was
obligatory to burn Sandal wood (Santalum album L.) but with times such a ritual has
changed. As a non-Parsee the author was not allowed upstairs to see the burning fire. All
flowers are considered auspicious but special emphasis was given on Rose (Rosa sp.)
which is considered sacred, informed the Priest. Clean, well maintained temple premise,
with no garden but still an attachment to greenery in the form of potted plants is an
overall idea developed during visit to this single accessible Fire Temple of the city.
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With high boundary walls on Beliaghata Main Road is the Tower of Silence “Adash &
Adaran” enclosing an area of 45 acres. In-Charge Mr. Balsara and the gardener Ranjan
Sawal, guided the author within the huge compound. Wide roads (for the convenience of
the Paul bearers or ‘Kamdar’ as they are called) lead to the main area where the corpse
are carried and laid for feeding birds. This core area is again within a high boundary wall
and no one except ‘Kamdars” are allowed in. Above the wall could be seen waving of
branches of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. The long and huge height attaining trees are
sustained here, may be to attract birds. The author was informed about tiers of flat
concrete within this boundary so as to place the dead bodies. The leftovers of the corpse
after feed of the birds is collected once a year by specialized cleaners who flew to the city
from Mumbai and these bones etc are buried in the garden compound. The garden
sustains large number of shade giving trees having huge canopy, e.g. Mangifera indica
Blume., Bombax malabaricum DC., Saraca indica L., Tamarindus indica L., Azadirachta
indica A.Juss., Acacia arabica Willd., Albizzia lebbek Benth, Ficus benghalensis L., F.
religiosa Decne.ex Miq., Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. and Artocarpus integrifolia L.f.
and shrubs with abundant flowering and fruiting,viz. Allamanda neriifolia Hook.,
Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd., Thevetia peruviana K.Schum, Euphorbia
pulcherrima Willd.exKlotzsch., Psidium guayava L., Carica papaya L., Ixora coccinea
Comm ex.Lam. and Mussaenda erythrophylla Schum.& Thonn. More or less clean
garden with good spacing between trees was the observation. A planned and well
maintained garden with never a cluster of many trees and shrubs at one place was seen.
The gardener said that the trees house good number of birds and one can hear their
incessant chirping in the evenings. A few stone pamphlets with epitaphs are also seen
under the shades of trees. These noble men had expired away from homeland and their
mortal remains in the form of ashes were brought and buried here. These epitaphs,
exhorted the author to pause and ponder for a while. The huge area, its absolute silence
except for the sound of falling of leaves, resourceful vegetation, the home of scavenger
birds capture the essence of energy transformations in biological cycles and the scientific
rationale behind such humble sacrifice of self in death, which this religion believes and
sermonizes.
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6.3.4. Sikhism
Sikhism is the youngest religion of the world. Like any other religion it conveys the
message of love, peace, social harmony and tolerance. The first Sikh Guru Nanak states
in the the Guru Granth Sahib, - about vegetation, and described it as living and expressed
with pain : “Look, and see how the sugar-cane is cut down. After cutting away its
branches, its feet are bound together in bundles, and then placed between the wooden
rollers and crushed. What punishment is inflicted upon it ! Its juice is extracted and
placed in the cauldron, as it is heated, it groans and cries out. And then the crushed cane
is collected and burnt in fire below.” Simile is drawn between the sugar cane (Saccharum
officinarum L.) and human life experiencing pain. By this Nanak, emphasizes how much
of pain is tolerated by the cane to extract sugar from it. He has asked his disciples to be
ready to bear the same amount of pain to extract their goodness for the benefit of the
human society. Guru Nanak’s love for nature and His contributions in the Guru Granth
Sahib, create the link of man to plants which when realized, and its significance
embedded as values within, take one to sublime heights.
Out of the 6 Gurdwaras visited, Gurdwara Bari Sikh Sangat is the oldest, biggest and
historically most important. Located in a very congested area of Barabazar (the main
trading centre), the Sangat is a six storied building without any garden and not even a
potted plant is seen. A very amicable religious associate Sampoorna Singhji offered
“kara prasad” (halwa) and spoke in praise of Guru Nanakji and Guru Tegh Bahadur
Sahibji who visited the Gurudwara in 1510 A.D and 1668 A.D. The other 5 Gurdwaras
visited, only Gurudwara Garcha Sikh Sangat had a few potted plants all of which are
tropical garden plants. There is no gardener to maintain the plants but staff of an adjacent
garage take care to water the pots, informed Pujari Nabdeep Singhji. The main object of
sustaining these plants is for the beautification of the Sangat. There is some open space in
the gateway of this Gurdwara but as such there is no option for maintaining a garden
here, since a vehicle servicing garage almost merges with the premises of the Gurdwara
and vehicles move in and out though the same gate as used by the Shrine. The religious
heads of Gurdwaras informed that there is no such obligation of offering flowers to the
Guru Granth Sahib. They accept the fact that due to lack of space, no garden could be
maintained within the Gurdwaras in Kolkata but Gurdwaras in other cities do have
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gardens. All the Gurdwaras have covered open areas for serving food to the devotees
which is called “langar”. Worship is mainly in the form of “kirtans” and “bachan” or the
continuous reading of the Guru Granth Sahib “akhandpath” which take a time of 3 days.
Gurdwaras are guarded and use of any form of intoxicants within the premises is strictly
forbidden. Head Granthi Jasbir Singh of Gurdwara Jagat Sudha spoke of Sikh Gurus who
thought of aspects of environmental degradation as early as the 17 century. Head Granthi
Nabdeep Singh of Gurdwara Garcha Sikh Sangat spoke of intolerance, hated and
terrorism in today’s world and conveyed that peace, social harmony and toleration among
different communities can be maintained by Guru’s message to retain peace of mind
through prayer in everyday life. Tejinder Singh, Pujari of Behala Gurudwara spoke of the
martyrdom of Sri Guru Arjan Devji, who had completed the construction of Sri
Harminder Sahib (Golden Temple, Amritsar) and contributed 2218 hymns in 30 Ragas in
the Guru Granth Sahib. Since Sri Guru Arjan Devji embraced martyrdom in the hands of
medieval barbarism and state tyranny, he stands to be the symbol of tolerance to all Sikhs
and his message of forbearance and his hymns in praise of God is conveyed and practiced
in everyday life.
6.3.5. Ravidssia
Located in the tannery area of Tiljala, Guru Ravidas Temple locally known as the temple
of the Dalits, is the single temple in Kolkata established by the followers of Guru
Ravidass in 1939. This is a combination of Mandir and Gurdwara, since idols or murtis of
Guru Ravidass as well as Guru Granth Sahib are worshipped together. Under the
management of Adi Dharm Seva Samity with Surjit Pal as the President and Chiranjit
Singh as Secretary, those practicing this religion Ravidassia, call themselves Mona
Punjabis. The phrase ‘beauty in simplicity’ is applicable to this temple. Clean premises
and well maintained garden with few trees spaciously planted is the mark of this little
known religious landmark. A few trees are either shade giving or fruit yielding or both.
Mangifera indica Blume., Achras sapota L. and Artocarpus integrifolia L.f. are both
shade giving and fruit yielding. Most are ornamentals,viz. Polyalthia longifolia Benth. &
Hook f.ex Hook.f. present in large numbers, Nerium odorum Soland., Xylia dolabriformis
Benth., Gardenia grandiflora Lour., Ixora coccinea Comm.ex.Lam. and Mussaenda
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frondosa Blanco. In the absence of Pujari, Rohit Ram, a member of the Adi Dharm
Samity, sitting in the temple premises was spoken to later joined in Surjit Pal, President
of the Samity. The informants confirmed that regular devotees to the temple counts to 20
– 25 while the number shoots to 1000 on Maghi Purnima, on the birth date of Guru
Ravidass. Mostly trees and flowering shrubs are seen in the temple garden. Unlike
Hindus, no practice of offering flowers to the Shrine and Guru Granth Sahib is retained,
in the same adornment as the Sikhs at the central hall of worship of the temple. Plain
cemented floors, well ventilated temple premise and airy garden are the special points to
be mentioned about this temple site. The religion preaches the Bani and teachings of
Satguru Ravidassji which advocates respect to all religions, to love mankind and to lead a
virtuous life.
6.3.6. Jainism
Jains are strictly vegetarians for their adherence to the practice of non-violence and motto
of peaceful co-operative co-existence. Certain trees have been associated with the
achievement of absolute knowledge (kevalgyan) of Jain Tirthankars. Under these trees
the Tirthankars have obtained Enlightenment and they are considered sacred in Jainism
but the trees themselves do not have any part in assisting of facilitating in achievement of
Kevalgyan.
Named after the 23rd Tirthankar, the Parsanath Digambar Jain Upavan Mandir is set away
from Belgachia Road, on the eastern side of the city’s northern five point junction –
Shyambazar. The temple construction in sand-mortar has considerable stucco work,
depicting trees and motifs of flowers, fruits and designs. The plan map of the temple was
prepared by Mr. Brown – the architect of Victoria Memorial and the architecture almost
replicates the intricate work of Dilwara temple of Mount Abu. As the name suggests, the
temple is to be within a miniature forest and it has a fairly large and laid-out compound,
and a knowledgeable gardener Sasanka Shekhar Majumder. The present author visited
the temple in a summer afternoon and found water sprinklers in use for the trimmed grass
lawns. A not so commonly growing plant Anacardium occidentale L., a well cared plant
Ocimum sanctum L., a drought tolerant plant Cassia fistula Herbb.ex Oliver. and such
sacred plants as Anthocephalus cadamba Miq., Mimusops elengi Boj. and Mangifera
indica Blume. were found sustained in the temple garden. A resourceful vegetation
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thrives in the garden of Parsanath Digambar Jain Temple, of which two-third are
ornamental, planted for the aesthetic pleasure of the devotees and tourists. Flowers
which are procured from the temple garden for use in puja / arti etc. include the names of
Jasminum sambac Soland., Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., Rosa centifolia L., Gardenia
florida L., and Murraya exotica Blanco. most of which are with white colored flowers
since they consider white to be auspicious and Jain priests and devotees are essentially
clad in white. The phrase that perfectly matches with this temple is “Cleanliness is next to
Godliness”. Here in a pious environment, the nurtured green grassy gardens with a
number of fountains, gets rejuvenated.
Almost all the plants thriving in the other four Jain temples, all located at Badridas
Temple Street, are of ornamental category. The Parsanath Digambar Jain temple, as the
name suggests, is of the Digambar sect while the other four temples are of the Swetambar
sect. Most decorated of these and one of the tourist attractions of Kolkata is Swetambar
Jain Temple which is set on a high plinth and has intricate carvings on the pillars and
gateways. The interior partitions are filigree work in sand-mortar. The compound is large
with a number of elegant statues. Shrubs dominate over trees in this temple garden.
Several genera of ferns and palm find prominent positions. A very decorative temple
garden with ground rooted as well as potted plants attracts visitors enormously. Duranta
plumierii Jacq. is systematically planted to separate the garden from the pathways. A
perfect watering system also exists with numerous outlets for proper care and
maintenance of plants. Trees considered sacred by Jains found in the premises are
Anthocephalus chinensis Lam., Artabotrys odoratissimum R.Br., and Mangifera indica
Blume. under which Tirthankars were Enlightened or were venues for sermons.
The Jain temples have a low percentage of consumable fruit yielding plants in their
gardens. A noteworthy conservational feature is that, none of the temples sustain plants
which are used as consumable vegetables and seeds, since people of this faith consider
seed as the first stage of life where sleeps the dormant embryo. A religion so pro-life,
with eco-friendly virtues, preaching non-violence is the need of the hour, not only for
environmental issues and conservational aspects but also in social perspectives.
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315
6.3.7. Islam
The Muslims have a major influence on the social, religious and cultural life of Kolkata
and due to a large Muslim population in the city, Islamic culture has crept silently into
almost all aspects of Kolkata’s life. Delectable from “moghlai” cuisine to aspects of
application of “mehendi” to hair, hands and feet, that the average Kolkatan can nowadays
hardly do without this. Muslims had been long living in Kolkata but their numbers
notably increased after 1806 with the decapitation of Tipu Sultan when the Sultan family
moved from South India to live permanently in Tollygunge area of South Kolkata. The
Shahi Masjid (site no.96) was the resting place of Wajed Ali Shah, the last Nawab of
Oudh, after he was ousted from the throne in 1855 by the British in a bloodless coup.
Lucknow was transplanted in the Watgunge and Metiaburz areas of south west Kolkata.
Mosques, masjids and mazhars for Muslim saints came up in great numbers during this
period. In the present study, 17 mosques and 10 burial grounds have been visited from
where the man-plant relationship has been documented from such aspects as religious
belief, worship, culture and taboos. The masjids and burial grounds are administered
under various Waqf Estates with the Matowale as the head of the Estate. Of these, the
Tipu Sultan Waqf Estate is noteworthy where the Matowale, Anwar Ali Shah is the 7th
generation after Tipu Sultan. In a close interview, Mr. Shah spoke of his legacy, of the
pending litigations of the Waqf Estate in High Court as well as Supreme Court, the fund
crunch for these legal battles and also the maintenance of the Gulam Mohammad Mosque
at Tollygunge. A large 9 bigha land, in the heart of the city houses the Gulam
Mohammad Mosque with 4 bigha of garden, 2.5 bigha of water body and the rest
impenetrable low marshy waste land. Maximum number of plant species is sustained in
this mosque garden. Large number of mango trees Mangifera indica Blume. still thrive
herein, which have been planted ages back and Mr. Shah has heard from his grandfather
that at one time, gallons of ‘attar’ used to be brought in trucks from Lucknow, to spray
on inflorescence during the flowering season of mango, to get the desired flavor out of
the fruit. This gives just a glimpse of the man-plant relationship in Nawab culture.
Recently mahogany trees Swietenia mahagoni L. is being cultivated along the southern
boundary of the Mosque, for the plants economic value to be utilized for maintenance of
the Masjid. Arshad Ali, the gardener informed the present author that the inflorescence
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316
of Mangifera indica Blume. is collected by local ‘moulovis’ to dry them and give to
devotees for cure of diarrhea and chronic dysentery. In the similar way, flowers of
Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br. are collected for use as medicine against skin
diseases. It is observed here that these ‘moulovis’ apply their traditional knowledge of
plant use, to cure to certain diseases even in today’s context in urban Kolkata. An Imam,
a Mohzin (a person who calls for prayer), 2 gardeners and 2 security persons are
employed but the number is inadequate in respect of the large number of devotees, the
large garden and the work load in cleaning and maintaining of the whole area, admits Mr.
Shah. In spite of all limitations this religious landmark holds unique features of man-plant
relationship laced with beauty of ornamental plants.
Under the same Waft Estate is the Tipu Sultan Shahi Masjid, built of brick and sand-lime
mortar, with closely spaced combination of domes and minarets, typical of Islamic
architecture. Here the author met Moulana Al-Haaj Quari S.M. Noorur Rahaman
Barkati, The Shahi Imam of Kolkata, through prior appointment. As many as 4000
namaji can read Namaj at one time in this Masjid. There is no garden here but exist two
very old trees: one Mangifera indica Blume. which is about 70 years old and the other 50
years old Eugenia malaccense L.. Shahi Imam confirmed that no flowers are offered in
worship or placed in the Mazar. More than 2000 devotees visit this shrine on occasions of
Id-Ul-Fitre, Id-Ud-Zoha and Milad-un-Nabi.
By the time the minarets of the Nakhoda Mosque loom into view it becomes conspicuous
that the color of the minarets is bright green, which is in similar concept with the tombs
of Madina where it is said that Nabi loved this color. Nakhoda is the largest mosque in
Kolkata built in 1942 (according to some records 1925) since it can hold the largest
congregation. The entire area is cemented with a few potted plants at the entrance. Shops
around Nakhoda Mosque specialize in “attar”, which are made mainly from essence of
flowers of rose (Rosa sp.) and jasmine (Jasminum sp.). In some of the Mosques, data
could not be recorded initially by the present author for being a woman. Moreover the
religious restrictions and sentiments had to be respected but knowledgeable persons of
the faith helped the present author to overcome most of these difficulties.
Out of 10 burial grounds, 6 dot the city on the south-western fringes, one centrally, one in
the north and two in the eastern part of the city. Most of the burial grounds occupy large
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317
areas and are rich in vegetation. The burial grounds in the south- western part of the city
have large trees like Mangifera indica Blume., Caesalpinia pulcherrima G.Don.Hort.ex
Steud, Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. of the dicotyledonous
families and Borassus flabellifer L., Cocos nucifera L., Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. of
Palmae and are also weed infested by Parthenium hysterophorus L., whereas those in the
other parts of the city are well maintained, with regular operations of weeding and
cleaning. A squeeze past electric shops, idle rickshaw pullers and honking vehicles, take
one to the gates of Bagmari burial ground (Site No.87), quite hidden by the small trading
outlets which line the boundary wall on the side of Bagmari Road, one is unaware of the
152 bigha of burial grounds behind the line of shops. Mimusops elengi L. is the
dominating species in this Burial Ground, the huge canopy of the tree castes a dark shade
to the ground where the departed souls rest in peace. The Sub-registrar Dr. Kamrup Jamal
informed that out of 42 staff, 9-10 persons are engaged to look after the garden. About 4-
5 burials are registered per day and more than 100 people come regularly accompanied
with the deceased. He further informed that there are lakhs of visitors from all religious
beliefs on the day of Sabebarat. There is also a small masjid within this compound. The
Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan (Site No. 89) has demarcating pathways that lead to the
graves, a clean and well organized garden and shaded sitting arrangement, grave diggers
and officials for help which collectively make the environment very conducive for those
who come for burial of a family or community member. Adjacent to this is the Gore
Gobra Muslim Kabarsthan which does not have any green living entity.
6.3.8. Nirankari
Nirankari as the name suggests is the believer of the God as a spirit lacking bodily form.
It is mainly the outcome of a reformist movement of Sikhism which has a single temple
in Kolkata under the Sant Nirankari Mission. The Mission identifies itself as an ardent
participant of an all embracing movement dedicated to human welfare which is truest in
its sense as is observed in the Nirankari Temple of Kolkata. Daily ‘kirtan’ and
‘prabachan’ by the devotees and a large garden form the main feature of this temple.
Ornamental, shade giving, flower and fruit yielding species are mainly sustained in the
large garden and Albizzia lebbek Benth. is found to be the dominating species in this
Chapter 6: Discussion
318
temple garden. Within the garden large plots of land were seen getting prepared for
cultivation with a lot of people engaged in the work. Arjun Singh, the Zonal in-charge of
Kolkata Mission informed that there were a number of projects to be undertaken by the
Mission for human welfare. Of these projects, to the present author, the most remarkable
was the cultivation of medicinal plants. This incidentally is the most important feature of
an optimum man-plant relationship maintained and executed through their missionary
activities for welfare of human life. They have also specified certain areas in the garden
where they plan to cultivate antidiabetic medicinal plants. The Nirankaris thus possess
outstanding virtues for improving human life through their religion.
6.3.9. Judaism
The entry of Jews in Kolkata took place sometime in 1790’s and the community grew in
numbers going into real estate businesses. Expansion of medical facilities in Kolkata is
one of their notable contributions. However, most immigrated to Israel since 1948 and
the present Jewish population in Kolkata is less than 35. Maghen David Synagogue was
set up in 1884, made of red brick, the spire of the synagogue rises nearly four storey.
Typical Venetian style arched windows with colored glass lend grace to the structure.
This is normally open on Saturdays, the Jewish Sabbath and on Jewish festival days.
There is a large compound wall to demarcate the monument from other commercial
establishments of the area. A brick paved pathway runs around the building parallel to the
compound wall. Trees sustain on all four sides of the Synagogue in between the
pathway and compound wall. The building and open space together measure 18886 sq.ft.
Only few plant varieties are sustained, of them considerable number of
monocotyledonous plants have been observed namely, Aloe abyssinica Lam., Yucca
aloifolia L., Ravenala madagascariensis J.F.Gmel. and Bentinckia nicobarica Becc. A
short distance, on the other side of the road is the Beth-el Synagogue in off-white sand-
lime plaster. A marble tablet on the left of the entrance mentions that it was set up to the
memory of David Joseph Ezra and Ezakiel Judah in the year AM 5616. The monument
is of a comparatively smaller size than Magen David Synagogue, measuring about
1300sq.ft but still houses a few plants including Palm Bentinckia nicobarica Becc..This
palm is common to both the Synagogues. Two shade giving trees are common to both the
Chapter 6: Discussion
319
monuments Mangifera indica Blume. and Azadirachta indica Juss. Two commonly
occurring fruit yielding varieties Carica papaya L. and Citrus decumana L. sustain in
both places. Together with the Maghen David this is used for prayer on alternate
Saturdays, between 5.30 am and 8 am. The other Mevi Shalon Syanagogue is abandoned,
and no prayer services are organized there. The Jewish Cemetery is located at
Narkeldanga Main Road and is always closed during day time, since the lone Jewish
resident of the Cemetery, Shalome Israel is away during day for more obvious purpose.
He cares for the graves and also the two dozen Jewish elders still living in the city and
shall perform their last rites when they die.
6.3.10. Hinduism
27 places of worship in form of Temples, Maths (Moths) and Missions, 6 burning-ghats
and 1 burial ground has been studied, of which Kalighat is considered to be especially
holy as it is commonly held to be a “pitha-sthan”. According to common belief, here fell
the toe of Sati (a manifestation of the goddess Kali), when her dead body was being
carried (after the “Dakshya Yagna”) by her husband, Siva, in his “tandava” phase and
Vishnudeva with his “Sudarshan Chakra” cut into pieces of the dead body of Sati to calm
down Shiva.. The Kalighat temple was built with the donation made on the occasion of
the funeral of Churamoni Dutta by his son, Kaliprasad Dutta in 1799. The temple was
constructed in an “ath-chala” style (typical of rural Bengal) in 1800. It is about 30 feet in
height. The sanctum, where the Goddess stands on the prostate Siva, is surrounded by a
raised veranda. In front is the pavilion or “nat-mandir”. The temple compound with a
water body, associated land, dharamsalas, living accommodation for sevaits with family,
large number of kiosks for sale of puja offering, eateries, Nakuleshwar Temple, all
leading roads to the temple, totally covers almost 595 bigha of land. Except for two
species of Ficus at the corner of the water body, no garden whatsoever exists. The entire
area is a crowd of devotees, sevaits, shopkeepers, security men and people seeking for
alms etc. Thousands of red china-rose (Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.) garlands are offered to
the deity regularly but all procured from outside. On the western side runs the Adi Ganga,
a heavily silted and highly polluted tributary of the river Hooghly but even 50 years ago
was subject to daily ebb and tide from the distant Bay of Bengal.
Chapter 6: Discussion
320
Gopal Mandir in Tollygunge was built by Peary Das Mondal in 1847. Gopalji – is also a
manifestation of Krishna and along with this temple is a consort of 12 Siva temples. A
large area of 10.5 bigha adjacent to the temple is in the name of the Deity, known as
“debottor” which enjoys certain privilages under the Land Revenue Act and such land
cannot be sold or purchased. The entire area is a grassy play ground utilized by local
boys, no garden exists at all. On the Adi Ganga side there is sacred tree variety, Garcinia
xanthochymus Hook.f.& T. Anderson. (3 in number), this sapling was brought in from
Vrindavan informed Amitava Mondal, Secretary, Sri Sri Gopaljiu & Sri Sri
Sambhunathjiu ShivThakur Debottor Estate. A garden of Ocimum sanctumL. adjacent to
this, which is said to be, was a much larger garden but due to soil erosion, a portion of the
garden of this sacred plant has caved into the Adi Ganga several years back. Further
down the Adi Ganga could be seen ruins of still extant (non-functional) cubicles where
even at the turn of the twentieth century, aged persons were dispatched on the ‘antar-jali
jatra” to death and rebirth.
For Hindu religious places, it has been observed that more of vegetation was found in the
Moths and Sanghas built by Hindu religious sects compared to the vegetation that thrives
in Temple premises. The Mahanirban Math is one such which sustains maximum number
of plant species among the Hindu sites. The rare species found here are namely Santalum
album L., Cinnamomum tamala T.Nees & Eberm., Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume.,
Terinalia chebula Retz.,and Couroupita guianensis Aubl. which is said to be more than
100 years old. With 100 bigha of land in the heart of South Calcutta, the Math has regular
a thousand visitors. Flowers offered to the Deity are not purchased from the market but
are acquired from the garden, the plants from which such offerings are procured are
Gardenia florida L., Clitoria ternatea L., Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L., Hibiscus mutabilis
L. and Tagetes patula L..
Ram Thakur Ashram located at Jadavpur has a beautiful well maintained garden. 47
vascular plant species thrive in the 1.5 bigha of land under the ashram. The resourceful
garden sustains a few plant species which are not found in any other Hindu religious
sites. These are namely Annona squamosa Delile., Allamanda neriifolia Hook., Dillenia
indica Blanco., Euphorbia trigona Haw., Salvia splendens Ker –Gawl., Albizzia lebbek
Benth., Butea monosperma Kuntze., Papaver somniferum L., Petunia integrifolia Schinz.
Chapter 6: Discussion
321
& Thellung., Pterospermum acerifolium Benth., Viola tricolor L. and Globba bulbifera
Roxb.. More than 1000 visitors throng the ashram regularly. The present author visited
the site in spring and found the garden to be very colorful.
Dakate Kali Bari located at Purna Das Road, a posh area of the city, has a very interesting
heritage. As the name suggests it was a temple worshipped by dacoits more than 100
years back. A small temple garden not very well maintained but infested by trees which
are of the same age as that of the temple, the oldest of all being Mangifera indica Blume.,
Ficus benghalensis L.and Azadirachta indica A. Juss., says the Purohit Kanti Bhusan
Bhattacharjee. Monohar, the leader of the gang , indiscriminately killed men to offer to
the Deity. Involved in dacoity and blood bath, he was a terror in those days. In a
miraculous incident he found a parentless child and adopted him, named him Haradhon,
educated him. At the time of his death, he gave Haradhan all the wealth he accumulated
from his sinful work and told him that scarcity of water, prevents habitation in this part of
Calcutta, so he instructed him to dig out a large water body and plant trees to provide
shade for those who come to collect water from a distance. Monohar is no more nor is
Haradhon, but he lives in his name Monoharpukur Road, a very decent residential
locality today and also remains his worshipped deity Kali at Purna Das Road.
The Sri Guru Ashram in south Calcutta has the noteworthy feature of sustaining a
“pancha-vati” (five plants considered sacred by Hindus thriving in one place). These trees
are Garcinia xanthocymus Hook.f.& T.Anderson., Anthocephalus cadamba Miq., Aegle
marmelos Correa., Saraca indica L. and Azadirachta indica A.Juss.. At Anandadham, the
founder Swami Umanand, had a “pancha-vati” in the gardens but due to indiscriminate
breaking of twigs and leaves by locals, only remains Saraca indica L., while the others
could not be conserved. At the Buro Bhuter Mandir is worshipped the trees Ficus
religiosa Decne.ex Miq. and Ficus benghalensis L. together, considered to be
incarnation of twelve “avatars”. Threads are tied around the trees by devotees, a belief
that their wishes will be fulfilled.
A strong resolve to walk up to the “burning ghats”, a place for cremation of the dead,
leaves the present author remembering that many of the illustrious sons of Bengal and
citizens of Calcutta have had their last rites performed at these places. Six “burning
ghats” have been visited of which only Keoratala Mahaswasan has some maintained
Chapter 6: Discussion
322
plants to enter into the data-sheet. Other “burning ghats” are almost concrete building
structures. The only Hindu burial ground is at Topsia, a very large area where a particular
sect of Hindus, the “Vaishnavas” and children under 5 years old are buried in the earth,
even Hindu Sadhus and Saints are learnt to have been buried. It is mainly grass land and
waste land in which luxuriantly thrives Jatropha gossypifolia L. in abundance and the
most noteworthy is Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.welcoming the visitor at the entrance.
It should also be mentioned here that all bathing ghats of the Ganges turn into religious
places on occasions like Chhat (worship of the God Sun), Mahalaya (recalling of
ancestors and offering prayers in their names), Itu puja ( floating of the pot, where grows
a cereal plant, sown in the name of God a month earlier), marriage, thread and shradh
(final rites by Hindus after death) ceremonies. A dip in the Holy Ganges is always
considered auspicious by the Hindus. The young devotees of the Hanuman deva “akhra”
besides Ganges steps near Mallik Ghat at Strand Road, have a peculiar practice of
smearing themselves in the light mud of the river and engage in vigorous native
exercises, yoga and a bit of friendly wrestling to stay in form.
Hinduism, a religion which has large number of Gods and Goddesses and their
manifestation forms, the message of conservation is silently tied with all these manifested
forms of Gods, Goddesses and Avatars. In some cases, the tree is worshipped as a whole
while in some others, even parts of rare plants form essential parts of “puja” or offerings,
thus promoting plantation and conservation of such species.
6.3.11. Brahmo Dharma
Rational thinking, avoidance of idol-worship and meaningless rituals, a deep faith in
monotheism and humanism forms the basics of Brahmo dharma. The movement began in
1820 as the Atmiya Sabha “congregation for those akin in soul” and grew into Adi
Brahmo Samaj in 1828. Its role in education in general and in education of women in
particular and abolition of “Sati-daha”, “Bal-bibaha” etc , since the 1840’s, has been
notable. It propagated a devout but non-ritualistic way of life and a liberal humanistic
outlook at a time when Bengali society remained substantially bound-over by orthodoxy.
The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj located on the busy tram line road of Bidhan Sarani is
unostentatious but has quiet a dignity. Tall pillars with Venetian shutters in front, and a
Chapter 6: Discussion
323
colonnaded hall inside, with a pulpit and pews, remind more of a church than an oriental
temple of worship. A small driveway that leads to the main building and beside the
driveway not specifically a garden but are trees lined on either sides. Large number of
mango trees Mangifera indica Blume., and the other fruit bearing tree being Psidium
guayava L. a few flowering shrubs of Ixora coccinea Comm.ex. Lam., Tabernaemontana
coronaria Willd., Cestrum nocturum Lam. and Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.. A
Bougainvillea spinosa Heimerl. grows up to the terrace with the building as a support, the
colorful spathes mostly covering the greenness of leaves of this beautiful climber. Palm
tree Mascarena lagenicaulis L.H. Baiey and Polyalthia longifolia Benth & Hook.f.ex
Hook.f. lined on one side of the building add to the aesthetic beauty of the place.
Brahmos are true nature lovers confirms Arun Kr. Das, President of the Samaj and to
them in simple words “God is nature”, omnipresent, in all fruits flowers and grass, in all
where there is manifestation of life. The Brahmo sangeet or hymns are in praise for
Nature and for the Power so more beautiful who created such beauty of nature. No
offering in the form of flowers or fruits has been noticed but traditional rice and curry is
distributed on days of Maghotsav and Bhadrotsav. An orphanage for girls is also within
the compound run by the Samaj. Prayer services are illustriously organized on Sundays
when people of the faith gather for worship called “Upasana” under the guidance of
“Acharyas”. This mainly involves the dedication of oneself to the formless Parambrahma
through prayers and singing of devotional songs. A comparatively smaller place of
worship is the Brahmo Sammilon Samaj at Rajendra Road ( near Gajapark) but still with
a garden, well maintained, sustaining many plant species. A central open space is
characteristic with vegetation on all sides of the compound with the natural tropical
garden trees, shrubs and climbers. Notable among these is Pelargonium hortorum
L.H.Bailey, the name of the genus having been derived from the Greek word “pelargos”
meaning ‘stork’ referring to its long beak like fruit. Medium sized Hollarrhena
antidysenterica Wall. and climber Allamanda cathartica L. with abundant flowering,
brightens the garden and the dominating species Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. is
laden with white flowers symbolizing purity of the Absolute Creator and Preserver.
Chapter 6: Discussion
324
6.4. Contribution to the stock-taking of the plant diversity of Calcutta (the erstwhile
Kolkata):
A catalogue of the plants which were cultivated in the Hon. East India Company's
botanical garden, Calcutta along with those in the Serampore botanical garden was
prepared for the first time by Voigt in his book Hortus suburbanus Calcuttensis
published in1845. Although it was Prain(1903) who gave the floristic account of
Hooghly, Howrah and 24-Parganas including Calcutta as a whole, the most
comprehensive account of trees of Calcutta and neighbourhood was received from
Benthall (1946). Majumdar (1965) was the pioneer botanist to have contributed to the
aquatic and semiaquatic flora of Calcutta and adjacent localities. We are indebted to
Biswas (1950) for getting from him a very important document on the Flora of South
Calcutta with special reference to that of the University College of Science compound in
Ballygunge area. A further contribution to the flora of this campus was made by Paria
(1978) and Paria and Pal (1994). Like the Ballygunge Science College, many of the
academic and research institutions in Kolkata with campuses referable to as old
repositories have been sustaining in their gardens many rare, botanically interesting and
economically important plants. Chakraverty and Mukhopadhyay(1990) covered all such
plants in details.The work of Acharya and Banerjee (2009) deserves mention for its
concern with the stocktaking of medicinal plants in the campus of Ramakrishna
Vivekananda Institute of Advanced Studies in north Calcutta. These authors together with
Sarkhel (Sarkhel et al., 2011) brought out the inventory of the angiosperms sustained in
the same institution many of which are rare, botanically interesting and sources of
aesthetic pleasure and valuable phyto-resources.
Flora of Calcutta and vicinity was worked out by Datta and Majumdar (1966)
which deserves appreciation. A very informative document was received from Jain and
Chakraverty (1984) regarding the beautiful trees and shrubs of Calcutta. Raha(1987) took
up the work of preparing a systematic account of the plants of Calcutta's gardens and
parks. Since access is not normally allowed inside the premises and the plant lovers have
been curious to know the plant treasurers within Raj Bhavan, the Governor Raghunath
Reddy, in 1989, wanted an inventory of the plant resources of the Raj Bhavan garden to
be prepared by the authorities of the Indian Botanic Garden, Botanical Survey of India
Chapter 6: Discussion
325
establishing their correct nomenclature (name) with location details inside the garden and
labeling each of the species. Mukhopadhyay and Chakraverty took up the responsibility
to complete preparation of the systematic account of the plant wealth of the Raj Bhavan,
Kolkata and get it published in March 2008. The work of Pandey and Chakraverty (1996)
involved the non-herbaceous plant resources of the Victoria Memorial area, Calcutta.
Intersetingly Barui and Chanda(1995) worked out the Holocene vegetational history of
Calcutta peat in Bhowanipur area.
A thorough search and scrutiny of literature including the review work of
Chakraverty and Raychaudhuri (2000) could reveal no work so far done on the plants
sustained in the places of religious activities in such an important city like Calcutta where
in live people of diverse religions. As such the present work, new of its kind for Calcutta,
is the pioneering effort based on the realization that stocktaking of plant diversity at
different spatial and temporal scales even in urban localities very much essential when
many of them have been perceiving threats of extinction. Accordingly the present author
prioritized identification and documentation of the plant diversity associated with the
activities (performance of worship, rituals,festivals, ceremonies, cremation etc.) of people
adhering to no less than 11 religions..to ensure conservation, sustainable use and
optimization of environment.
6.5. Environmental implications of the plants sustained in the places of religious
activities in Calcutta:
The pace of modern development and overcrowding in cities has been jeopardizing
nature so rapidly as to make it less suitable for living. There have been severe depletion
of bioresources and prolific escalation of pollution levels. The significant detrimental
effects of environmental pollution on human health and longevity have been the subject
of increasing scientific concern throughout the world. In Calcutta also environmental
pollution is an increasingly important issue mainly due to tremendous growth of
population, construction works, increase in public vehicles and private cars, expansion of
the metropolis etc., particularly during the past few decades. As such environmental
researches have been mainly directed towards mitigation of pollution and optimization of
the environment. Although physical and chemical methods of remediation are very
Chapter 6: Discussion
326
important, the best methods are biological or more precisely botanical because of high
efficiency of plants in detection, evaluation of effects and estimation of pollutants for
being one of the principal targets. Literature pertinent to effects of pollutants on plants
and their specific response to pollutants show affluence many of which ( Feder, 1978;
Mukherjee and Chaudhuri, 1983; Santra, 1987;Rao and Dubey, 1990; Mukherjee, 1993;
Singh et al.,1994; Agarwall and Agarwall,1999; Agarwall, 2000;Masitha et al.,2001;Palit
and Mukherjee, 2001; Ghosh and Mukherjee, 2003) can prove helpful in monitoring
environmental state and mitigation of pollution. Since plants can act as excellent
scavengers of plants there have been attempts to determine the Air Pollution Tolerance
Index(APTI), which indicates the general efficiency of the species to thrive and bear the
overall or collective load of pollutants in the ambient air, of different plants especially of
trees. The results of these findings can guide the urban planners to maintain a clean air by
planting air pollution tolerant species. The species with low tolerance showing
teratological changes can be used as indicators to take appropriate mitigatory measures.
Interestingly the APTI values of most of the species dominating the greenery of places of
religious practices in Calcutta were found from literature (Mashitha and Pise,
2001;Ghosh and Mukherjee, 2003) to be very useful in monitoring and optimization of
the environment of Calcutta(Table 6.1).Thus the environmental concern of different
religions in Calcutta deserves appreciation and gratitude for having selected appropriate
species for sustenance. Investigation in this direction may further prove valuable in
environmental optimization. The species enlisted in this work deserve to be sustained in
different parts of the city by the Corporation authorities.
Table 6.1: APTI values of important species in different places of religious species as
revealed from literature.
Sl. Religious sites of Species of
importance
APTI of
the
species
Environmental
importance as
a
1. BUDDHIST
MONASTRIES
Ficus religiosa
Decne. Ex. Miq.
45.0 Tolerant plant
2. CHURCHES AND Polyalthia 69.8 Tolerant plant
Chapter 6: Discussion
327
CEMETERIES longifolia Benth &
Hook.f.ex.Hook.f.
3. FIRE TEMPLE AND
TOWER OF
SILENCE
Tabernaemontana
coronaria Willd.
12.0 Sensitive plant
4. GURDWARAS No dominant
species found
5. GURU RAVIDAS
TEMPLE
Polyalthia
longifolia Benth &
Hook.f.ex.Hook.f.
(dominant species)
69.8 Tolerant plant
6. JAIN TEMPLES Mangifera indica
Blume.
Rosa centifolia L.
20.2
8.0
Moderately
tolerant
Sensitive plant
7. MOSQUES AND
BURIAL GROUNDS
Mangifera indica
Blume.
Psidium guayava
L.
20.2
6.0
Moderately
tolerant
Sensitive plant
8. NIRANKARI
TEMPLE
Albizzia lebbek
Benth. (dominant
species)
21.0 Moderately
tolerant
9. SYNAGOGUES Mangifera indica
Blume.
Azadirachta indica
A. Juss.
Carica papaya L.
20.2
9.0
37.6
Moderately
tolerant
Sensitive plant
Tolerant plant
10. TEMPLES AND
CREMATORIUMS
Mangifera indica
Blume.
20.2
Moderately
tolerant
11. UPASANALAYAS Mangifera indica 20.2 Moderately
Chapter 6: Discussion
328
Blume.
Polyalthia
longifolia Benth.
&
Hook.f.ex.Hook.f.
Tabernaemontana
coronaria Willd.
69.8
12.0
tolerant
Tolerant plant
Sensitive plant
6.6.Role of sites of religious activities in stress relief:
In the present scenario, stresses induced due to global environmental change have indeed
become a focal point of researches and study programmes worldwide. Stress caused to
human life has an important consequence to health and activities. Religious activities
covering worship, prayers, rituals, festivals, ceremonies etc. in the holy and sacred places
of Calcutta elucidate the plant-man relationship in a manner that not only has soothing
effects on mind and spirit but also enlightens him with the sense of humanity, love and
peace concomitantly rejuvenating him with aesthetic pleasure. All these effects impart in
him stress tolerance and a better quality of life. This hitherto less focused areas
concerning phytoremediation of human stress and stress tolerant bio-aesthetic
development need to be explored by applied psychologists in collaboration with
botanists, social anthropologists, religionists, and environmental scientists for
concentrating more on plant than pollutants. The consideration of these aspects can play a
formative role in defining future environmental research, eco-technologies and policies
and in putting efforts to utilize the scientific message of religion in conservation of
biodiversity and optimization of environment for peace, prosperity and improvement of
qualities of life.
7 : SUMMARY
7.1. The work at a glance:
Since the inception of human wisdom there have been endeavours to develop society
linked values for optimizing environment through spiritual and ritualistic activities and
faith. The present work is designed to study ethnobotanical aspects or the age-long direct
man-plant relationship and the scientific wisdom thus gained from these relationships
which are traditionally preserved in the matrix of religious activities guided by tenets of
different religions in Calcutta. Calcutta, a cosmopolitan city of international reputation
sustains a unique composite culture designed by different religious beliefs and faiths. The
present work initiated in 2003 covers an exhaustive survey of 123 sites adhering to the
religious activities of Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs, Ravidassias,
Nirankaris, Brahmos, Parsees and Jews.The ethnobotanical perspectives of the survey
work was based on standard methods using both primary sources in form of 82
knowledgeable persons linked with the 11 religions as mentioned and secondary sources
in form of pertinent literature. For identification of the plants associated with the places
of religious activities standard taxonomic methods were followed. Voucher specimens
have also been preserved conventionally in the Eco-taxonomy laboratory of the
Department of Botany, Burdwan University.
7.2. The concept and objective
Stocktaking and ethnobotanical perspectives of plants associated with places of religious
activities for use in different occasions and in promotion of aesthetic pleasure and divine
ambience deserve consideration in scientific research since the findings are likely to have
benevolent virtues and eco-friendly implications. In view of the importance of
biodiversity and their functional, cultural and socioeconomic perspectives as well as
ecological and aesthetic values, the present work aims to prepare an account of the use
pattern of the plants willfully sustained in the premises of worship and religious
activities. An analysis of the scientific rationale cryptic in religious activities is likely to
enable us to use the concept as a model for improving human life and optimization of the
presently deranged ecosystem in general and biodiversity conservation and sustenance in
particular maintaining a harmony between plants and the lifestyle of Calcuttans.
Chapter 7: Summary
330
7.3. The outcome - An overview:
A brief account of the findings is presented in the following in the sequence of places of
religious activities linked with eleven different religions prevailing in Calcutta, the city
also called Kolkata.
7.3. 1. Buddhist Monasteries:
In the three Buddhist monasteries and one cemetery of the city studied the total number
of plant species sustained was 44 of which 19 belonged to the Yin Yee Thong Cemetery
alone. Minimum number of species (6spp.) was found in Nalanda Bidyabhavan. Ficus
religiosa Decne.ex.Miq. was found to be the most dominant species in all four sites.
A taxonomic analysis of plants sustained shows that the dicots dominate over the
monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former being 1 : 2.13 at the family level, 1 : 1.93
at the genus level and 1 : 2 at the species level. It is also interesting to note that at Site
No. 4 (Nippon Zen Myohoji Temple), the ratio of monocots to dicots at the genus, family
and species levels is almost 1 : 1, which implies that it is a planned and maintained
garden.
It is evident that in respect of use categories found in all Buddhist religious sites, the
decorative plants which are mainly used to enhance aesthetic effect dominate the scenario
with a share of 54.55%. The next share is of fruit-bearing plants (22.73 %) and shade-
giving plants (18.18%).Those decorative plants which are utilized for fencing/hedging
constitute 9.09 % in totality.
The plants considered sacred by the followers of Lord Buddha have been enumerated,
amongst which Ficus religiosa Decne.ex.Miq. (banyan) can be found in most of the
temple gardens.
A taxonomic analysis of plant-diversity associated with Buddhist Monasteries and
Cemeteries shows 17 dicotyledonous families having 27 genera and 28 species and 8
monocotyledonous families having 14 genera and 14 species. Thus the dicots and
monocots represent 65.85% and 34.15% of the flora at generic level and 66.67% and
33.33% at species level respectively. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms have a share of
3.70 % each. Of the 17 dicotyledonous families, it is Apocynaceae has the highest
number of genera, next to which is the Leguminosae. Out of the 8 monocotyledonous
families recorded it is Palmae which has the highest number of genera and species,
Chapter 7: Summary
331
followed by Gramineae. Only one family each of Gymnosperms and Pteridophytes could
be recorded.
7.3.2. Churches and Cemeteries:
As many as 6 cemeteries and 33 churches were visited wherefrom 48 dicotyledonous
families having 137 genera and 156 species and 10 monocotyledonous families having 31
genera and 34 species could be documented. Thus 81.55% of the taxa were dicots and
18.45% monocots at generic level and 82.11% were dicots and 17.89% monocots at
species level. Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms represent 4.62% and 6.15% of the total
trachaeophytes present.
Out of 48 dicotyledonous families, Leguminoceae has the maximum number of genera,
followed by Annonaceae. Maximum number of species has been noted in Leguminoceae,
followed by Annonaceae. Out of 10 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the highest
number of genera and species, followed successively by Araceae and Scitamineae. There
are 4 families of Gymnosperm and 3 families of Pteridophyta having the same number of
genera and species as that of the respective family. Incidentally Thuja odorata Doi. (
Jhau) is present in 27 sites followed by Cycas revoluta Bedd. of Cycadaceae family.
That the dicots dominate over the monocots is evident from the ratio of 1: 4.8 at the
family level, 1: 4.42 at the genus level and 1 : 4.59 at the species level respectively.
Of all the Church sites Oxford Mission Church (Site No. 8) houses the maximum number
of species (76 spp.) whereas Lower Circular Road Cemetery (Site No. 50) amongst all
cemeteries has the maximum number of plant species (47 spp.). Polyalthia longifolia
Benth. & Hook. f.ex.Hook. (Debdaru) is found in maximum number of Churches
whereas Caesalpinia pulcherrima G.Don. (Krishnachura) is found in maximum number
of cemeteries. But in totality, Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f.ex.Hook (Debdaru)
happens to be the most prevalent species in respect of all 39 Christian religious sites.
In respect of utility of the plants found in all Christian religious sites, plants which
enhance aesthetic effect of the site constitute majority amongst all, i.e., about 84.62%.
Next come the shade-giving plants which are about 12.31% of total species found. Fruit-
bearing plants and vegetables constitute 9.74% and 5.64% respectively. There are only
6.67% of total plants parts of which are utilized particularly for offering to God during
Chapter 7: Summary
332
festivals or decorating the Churches/Cemeteries. 2.05% of total plants are utilized as
fencing and/or demarcating gardens, pathsways inside the premises etc.
A list of plants considered to be sacred by the followers of Jesus Christ or the plants
which are included in Bible has also been prepared. Out of 9 such plants, Citrus maxima
Merrill.. (Lebu), Nerium oleander L. ‘Roseum’ (Golapi Karabi) and Punica granatum
L.(Dalim) are found in 11, 7 and 4 sites respectively.
7.3.3. Fire temples and Tower of Silence of Zoroastrians:
The two Zoroastrian study-sites of Calcutta, i.e. the Fire Temple and the Tower of
Silence, sustain 21 dicotyledonous families having 46 genera and 50 species and 7
monocotyledonous families having 15 genera and 16 species. The dicots represent75.41%
and 75.76% while monocots 24.59% and 24.24% at generic and species levels
respectively. Pteridophytes and gymnosperms contribute 3.23% and 6.45% of total
vascular plants respectively.
Out of 23 dicotyledonous families, Leguminoceae has the highest number of genera and
species next is Apocynaceae, followed by Rubiaceae and Cactaceae. The dicots dominate
over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former is 1: 3 at the family level, 1: 3.07 at
the generic level and 1 : 3.13 at the species level. Only one species i.e., Tabernaemontana
coronaria Willd. (Tagar), was found to be common in both the sites.
In all Zoroastrian religious sites, the species mainly used to enhance aesthetic effect of
the site, constitute majority amongst all, i.e., about 77.14% in totality. Next comes the
fruit-bearing (14.29 %) and shade-giving plants (8.57%). Other decorative plants which
are used for fencing and/or demarcating gardens, road and pathsways inside the premises
etc. constitute about 2.86% of the total species.. Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd.
(Tagar) is found in both the temple-gardens plenty in number. The name of the plants
considered sacred by the Zoroastrians and the sites of sustenance have been tabulated. Of
these plants characteristically, Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) and Rosa centifolia L.
(Golap) are found mostly.
7.3.4. Gurdwaras
As many as 6 Gurdwara study-sites wherefrom 5 dicotyledonous families having 6
genera and 6 species and 2 monocotyledonous families having 3 genus and 3 species
could be recorded. The dicots represent 67% and monocots 33% both at generic and
Chapter 7: Summary
333
specific levels. No Pteridophyta could be found at any of the sites, although 2
gymnospermous families having 2 genera and 2 species could be recorded. Apocynaceae
was found with the highest number of genera and species.
The dicots were seen to dominate over the monocots, the ratio of the latter to the former
being 1 : 2.5 at the family level, 1 : 2 at both the genus and species levels.
Almost all of the plants found in these sites are decorative which give immense aesthetic
pleasure. There is only one species each belonging to the category of fruit-bearing and
Shade-giving plants. Not a single plant could be found, whose parts (flower, fruit, seed
etc.) are offered to the deity/God during festivals or used in decorating the shrine or in
fencing and/or demarcating gardens, paths etc. inside the premises. No plant was found to
be grown for vegetables. No plant considered sacred by the Sikhs or adhering to their
Holy Guru Granth Sahib was found at any of the sites under study.
7.3.5. Gurudwara Mona Punjabi
Only 9 dicotyledonous families having 13 genera and 13 species and 1
monocotyledonous family having 1 genus and 1 species could be recorded from Guru
Ravidass temple, the only temple of its kind in the city, better known as ‘temple of
dalits’. Thus dicots were found to represent 92.86% and monocots 7.14% both at generic
and specific levels. Neither any pteridophyte nor any gymnosperms could be observed at
the site. Out of 10 dicotyledonous families, Rubiaceae family has the maximum number
of genera and followed by Leguminosae in the same context. There is only 1
monocotyledonous family having solitary genus and species.
The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former being 1 : 9 at
the family level, 1 : 13 at both the genus and species levels. Species of Rubiaceae family
were found to be most dominant in this religious site.
Majority of the plants sustained in this site are decorative which enhance beauty of the
site and give aesthetic pleasure being 57.14%. Next share is of the fruit-bearing plants
which are about 35.17% of the total species noted. Shade-giving plants constitute 28.57%
of the total species. Not a single species could be found, whose flower, fruit, seeds etc.
are offered to the deity/God during festivals or used in decorating the shrine or in fencing
and/or demarcating gardens, paths etc. inside the premises. No plant was found to be
grown for vegetables.
Chapter 7: Summary
334
7.3.6. Jain Temples:
From the five Jain temples studied 23 dicotyledonous families represented by 49 genera
and 58 species and 5 monocotyledonous families by 17 genera and 22 species have been
observed. The dicots represent 74.24% and monocots 25.76% at the generic- and 72.50%
dicots and 27.50% monocots at species- levesl. Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms represent
3.03% and 12.12% of the total vascular plants respectively.
Out of the 23 dicotyledonous families scored, Leguminosae has highest number of genus
followed by Euphorbiaceae. Maximum number of species were also noted in
Euphorbiaceae family, followed by Leguminosae.
Out of 5 monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genus and
species, followed by Liliaceae. Only 4 families of Gymnosperms and 1 family of
Pteridophyta have been identified.
The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the later to the former is 1 : 4.60 for
the family level, 1 : 2.88 for the genus level and 1 : 2.64 for the species level in totality. It
is also interesting to note that at Swetambar Jain Temple, the ratio of monocot to dicot at
the genus and species level is almost 1: 1, which implies that it is a planned and
maintained garden.
The maximum number of plant species found in all five Jain temples of Kolkata is
87, out of which Parsanath Digambar Jain temple garden singly contributes 51 species.
Minimum number of species (07) found amongst all five temples is in Chandra Prabhuji
Ka Mandir. The Setwambar Jain Temple is having 24 genera of plants mostly of shrubs
and a few tree varieties, whereas the Parsanath Digambar Jain temple had large number
of trees. Gymnospermous plants (4 in total) are found mostly in Parsanath Digambar Jain
temple garden and there is only one such species in Sri Sri Mahavir Mandir garden.
Mangifera indica Blume and Rosa centifolia L. were found to be the most dominant
species in respect of all five Jain religious sites.
In all Jain sites, the decorative plants constitute majority amongst all, i.e., about
80.46% of the totality and. 6.90% of the total decorative species are utilized for offering
to the deities or decorating the temples. As many as 6.90% of the species are used for
fencing and 2.3 % for shade giving. The fruit-bearing plants have a share of 9.2 % of the
species sustained. Both Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) and Rosa centifolia L. (Golap)
Chapter 7: Summary
335
can be found almost in all temple-gardens in plenty of number, which not only enhance
the beauty of the gardens but also are used as offerings especially during religiously
performed ceremonies.
7.3.7. Mosques and Burial Grounds:
From the 27 Islamic religious sites (17mosques and 10 burial grounds) studied as
many as 39 dicotyledonous families having 98 genera and 113 species and 10
monocotyledonous families having 22 genera and 22 species could be recorded. In this
composition dicots represent 81.61% and 83.70% whereas monocots 18.33% and 16.30%
at generic and species levels respectively. Not a single species of Pteridophyta could be
found in 27 sites. Gymnosperms represent 3.92% of the total vascular plants. The dicots
were seen to dominate over the monocots; the ratio of the latter to the former being 1 :
3.9 at the family level, 1 : 4.45 at the genus level and 1 : 5.14 at the species level.
Out of 39 dicotyledonous families, Leguminosae followed by large number of
genera in Euphorbiaceae and Rubiaceae and Compositae is observed. Out of 10
monocotyledonous families, Palmae has the largest number of genera and species
followed by Gramineae and Liliaceae.
Among Gymnosperms only 2 families, viz. Pinaceae and Cycadaceae could be
scored each of which was with one genus and one species. The ornamental plant Thuja
odorata Doi. (Jhau) was found sustained in 6 out of 27 studied sites. Among angiosperms
Psidium guayava L. was found sustained in maximum number of mosques whereas
Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. and Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. were found in
maximum number of burial grounds. But in totality Mangifera indica Blume and
Psidium guayava L. were found to be the most dominant species in respect of all the
Islamic sites studied.
So far utilitarian aspect of the plants Islamic sites was concerned, decorative
plants were found to constitute majority amongst all, i.e., about 65%. Next to come were
the shade-giving and fruit-bearing plants each of which composed 12% of total species
recorded. Of all decorative plants found in the Islamic sites, plants offered to the
Almighty or used for decorating the mosque were very few being 1.28%,.However 93%
of the decorative plants were found sustained for enhancing the aesthetics of the site.
Chapter 7: Summary
336
Plants considered sacred by the followers of Islam as well as those included in
the Holy Quran have been enumerated, amongst which Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. deserve
mention for having been found in 12 sites. Among others Lawsonia inermis L. found in
7 sites, Punica granatum L. in 4 sites and Brassica nigra Koch. in 1 site deserve
mention.
7.3.8. Nirankari Temple:
Sant Nirankari Satsang Mandal, the only temple, is situated at South-eastern fringe of
Kolkata wherein 18 dicotyledonous families having 26 genera and 28 species and 3
monocotyledonous families having 4 genera and 4 species are sustained. The dicots
represent 86.67% and 87.50% where as the monocots represent 13.33% and 12.50% at
generic and species levels respectively. The dicots dominate over the monocots; the ratio
of the latter to the former is 1 : 6 at the family level, 1 : 6.5 at the genus level and 1 : 7 at
the species level. Each of both Pteridophyta and Gymnosperms represents 4.35% of total
vascular plants concerned. Out of 18 dicotyledonous families, Annonaceae, Leguminosae
and Rubiaceae have the highest number of genera as well as species, followed by
Cucurbitaceae. Out of the 3 monocotyledonous families sustained, Palmae has the
maximum number of genera and species. There is 1 family each from Gymnosperm and
Pteridophyta having one genus and one species.
Majority i.e. 55.88% of the plants sustained in this site are decorative enhancing the
aesthetic effect of the site. Next share is of the fruit-bearing plants 23.53% followed by
the shade-giving plants 17.64%. Plants utilized in fencing and/or demarcating gardens,
paths inside the premises etc. were found to be only 2.94% of the total species. Plants
utilized as vegetables also have the same share of 2.94%. No plant whose parts are
utilized for offering to the deity/God during festivals or for decorating the shrine were
found sustained. It was encouraging to find that a separate area inside the premises was
earmarked and prepared by the authority for cultivation of medicinal plants, especially
the antidiabetic ones.
7.3.9. Synagogues:
In the two Jews religious sites studied, 11 dicotyledonous families having 14 genera and
15 species and 3 monocotyledonous families having 4 genera and 4 species were found
Chapter 7: Summary
337
getting sustained. The dicots represent 77.78% and 78.95% where as the monocots
represent 22.22% and 21.05% at generic and species levels respectively.
There is no Pteridophyta in any of the sites. Gymnosperms have only one family with a
single genus and solitary species to constitute 6.67% of the total number of vascular
plants sustained.
Each of the families like Annonaceae, Myrtaceae and Lytheraceae has two genera and
two species sustained while each of all the 8 remaining families has a single genus. Only
one of these genera is represented by two species and all the rest are with solitary species
each.
.
In respect of utility of the plants sustained in the Jewish sites, the ornamental species
constitute about 47.37% in totality, whereas fruit-bearing and shade-giving plants
constitute 31.58% and 15.79% respectively. Other decorative plants which are used for
fencing and/or demarcating gardens, paths inside the premises etc. comprise 5.26% of the
total species sustained. The names of the plants considered sacred by the Jews along with
their occurrence have been tabulated of which Punica granatum L. (Pomegranate) found
in Maghen David Synagogue is noteworthy.
7.3.10. Hindu Temples and Burning Ghats:
In as many as 23 temples, 4 ‘Guru-ashramas’, 6 crematoriums and one burial ground
associated with the Hindu religion of the city 45 dicotyledonous families having 94
genera and 104 species and 8 monocotyledonous families having 17 genera and 17
species were found getting sustained. The MahanirvanMath (Site No. 49) houses
maximum number i.e. 65 species whereas it is Keoratala Mahasmasan (Site No. 10)
amongst all crematoriums which has the maximum number of species, i.e. 23 .
Mangifera indica Blume (Aam) and Cocos nucifera L. (Narkol), were found sustained in
maximum number of temples and Ficus religiosa Decne. ex Miq. (Aswatha) in maximum
number of Burning Ghats. In respect of all 34 Hindu religious sites studied Mangifera
indica Blume. (Aam) seems to be the most dominant species. In the taxonomic census the
dicots and monocots represent 84.68% and 15.32% at generic level and 85.95% and
14.05% at species level respectively. Gymnosperms represent 1.85% of the total vascular
plants and not a single pteridophyte was found getting willfully sustained.
Chapter 7: Summary
338
Out of 45 dicotyledonous families recorded, Leguminosae has the highest number of
genera, followed by Apocynaceae. Maximum number of species has also been noted in
case of Leguminosae, followed by that of Apocynaceae. Out of 8 monocotyledonous
families recorded, Palmae and Scitamineae has the highest number of genera and species,
followed by Gramineae.
As many as 2 families of Gymnosperms (Cupressaceae) were found to have
representation in form of 2 genera and 2 species. Thuja odorata Doi. (Bilati Jhau) was
found sustained in 4 sites and Cycas revoluta Bedd. (Fern palm) could be recorded from
only one crematorium.
The plants which enhance aesthetic effect of the site constitute majority, i.e. about
67.48% amongst all. Next to come are the fruit-bearing plants which constitute about
17.07% of total species recorded. Furthermore there are 14.63% of total species, the parts
of which are utilized particularly for offering to God during festivals or considered as
sacred. Shade-giving plants and vegetables constitute 13.08% and 11.38% of the total
number of species respectively. As much as 3.25% of the total plants are utilized in
fencing and/or demarcating gardens, paths inside the premises etc. the plants considered
sacred and the ones with parts offered to the God have also been enumerated.
7.3.11. Upasanalayas:
No less than 14 dicotyledonous families having 18 genera and 18 species and 3
monocotyledonous families having 5 genera and 6 species have been recorded from the
two Upasanalayas. Of these Upasanalayas Brahmo Sammilan Samaj sustains the
maximum number of species i.e.17 out of 24.The dicots represent 78.26% and 75.00%
where as the monocots represent 21.74% and 25.00% at generic and species levels
respectively. Out of 14 dicotyledonous families, Apocynaceae family has the maximum
number of genera and species, followed by Myrtaceae. There are 3 monocotyledonous
families of which Palmae has the maximum number of genera and species.
Neither any pteridophyte nor any gymnosperms could be found at any of the sites.
From utilitarian aspect, majority of the plants (87.50%) found in this site are decorative
plants which enhance aesthetic effect of the site. Next share is of fruit-bearing plants
which constitute about 16.67% of the total species found. Shade-giving plants constitute
4.16% of total plants. No plant was found the flowers, fruits, seed etc. of which were
Chapter 7: Summary
339
offered to the deity/God during festivals or for decorating the shrine or in fencing and/or
demarcating gardens, paths etc. inside the premises. No plant was grown for use as
vegetables. Tabernaemontana coronaria Willd. (Tagar) was found sustained in
profusion in both the temple-gardens.
From all religious sites studied a total of 762 plants species are recorded.
7.4. Conclusion:
In the matters of relentless efforts to sustain the earth’s environment as viable in
optimum state for future generations, environmental studies have not so far adequately
evaluated the role of different religions although the present author could realize
subsequently that ecology is deeply ingrained in it and nature, and its destiny, human
virtues and ethics are guided and conditioned by religious beliefs and teachings. It is
certain that religious tenets, views and practices can guide and mould our attitudes
towards nature and her biotic as well as abiotic components and functions. Religion sets
the guidelines to build up sustainable relations of our materialistic lives with the
ecosystem in the best possible way and help us to reappraise our behaviour with the
flora, fauna and environment and reorient us towards a successful life with optimum
resources. This kind of faith augmented the present author to address a new field of
study in the arena of Hinduism and ten other religions as conceptualized and practiced
under the conditions existing in Calcutta to reveal their environmental implications
and distill the contemporary environmental ethics percolating from their direct man-
plant relationship for use in optimization of lives and the environment.
The present work has aptly explored the ecological or more precisely the
environmental underpinnings and implications of the direct man-plant relationship or
rather the ethnobotanical knowledge and wisdom traditionally preserved in the tenets,
principles, rites, taboos faith and practices of different religions in Calcutta. The findings
of this work can find practical application in planning strategies by the public policy
makers, developmental and administrative authorities in urban landscape designing in
the most public inclusive and sustainable ways. Ethnobotanical excerpts from the man-
plant relationships revealed in the work is a valuable document to inspire further
research in evaluation of the religion associated species in biomonitoring the state of the
environment as indicators as well as scavengers. Judicious integration of religious
Chapter 7: Summary
340
wisdom and activities in the most secular way with our urbanscape would not only
afford aesthetic rejuvenation and spiritual invigoration but also promote plant
conservation and phytoremediation, alleviation of stress, tension and social evils , and
improvement of quality and tenure of life. Once the idea catches on, landscape
designers and other experts can explore opportunities to further optimize environment
and evolve models for application in other rural and urban areas.
To sum up it may be said that this work, new of its kind, is likely to inspire the
activities of both indigenous and exotic religions and enlighten the followers with the
sense of humanity, fraternity, amity and peace to ensure the religious-system a
respectable and sustainable niche in the noosystem i.e. the ecosystem, in its complete
sense, covering social, cultural, economic, physical and biological components and
function. The present author would consider her efforts successful if the sum and
substance of this work find application in optimization of life and living with a green,
stress free, peaceful, pleasant and healthy environment.
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