ethics - kalyan sir onlineias.com · • values guide human while ethics gives ground for...

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ETHICS Part-IV

N. Kalyana Chakravarthy

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+91-9246365622 www.KalyanIAS.com N. Kalyana Chakravarthy

+91-9246365622 www.KalyanIAS.com 1

CHAPTER – 1 HUMAN VALUES

UNDERSTANDING HUMAN VALUES

“Values mean whatever is actually liked, prized, esteemed, desired, approved and enjoyed, by anyobe at any time”.

1. Values constitute an important aspect of self-concept and serveas guiding principles for an insividual. Values are the basicconviction that the specific mode of conduct is personally or sociallypreferable. They are the standards, towards which an individual hasstrong positive attitude. For instance, a person who considers killinganimals for consumptions as sin has a strong positive attiudetowards vegetarianism. That is his value system. Thus values can bepositive or negative, good or bad based on the conviction andattitude of an indivisual. This is where values are different fromvirtues. Virtues simply means good habits and is always a positiveterm.

A ‘value system’ is an enduring organization of beliefs concerning preferable modes of conduct along a continuum of importance. Thus the importance of different values co-varies with the importance of others in the value system. For e.g. one way value ‘honesty’ over successes.

Values Vs Ethics • Values guide human while ethics gives ground for reasonablemoral beliefs.

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• Values can be good or bad while ethics is concerned only with positive side of values. Thus, all ethics are values but all values are not ethics.

• Our values influence what we will term as ethical, i.e., Value is considered as the language of ethics. • Both are non-universal

CLASSIFICATION OF VALUES Different educational thinkers have classified the values in accordance with their own thinking process. Broadly, the values van be classified as: • Social value: Priniciples and ideologies which encourage us to live together. E.g. Love, affection, affiliation etc. • Moral value: Principles and directives which enables us to follow the right path. E.g. Honesty, empathy, integrity etc.

• Religious value: Persons believe in a particular thought which is a guide for reasoning between good and bad. E.g. showing respect to holy books, preaching god etc. • National value: Principles which encourage a person to imbibe the feelings of patriotism and national intergration. E.gh resoecting national flag and national anthem, sacrificing for country etc.

• Scientific value: Principles, which guide in the dos and don’ts of the citizens. E.g. standing in the queue, respecting elders, dumping garbage in the dustbin etc. • Political value: Thus includes liberty, equality, democracy, unity and diversity etc.

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• Economic value: This includes belief in ideology such as capitalism, socialism, free market economy, globalization, privatization etc.

• Affective value: It is concerned with or arousing the emotions or affection. It includes feelings of pain, happiness, love etc.

• Intellectual value: They are excellent character traits. They are features that make a person excellent as a person. E.g. humukity, perseverance, courage etc.

Modern Clssification of Values -Burbacer.

• Immediate value: The value which fulfill the biological and psychological needs of an infividual • Remote value: These are related to intelligent and rational needs. • Intrinsic values: Intrinsic values are end in themselves and are permanent and ultimate values. The thing that has true intrinsic value is happiness or pleasure. There are no physical things that have intrinsic value. • Instrumenal or Extrinsic values: Instrumental values are that which are judged good because they are good for something. It is a means to an end. For instance, money has extrinsic value (Recreational value, Bodily value, Economic value). Pleasure (Intrinsic Value) is the ultimate end to which all things of extrinsic value are the means.

CHARACTERISTIC OF VALUES

1. Values are vuilt as an outcome of knowledge as well as beliefs. 2. They have cognitive, affective, and directional aspects. 3. They can be learned through culture, experience, and social institution. 4. They are hierarchically given, dependent & relative among themselves & with the perceiver. 5. They are always given in pairs, i.e. the positive balue has always its corresponding counter value.

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FUNCTIONS OF VALUES

1. They help to become socially acceptable 2. They help in judgements and decision making 3. They serve as internal guide to everything. 4. They make behavioral choices less random and more oarsimonious. 5. They help in prioritization (Hierarchy of value).

PRINCIPLE OF PREFERENCE OF VALUES

1. Preference for permanent values – Permanent values are preferred to that of transitory – values. Sensuous pleasures are transient; pleasures of association and charater and character the values of truth, beauty, goodness and religion are more enduring. 2. Preference for profuctive values – Productive values are preferred to that of non-productive values. The intrinsic values enrich the self, harmonize and help in bring peace. They take self towards elevation. While extrinsic values are exhausted in the process of being used. The more extensive and universal they (values) are, the more productive they tend to become. 3. Preference for intrinsic values – Intrinsic values are preferred to that of extrinsic values.

DEVELOPMENT OF VALUES

Values are development in an individual throught his lifespan. There are certain processes through which values are developed. The methods or techniques adopted for inculcating values also vary based on the needs.

Process of Developing Values

1. Socialization

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• Socialization is the process by which human infantys being to acquire the skills necessary to perform as a functioning member of their society, and is the most influential learning process one can experience. • Through thism a child is indoctrinated into his/her culture. • It is a lifeling process of shaping an indivifual. • Agency of socialization includes family, society, school, peer group, media etc.

2. Social Control

• Even after socialization process, there will be some deviants. For instance, two chilfren are brought up in the same family. One of them is very honest while another has got into the habit of stealing, In such cases, the good values can be eradicated through ostricization. • Basically, social control follows the reward and punishment mechanism. Goof act is rewarded while bad act is punished so as to eliminate the chance of its repectition.

Techniques for Developing Values

1. Allegoric Method: It involbes moral story telling. Biography of some great personalities, Panchatantra stories etc can help in moral building.

2. Conscientization: It involves pricking the conscience of an individual against the wrong doings. It is a process of developing a critical awareness of one’s social reality through reflection and action. We all acquire social myths which have a dominant tendency, and so learing is a critical process which depends upon uncovering real problems and actual needs.

3. Intense Association Method: It is based on the concept of mentorship. A mentor acts like a friend in inculcating balues, unlike a philosopher who acts as a guide.

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4. Profitable Association Method It is based on fundamentals of

symbiotic relationship and joint endeavor. It inculcates values of mutual respect, tolerance, harmony, equality etc.

5. Role Playing: It involves acting out or performance of a particular role, either consciously (training) or unconsciously, in accorfance with the perceived expectations of society as regards a person’s behavior in a particular context.

Role of Family in Inculcating Values

Parents or family plays a dominant roile in efucating a child. Mother is the first teacher and Home is the first school. The newly born baby is dependent on parents who nourish and bring it up. The elders at home teach the debeloping baby behavior, dress codes, customs, and aspirations and so on. The minds of children develop in the major way through the process of non-formal education at home.

The family shapes the child’s attitude towards people and society, and helps in mental growth in the child and supports his ambitions and values. Blissful and cheerful atmosphere in the family will develop the love, affection, tolerance, and generosity. A child learns his behavior by modeling what he sees around him.

The methods employed by family in inculcating values include Reinforcement, Conditioning, Parenting style, Reward and punishment mechanism etc.

Style of Parenting influences the values absorbed by the children. For instances, Love oriented parenting inculcates social values in the children while Power assertive parebting makes him more dormant and less engaging. Dynamic parenting is the right solution for the present value crisis. If the nation has to prosper, improvement must begin with parents. Without the harmony at home, there is no peace in the nation.

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Parents should equip the children with certain factors such as: awarebess of truth, a sense of responsibility, emotional maturity, communication skills, awareness of intellectual development, sense of judgement and observation, sultural awareness, religious & spiritual values and leadership wualities. The skills and emotions that make or mar the future of the child are to build these crucial years.

Role of Society in Inculcating Values

The child is initiated into learning in the society to which she is a bonafidememver with all facilities at disposal. The society may be assigned new roles to play effectively and vigorously towards development and inculcation of values of multi-dimension. The society is expected

• To creat homogenous environment so as the learners may take up valuable lessons on ethics, behavior, adjustment, living together sympathy and service. • To reflect simplicity, kindness, and fairness in theor conduct, for development of positive habit, attitude, inner capacity, and feeling and wish to live. • To provide maximum freedom for fuller growth with experiences and with favilitation of desired suggestion and persuasion. • To explain its traditions, rituals, mythological stories, consequences and contribution to the modern order of society. Unfortunately society, due to its makeup, ahs also inculcated certain negative values in people. III Effects Produced Patriarchal Society Projected women as sacrificing

element. “Sita remain an ego Ideal” kind of message has gone into the society.

Joint Family and Caste System Tempt people to develop a tendency to ‘Evade Responsibility’.

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Hierarchical Preference Promotes ‘Yes Manship’

Achievement needs are not enbcouraged

This has ingrained low aspirations in people leading to ‘Passivity and conformity’.

Parental Authority

Obedience replacing personal initiative.

Role of Educational Institutions in inculcating Values

Schools is the first agency of socialization. Education undoubtedly is one of the mostpowerful agencies molfing the character and in determining the future of individuals and nations. Thus the whole relam of education is centered on the development of the moral aspect of man. • Plato emphasized that educational effort should aim at the promotion of virtue. • Herbert declared that the whole work of education, which is a long anf complex traning, should focus on one particular thing that could be summed up in the concept “Morality”. • Mahatma Gandhi states, “Education of heart, or Moral Education is the prime dunction to provide. If we succeed in cuilding character of the individual, society will take care of itself”. • According to Bertrand Russel the chief aom of education is the “formation of character”. • The University education Commission (1964—66) summarizes the Indian concept of education as follows: “Education according to Indian tradition is not merely a meand of earning a libing; nor is it only a nursery of thought or a school for citizenship. It is the initiation into a life of spirit, a training of human souls in pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue.”

The role of education can be be felt from few other view points of some greats.

“The greatest use of education is not merely to collect facts, but to know man and make one self-know to man.” (R.N. Tagore).

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“Education should be for the hand, head and heart. Education for the heart means spiritual training. The aim of education is self-realization, the summumbonum of life and education.” (M.K. Gandhi).

“Education is not limited to the imparting of information or training in skill. It has to give the educated a proper sense of values.” (Radhakrishnan)

Development of Values through Education

To make the value aspect of our education programmes more prominent, the following ideas should be incorporated in the educational programmes.

• Developing self-respect, awareness of self-gowth, one’s uniquences, self-confidence • Promoting selflessness, cooperative spirit of charing

• Imparting clear direction on cleanliness, punctuality, use of refined language, courtesy, proper manner, respect for elders. • Becoming aware of the need of the others • Promoting civic sebce, awareness of oneself as a memver of a community, civic duties. • Knowledge of the constitution, rights, and duties

• Knowledge the provision to promote human dignity anf justice, patriotism, national integrity, international understanding • Protection of encironment • Dissemination of cultural heritage

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• Propagation of value philosophy.

Method Employed in School To Inculcate Values

In school, shildresn are member of a small society that exerts a tremendous influence on their moral development. Teachers serve as role model to students in school; they play a major role in inculcating their ethical behavior. Peers at school diffuse bolfness about cheating, lying, stealing, and consideration for others. Following are some of the methods: • Lecturing • Reinforcement • Feedback • Role model: The teachers are the first role model to the children outside their family. When the children see the model showing concern for others, motivating them for their good deedsd and cooperating and helpful with their academic issues, the children learn them by observing and imitate it with fellow peers.

Role of a Teacher

The important of teacher can be gauged from the lives of Mahatma Gandhi who had Gopal Krishna Gokhale as his teacher, and Alexander who was a disciple of Aristotle. The teacher is a mentor, facilitator, communicator and manager of the teaching learing activities. She is the source of inspiration having full of action, thought, vision and wisdom. A teacher os supposed to discharge the suty as assigned:

• The teacher is the narrator of the skills to live the life completely and is supposed to act as the friend, philosopher and guide. • Honesty, morality, truth, non-violence shoulf be the forte as the learners copy the behavior of their teachers.

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• He should have competency, methodology, strategy, technique of teaching and innovative skills at command to organize learing. • He shoulf explain the social and the national heritage, culture, civilization and its useful values to the modern adolescents.

• The values related to the teacher’s havits, behavior, actions and thoughts must reflect the real face before the students.

CHAPTER-2

DIMENSION OF ETHICS • Understanding Ethics • Ethics Vs Morality

• Branches Of Ethics And Ethical Theories

UNDERSTANDING ETHICS

Ethics is a discipline based on logical justification of human action. It is not about mere compliance, but is about righteousness and wrongness. The term comes from the Greek word ethos, which means “character”. Thus Etics is concerned with the study of moral

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philosophy that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct.

ETHICS VS MORALITY

• Morality is about the human attempt to define what is right and what is wrong about our action and thought. It refers to a set of accepted beliefs or the code of conduct governing behavior. On the other hand, ethics does not attempt to codify commonly accepted beliefs but attempts to find the grounds of reasonable moral beliefs. • Ethics refer to a set of principles; to philosophy or theory relating to principles. Morals are more like beliefs than principles,based on teachings and often guided by societal or religiously driven standards.

• Ethics is the philosophical study of morality while morality while morality is the subject matter of ethics.

• Reasoning is given a prestigious place in Indian concept of morality. For instance, Jainism talks of Right faith – Samyakdarshana. This doesn’t mean believing what you’re told, but means seeing (hearing, feeling, etc.) things properly, and avoiding preconceptions and superstitions that get in the way of seeing clearly. Buddhism also talk of Right thought, Right understanding etc. BRANCHES OF ETHICS

1. Meta-Ehics It is not concerned with discovering what the right action is or what sort of ideals and values are preferable. Instead, it ask question as: What is the meaning of ethical terms such as good and bad, right or wrong: rather, it asks about the nature of goodness and badness.

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Whereas the fields of normative ethics focus on what is moral, meta ethics focuses on what mprality itself is. Meta-ethics is therefore concerned with the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes and judgments. Meta-ethics examines such themes as what moral questions mean, and on what basisi people can know what is ‘true’ or ‘false’. Thus, meta-ethics does not prescrive any particular action or values, their task is one of analysis. It is purely descriptive and abstract. Meta-ethics has always accompanied philosophical ethics, but in this explicit sense it came to the fore with G.E. Moore’s Principia Ethica from 1903. In this, he first wrote about what he called the naturalistic fallacy. Moore was seen to reject naturalism in ethics in his Open Questions Argument. This made thinkers look again at second order questions about ethics. Earlier, the Scottish philosopher Dabid Hume has put forward a similar view on the difference between facts and values. Moral Realists and Anti Realists • Perhaps the biggest controversy in meta ethics is that which divides moral realists and antirealists. • Moral realists hold that moral facts are objective facts that are out there in the world. Things are good or bad independent of us, and then we come along and discover morality.

• Antirealists hold that moral facts are not out there in the world until we put them there, that the facts about morality are setermined by facts about us. On this view, morality is not something that we discover so much as something that we invent.

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• Closely related to the disagreement between of moral realists and antirealists is the disagreement between cogbitivism and non-cognitivism. • According to cognitivism, moral statements describe the world. If I say that lying is wrong, and then according to the cognitivist I have saif something about the world, I have attributed a property wringness to an act lying. Whether lying has that property is an objective matter, and so my statement is objectively either true or false. • Non-cognitivists disagree with this analysis of moral statements. According to non-cognitivists, when someone makes a moral statement they are not describing the world; rather, they are expressing their feeling proplr what to do. Because non-congnitivism holds that moral statements are not descriptive, it entails that moral statements are neither true nor false. To be true is to describe something as being the way that it is, and to be false is to describe something as being other that the way that it is; statements that aren’t descriptive can’t be either.

2. Normative Ethics

It is the study of ethical acts. It therefore focuses explicitly on questions of ‘what people ought to do, and on how people can decide what the ‘correct’ moral actions to take are’.

Normative ethics is distinct from meta-ethics because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while, meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.

Normative ethics is also distinct from meta-ethics because it esamines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, while meta-ethics studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.

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Normative ethics is also distinct from descriptive ethics, as the latter is an empirical investigation of people’s moral beliefs. To put it another way, descriptive ethics would be concerned with determing what proportion of people believe that killing is always wrong, while normative ethics is sometimes called prescrrptive, rather than descriptive. However, on certain cersions of the meta-ethical view called moral realism, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time. It is concerned with study of ethical actions.

There are several ethical theories around. But, before we are going to discuss them, we first look at two extremes of the normative ethical theories. On one hand is normative relativism. It states that all moral points of view are relative. The morals of one person are not necessarily equal to the morals of another person. Next to this, it is also impossible to say that certain norms and values are better than other norms and values. The problem with this theory is that is now impossible to discuss normative ethics: all norms and values are allowed.

One the other hand is absolutism, also known as universalism. It states that there is a system of norms and values that is universally applicable to everyone, everywhere at every time. Absolutism makes no exceptions; a rule is a rule. However, there is no set of norms as values that never contradicts itself. So, absolutism in general doesn’t work either.

We know that both relativism and absolution don’t work. Any choiuce/judgment based on one of these theories is ethically suspected. Ethical pluralism is an alternative to absolutism and relativism. Rejecting the absolutist’s view that there is only one correct answer in ethics, pluralists also reject the relativist claim that there can be no right answer. Insteas, moral pluralists maintain that there is a plurality of moral truths that cannot be reconciled into a single principle.

Normative ethics can be grouped into 2 broad categories:

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I. Non-Consequentlalism

1. Virtue Ethics (Study the character of agent) 2. Deontology (Study the nature of action) (a) Kantianism (b) Rights Theories (c) Duties Theories 3. Ethical Relativism 4. Moral Intutionism 5. Theory of Justice

II. Consequentlalism (Study the consequence of action)

6. Hedonism 7. Utilitarianism 8. Ethical Egoism 9. Ethical Altruism

Consequentlalism refers to moral theories that hold that the consequences of a particularaction from the basis for any valid moral judgment about that action. Thus, from a consequentlalist standpoint, a morally right action is one that produces a good outcome, or consequence, one way to divide various consequentlalisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences count as good states of affairs. According to hedonistic utilitarianism, a good action is one that results in an increase in pleasure, and the best action is one that results in the most pleasure for the greatest numver. Closely related is eudaimonic consequentialism, according to which a full, flourishing life, which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure, is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an awstheticconsequentlalism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty. However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant effect. Thus, one might pursue an increase in material equality or political liberty instead of something like the more ephemeral “pleasure”.

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Sl.No Non-Consequentialism Consequentialism 1 Concerned with means

“What is right is moral, what is wrong is immoral”.

Concerned with ends/ goals. “What is good is moral, what is bad is immoral”.

2 Means is itself an end End justifies the means. 3. Studies the nature of action

(Intent, motive) Studies the consequences of action.

Let’s now see one by one what these theories have to say:

1. Virtue Ethics

Virtue is quality, which is not innate, acquired when human action is repeatedly performed based on certain duties. Thus, a virtue is formed when fulfillment of duty becomes a habit.

According to virtue ethics, what matters is the character of the agent and by implication the motivations of the actor, rather than the act itself or its consequences. Virtue ethics shifts the analytical emphasis away from rule-based decision-making (of deontological ethics) or of the consequences of an action (e.g. in utilitarianism) towards the ethics of individuals and the ethics of human character. So, for example, where a utilitarian would argue that giving to a charity maximizes well-being in society, and a seontologist would argue that we have a duty to help others, a virtue ethicist would point to the facts that helping others displays desirable virtues such as veing charitable or benevolent. An acts is moral if it is virtuous.

Whereas utilitarian and Kantian ethics develop general rules to be applied to circumstances regardless of their specifics, virtue ethics works in the opposite direction. It looks at people’s specific responses to specific circumstances, and judges the characters these reveal. Like the other approaches, it ends up by making general rather than specific judgements, but inductively rather than deductively.

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Unlike utilitarianism or Kantian ethics, virtue ethics typically makes no strong theoretical claims. It doesn’t seek to derive the virtues from dirst principles, but generally accepts those that are characteristic of, and recognized within, a particular culture or community. In some versions it serves mainly to systematize or rationalize our established social norms.

Virtue is required because

• It makes a man humane • It improves quality of life by raising self-consciousness. • It reorders the world, saving it from chaos created by men.

Virtues can be inculcated in Administration by two means:

A. Moral Intentionality (creating a belief in individual) B. Moral Reinforcement (Telling moral examples, story etc)

Some of the virtue ethicists and their views are mentioned next

I. Confucius: The first and most famous virtue ethicist, Confucius, argued that the traditional virtues of ancient Chinese society, such as the virtues of loyalty and obedience, should be tempered by the core human virtues of benevolence, justice and human-heartedness.

II. Plato:

According to him, moral action is based on 4 virtues: • Wisdom (capacity to decide based on logic). • Courage (capacity to resist pressure and boldness to assert)

• Temperance (balancing or voluntary self-restraint)

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• Justice (ability to behave without favour/prejudice)

III. Aristotle: According to him, virtues are good habits formed by regulation of emotions. For example, fear is regulated by virtue of courage. In this context, he talked of ‘Golden Mean’. An action based on “Golden Mean” is moral. The golden mean represents a balance between extremes, i.e. vices. For example, courage is the middle between one extreme of deficiency (Cowardness). A coward would be a warrior who flees from the battlefield and a reckless warrior would charge at fifty enemy soldiers. This doesn’t mean that the golden mean is the exact arithmetical middle between extremes, but that the middle depends on the situation, there is no universal middle that would apply to every situation.

Virtues and Vices It is possible to see the ethical validity or correctness of an action in terms of conformity to certain types opf conduct. Instances or patterns of conduct that are ethically right, good and proper are virtues, while those that are wrong, abd or improper are vices. This pattern of ethical evalution lends itself particularly to expressions of ethical judgement that emphasize the character of the actor, so that not only is the act virtuous, but also the person who reliably acts in virtuous ways.

The principal Virtues anc vices Sphere of feeling or action

Escess (Vice) Mean (Virtue)

eficiency (Vice)

Fear and Confidence

Rashness Courage Cowardice

Pleasures and Self – Temperance

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pains Indulgence Getting and spending (major)

Tastelessness Magnificence Nigardliness

Honour and dishonor (major)

Vanity Proper pride

Anger Ambition Prober ambition

Lack of ambition

Self-expression

boast

Conversaion Buffoonery Wittiness Boorishness Disposition to others

Obsequlousness Friendliness Cantankerousness

Shame Bashfulness Modsty Shamelessness Indignation Envy Proper

Indignation Spite

This mean (Golden) can be realized using-

• Experience

• Logical deduction • Self-realization

2. Deontology.

Deontological ethics or deontology is arl approach to ethics that determines goodness or rightness from examining acts, or the rules and duties that the person doing the act strove to fulfill. This is in contrast to consequentialism, in which rightness is based on the consequences of an act, and not the act by itself. In deontology, an act may be considered right even if the act produces a bad consequence, if it follows the rule.

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Deontology is a Universal Theory. It says that duty exists. irrespective of man. If you are doing something and you believe that all people should do that action, then your action is moral.

The three main deontological theories are Kant's Moral Rationalism, Rights Theory, and Duty Theory.

I. Immanuel Kant's Moral Rationalism: Kant argues that to act in the morally right way, people must act from duty (deon). He dismissed consequentalism as according to him outcome cannot be the basis of moral philosophy as it is beyond human control. It was not the consequences of actions that make them right or wrong but the motives (maxims) of the person who carries out the action.

An act is good according to motive of an actor; the only motive that makes an act good is the respect for duty or law. The essential element in determining morality is human reason. Thus, Kantianism propounds-

"Good will is the only thing that can be called as good without qualification".

"Duty makes action right."

At the centre of Kant's theory of duty is what he termed categorical imperatives. Some actions and decisions are founded on our personal desires. For example, you could say, 'If you want to live in a beautiful house, you ought to work hard'. However, this is not a categorical imperative, as it is based simply on fulfilling our desires. A categorical imperative tells us that we must do something, irrespective of our personal desires: for example, 'You ought to look after your parents'. The ultimate test of rightness/wrongness in human action is the categorical imperative of practiced reason.

A central principle of the categorical imperative is that we should treat people as an end, never as a means to an end. "Don't use man as a mean but as an end." This means that people should be treated with dignity. Buying products made by workers who have been paid unacceptably low wages in order to ensure a cheap price for the

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goods they produce, is treating the workers as a means to an end and it not fulfilling the duties we have to those workers. Buying guaranteed 'fair trade' products, in contrast, recognizes our duty to ensure that the workers who produce our goods earn acceptable wages.

II. Rights Theory.

Rights theory has genesis in duty-based theory of ethics, The "Social Contract Theory says that State Is created by a contract between State and individual where individuals surrender their rights to State authority by consent, i.e., we surrender 'ourself will' for 'general will'. This moral duty of citizens towards State creates corresponding rights, i.e., "Duty creates corresponding rights". Thus, the concept of duty inherently contains the idea of rights. Hence state's action is moral when It ensures the rights of people.

John Locke's Doctrine of 'Natural Rights' talks of four rights of an individual-Universal, Natural, Equal, and inalienable rights. Out of them, natural and inalienable rights can't be surrendered in social contract and State is duty bound to protect them. The concept of individual human rights is fundamental to Western legal systems, and has developed both from the argument that all humans have certain natural rights and from religious notions that rights come from God. The American Declaration of independence asserts that 'all men' are 'endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights'. The French Revolution proclaimed that the "rights of man" are natural rights intrinsic to the humanity of each person.

However, the idea that rights were liberties guaranteed to citizens of a nation was challenged in the 20th century by the realization that Nazi Germany acted legally under German law when it committed what were later classified as crimes against humanity. The United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948 is based on the reasoning that justice and equal treatment of humans ought to be applied universally.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights:

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• Article 18 Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance. • Article 19 Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. III. W.D. Ross's Prima facia Duty (PFD)

Ross removed the lacuna of Kantian philosophy of absolute duty by bringing elements of situational ethics in duty theories. According to W. D. Ross, there are several prima facie duties that we can use to determine what, concretely, we ought to do. A prima facie duty is a duty that is binding (obligatory) other things equal, that is, unless it is overridden or trumped by another duty or duties. Another way of putting it is that where there is a prima facie duty to do something, there is at least a fairly strong presumption in favor of doing it. An example of a prima facie duty is the duty to keep promises. "Unless stronger moral considerations override, one ought to keep a promise made."

Ross mentioned few PFDs like —

• Duty of Fidelity (keeping promise etc)

• Duty of Beneficence (Promoting good to others) a Duty of Justice ( duty to act with fairness)

• Duty of Gratitude

• Duty of Reparation: This is a duty to make up for the injuries one has done to others. Ross describes this duty as "resting on a previous wrongful act".

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• Duty of Non-Parasitism: This is the principle of not being a "free rider." This guideline asserts that, as a general rule, we should do our part to abide by the rules of an institution in which we willingly participate and from which we willingly accept benefits. This prima facie duty weighs against plagiarism and activities that violate laws.

But, how to choose between them in the case of ethical dilemma. Ross gave solution in the form of "Hierarchy of Ethical Duties". Based on prima facie perception (that seems to be right at first sight), one should choose one duty over another.

3. Ethical Relativism

A range of practices considered morally acceptable in some societies are condemned in others, including infanticide, genocide, polygamy, racism, sexism, and torture. Such differences may lead us to question whether there are any universal moral principles or whether morality is merely a matter of "cultural taste." Differences in moral practices across cultures raise an important issue in ethics -- the concept of "ethical relativism."

Ethical relativism says that there is no fundamental or universal norm but what is morally right is relative to individual or group of men. The moral (or normative) statements are not objectively true, but "true" relative to a particular. Individual or society that happens to hold the belief. Thus, Universalism in ethics does not exist. Similar to this non-universal theory, there are two more concepts:

(a) Cultural Relativism: It is an offshoot of subjective relativism. It propounds that every culture has its own moral code of behavior. Ethics is culture-specific. Every culture is supreme in itself. Hence, 'Cultural superiority' is a myth.

(b) Nietzsche's Subjective Relativism: it propounds that every one want to act differently from another as this gives them a sense of being unique and superior. Individual can have his own conduct if he justifies action on basis of certain norms.

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These theories have both positive and negative consequences. On the positive side, it rejects many international practices such as economic subjugation, cultural hegemony etc while on the negative side it is used to justify the acts of Hitler, suicide bombers etc who had their personal belief in their conduct.

Most ethicists reject the theory of ethical relativism. Some claim that while the moral practices of societies may differ, the fundamental moral principles underlying these practices do not. For example, in some societies, killing one's parents after they reached a certain age was common practice, stemming from the belief that people were better off in the afterlife if they entered it while still physically active and vigorous. While such a practice would be condemned in our society, we would agree with these societies on the underlying moral principle -- the duty to care for parents. Societies, then, may differ in their application of fundamental moral principles but agree on the principles.

Also, it is argued, it may be the case that some moral beliefs are culturally relative whereas others are not. Certain practices, such as customs regarding dress and decency, may depend on local custom whereas other practices, such as slavery, torture, or political repression, may be governed by universal moral standards and judged wrong despite the many other differences that exist among cultures. Simply because some practices are relative does not mean that all practices are relative.

Opposite to the concept of Ethical relativism is the idea propounded by Ockham and Aquinas. They propounded the concept of universal ethics. According to them, every human action should come from "Choice of nature", which is also the God's will. Thus moral actions are same for every individual or group.

4. Moral Intuitionism

It is an offshoot of subjective relativism. An intuition is a special sense faculty/ moral faculty than enables human beings to perceive directly (without rational thought) what is right or what is wrong.

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Thus, this theory grants an element of discretion to the individual in ethical judgments. Moral Intuitionism makes morality individual in nature; hence it is not a universal approach.

Two other theories that support intuition-based discretionary decision making are -

a) Niestze Meritocracy: He says that civil servants are talented and meritorious enough to take decision. So it supports decision making based on intuition.

b) Principle of Legal Moralism: It allows society to render an act illegal on the basis of social values and judgments. This approach has merits as well flaws. It accepts diverse moral values and hence values cultural diversity. It honors personal freedom and act as a guiding force for self. However, Intuition may create in individual a kind of understanding that a satisfaction is superior which is actually inferior. Intuition has emotional element. Extreme or misguided emotions such as love, hatred etc are bad. Further, moral intuitionism contradicts general law of morality based on rule of law and constitution.

Due to these contradictory effects, it is said that general law should prevail, and intuitionism can be incorporated within the law itself. For example, provision can be made in the law by which bureaucracy can be allowed to take flexible decision within the framework of broader law for public good.

5. Theory of Justice

Two prominent theorists who propounded Justice Theory are Karl Popper and John Rawls. According to Karl Popper, any acts, rules, or policies should be so determined as to inflict least amount of suffering to all. Also, the unavoidable suffering should be distributed equally among all.

John Rawls' Theory of Justice talks about two principles. The 1st Principle talks of granting equal right to the most extensive basic

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liberty compatible with and similar liberty for others. The freedom of expression under Arts 19, Media freedom, Protest right etc are in line with the first principle. The 2nd Principle says that inequality of wealth, authority and social opportunity are just only if they result into compensatory benefits for everyone and in particular for least advantageous. The idea of reservation, progressive income taxation etc are justified on these principles. Thus, he tried to reconcile between Liberty (capitalism) and Equality (communism).

6. Hedonism

Hedonism is the philosophy that pleasure is the most important pursuit of mankind, and the only thing that is good for an individual. Hedonism usually pre-supposes an individualist stance, and is associated with Egoism (the claim that individuals should akways seek their own good in all things). Hedonists, therefore, strive to maximize their total pleasure (the net of any pleasure less any pain or suffering).

Hedonistic theorists believe that pleasure is the ultimate aim of life, and any action leading towards achievement of pleasure is moral action. Epicurus' concept of Autarxla talks of unending pleasure. According to it spiritual satisfaction, not materialism, is the ultimate pleasure. Similarly Aristotle's concept of Eudaimonia says that happiness in which human is preserved is ultimate.

However, hedonistic theories suffer from demerits. It promotes act like drug addiction which people take for pleasure. It can favour Consumerism over Environmentalism. Gandhism is also opposed to Hedonism as Gandhism preaches complete control over sense.

7. Utilitarianism

The theory of Utilitarianism, propounded by the British philosophers John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham, developed and refined Hedonism, concluding that we should perform whichever action is best for everyone ("the greatest good for the greatest number"). Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be

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quantitatively understood, while Mill preferred a qualitative appro.ach dependent on the mix of higher quality pleasures and lower quality, simple pleasures.

Utilitarianism is a hedonistic ethical theory that argues the proper course of action is one that maximizes overall "happiness". Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill are influential proponents of this school of thought. An act is moral if it has utility to society.

Jeremy Bentham talks of Individual Utility. An action is moral if pleasure derived from the action is more than the pain for an individual. On the other hand, J.S. Mills talks of Corninunity or Social Utility which says that an action is moral if it has utility to society i.e., the act should bring greatest good for greatest number. John Stuart Mill, in his exposition of hedonistic utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure is more highly valued than the pursuit of other pleasures. More valuable pleasures are those that employ "higher-faculties". In this context, Mill said, "It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied."

Herbert Spencer combined the concept of Bentham and Mills. An act is moral if it brings pleasure to individual and simultaneously promotes good of the community. Hence he talks of harmony between Individual and Community utility.

However, utilitarianism has drawn criticism from many sections. Karl Marx had banded them as 'false egoist'. It is argued that while the incfividual utilitarianism promotes selfishness, the community utilitarianism destroys dignity of individual and makes them cogs in the wheels. Utilitarianism also supports majoritanianisrn i.e. minority voice and freedom is not considered.

Nevertheless, utilitarianism helps government in prioritizing policies, ensures distributive justice, and supports liberalism.

8. Ethical Egoism

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According to Thomas Hobbs, man is selfish, self-Oriented. So, no action is altruistic. Egoism holds that an action is right if it maximizes good for the self. Thus, Egoism may license actions which are good for individual, but detrimental to the general welfare. Individual. Egoism holds that all people should do whatever benefits him. Personal Egoism holds that he should act in his own self-interest, but makes no claims about what anyone else ought to do. Universal Egoism holds that everyone should act in ways that are in their own interest.

Same view has been supported by classical economists, utilitarian thinkers, New Rights Philosophers, and Public Choice Theorists. All are of the view that actors in governance are not motivated by social good, but self-interest.

However, ethical egoism is criticized for narrow explanation of human beings as man is not always motivated by self-interest e.g. soldiers, freedom fighters.

Hobbsian view of ethical egoism calls for Reward and Punishment to inculcate morality. Such application of this theory can be seen in-

Civil service reform and public administration: Morality can be increased in system by

• Increasing the price of honesty, i.e., through reward • Increasing the cost of corruption, i.e., through punishment

MOU system also witness the concept of reward and punishment

Applied Ethics

Applied ethics attempts to apply ethical theory to real-life situations. It is concerned with how people can achieve moral outcomes in specific situations. Therefore, it is concerned with the philosophical examination of particular - and often complex - issues that involve moral judgments.

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Applied ethics is used in some aspects of determining public policy, as well as by individuals facing difficult decisions. The sort of questions addressed by applied ethics include: "Is getting an abortion immoral?" "Is euthanasia immoral?" "Is affirmative action right or wrong?" "What are human ri

ghts, and how do we determine them?" "Do animals have rights as well?" and "Do individuals have the right of self-determination?" A more specific question could be: "If someone else can make better out of his/her life than I can, is it then moral to sacrifice myself for them if needed?"

Some areas of applied ethics are mentioned next.

a) Bioethics

Bioethics is the study of controversial ethics brought. about by advances in biology and medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among life sciences, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy.

These areas include cloning, gene therapy, human genetic engineering, astroethics and life in space, and manipulation of basic biology through altered DNA etc.

Many religious communities have their own histories of inquiry into bioethical issues and have developed rules and guidelines on how to deal with these issues from within the viewpoint of their respective faiths.

Some Issues Related To Bioethics

1. Abortion: There are ethical arguments both in favor of and against abortion. The debates on abortion focus on the search for answer to a. single question- when the life begins? Pro-life proponents say that any kind of abortion is murder as the

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human life begins at the conception (zygote formation). While the pro-choice proponents say that before a child is born, no mother is a mother and no child is child- hence abortion is moral.

2. Euthanasia: Science has been unable to resolve the condition of death, brain dead, heart dead etc. This has led to complexities in the debate on euthanasia. The moral arguments for allowing euthanasia are the alleviation of sufferings of a person in the vegetative state and their right to die with dignity. Libertarian view is that everyone is free if they have attained the aqe of reason and individual should not be regulated to the extent that they are not interfering with the interest of others. Consequentialists also view that by choosing-thr life and death, individuals will experience freedom and pleasure.

While the opponents feel trat right to life is an inalienable right that can't be taken by human beings. Naturalistic philosophers feel that life is a nature's gift and should be treated with naturalness...Anything that interferes with the naturalness of life is unethical. Similarly Theologists think, "life is a gift of god and body the only temple that houses the life and Gsoul." So, human being should take care of the temple as long as the soul is there.

3. Stem Cell Research:

Moral arguments in favour of stem cell research are that the fatal diseases can ben-addressed. It can help to live longer and healthier, allow infertile couple to have a baby etc. While the opponents take the cue from theological arguments (it is against god) and naturalsiticsargumegts (against nature).. People also use the autonomy arguments and social justice arguments to oppose stem cell research.

b. Business ethics

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Business ethics (also corporate ethics) is a form of applied ethics or professional ethics that examines ethical principles and moral or ethical problems that arise in a business environment. It applies to all aspects of business conduct and is relevant to the conduct of individuals and entire organizations. The range and quantity of business ethical issues reflects the interaction of profit-maximizing behavior with non-economic concerns.

Interest in business ethics accelerated dramatically during the 1980s and 1990s, both within major corporations and within academia. For example, today most major corporations promote their commitment to non-economic values under headings such as ethics codes and social responsibility charters. Governments use laws and regulations to point business behavior in what they perceive to be beneficial directions. EthiCs implicitly regulates areas and details of behavior that lie beyond governmental control. The emergence of large corporations with limited relationships and sensitivity to the communities in which they operate accelerated the development of formal ethics regimes.

c. Organizational ethics

Organizational ethics is the ethics of an organization, and it is how an organization responds to an internal or external stimulus. Organizational ethics is interdependent with the organizational culture. Although, it is akin to both organizational behavior (OB) and business ethics, organizational ethics is neither of nor solely business ethics (which includes corporate governance and corpol'ate ethics). Organizational ethics express the values of an organization to its employees and/or other entities irrespective of governmental and/or regulatory laws.

There are at least four elements that aim to create an ethical culture and behaviour of employees within an organization. These elements are:

- a written code of ethics and standards (ethical code) - ethics training for executives, managers, and employees

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- the availability of ethical situational advice (i.e. advice lines or offices) - confidential reporting systems

d. Military ethics

Military ethics are concerned with questions regarding the application of force and the ethos of the soldier and are often understood as applied professional ethics.

Military ethics involves multiple areas, including the following among others:

- what should be the laws of war - justification for the initiation of military force - decisions about who may be targeted in warfare - decisions on choice of weaponry, and what collateral effects% such weaponry may have standards for handling military prisoners

e. Political ethics

Political ethics (also known as political morality or public ethics) is the practice of making moral judgements about political action and political agents:

It covers two areas. The first is the ethics of process (oii the ethics of office), which deals with public officials and the methods they use. The second area, the ethics of policy (or ethics and public policy) concerns judgements about policies and laws.

Some critics (so called political realists) argue that ethics has no place in politics. if .politicians are to be effective in the real world, they cannot be „bound by moral rules. They have to pursue the national interest. Another kind of criticism comes from those who argue that we should not pay so much attention to politicians and policies but. - should instead look more closely at the larger structures of society where the most serious ethical problems lie.

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Advocates of political ethics respond that while structurall'injustice should not be ignored, too much emphasis on structures neglects ThehuMan agents who are responsible for changing them.

f. Developmental and Environmental ethics

The development ethics emerged as a field of study in the second half of the 20th century. It questions and looks at the ethical implications of ideas such as `progress' and at the implications of various types of socio-economic change. As with most areas of applied ethics, it has a purpose: to 'help in identifying, considering and making ethical choices about societal development'. Key issues include social and human rights, poverty reduction, the gap betwe'en rich and. poor, and planned international intervention by some nations in the development of otters.

A second area of applied ethics is environmental ethics Environmental ethics emerged as a separate area of philosophical study during the 1970s. The approaches of environmental philosophers are varied, but most take as their Starting point the belief that we are facing a critical point in our relationship with the on-human world, and that in order to avert (or reverse) an ecological crisis, we need to reassess the ways in which we value the non-human world

These two important areas of applied ethics are central to understanding many important contemporary issues, such as those related to sustainable development, climate change, and environmental management.

In the area of environmental ethics comes the concept of "Enlightened Stewardship" which says that caring for others will give benefits to us as well, else we will perish our self Thus, and proper conduct on the earth and with the nature is in our own interest.

Another concept is that of "Spaceship'Earth" which says that earth is a single spaceship, though the world is not. Earth compris-6s of

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living and non-living who are interrelated and hence belong to the same community. Nature is governed by its rule, no ception. Thus human beings going against the law of nature are detrimental to themselves.

g. Media ethics

A media revolution is transforming, ftndamentally and irrevocably, the nature of journalism and its ethics. The means to publish is now in the hands of citizens, while the internet encourages new forms of journalism that are interactive and immediate. The "establishment mass media no longer rule the "world of fact" as scores of new individualized Internet media technologies and techniques such as Facebook and Twitter -with multiple viewpoints and multiple versions of the 'the truth" are present. Personal, opinionated media perspectives are no longer owned only by columnists and cartoonists. Thus; today our media ecology is 'a chaotic landscape evolving at a furious pace. Professional journalists share the journalistic sphere with tweeters, bloggers, citizen journalists, and social media users. Ahiid every revolution, new possibilities emerge while old practices are threatened. Today is no exception. These fears prompt experiments in journalism, such as non-profit centers of investigative journalism. A central question is to what- extent existing media ethics is suitable for today's and tomorrow's news media that is immediate, interactive and "always on" — a journalism of amateurs and professionals. Most of the principles were developed over the past century, originating in the construction of professional, objective ethics for mass commercial newsp-apers in the late 19th century.

We are moving towards a mixed news media — a news media citizen and professional journalism across many media platforms. This new mixed news media requires a new mixed media ethics — guidelines that apply-to amateur and professional whether they blog, Tweet, broadcast of write for newspapers. Media ethics needs to be rethought and reinvented for the media of today, not of yesteryear.

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To deal with today's turmoil, we need a radical media ethics, not a conservative retreat to "basics." We need to reinvent media ethics from the ground up. Piecemeal improvements are not sufficient. There is thus a need to stress on these underdeveloped areas:

• Ethics of new media ecologies: Future media ethics will need to guide journalists working in non-traditional environments from non-profit websites to investigative centers within academia.

• Ethics of how to use new media: Future media ethics need to say useful things on the responsible use of new media, and how to deal with integrated newsrooms.

• Ethics of interpretation and opinion: The era of news objectivity as "just the facts" is dying. Interpretive and advocational journalism grows. Ethicists need to fill this gap by distinguishing between better and worse interpretations. They need to provide a specific meaning to such key concepts as "informed commentary," "insightful analysis" and "good interpretation."

• Ethics of activism: Activist journalism will also proliferate. But- when are activist journalists not propagandists? When are journalists partisan political voices and when are they journalists with a valid cause? Rather than simply dismiss activist journalism on the traditional ground of objectivity, how can we develop a more nuanced understanding of this area of journalism?

• Ethics. Of global democratic journalism: New thinking in ethics will need to reconstruct the role of journalism in global terms.

We need to help the next generation of multimedia journalists develop their own novel and progressive ethical frameworks for the media world that lies in their future.

Descriptive Ethics

Descriptive ethics is a value-free approach to ethics, which defines it as a social science rather than humanity. Its examination of ethics

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doesn't start with a preconceived theory, but rather investigates observations of actual choices made by moral agents in practice. These philosophers often view aesthetics, etiquette, and arbitration as more fundamental, percolating "bottom up" to imply the existence of, rather than explicitly prescribe, theories of value or of conduct. The study of descriptive ethics may include examinations of the following:

- Ethical codes applied by various groups. Some consider aesthetics itself the basis of ethics and as personal moral core developed through art and storytelling as very influential in one's later ethical choices.

- Informal theories of etiquette that tend to be less rigorous and more situational. Some consider etiquette a simple negative ethics, i.e., where can one evade an uncomfortable truth without doing wrong? One notable advocate of this view is Judith Martin ("Miss Manners"). According to this view, ethics is more a summary of common se.nag social decisions.

- Practices in arbitration and law, e,g., the claim that ethics itself is a matter of balancing `light versus right," i.e., putting priorities on two things that are both right, but that must be traded off carefully in each situation.

- Observedichoices made by ordinary people, without expert aid or advice, who vote, buy, and decide what is worth valuing. This is a major concern of sociology, political science, and economics.

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CHAPTER - 3

ETHICS IN HUMAN ACTION

WHAT CONSTITUTE HUMAN ACTION

Ethics focuses only on people's deliberate action (Actushumanus) and not on undeliberate human action (Actors hominis). Therefore, focus of ethics is human action. According to Scholastic philosophers, simultaneous presence of three elements together constitutes a human action. If any one of them is absent, then the action can't be called as human action. These elements are-

1. Knowledge: Thomas Aquinas said, “Now in order that a thing be done for an end, some knowledge of the end is necessary. This implies that we can’t will anything unless we first know it. Thus, knowledge is must for a deliberate human action.

2. Voluntariness (Will):

Voluntariness includes everything that proceeds from the will. Thus, when a person makes a free decision on its own, the action is said to be vouluntary.Voluntariness is of two types

i. Direct Voluntary Action:

When the actor wills the action himself or as a means to an end.

Eg. Dropping of bomb over enemy target. Here the actor has himself chosen the action

ii, Voluntary in Cause:

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The action is not directly willed but arises from another directly' willed action. For example- bombing over enemy target may kill innocent civilians also which was not willed directly; drunken driving may kill people on road etc.

3. Free Will (Will plus Choices):

This is different from voluntariness in the sense that here the actor not only wills the action but he also has choices.. For example, a person wants to buy chocolates but in the shop chocolates of only one brand is available. So, he wills the action but have no choice of choosing between different brands. Thus, every free action is voluntary, but not every voluntary action is free.

Impediments to Human Action

There are certain things that render actions non-human and hence are not subject to scrutiny in ethics as ethics is concerned with study of deliberate human action only. These have been tabulated below.

Impediments Effects Examples Ignorance

Vihcible: Such kind of ignorance could have been removed by diligence reasonable to the circumstances.

Invincible: It can not be removed at all

Such actions are voluntary in cause. A person is held morally accountable.

Interferes with knowledge and destroys voluntariness. Not the subject of ethical examination (Morally not responsible).

Operating a without licence.

Child, insane, uneducated

Passion •

(strong emotions)

Destroys Voluntariness

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Fear

- Strong - Weak

- Destroys voluntariness as well as free will. - Don’t destroy but diminishes free will

Pathgology

Blurs knowledge and interfere with vouuntariness.

Violence

Destroys free wukk

Temperament May interface with voluntariness, but never destroys it.

ESSENCE OF HUMAN ACTION

Having determined that a particular action is human action based on knowledge, voluntariness, and free will, the next step is to search for criteria to assess the morality ofhuman action. To decide the morality of human action, one must first determine the "end or purpose" of human action. An act is moral if it fulfills the ultimate purpose.

Scholars have different views on what constitute the ultimate purpose of humanaction.

(1) Hedonism (Pleasure is the ultimate purpose of human action)

(2) Stoicism (Cultivation of mind or control over knowledge is the ultimate purpose)

(3) Materialism (Material gain is the ultimate purpose of human action)

(4) Humanism (Achieving prosperity for human race is the ultimate-purpose)

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(5) Humanitarianism (Service to mankind is the ultimate purpose)

(6) Utilitarianism (Achieving greatest food for greatest number is the ultimate purpose)

(7) Kant's Moral Rationalism (Being Duty bound is the ultimate purpose of human action)

(8) Intuitionism (Ethical decision making based on intuition, Non-universal)

(9) RelatiVism (Ethics is culture specific. Non-universal)

(10) Scholasticism

(11) Perfectionism (Certain human excellences (or perfections), and states of affairs are assessed in terms of theft maximization of these excellences. An .act is moral if tends to achieve these excellences)

(12) Theory of Justice (Fairness)

(13) Moral good and moral evil

- Divine positivist (An act is moral if it follows god's will)

- Human positivists (Right or wrong arose from tribal custom/social influence etc)

- Evolutionary Positivists (actions are good when state commands them).

DETERMINANTS OF ETHICS IN HUMAN ACTION

Having set the criteria to test morality of human actions .above, now we decide which side of human action should be analyzed to decide if the action concurs with human nature (i.e. set criteria above).

There are three parts to every action that we should examine. These are object, circumstance, end/purpose — known -as the determinants of ethics. Essentially this is the basis of Teleological

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approach. Teleologists give more importance to circumstances, while Dentologist ignore circumstances. They give more importance to object and purpose.

1. Object

The object of human action can be bad, good, or indifferent.

-Bad Object: if the object is bad, action remains bad. Nothing can make it good. Neither circumstance nor purpose nor intention. Circumstances or purpose can only make it less bad. For example, lying can never be good. It can only be less bad if spoken to save someone's life.

- Good Object: if the object is good, action may become bad because of circumstances or purpose. For example, telling truth to malign someone.

- Indifferent object: In case of indifferent object, action may become good or bad because of circumstance or purpose. For example- running for taking life is immoral while running for saving own life is moral..

Thus, object without circumstances or purpose has no meaning.

2. Circumstances

Circumstances in which human action is performed can be:

(i) Aggravating: When it increases the badness of an already bad act. For example, stealing from poor person..

(ii) Extenuating: Whe.n it decreases the badness of a bad action. For example, stealing $ 10 from a bank, is not as. bad stealing $10 from a • homeless person.

(iii) Specifying: When it makes an indifferent act good or bad Circumstances can include:

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(i) Agent: Ethicality of human action depends on the agent also. For instance

• Child lying -> not unethical; mature person lying unethical.

• Bribe given by old person for pension -> not unethical. Bribe given by industrialist for tax evasion -> unethical

(ii) Place: Ethical conduct is a function of place also. For instance-. Soldier, who is trapped in enemy territory, may lie. That is ethical.

• Smoking in public place is unethical

(iii) Time: Ethics is culture specific and thus is bound to the social norms which changes with time.

John Fletcher maintained that circumstances are the sole criterion for judging .the morality of human action. "Action becomes specific any through circumstances. Without specificity ethical clients in the action can't be e3car3ineci." But, this view was criticized as the situational ethics often makes morality subjective and relative such as bad or less bad.

(3) Purpose (Intention)/ End (Goal)

• Rightness involves the means to an end — an action is right when it fits a particular end.a

• If purpose is good, even negative object becomes leSs bad. For example, lying to protect country_

• If purpose is bad, even positive object becomes bad. For example- Bribing poor for committing crime, Telling truth to malign someone.

Determinants of Ethics in Governance

The levels of ethics in governance are dependent on the social, economic, political, cultural, legal-judicial and historical contexts of

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the country. These specific factors influence ethics in public administrative systems. Ethics, whether in an entire society, or in a social sub-system, evolves over a long period of time and is influenced, during its nurturance and growth, by a variety of environmental factors, such historical, socio-cultural, legal-judicial, political and economical.

CONSEQUENCE OF ETHICS IN HUMAN ACTION

Principle of Double Effect

This principle deals with the action that produces two effects or consequences. This doctrine says that if doing something morally good has a morally bad side-effect; it's ethically OK to do it providing the bad side-effect wasn't intended. This is true even if you foresaw that the bad effect would probably happen.

This principle is commonly referred to in cases of euthanasia. It is used to justify the case where a doctor gives drugs to a patient to relieve distressing symptoms even though he knows doing this may shorten the patient's life. This is because the doctor is not aiming directly at killing the patient - the bad result of the patient's death is a side-effect of the good result of reducing the patient's pain.

Principles that should be followed in deciding/examining ethicality of the acts of double effect are:

(a) The action that produces two effects must be good or indifferent, not No. intrinsically wrong.

(b) The good effect must be immediate, i.e. not obtained through evil effect.

(c) The intention or purpose must be good.

(d) There should be proportionately good reason for performing the action_ For example- Tibetan self immolation for obtaining rights, hunger strike to secure liberty of society which may result in death

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of striker etc is not proportionately good reason for performing such acts.

SI. No

Primary Effect

Secondary effect

1.

Good Indifferent Always immoral, no need to examine ethically

2.

Good Indifferent Moral action, no need to examine ethically

3.

Good Bad Intention (through examination

Illustration

Let's illustrate one case of double effect. A doctor was operating on a woman having complications with foetus. During surgery, the fetus died but woman was saved. This is an act of double effect. The two effect produced are —

i. Woman saved (Good effect)

ii. Fetus died (Bad effect).

In such case, the intention needs to be seen or examined (point no C mentioned above). Since intention of doctor was good, he is not morally accountable_ The actor did not will the evil effeCt, so his act can't be said to be unethical.

Criticisms of the Doctrine of Double Effect

We are responsible- for all the anticipated consequences of our actions. If we can foresee the two effects of our action we have to take the moral responsibility for both effects - we can't get out of trouble by deciding to intend only the effect that suits us. Intention is irrelevant

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Some people take the view that it's sloppy morality to decide the rightness or wrongness of an act byjooking at the intention of the person who carries it cut. They think that some acts are-ot3ictively right or wrong, and that the intention of the person who does them is irrelevant.

But most legal systems regard the intention of a person as a vital element in deciding whether they have committed a crime, and how serious a crime, especially•in cases of causing death.'

Consequences of Human Action on Whom?

1. Actor: Effect on actor is

(a) Moral Effect

(b) SymbolictzEffect

(c) Utilitarian Effect

(d) Learning Effect

2. Recipient

(a) Symbolic Effect

(b) Utilitarian Effect

(c) Learning Effect

3. Observer — Moral action impacts observer in good sense. For example- a poor farmer, being impressed by the act of IAS Durga Shakti Nagp.al against illegal sand mining, wanting to make her daughter IAS "IsseDurga Shakti Nagpalkitorah banana hai".

Who is Responsible for Consequences of Human Action?

1. Actor

- Performance of action creates on actor the responsibility.

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- Actor is responsible when —

(a) He adverts at least vaguely to the fact that the action is good/bad or could be good/bad, i.e. he has freely willed the effect.

(b) He is capable, i.e. human capacity determines his responsibility.

(c) The evil effect is sought through agent (Principal-Agent Theory). Delegating his work to the agent does not abso1\7 "'Doctor of his responsibility.

2. Agent:

Agent is responsible when:

(a) He is acting on behalf of Principal or Actor. According to an ethics theory known as Existentialism, both actor and agent are responsple for the actions:

(b) He knows that laws/norms will have a negative impact and when the coercion is resistible. This is Agent-Responsibility Theory. Delegation of work to the agent does not absolve agent of his moral responsibility and he is not supposed to blindly follow the orders. For instance, a police officer firing on innocent crowd, on an obvious malafide orders of his superiors, without questioning the rationale of such orders is morally responsible for killing of people.

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CHAPTER — 4

ETHICS IN PRIVATE AND PUBLIC

RELATIONSHIP ETHICS IN PUBLIC RELATIONSHIP

'Private or personal Ethics pertains to one's life outside of work, while professional or public ethics is related to one's work life.

Public Relations recognize a long-term responsibility and seek to persuade and to achieve mutual understanding by securing the willing acceptance of attitudes and ideas. It can succeed only when the basic policy is ethical, and the means used as truthful. In Public Relations, the ends can never justify the use of false, harmful or questionable. means.

Significance of Ethical Traditions

A code of ethical principles is particularly related to each public office, but in general there are common principles applicable to public offices. Those principles do not require enumeration; they are well known and undisputed. In large measure, continuing traditions indicate the identity and scope of ethical principles and determine the ethos controlling the exercise• of all public power. The reference to traditions here is to that which has been classically evolved as most appropriate for the exercise of public powdr. It is for that reason that it becomes necessary to educate novitiates in the ethical traditions of their office.

It is important to remember that when State power is channelized through 'a network of public 'institutions and public offices, it is intended to create a functioning system held in organic balance and

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unity, a system which in its holistic operation gives to the nation the intended opportunities for development and secures to the citizen his dignity and worth and the possibility of personal growth. it is vital that the Constitutional system be kept in equilibrium. It loses that organic balance and unity if its channels are clogged in consequence of the misuse or abuse or non-use-of power in one or more of its constituent offices. The higher and more significant the office in the hierarchy within the system, the greater the potential for damage to the system. When corruption assails the high echelons of a hierarchical system of public power, there is strain and stress throughout the system, producing a distortion which reduces its fitness for the purpose for which it was created. If, the distortion is allowed to prevail for significant period of time, the system begins to corrode and dacay, it begins to die, and it dies because of the hidden cancer within.

Significance of Discharging Public Responsibilities

The vitality of an ethical dimenSion in the discharge of public responsibilities is essential to a developing nation. In a developing nation, the release of nascent national .energy is of great moment. It provides the poWer necessary for building of a nation, for working out and strengthening its public institutions and public offices, and in completing the task of putting the constitutional, szicial and economic structures in place. In so doing, it brings about that state of .stability which assures proper and predictable planning for development and growth.without losing its essential dynamism. It also assures the citizen the enjoyment of the security and other rights which the Constitution has guaranteed to him. What is required of those entrusted with public power is total dedication and incorruptibility in the exercise of public power. The manner and purpose of the exercise of public-power affects public confidende in that public office, and that ultimately impinges on public confidence in the constitutional stem.

Principles Guiding Ethics in Public Relationship

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Ethics in public relationship is guided by —

(1) Principle of Consent and Contract

(2) Principle of lmpartialify (Equality; Autonomy, Justice, Independence).

However, it is a difficult task to describe what is ethical and what is unethical. It would be simpler to state it as a matter of choosing between the right and wrong options in keeping with conscience. 'Anything that causes dissonance in the mind brings about a feeling of guilt and dishonesty. And dishonest communication cannot be an aid to • cementing relationships. Public are: also not to be underestimated as fools. As Abraham Lincoln said, 'you can fool some people all the time, and all of the people some of the time, but you cannot fool all the people all of the time.'

There are a number of acts that could be classified as unethical, ranging from suppressing of news to misleading the audience. Unethical act in public relations may include:

• Suppressing unfavorable news • Misrepresenting facts • Postponing to serve a cause but actually serving some other interest • Promising results that cannot be obtained • Use of undesirable method towards pressurizing editors for carrying publicitymaterial

With increasing education, the consumers and public have become aware of their rights and a public Relations person may have to deal with pressure groups like trade unions, consumer protection groups, environment protection activities, etc. Therefore, it is imperative for a public relations practitioner to be serf regulating, ethical as also be careful about the legal aspects of communication.

ETHICS IN PRIVATE RELATIONSHIP

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While ethics in public relationship is formal and predictable in nature formed due to legal or social obligation, ethics in private relationship is informal where emotional bonding is high. It thus implies internal control for ethical behavior rather than external controls like laws, Code of conduct, rules etc.

Ethics shown in private partnership often forms a part of individual morality. In any society, morality forms the basis for ethical behaviour in public relations. It has often been said, "What happens in privacy does not hurt anyone." The motto for Las Vegas resonates this private versus public philosophy, "What happens in Las Vegas stays in Vegas." Or does it? Does it get carried out by other means? Is anything truly secret? The implication of the two mottos above suggests that any indiscreet behaviour that transpires in the privacy of a hotel room will not become publicly known and bring irreversible harm or affect that individual or the community: Accordingly, a person can be assured that there will be no public exposure of private indiscretions.

This raises the issue: Do private ethics have no bearing on public life or social ethics? Does what occurs in the privacy of a public official's home or office have no influence on public or social policy decisions? Can private ethical behavior beseparated from social ethics without consequences? Can there be public or social ethics without underlying personal ethics? Is there a legitimate bifurcation between private and public ethics? These questions go to the heart of law, the extent of morality, relationships development, the inner life and its outward expression, and public and social policy development.

Private Lives and Public Policy

M.S. Gill of Delhi University cuts to the heart of the matter concerning private and public ethics with a brilliant assessment of the relationship between social and personal ethics, "It is impossible to maintain a clear and precise distinction between social ethics and person al (individual) ethics. No individual behaviour is without

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social implications. No social situation or problem is without individual repercussions."

According to Gill, public policy and social ethics are intertwined. He again writes, public policy, politics, economics, war, poverty, education, racism, ecology and crime: these are examples of the subject of social ethics." All of the social institutions he identifies encompass a vast range of issues in every segment of society and cannot exist apart from individuals. Business, education, the church, professional associations, and governalent .all involve people as they interact, exchange ideas, trade goods and services, and make decisions. They influence one another during these interchanges and affect the structure and moral environment of society.

Principles Guiding Ethics in Private Relationship

Ethics in private relationship is guided by the Principle of Affinity, one of whose proponent is Mac lyntre. Mac lyntre denied the ethics of impartiality in private relationship. Taking the example of two kids drowning in a sea, of which one is yours, Mac lyntre said that it will be intuitively absurd if you treat both kids as equal and go for saving any one of them randomly. It is not immoral if you save your child. If ethics is to be impartial, then a perfect human being is danger to the society and civilization as there will be no friend, no society, and hence no civilisation. The Communitarian concept also converges with Principle of Affinity. It says that morality is not exclusively located in domain of impartiality. It has a space in being bias.

CONFLICT BETWEEN ETHICS IN PUBLIC AND PRIVATE RELATIONSHIP

In some cases, personal and professional ethics may clash and cause a moral conflict. For example:

• A police officer may personally believe that a law that he is required to enforce is wrong. However, under the Indian law, he is

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required to obey all lawful and reasonable instructions to enforce that- law unless there is good and sufficient cause to do otherwise. • A doctor May not personally believe that the course of medical treatment chosen by a patient is the right one. However, under the Code of- Ethics for the Indian Medical Association, she must respect the rights, autonomy and freedom of choice of.the patient.

Nevertheless, ethics in public relationship that flows from Principle of consent and contract can be violated on the basis of

1 Principle of Affinity (kids example, rescuing your child out of two).

2. Principle of No Harm

3. Principle of Common Good

4. Principle of Conscience

5. Principle of Change and Progress (e.g. Renouncing social- practice of khappanchayats)

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CHAPTER 5

STRENGTHENING ETHICAL VALUES IN

GOVERNANCE PROBLEMS CONCERNING ETHICS IN ADMINISTRATION

• There are two aspects of development — Technology and Human value. In Indian administration, technological elements are over emphasized while the human value is neglected.

• The administrative coin has two sides. One side emphasizes on doing right things (ethical orientation) while the other side talks about doing things right (Management Orientation). In Indian administration, more emphasis is given on doing things right. Hence, ethical orientation misses cut.

• Carelessness and callousness on part of government machinery. Most of them-don't have a feeling of "oneness" or "ownership" within their organisation.

• Most of the focus on administrative morality is on the aspect of probability within the administrative system. There is a need to consider the issue of responsibility of the governance system. to create an ethical ambience in the socio-economic system that would nurture and protect the basic values.

• Ethics is internal (personal), external factors don't work. These kinds of myths held by majority have also acted as barriers. in inculcating Ethics in Administration. Most of the people have a view that:

(i) Debate and discussion on ethics don't work

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(ii) Ethical training can't be given (iii) Publicity of ethics don't work

EFFECTS OF UNETHICAL ADMINISTRATION

1. Lack of ethics produces strong negatiVe side effects. It increases organizational effectiveness, malign image and credibility of government in public eyes, allows high and mighty to transgress the rights of poor, etc.

2. Mental stress that invariably comes with unethical conduct makes us vulnerable to many problems such as Mental (Hypertension, etc.), Psychological .`(sleep disorder, etc.), and job related (wrong decision, poor performance).

3. Delayed and degraded level of public service delivery.

4. Administration-Citizen alienaiion.

5. Detrimental to concept of Good Governance.

SALIENT ASPECTS OF ETHICS IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:

Currently, the notion of ethics has expanded itself to involve all major realms of human existence. Let us attempt to • outline certain salient aspects of ethics in public administration. Broadly, they could be summarised as following maxims:

• Maxim of Legality and Rationality: An administrator will follow the law. and rules that are framed to govern and gu'ide various categories of policies and decisions-.,

• Maxim of Responsibility and Accountability: An administrator would not hesitate to accept responsibility for his decision and actions_ He would hold himself morally responsible for his actions and for the use of his discretion while making decisions. Moreover, he would be willing to' be held accountable to higher authorities of

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governance. and even to the people who are the ultimate beneficiaries of his decisions and actions.

• Maxim of Work Commitment: An administrator would be committed to his duties and perform his work with involvement, intelligence and dexterity. As Swami Vivekananda observed: "Every duty is holy and devotion to duty is the highest form of worship." This would also entail a respect for time, punctuality and fulfillment of promises made. Work is considered not as a burden but as an opportunity to serve and constructively contribute.to society.

• Maxim of Excellence: An administrator would ensure the highest standards of quality In administrative decisions and actions and would not compromise with standards because of convenience or complacency. In a competitive international environment, an administrative system should faithfully adhere to the requisites of Total Quality Management.

• Maxim of Fusion: An administrator would rationallv bring about a fusion of individual, organizational and social goals to help evolve unison of ideals and imbibe in his behavior a commitment to such a fusion. In situation of conflicting goals, a concern for:ethics should govern the choices made.

• Maxim of Responsiveness and Resilience: An administrator would respond effectively to the demands and challenges from the external as well as internal environment. He would adapt to environmental transformation and yet sustain the ethical norms of conduct. In situations of deviation from the prescribed ethical norms, the administrative system would show resilience and bounce back ;,nto the accepted ethical mould at the earliest opportunity.

• Maxim of Utilitarianism: While making and implementing policies and decisions, an administrator will ensure that these lead to the greatest good (happiness, benefits) of the. greatest number:

• Maxim of Compassion: An administrator, without violaiting the prescribed laws and rules, would demonstrate compassion for the

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poor, the disabled and the weak while using his discretion in making decisions. At least, he would not grant any benefits to the stronger section of society only because they are strong and would not deny the due consideration to the weak, despite their weakness.

• Maxim of National Interest: Though universalistic in orientation and liberal in outlook, a civil servant, while performing his duties, would keep in view the impact of his action on his nation's strength: and prestige. The Japanese, the Koreans, the Germans and the Chinese citizens (including civil servants), while performing their official roles, have at the back of their mind a concern and respect for their nation. This automatically raises the level of service rendered and the products delivered.

• Maxim of justice: Those responsible for formulation and execution of policies and decisions of governance would ensure that respect is shown to the principles of equality, equity, fairness, impartiality and objectivity and no special favours are doled out on the criteria of status, position, power, gender, class, caste or wealth.

• Maxim of Transparency: An administrator will make decisions and implement them in a transparent manner so that those affected by the decisions and those who wish to evaluate their rationale, will be able to understand the reasons behind such decisions and the sources of information on which these decisions were made.

• Maxim of Integrity: An administrator would undertake an administrative action on the basis of honesty and not use his power, position and discretion to serve his personal interest and the illegitimate interests of othei- individuals or groups.

GLOBAL EXPERIENCE WITH STRENGTHENING ETHICS IN ADMINISTRATION

United States Of America

• American Society Of Public Administration prescribed Code Of Ethics in 1984

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• Establishment of Office of Government Ethics

• Ethical Training is given to civil servants

• Sunshine Act to foster transparency in adnlinistration. RTI is the basic philosophy behind this

• Whistle blower Act • Mandatory Ethical Education

• Fraud-Net

United Kingdom

The Committee on Standards in Public Life came out with its first Report in 1995 that established The Seven Principles of Public Life, also known as the "Nolan principles". They were:

• Selflessness — Holders of public office should act solely in terms of the public interest. They should not do so in order to gain financial or other benefits for themselves, their family or their friends. • Integrity — Holders. of public office should not place themselves under any financial or other obligation to outside individuals or organisations that might seek to influence them in the performance of their official duties. • Objectivity — In carrying out public business, including making public appointments, awarding contracts, or recommending individuals for rewards and benefits, holders of public office should make choices on merit. • Accountability — Holders of public office are accountable for their decisions and actions to the public and must submit themselves to whatever scrutiny is appropriate to their office. • Openness — Holders of public office should be as open as possible about all the decisions and actions they take. They should give reasons for their decisions and restrict information only when the wider public interest clearly demands. • Honesty-- Holders of public office have a duty to declare any private interests relating to their public duties and to take steps to

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resolve any conflicts arising in a way that protects the public interest. • Leadership — Holders of public office should promote and support these principles by leadership and example. India • Fostering "Sunshine" in PA is the finest method of ensuring higher status of administrative ethics. Hence RTI. Act was enacted in 2005. • Whistleblower Act • Lokpal Act • Institution of Lokayukta, Cental Vigilance Commission etc.

HOW CAN WE STRENGTHEN ETHICAL VALUES IN ADMINISTRATION

"No responsibility of Government is more fundamental than the responsibility of maintaining the higher standards of ethical behaviour". - J.F. Kennedy

"Administration is a moral act and administrator is a moral agent." - Ordway Tead Ethical Values in administration can be externally as well as internally inducted.

Tead

Ethical Values in administration can be externally as well as internally inducted.

I. Externally Induced: This involves improving upon the external factors or exercising pressures from outside so that ethical order can be set up within the organization as well as individual. It involves:

• Improvement in Personal Management System

- Merit based promotion and recruitment

- 360° Perforrnance Appraisal

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- Impartial Transfer and Posting. The 2'1 ARC has recommended setting up Civil Service Board for this.

- Ethical Training apart from the technical training.

Kamal Pasha's Turkey or the contemporary S. Korea has shown resilience to transform their bureaucratic order and its attendant mindset. Other countries can follow-The suit:

• Improve Hygiene Factors - Introduce paperless transaction - German filing system - Adoption of MBO (to strengthen delegation) - Punctuality (Introduce biometric attendance etc) • Reforms in Poftlica! Culture - Harmonious Politicians -- Civil servants relationship - Code of Ethics for bureaucrats as well as politicians. • Mechanism to enforce Code of ethics. The 2ndARC in India hasrecommended setting up of Ethics Commissioners to enforce code of ethics. • Transparency and Accountability - ICT and e-Governance - TQM - Ethical auditing - Complaint mechanism and Grievance redressal. - Ending Governance crisis by strengthening citizen — administrative interface.

II. Internally induced: This involves inculcating values from within' self. For this, five lndological Methods are suggested:

• Concept of Duty — A person should respect his duty.c.Swami Vivekananda had said, "Every duty is holy and devotion to duty is the highest form of worship." This should be felt internally by everyone.

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• Developing Faith in Self — Eliminate prevailing sense of hopelessness and powerlessness. One should take inspiration from Indian freedom struggle, struggle of Nelson Mandela in Africa, Courage of Churchilrin Germany, etc.

• Sene of Commitment, Motivation, Leadership and Mission —"A leader should be like ceaser's wife and behave like -Plato's-Philosopher king fully dedicated to the people steering faithfully and selflessly the society to achieve its potential and goals." An administrator should lead by example.

• Selflessness and Sacrifice

• Courage and Fearlessness

SOME IMPORTANT ISSUES

1. Ethics in Majority-Minority Relationship

We have opted for a democratic set-up. Democracy is .a delicate form of government and calls for adherence to certain norms by all concerned for its successful functioning. One of the basic postulates of democracy is that the minority would reconcile itself to the verdict of the electorate and thus accept the rule of the majority. The majority on its part would show due deference to- the minority and not rule too oppreSsively. Social-justice is an extension of the principle of ethics in public life. Principles of ethics cannot operate in a vacuum or in abstract. They have to manifest themselves in the actual life of the community. Extreme concentration of wealth on one side and extreme poverty on the other are manifestations of an unethical order of society. Societies, if they have to march in a smooth and peaceful manner towards progress and prosperity, must banish such ugly and unethical blots.

2. Education System and Youth

Sometimes we are faced with situations wherein invigilators at examinations need police protection. There are also agitations

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against stiff papers or for postponement of examinations. On occasions, these agitations lead to the closure themselves. The students have a vital stake in the effective and smooth functioning of the universities and other educational institutions. To say, however, that students alone have a vital stake in the functioning of the universities and other educational institutions would be stating only half the truth. The question of proper education of students is of tremendous importance for the entire nation. The nation, no less than the students, have a stake in the proper functioning of universities, schools and colleges because on this depends the future of the country.

3. Defections of Legislators

One other matter which is common between the need for adherence to ethical norms by groups and parties as well as the public life of the individuals is the question of defections by members of the legislatures from one party to another_ Defection of legislators elected on party tickets has marred the political scene on quite a few occasions of our national history. There are stories of sordid activities behind many of the defections and it is said that money, power or lure of office play a significant part in inducing such defections. Defections, there can be no doubt, pollute the political life of the country and create an atmosphere of uncertainty and instability. They also bring the system of parliamentary democracy into disrepute and create a feeling of bitter disenchantment in the people. In many countries, parties even with a majority of one or two have continued in power and nobody thinks of defections or purchase of party loyalty.

Why should not the position be the same in our country? It would be an exercise in euphemism to say that most defections are the result of the urges of conscience. Defections also create an atmosphere in which a ministry cannot devote its time to nation-building activities and programmes of public weal, as its time is mostly taken in counteracting the strategic moves to oust it from office. Political life in such an event descends from the plane of principles to the level of

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market place, to horse-trading and sale of personal loyalties. Of the different type of Mercenaries, the political mercenary is perhaps the least mindful of scruples. He has a pliable conscience and has no compunction in changing his loyalty and shifting his• Alliance. He is willing to succumb to all kinds of pressures and to yield to all kinds of temptations. His activities may introduce a touch of melodrama but in essence it is the manifestation of his political and moral debasement.

4. Donations to Political Parties

The question of 'donations.to political parties are another matter which has a vital bearing on preserving the purity of public life. This is one of those spheres where there are immense potentialities for abuse_ To prevent such abuse, it would, be necessary to evolve some norms and enforce them strictly. Different views have been expressed and we must take a clear unequivocal decision in the matter. One view is that there should be an absolute ban on business -arm industrial concerns raking any donation to political parties. In case we have a law embodying this view, it has to be ensured that it is strictly enforced and does not become a dead letter. It is no use having such a law and then making a mockery of it. Nothing brings the Rule of Law into greater disrepute than the ' sight of high-ups defying the law with impunity. Another view is to make it permissible for business and industrial concerns to give donations to political parties up to a certain extent. In such CASCS, it mutt be made imperative that all payments are made by cheque and shown in the accounts of the business or industrial concern. The practice of cash payment of amounts exceeding a certain limit must be put an end to and be made punishable under the law. Cash payments provide a cover for tainted money and results in all kinds of malpractices and evasions.

5. Funding of Elections

At the same, time, it has to be admitted that political parties do need funds. The electoral process is so costly that no political party can

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carry on an election campaign without funds, in some countries there is a law providing for State contribution at the time of election to political parties which have, received a certain percentage of votes in the -previous election. There are also provisions in one or two countries for audit of finance of political parties. Whether or not we should adopt any one of these methods and norms is a matter of debate. Only after the matter has been examined in depth and its pros and cons considered, in the context of our national needs and political conditions, can we arrive at a decision.

6. Public Office and Ethical Norms Adherence

We may now turn to the need for adherence to ethical norms by individuals holding public office. Every system of government -requires that those wielding power should use it for the public good and not make it an instrument of self-seeking. All power is like a trust. Those who derive it from the people are accountable for showing that it has been exercised for the people.

Abuse of authority by those in power inevitably causes mass disillusionment and results in public frustration. Nowhere is it more true than in a democratic set up because in democracy it is the people themselves who entrust power to those whom they elect. Abuse and misuse of authority can take many forms. It can result in acquisition of more authority by those in power and the use of that authority for eliminating political and personal opponents. Such abuse paves the way to authoritarianism and dictatorship

Power can likewise be abused by making it a source of personal enrichment_ and if those at top turn corrupt, we would soon find that corruption and graft becomes ubiquitous arid percolates down to all spheres of administration at lower levels. Although corruption anywhere is reprehensible, developed countries can somehow afford this v ice because their economy is already developed. In the case of developing countries, corruption arrests and often retards the process of development and the nation pays a heavy Price in terms of loss of moral values.

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Nothing shakes more the faith of the people in democratic process than the sight of those elected to office by the people using their authority for self-aggrandizement and personal enrichment. Purity of administration has much greater significance in developing countries with their economies in the process of development. Again, we must remember the fact that it is the man at the top of the department who sets the tone of the administration. It is they who set the example for those under them to emulate. When the acts of those at the top become tainted, when their repufation becomes shady, they will not be able to enforce high standards of integrity in those below them. It is therefore, imperative that men at the top should personify the highest standards of personal integrity, probity and rectitude. As Sir Ivor Jennings observed, the most elementary qualification demanded of a minister is honesty and incorruptibility. It is, in addition, necessary not only that he should possess this qualification but also that he should appear to possess it.

CONCLUSION

Public administration is designed to serve 'public'. By its very nature, it ought to be people-oriented and even people-centred. While bureaucracies are expected to be guided by laws and rules, it is not necessary to make them mechanistically rule-centric. Public administrative organisations are human organisations and they ought to be humane in their policies, decisions, orientation and behaviour. Being responsive to people's needs enjoins upon civil servants to be responsive to their psychological needs of being cared for, nurtured and helped. It is in this context that administrators ought to evolve and demonstrate a higher level of emotional as well as spiritual intelligence that would make them empathetic as well sympathetic to feelings of a common person.

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CHAPTER — 6

ACCOUNTABILITY AND ETHICAL GOVERNANCE INTRODUCTION

Accountability and ethical governance are closely related. Effective accountability mechanism helps achievement of ethical standard in the governance system. Ethics can by considered as a form of 'self accountability' or an inner check on administrator's conduct. Higher the level of ethics, lesser would be the need for strong instruments of external accountability.

This kind of internalization of the canon of self-accountability was adopted by Al Gore, who created an image of creative and honest man.

ACCOUNTABILITY OF PUBLIC SERVANTS

In most countries, public officials exercise varying degrees of power in discharging their functions and responsibilities based on the authority vested in them. To ensure that there is proper and responsible use of this power and 'authority, all democratic countries have developed systems and procedures of checks and balances. They have also put in place incentive mechanisms to reward good performance. These systems and procedures can broadly be termed as mechanisms that promote accountability.

In all demoCratic countries, civil servants are accountable both to the political executive and to citizens for ensuring responsive, transparent and honest policy implementation and service delivery. But ensuring accountability for performance is not a simple task in government service; there are immense complexities involved in making public officials answerable for outputs and outcomes.

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Setting performance targets and their measurement is easier in respect of service delivery agencies particularly when the service provided is tangible and thus an easily measured unit but for many public organizations where the output is policy related and therefore, not very concrete, assessment of performance becomes much more complicated. The diffusion of responsibility and authority across different levels in Government and the lack of linkage between authority and .accountability also lead to a system where plausible alibis for non-performance abound, particularly for activities that cut across departmental dividing lines or across different functional divisions within departments.

The accountability mechanisms in any country are broadly categorized as those that are located within the State and those outside. Accountability of the executive arm of government to Parliament and to the citizens of the country is of course the fundamental feature of a democracy. The final expression of accountability in a democracy is through the medium of periodic elections which is an instrument for punishing and rewarding the Government of the day, and therefore, serves as an ultimate instrument of accountability.

An independent judiciary embodies the constitutional doctrine of separation of powers and is another important element in the system of checks and balances that exists in any democratic country_ In India, constitutional and statutory bodies such as the office of the Comptroller & Auditor General, the Election Commission, and the Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) are examples of other oversight mechanisms that are autonomous but lie within the framework of the State. Analysts have categorized these accountability mechanisms into "horizontal' accountability mechanisms which refer to those located within the State as against 'vertical accountability mechanisms which are those outside the State and include the media, civil society and citizens_ The above figure shows the categorization of such accountability mechanisms in India.

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OBSTACLES TO ETHICAL ACCOUNTABILITY

There are certain obvious factors that are acting as obstacles..ito ethical accountability.

Political thinker Rosen bloom once remarked, "Why is it difficult to _guard the guardians?" The obvious reasons are: • Special expertise and information held by bureaucrats. • Lack of coordination (Lack of institutions like office of Government.Ethics in US) • Orthodox Loyalty ( where subordinates don't raise voice against superior) • Excessive Security ( For instance Official Secrets Act in India) Corruption (Speed money, Watergate scandal) Technological elements are over emphasized while the human vale is neglected in deciding the course of development. Over-Reliance On 'Command' Models Of Administrative Effort For Service Delivery The institutional structures of top down management apd isolated managerial efforts have proved inadequate for satisfying performance i.e. delivery of results and outcomes. More emphasis is given on doing things right rather than doing right things. Hence, ethical orientation misses out. Carelessness and callousness on part of government machinery. Most of them don't have a feeling of "oneness" or "ownership" within their organisation. Strong Employee's Union shields the wrong doings_ In EU, employee unions are aligned with Political parties and hence are very powerful.

WAYS TO PROMOTE ACCOUNTABILITY TO CITIZENS

Accountability also means answerability i.e. questions asked of public officials have to be answered by them. There are two types of questions that can be asked. One type as under the RTI Act merely seeks information/data and involves one way transmission of information. It promotes transparency and to a much lesser degree

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accountability in Government. The second type of question enquires not just as to what was done but why; and therefore involves a consultative two-way flow of information with the citizens usually providing a feedback in respect of the working of government departments and service delivery of public agencies. Such mechanisms include citizens' charters, service delivery surveys, social audits, citizens' report card and outcome surveys.

There is over-reliance on 'command' modeis of administrative effort for service delivery. Citizens and service users are stakeholders and participants not just `customers'. This role needs to be institutionalized in the administrative structures linked to the specific and their institutional integration into the decision and delivery framework can be based on a 'cooperative model' of consultation and coproduction. Institutional norms and practices become habits and routines and have to be consciously analyzed, confronted and substituted with alternate institutionalized practices. This perspective of purpose is important also for determining the type of Performance Related Incentive Scheme (PRIS) developed and adopted. The importance of a systems shift from top down monitoring to stakeholder-citizen participation and co-production with transparency and checks is critical for better public service delivery.

MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS

a. A system of two intensive reviews — one on completion of 14 years of service, and another on completion of 20 years of service - should be established for all government servants.

b. The first review at 14 years would primarily serve the purpose of intimating to the public servant about his/her strengths and shortcomings for his/ her future advancement. The second review at 20 years would mainly serve to assess the fitness of the officer for his/her further continuation in government service. The detailed modalities of assessment system would need to be worked out by government.

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c. The services of public servants, who are found to be unfit after the second review a: 20 years, should be discontinued. A provision recth.rding this should be made in the proposed Civil Services Law. Besides, for new appointments it should be expressly, provided that the period of employment shall be for 20 years. Further continuance in government service would depend upon the outcome of the intensive performance reviews.

CHAPTER - 7

LAWS, RULES, AND CONSCIENCE AS A

SOURCE OF ETHICAL GUIDANCE

In Chapter 3 of Part A, we have seen the criteria for judgin action (Essence of Ethics). There are two sources of guidance f perspective by which human beings can judge the morality of thei Conscience.

THE NOTION OF LAW.

According to Thomas Aquinas, in ethics law has a moral connotation. "Law is. an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by him who has care of community.” Thus, law binds and imposes on obligation on people, but for this law must conform to human nature. What the legislator commands must be good possible and just.

Natural Law

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• It is the ultimate criteria governining human conduct. According to Thomas Aquinas., it is through the national law there is a participation of the eternal law in the rational creatue. • Qualities of Natural law a) Universality: Natural law extends to al human beings. b) Immutablity: naturally law does not change and remains same at all places at all time. • 3 Principles of Natural law 1. 1st Principle: It says that there are certain universal rules of conduct that is immediately evident by use of reasons. E.g. Right to life. 2. 2nd Principle: There are certain univbersal rules of conduct that is not easily deduced from 1st principles. But a normal person can’t be ignorant of them of them expect throughtVincible Ignorance. 3. 3rd Principle: There are certain universal rules of conduct that is difficult to deduce from above principles, They are complex, specific, circumstantial, subjective, etc. It is derived through complicated reasoning.

Illustration:

• Killing is crime – 1st Principle as it is immediately evident as violative of right life. • Abortion is crime – 2nd Principle • Abortion is not crime if it saves mother – 3rdPrincipla

Thus, through National law is Universal, it does not necessarily result in same action due to different interpretation and reasoning. This can be gauged from the statement of Thomas Aquinas who said, “The more we descend towards the particular, the more frequently we encounter the defects”

Civil Laws

• All Positive laws have their origin in Natural Law.

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• Civil Laws do three things:

(1) Declare or repeal Natural law.

(2) Clarify Natural law, i.e., end subjectivism in it.

(3) Take up issues not commanded or forbidden by Natural law.

OBLIGATION TO OBEY CIVIL LAWS

Everyone may not agree with a particular clarification or interpretation, and may see them as interfering with Natural law. This brings the conflict between morality ''owing Natural Law) and Legality (following Positive Law).

A person is obliged to follow Civil Laws when —

(1) Laws are not contrary to Natural Law. Thomas-Aquinas said, "Civil Law not conforming Natural Law is unjust."

(2) Laws are promulgated by lawful government.

(3) Laws are morally possible to obey. E.g. for a dttabled person who can't stand in a queue there should be provided some special provisions in law to care of it.

(4) All laws are for common good. So spirit of la‘i should take precedence over letter of law. (E.g. Red Light jumping with patent).

(5) Laws should be sufficiently promulgated.

On above pre-text, a person can deny adherence to laws, and his act may be illegal then. But sometimes it is illegal to be moral. But there are contrary views as well which says that — even if law conform to Natural Law or not, people needs to obey law.

The reasons being:

(1) A citizen derives his rights from law and hence has corresponding obligations to follow the laws.

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(2) Since there is vagueness and complexity in law and situation, hence one should abide by the law to stop anarchy.

Morality vs. Legality conflict is evident in Teleologist vs. Deontologist arguments also:

• Teleologists believe that we don't need standards to govern human behavior. The human intellect alone is capable of judging what is right or- wrong. • Deontologists are content with focusing on laws and rules as the principle guidance.

Therefore following laws and rules can be ethical from one point of view and unethical from another view point. Here comes the role of "CONSCIENCE".

CONSCIENCE AS A SOURCE OF ETHICAL GUIDANCE

Here also the teleologists and the deontologists differ in their view.

• Deontologist's View - Conscience is a special act of mind that comes into play when an intellect passes judgment. So, it is not a feeling or on emotion but an intellectual decision. - Law states general rule concerning actions while conscience lays down practical rule for specific action. Since conscience applies the law or rule to specific actions; hence it is wider than law. - "Conscience is to law as a brush is to point." • Teleological viewpoint

- Conscience is quite similar to completion of the ego identity. "Every ego is in some sense a code of ethics."

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- While the deontologists use conscience to apply the law to a particular action, the teleologists invoke the application of "a set of value commitment" developed by all human beings from childhood. (Conscience grows with education, knowledge, experience etc.)

Types of Conscience

- Correct/True Conscience: Judgement is correct and accurately applies law to action.

- Erroneous/False Conscience: Judgement is false and incorrectly applies law to the action. The erroneous judgement can be vincibly or invincibly.

Another classification based on prudent fear of error —

- Certain Conscience: Conscience is certain when judgment on morality of human action is without prudent fear of error. Certainty can apply to both correct and erroneous judgment.

-Probable Conscience: Conscience is probable when judgment almost excludes all prudent fear or error. Almost certain that judgment is correct, even though it may be erroneous.

- Doubtful Conscience: Here judgment does not exclude all prudent fear of error. It is not clear whether judgment is correct or erroneous.

Ethical Principles Governing Conscience:

Certain rules are to be taken care off in using conscience as the source of ethical guidance. These are:

(1) One should take reasonable care to ensure a correct conscience. (2) One can follovv certain conscience even if that conscience is false. For example, lying to save a person's life if you are certain that it is morally right.

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(3) It is never ethically„,correct to act on doubtful conscience. Vincible ignorance does not excuse — the person must make some effort to resolve the doubt. If his efforts to resolve the doubt fail, the principle "a doubtful law does not bind (Lex dubiancnobiigat)" comes into play.

CONCLUSION

The choice between following laws or conscience is a difficult task. There are certain principles that decide on the source of ethical guidance. But in general, laws should not be broken on the pretext of following conscience as it brings subjectivity in decision making which can lead to anarchy in the society and administration.

CHAPTER - 8

ETHICAL DILEMMAS IN ADMINISTRATION

CHANGING ROLE OF ADMINISTRATION

Public administration is no longer concerned with just implementation and monitoring of government policies, it cannot he expected to take neutral stands on the issues that confront development programme and policies. The legacy of anonymity, neutrality, and commitment to the rigidities of administrative regulations and the party in power is slowly being relegated to the background. Administration is now beginning to focus on innovativeness, new concepts of problem-solving, and effective citizen-administration interaction. Today's administrator has to skillfully anticipate policy needs, choices and alternatives and

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decide on the instrument of implementation and monitoring. Thus, in such complex scenario, administrator is bound to face dilemmas in decisign making.

ETHICAL DILEMMAS

Ethical dilemmas mean a situation where two moral standards conflict with each other. From above, it is clear that the role of administration has become complex and all pervasive. Administrators are constantly engaged in making policies and solving conflict situations at different level of hierarchy to cope up with the increasing demands and expectations of the target group.

The life of administrators actually reminds of an ancient chinese book titled "A Garden of Forked Paths'', which conveys a profound thought on human destiny. The title refers to a garden with multiple paths which confuses the pedestrian walking into the garden with regard to following which path. That our life itself is a Garden of forked paths. That means you walk ten steps and you are faced with a bifurcation. You have to choose between two paths — one leads to sensual pleasure, ill gotten wealth etc and other to inner happiness through a simple ethical life. Which way should you go?

Administrators, similarly, faced such bifurcation in professional life where they face dilemmas such as:

(a) Law vs. Conscience

(b) Duty vs. Consequence

(c) State vs. Humanity

Emphasis is therefore needed on those aspects of ethical guidelines that could provide the administrators some assistance in identifying a problem, choosing an alternative, and implementing the best course of, decision. It. is essential that administrators are familiar with the process of ethical decision-making. They should know how to handle a problematic situation, the role of facts and values in

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solving it, and recognize ways of protecting themselves from extraneous pressure. 'What should not to be done' (conduct rules only talk of Don'ts and not so much about Do's) must be replaced with 'What should be done' in different work scenarios.

O.P. Dwivedi raises several fundamental questions that can arise out of unclear conduct norms. He calls them Ethical Dilemmas. These are

(1) Should any or all kind of gifts and hospitality be avoided? Or should it be limited to a specified minimum?

(2) Is a public servant only a public servant during office hours? Or ethical norms should be practiced outside office hours also?

(3) Should the public servants interpret policies and programmes according to their individual perceptions of right and wrong or should they only adhere to the values of the institutions they are serving?

(4) What should the public servants do if their personal integrity and honesty appear to be out of place in their work environment? What if the public servants are forced to indulge in unethical behaviour because of stringent rules and procedures of the organisations. Because at times, bypassing the rules becomes very necessary.

(5)Sometimes political pressures, legal guidelines, tight deadlines, etc. force the public servants to overlook ethical norms.

DEFINING ETHICS AND ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR

In solving the above conflicting situations, the first step would be to appreciate the changing role of administrators. (as mentioned earlier). The service conduct rules were made years back and can't provide solution to the above mentioned conflict situations and changed role of administrators; thus service rules and guidelines need updation.

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In an organisation that is stable and predictable, administrators can afford to bereactive, but in conflict situations they have to be pro-active because in such situations, anticipation of future tasks and creation of viable alternatives becomes essential. But our approaches to problem-solving depend on cur perceptions about the problem as well as our values. The values itself is affected by multifarious factors. As we all know, public administrators are generally influenced by their country's constitution, legal norms, urganisational rules, caste and family backgrounds, limitation of time/ specialisation etc. These factors somehow overshadow their own perception 'of right and wrong.

There is therefore a need to agree upon a broad framework of guidelines which could assist them in the event of conflict so that they could weigh the pros and cons in each situation and arrive at a solution. In cases of ethical dilemmas, administrators have to choose between competing .and mutually exclusive values. Having analyzed the difficulty .in taking decisions in conflict situations, let's now see what constitutes an ethical conduct in such situations.

A broad definition of ethics would be "a systematic enquiry into human conduct in.order to discover both rules that ought to govern our actions and the goals we should seek in life". In order to keep pace with demands that are being made on public administration, Kathryn G. Denhardt feels that to be ethical, an administrator has to be independently engage in the process of:

(i) Examining and questioning the standards in the light of which administrative decisions are made.

(ii) Relating with the social concerns and organisational goals and reflecting a commitment to these goals.

(iii) Adapting to the changes in the environment.

(iv) Preparing to be held responsible and accountable for the decisions made in the individual and professional capacity.

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These types of guidelines create an atmosphere in organisation that can help administrators in participating in ethical deliberations without being conditioned by external pressures. These will create an ambience that can assist them in tackling every kind of deviation in behavior or from rules without much difficulty. Nevertheless, discretionary powers to the administrators in ethical judgment also call for fairness. Thus, the decisional duty of civil servants should follow some checks such as:

(i) The decision should be within the domain of authority and off rules.

(ii) Decision should be within the context of righteousness.

(iii) Essence of justice should not be arbitrary/biased.

(iv) Conscience should not be doubtful.

SOME PHILOSOPHICAL INSIGHTS ON ETHICAL CONDUCT

In ethical decision making, administrators can take clue from ideas of the philosophers. Some of their views are mentioned

• Anonymous: "Do unto others what you want to be done to you."

• Thomas Jefferson: "Whenever you are doing a thing, though it can never be known but to yourself, ask yourself how would you act were all the world looking at you, andlact accordingly. • Anonymous: "And if similar circumstances are there I shall publicly say that I would do it again."

• Gandhi's Galisman: "Whenever you are in doubt, or when the self becomes too much with you, apply the following test. Recall the face of the poorest and the weakest man [woman] whom you may have seen, and ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be of any use to him [her]. Will he [she] gain anything by it? Will it restore him [her] to a control over his [her) own life and destiny?"

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CHAPTER - 9

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

BACKGROUND

The financial crises of Enron, WorldCom and Parmalat have heated up the discussion about the proper governance of companies. Under the buzzword of corporate governance a lot of issues borne by the separation of ownership and control are treated. Interest in the corporate governance practices of modern corporations, particularly in relation to accountability, increased following the high-profile .collapses of a number of large corporations during 2001-2002, most of which involved accounting fraud; and then again after the recent financial crisis in 2008.

In 1997, the East Asian Financial Crisis severely affected the economies of Thailand, Indonesia, South Korea, Malaysia, and the Philippines through the exit of foreign capital after property assets collapsed. The lack of corporate governance mechanisms in these countries highlighted the weaknesses of the institutions in their economies

WHAT IS CORPORATE GOVERNANCE?

Corporate Governance may be defined as a set of systems, processes and principles which ensure that a company is governed in the best interest of all stakeholders. It is about promoting corporate fairness, transparency and accountability. In other words, 'good corporate governance' is simply 'good business. It ensures:

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• Adequate disclosures and effective decision making to achieve corporate objectives;

• Transparency in business transactions;

• Statutory and legal compliances;

• Protection of shareholder interests; Commitment to values and ethical conduct of business.

N.R. Narayana Murthy Committee on Corporate Governance constituted by SEBI defines corporate governance as the "acceptance by management of the inalienable rights of shareholders as the true owners of the corporation and of their own role as trustees on behalf of the shareholders. It is about commitment to values, about ethical business conduct and about making a distinction between personal & corporate funds in the management of a company."

The Kumar Mangalam Birla Committee constituted by SEBI has observed that "Strong corporate governance is indispensable to resilient and vibrant capital markets and is an important instrument of investor protection. It is the blood that fills the rim veins of transparent corporate disclosure and high quality accounting' practices_ It is the IF---1 muscle that moves a viable and accessible financial reporting structure"

OBJECTIVE/FOCUS OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

1. It is about promoting corporate fairness, transparency, and accountability 2. The fundamental objective of corporate governance is to enhance shareholders' value and protect the interests of other stakeholders by improving the corporateperformance and accountability. 3. Fundamentally, there is a level of confidence that is associated with a company that is known to have good corporate governance.

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The presence of an active group of independent directors on the board contributes a great deal towards ensuring confidence in the market.

4. Corporate governance is known to be one of the criteria that foreign institutional investors are increasingly depending on when deciding on which companies to invest in. Having a clean image on the corporate governance front could also make it easier for companies to source capital at more reasonable costs.

5. It is about promoting good will of company by extending socio-economic support to weaker sections of society and budding a culture of trust. 6. Good Corporate Governance standards add considerable value to the operational performance of a company by:

• improving strategic thinking at the top through induction of independent directors who bring in experience and new ideas;

• rationalizing the management anct constant monitoring of risk that a firm faces globally;

▪ limiting the liability of top management and directors by carefully articulating the decision making process;

• assuring the integrity of financial reports, etc.

CONSTITUENTS OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE:

Today adoption of good Corporate Governance practices has emerged as an integral element for doing business. It is not only a pre-requisite for facing intense competition for sustainable growth in the emerging global market scenario but is also an embodiment of the parameters of fairness, accountability, disclosu.res and transparency to maximize value for the stakehblders. Corporate governance cannot be regulated by legislation alone. Legislation can only lay down a common framework – the "form" to ensure standards. The "substarte" will ultimately determine the credibility and integrity of the process. Substance is inexorably linked to the

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mindset and ethical standards of management. Studies of corporate governance practices across several countries conducted by the Asian Development Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development and the World Bank reveal that there is no single model of good corporate governance. The OECD Code also recognizes that different legal systems, institutional frameworks and traditions across countries have led to the development of a range of different approaches to corporate governance. However, a high degree of priority has been placed on the interests of shareholders.

3 Corporate Responsibilities

Irrespective of the model, there are three different forms of corporate responsibilities which all models do respect:

• Political Responsibilities: the basic political obligations are abiding by legitimate law; respect for the system of rights and the principles of constitutional state.

• Social. Responsibilities: the corporate ethical responsibilities, which the company understands and promotes either as a community with shared values or as a part of larger community with shared values.

• Economic Responsibilities: acting in accordance with the logic of competitive markets to earn profits on the basis of innovation and respect for the rights/democracy of the shareholders which can be expressed in terms -cif managements' obligation as 'maximizing shareholders value'. ° °

4 Pillars of Corporate Governance

(a) Accountability- Ensure that management is accountable to the Board; ensure that the Board is accountable to shareholders.

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(b) Fairness- Protect Shareholders rights; Treat all shareholders including minorities, equitably; Provide effective redress for violations

(c) Transparency- Ensure timely, accurate. disclosure on all material Matters, including the financial situation, performance, ownership and corporate governance.

(d) Independence- Procedures and structures are in place so as to miritrnize, or avoid completely conflicts of .interest; Independent Directors and Advisers i.e. free from the influence of others.

6 Components of Corporate Governance

Corporate governance comprises of six keys components.

1. The Board of Directors

The pivotal role in any system of corporate governance is performed by the board of directors. It is accountable to the stakeholders and directs and controls the management. It stewards the company, sets its strategic aim and financial goals and oversees their implementation, puts in place adequate internal controls and periodically reports the activities and progress of the company in the company in a transparent manner to all the stakeholders.

The OECD Principles of Corporate Governance (2004) describe the responsibilities of the board; some of these are summarized below:

• Board members should be informed and act ethically and in good faith, with due diligence and care, in the best interest of the company and the shareholders.

• Review and guide corporate strategy, objective setting, major plans of action, risk policy, capital plans, and annual budgets.

• Oveorsee major acquisitions and divestitures.

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• Select compensate, monitor and replace key executives and oversee succession planning.

• Align key executive and board remuneration pay with the longer-term interests of the company and its shareholders.

• Ensure a formal and transparent board member nomination and election process.

• Ensure the integrity of the corporations accounting and financial reporting systems, including their independent audit.

• Ensure appropriate systems of internal control are established.

• Oversee the process of disclosure and communications. Where committees of the board are established, their mandate, composition and working procedures should be well-defined and disclosed.

2. Legal and Regulatory Framework: A clear and unambiguous legislative and regulatory framework is fundamental to effective corporate governance.

3. Organizational Hierarchy and Management: The management's responsibility is to undertake he management of the company in terms of the direction provided by the board, to put in place adequate control systems and to ensure their operation and to provide information to the board on a timely basis and in a transparent manner to enable the board to monitor the accountability of management to it.

4. Monitoring And lnternal Control

- Code of Conduct: It is essential that an organization's explicitly prescribed codes of conduct are communicated to all stakeholders and are clearly understood by them. There should be some system in place to periodically measure and evaluate the adherence to such code of conduct by each member of the organization.

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- Financial and Operational Reporting: The board requires comprehensive, regular, reliable, timely, correct and relevant- information in a form and of a quality that is appropriate to discharge its function of monitoring corporate performance.

- Monitoring the Board Performance: The board must monitor and evaluate its combined performance and also that of individual directors at periodic intervals.

- Audit Committee: It is inter alia responsiblelor liaison with management, - - internal and statutory auditors, reviewing the adequacy of internal control and compliance with significant policies and procedures, reporting to the board on the key issues.

5. Transparency And Accountability: It includes setting up of clear objectives and appropriate ethical framework, establishing due processes, providing for transparency and clear enunciation of responsibility and accountability, implementing sound business planning, having . • right people and right skill for jobs, establishing clear boundaries for acceptable behaviour, establishing performanCe evaluation measures and evaluating performance and sufficiently recognizing individual and group contribution.

6. Policies and Procedures

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CORPORATE GOVERNANCE CONTROLS

Internal

•Monitoring by the board of directors

•Internal control procedures and internal auditors: Internal control procedures are policies implemented by an entity's board of directors, audit committee, management, and other personnel to provide reasonable assurance of the entity achieving its objectives related to reliable financial reporting, operating efficiency, and compliance with laws and regulations. Internal auditors are

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personnel within an organization who test the design and implementation of the entity's internal control procedures and the reliability of its financial reporting.

• Balance of power: The simplest balance of power is very common; require that the President be a different person from the Treasurer. This application of separation of power is further developed in companies where separate divisions check and balance each other's actions. One group may propose company-wide administrative .changes, another group review and can veto the changes, and a third group check that the interests of people (customers, shareholders, employees).

• Remuneration: Performance-based remuneration. It may be in the form of cash or non-cash payments such as shares and share options, superannuation or other benefits.

• Monitoring by large shareholders and/or monitoring by banks and other large creditors

External

External corporate governance controls encompass the controls external stakeholders exercise over the organization. Examples include: •

• competition • debt covenants • demand' for and assessment of performance information (especially financial statements) • government regulations • managerial labor market • media pressure • takeovers

LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS OF CORPORATE GOVERNANCE

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The issues of governance, accountability and transparency in the affairs of the company, as well as about the rights of shareholders and role of Board of Directors have never been as prominent as it is today.

India has become one of the fastest emerging nations to have aligned itself with the international trends in Corporate Governance. As a result, Indian companies have increasingly been able to access to newer and larger markets around the world; as well as able to acquire more businesses. The response of the Government and regulators has also been admi-yably quick to meet the challenges of corporate delinquency. But, as the global environrrrent changing continuously, there is a greater need of adopting and sustaining good corporate governance practices for value creation and building corporations of the4uture.

It is true that the 'corporate governance' has no unique structure or design and is largely considered ambiguous. There is still lack of awareness about its various issues, like, quality and frequency of financial and managerial disclosure, compliance with the code of best practice, roles and responsibilities of Board of Directories, shareholders rights, etc. There have been many instances of failure .and scams in the corporate sector, like collusion between companies and their accounting firms, presence of weak or ineffective internal audits, lack of required skills by managers, lack of proper disclosures, non-compliance with standards, etc. As a result, both management and auditors have come under greater scrutiny.

But, with the integration of Indian economy with global markets, industrialists and corporates in the country are being increasingly asked to adopt better and transparent corporate practices. The degree to which corporations observe basic principles of good corporate governance is an increasingly important factor for taking key investment decisions. if companies are to reap the full benefits of the global capital market, capture efficiency gains, benefit by economies of scale and attract long term capital, adoption of corporate

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governance standards must be credible, consistent, coherent and inspiring.

Quality of corporate governance primarily depends; on following factors, namely:- integrity of the management; ability of the Board; adequacy of the processes;commitment level of individual Board members; quality of corporate reporting; participation of stakeholders in the management; etc. Since this is an important element affecting the long-term financial health of companies, good governance framework also calls for effective legal and institutional environment, business ethics and awareness of the environmental and societal interests. Hence, in the years to come, corporate governance will become more relevant and a more acceptable practice worldwide. This is easily evident from the various activities undertaken by many companies in framing and enforcing codes of conduct and honest business practices; following more stringent norms for financial and non-financial disclosures, as mandated by law; accepting higher and appropriate accounting standards; enforcing tax reforms coupled with deregulation and con-ipetition; etc.

However, inapt application of corporate governance requirements can adversely affect the relationship amongst participants of the governance system. As owners of equity, institutional investors are increasingly demanding a decisive role in corporate governance. Individual shareholders, who usually do not exercise governance rights, are highly concerned about getting fair treatment from controlling shareholders and management. Creditors, especially banks, play a key role in governance systems,• and serve as external monitors over corporate performance. Employees and other stakeholders also play an important role in contributing to the long term success and performance of the corporation. Thus, it is necessary to apply governance practices in a right manner for better growth of a company.

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There is a greater need to increase awareness among entrepreneurs about the various aspects of corporate governance. There are some of the areas that need special attention, namely:-

• Quality of audit, which is at the root of effective corporate governance; • Role of Board of Directors as well as accountability of the CEOs and CFOs; • Quality and effectiveness of the legal, administrative and regulatory framework; etc.

CORPORATE GOVERNANCE IN INDIA

The Indian Companies Act of 2013 introduced some progressive and transparent processes which.benefit stakeholders, directors as well as the management of companies. Investment advisory services and proxy firms provide concise information to the shareholders about these newly introduced processes and regulations, which aim to improve the corporate governance in India.

Corporate advisory services are offered by advisory firms to efficiently manage the activities of companies to ensure stability and arowth of the business, maintain the reputation and reliability for customers and clients. The top management that consists of the board of directors is responsible for governance. They must have effective control over affairs of the company in the interest of the company and minority shareholders.Corporate governance ensures strict and efficient application of management practices along with legal compliance in the continually changing business scenario in India.

Corporate governance was guided by Clause 49 of the Listing Agreement before introduction of the Companies Act of 2013. As per the new provision, SEBI has also approved certain amendments in the Listing Agreement so as to improve the transparency in transactions of listed companies and giving a

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bigger say to minority stakeholders in influencing the decisions of management. These amendments have become effective from 1st October 2014.

Clause 49 of Listing Agreement

Among, the series of amendments made to Clause 49 of the Listing- Agreement ("Clause 49"), SEBI issued a circular on 15th September, 2014 amending Clause 49 aligning it with the Companies Act: 2013. This circular came into effect from October 1, 2014.

Applicability of Clause 49 shall extend to all listed companies except

a) companies with equity share capital of less than Rs 10 crore,

b) companies having net worth not exceeding of Rs 25 crore, and

c) companies listed on SME and SME-ITP platforms of the stock exchanges.

However, it has been clarified by SEBI that the exemption is "for the time being", and in case applicability of Clause 49 is extended to the exempted categories in future, then such companies shall have 6 (six) months to comply with the provisions of Clause 49. Further, SEBI has set 1st April, 2015 as the date by which the companies will have to comply with the requirement of appointment of a woman director on the board of directors. In order to be in consonance with the Act, SEBI has aligned the term of theindependent Director to two consecutive terms of five years each. Reappointment of such independent director after the completion of aforementioned period of two terms could be made subject to a cooling off period of three years as mentioned in the Act.

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Clause 49 also states that the terms and conditions of appointment of the independent directors shall have to be placed on the website of the company as against the earlier norms that required firms to disclose the letter of appointment along with the detailed profile of the director. Present amendment also provides that the shareholding of any company in any of its material subsidiary can be reduced to less than 50%, or a company may cease to exercise control over the subsidiary by passing a special resolution in a general meeting. However, if such reduction is a result of disinvestment made under a scheme of arrangement duly approved by Court/Tribunal, then such company shall not be required to pass a special resolution approving such reduction or loss of control in the General Meeting. SEBI also modified the concept of Related Party Transactions by the present amendment and has amended the definition of "related party" to mean an entity related to the company, if such an entity is a related party (i) under section 2(76) of the Act; or (ii) under the applicable accounting standards. The amended Clause 49 provides that a company shall formulate a policy on materiality of related party transactions, and dealing...With related party transactions. Additionally, through this amendment .SEBI has provided that the transaction shall be considered material if the transaction(s) either individually or taken together with previous transactions during a financial year, exceeds 10% of the annual turnover as per the last audited financial Statements of the company. SEBI had previously provided that all related party transactions shall require prior approval of the audit committee. However, pursuant to these amendments an audit committee may also grant omnibus approval for related party transactions proposed to be entered into by the company subject to the conditions as prescribed thereunder. The audit committee can grant such approval only for a period of 1 year and the company shall

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apply for a fresh approval after the expiry. of one year. In addition SEBI has exempted the following related party transactions from obtaining appi-oval from the audit committee: 1. Transactions entered into between two government companies; 2. Transactions entered into between a holding company and its wholly owned subsidiary.

Finally, another significant change is the requirement for creation of Risk Management Committee by a company. The Risk Management Committee shall be responsible for monitoring and reviewing. of risk management plan and such other functions as may be deemed fit. This SEBI amendment provides that the Committee shall consist of members of Board of Directors, and may also include senior executives of the compa6y. However, the Chairman of the Committee shall be a member of the Board of Directors.

Companies Act 2013

Companies Act 2013 replaces old Companies Act 1956. The main features of Companies Act 2013 include-

One Person Company

Act provides new form of private company, i.e., one Person Company. It may have only one director and one shareholder. The Companies Act 1955 requires minimum two shareholders and two directors in case of a private company.

Financial Statements

Companies Act 1956 does not define what Financial Statements are. The New Companies Act has defined the terrri Financial Statements. The Financial Statements contain the following: Balance Sheet, Profit & Loss Account, Cash Flow Statement,

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Statement of Changes in Equity, and Explanatory Note.

• Creation Of Four New Statutory Bodies

1. NFRA (National Financial Reporting Authority): This Body is been enacted to replace National Advisory Committee on Accounting Standards (which was toothless). The NFRA will perform the following functions.

- Make Recommendations to Central Government for laying of Accounting &Auditing policies & Standards

- Monitor & enforce the compliance with Accounting Standards

- Oversee the Quality of Service of provided by professionals specially of Chartered Accountants

- Will have Powers of civil court

- Can debar CA and accountants for professional misconduct.

- Aggrieved party can appeal at NFRAA (National Financial Reporting APPELATE Authority).

2 National Company Law Tribunal: The Companies Act 2013 introduced National Company Law Tribunal and the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal to replace the Company Law Board and Board for industrial and FinancialReconstruction.

They would.relieve the Courts of their burden while pimultaneously providing specialized justice.

Disputes where NCLT will adjudicate:

- Company fails to comply with any provisions of the act (e.g. quorum not maintained, auditors not changed after deadline etc.)

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- Merger and acquisition disputes - Converting Public ltd. To private ltd. - Filing Class action suits

3. Investor and Education Protection Fund Authorily: This fund is used for awareness generation, financial literacy so investors don't fall into traps. Companies have to pay dividend, interest and prinCipal to their investors. But if any money remains unclaimed (death, disappearance .of investor etc.), then Money goes to corporate affairs ministry then into this fund. 4. Serious Fraud Investigation Office (SF10): It is not a new body. It was setup in 2003 under corporate affairs ministry (based on Naresh• Chandra Report). Changes made in SF10 under Companies Act 2013 are: - SFIO is made a statutory body. - It'll have power to Search seize arrest (until now, it could only examine documents) - SFIO investigators will have same powers under CrPC, like a police officer. - Once SFIO gets case, other agencies can't proceed. - State police, ED, CBI etc. will have to handover documents, witness and cooperate in further investigation.

• Audit Related Provisions

1. Audit Committee

- Have to make an audit Committee from board of directors. - Its chairman must be an independent director. - Provision for internal audit by CA, Accountants, even other (non-CA) persons. - Companies will have to setup whistleblower mechanism.

2. External Auditors Terms And Responsibility

- One auditor can audit maximum of 20 companies.

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- If he finds any fraud- he must report to both Union Government (ministry of corporate affairs) and during the AGM (Annual General Meeting). - Auditor can hold office only for a period of 5 years and has to be approved every year. . If a Firm of Auditor has been appointed then the Period is 10 years. - Act prohibits Auditors from performing non-audit services to the company where they are auditor to ensure independence and accountability of auditor. - The new Act also imposes Penalties of Auditor. They can be levied by NFRA. For any misleading information could mean imprisonment up to one year.

3. Company Secretary •

- Company Secretary acts as a link between board of directors and shareholders.

- He arranges BoD meetings, AGM, ensure quorum, minutes of the meeting etc.

- Companies above certain share capital, have to compulsorily hire company Secretary.

4. Company's Loans

- Company cannot give loan to dire.ctor I related persons

- If company gives loan to anyone- then its minimum interest rate must be higher than that of Government securities (G-sec).

- Company must get Credit rating before accepting public deposit (in collective investment schemes)

- Companies have to appoint a chief finance officer to look after audit and account.

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• Board of Directors (BoD), Board Meeting, BoD Committees and AGM Meeting

1. General Provisions

- Minimum directors in One member company=1, Pvt Ltd Company= 2, Public Ltd = 3

- Maximum 15 directors

- Can add even more directors by resolution in AGM .(Annual general meeting of shareholders).

- One person can serve as director in maximum 20 companies

- One director must be Indian resident (i.e. staying in. India for 182 days or more)

- One director Woman in the board.

- If director remains absent for 12 months- consider his position vacant, and get new guy

- The Companies Act 2013 does not restrict an Indian company from indemnifying (compenSate for harm or loss) its directors and officers like the Companies Act 1956.

- The new Act has cast new responsibility on Directors for deciaration in the Directors Responsibility Statement. The Act also says lays down the manner of punishment if the information is not furnished.

2. Independent Directors

- Act provides that all listed companies should have at least one-third of theBoard as independent directors. Such other class or classes of public companies as may be prescribed by

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the Central Government shall also be required to appoint independent directors.

- No independent director shall hold office for more than two consecutive terms of five years.

- After 10 years' service, if they want to join same company as ID again, they'll have to wait for 3 years cooling period.

Job of Independent director is to protect the interests of sharehOlders, particularly the minority shareholders. He has to fulfill following criteria:

- He is not a Promoter of the company, NOT nominated by the Chairman - He has no pecuniary interest in the company, except salary as director - He is not an employee of the company

Board Meetings

- Doesn't apply to one person companies. - Company must hold minimum 4 meetings per year - Must not have more than 120 days gap between two meetings - Quorum: 1/3rd strength or two directors, whichever is max. - If directors cannot give physical presence, video conferencing is permitted. - Directors must be given 7 days prior notice. (So they can make prior travelarrangements.) The notice may be sent by electronic means to every director.

4. Committee

• Companies will be *required to make following Committees ovt of their board members

- Audit committee

- Stakeholder relationship committee (SRC)

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- CSR committee (CSRC)

• Nomination and Remuneration committee (NRC) will observe following

- MD/Directors' salary doesn't exceed 11°/0 of company's profit - Pay rise of CEO, directors etc. vs company performance - They'll present this data in AGM.

3. Annual General Meeting (AGM):

- Not required for one person company

- Public & Pvt. Ltd. companies both have to hold AGM.

- General notice can be sent by letter / email to shareholders.

- Proxy voting permitted.

- Electronic Voting also permitted

- Quorum depends on number of shareholders.

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY (CSR)

Understanding CSR

While there may be no single universally accepted definition of CSR, each definition that currently exists underpins the impact that businesses have on society at large and the societal expectations of them. Although the roots of CSR lie in ilanthropic activities (such as donations, charity, relief work, etc.) of corporations globally, the concept of CSR has evolved and now encompasses all related concepts such as triple bottOm line, corporate citizenship, philanthropy, strategic philanthropy, shared value, corporate sustainability and business responsibility.

According to United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO),Corporate Social Responsibility is a

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management concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and interactions withtheir stakeholders. CSR is generally understood as being the way through which a company achieves a balance of economic, environmental and social imperatives ("Triple-Bottom-Line- Approach"), while at the same time addressing the expectations of shareholders and stakeholders. In this sense it is important to draw a distinction between CSR, which can be a strategic business management concept, and charity, sponsorships or philanthropy. Even though the latter can also make a valuable contribution to poverty reduction, will directly enhance the reputation of a company and strengthen its brand, the concept of CSR clearly goes beyond that.

The TBL approach is used as a framework for measuring and reporting corporate performance against economic, social and environmental performance. It is an attempt to align private enterprises to the goal of sustainable global development by providing them with a more comprehensive set of working objectives than just profit alone. The perspective taken is that for an organization to be sustainable, it must be financiallysecure, minimize (or ideally eliminate) its negative environmental impacts and act in conformity with societal expectations.

Rationale for CSR

Kaultilyain his Arthasashtra had written- "State enterprise should also achieve the goal of public welfare". Mahatma Gandhi had called industris as the trustees of society. So, there are number of viewpoints that support corporate house lending to the society as their responsibility. The arguments that support CSR are:

1. The moral appeal— It argues that companies have a duty to be good citizens.

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2. Stakeholder theory- This proposes that managers should tailor their policies to satisfy a number of constituents, not just.shareholders. Stakeholding is based on the idea that a company is responsible not just to its shareholders but to a plurality of groups. The inclusion of su4i groups assumes that they all have an interest in the operation of the company. Investors, employees, suppliers and customers come into this category.

3. Sustainability— an emphasis on erivironmental and community stewardship. Asexpressed by the World Business countil for Sustainable Social Development, this involves 'meeting the needs of the present without comprothising the ability of future generations to meet their pwn needs'.

4. Licence to operate — every company needs tacit or explicit permission from government, communities and other stakeholders to do business.

5. Reputation — CSR initiatives cati be justified because they improve a company's image, strengthen its brand, enliven morale and even raise the value of its stock.

Features of CSR

• CSR is not a charity, but a compulsory responsibility. • All CSR activities are to be based on project which will be clear cut. • CSR has to be done professionally for goodwill generation of company. • CSR should complement, not contradict, the government schemes.

• . CSR is based on community participation.

The LBG model

Companies across the world adopt LBG’s measurement model in order to assess the real value and impact of their community

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Investment to both, the business and society. This model helps companies to understand the total amount of cash, time and in-kind invested within the community, and enables them to understand the geographic spread of their community support and the kind of themes supported such as education, health and arts and culture. Through this model, companies can track the manner in which their community programme supports wider business goals such as building employee morale or creating reputational advantages.

Also, it helps to measure the difference their programmes make to the community at -Isrcie. Under this model, member companies share data and best practices which in turn help in the benchmarking process.

OECD CSR Policy Tool

The OECD CSR policy tool aims to help companies gain insight into their current CSR activities, assess its value and determine other CSR activities that can be employed. This policy tool is based on the OECD Guidelines and the 13026000 implementation guidelines. The result of the policy tool is a complete CSR policy, including an action plan

CSR in India

The history of CSR in India has its four phases which run parallel to India's historical development and has resulted in different approaches towards CSR. In the first phase charity and philanthropy were the main drivers of CSR. Culture, religion, family values and tradition and industrialization had an influential effect on CSR. In the pre-industrialization period, which lasted till 1850, wealthy merchants shared a part of their wealth with the wider society by way of setting up temples for a religious cause. Moreover, these merchants helped the society in getting over phases of famine and 'epidemics by providing food from their go-downs and money and thus securing an integral

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position in the society. With the arrival of colonial rule in India from 1850s onwards, the approach towards CSR changed. The industrial families of the 19th century such as Tata, Godrej, Bajaj, Modi, Birla, Singhania, etc. were strongly inclined towards economic as well as social considerations. However, it has been observed that their efforts towards social as well as industrial development were not only but also the drivenby selfless and religious motives but also influenced by caste groups and political objectives.

In the second phase, during the independence movement, there was increased stress on Indian Industrialists to demonstrate their dedication towards the-progress of the society. Thiswas when Mahatma Gandhi introduced the notion of "trusteeship", according to which the industry leaders had to manage their wealth so as to benefit the common man.- "I desire to end capitalism almost, if not quite, as much as the most advanced socialist. But our methods differ. My theory of trusteeship is no make-shift, certainly no camouflage. I am confident that it will survive all other theories." This was Gandhi's words which highlights his argument towards his concept of "trusteeship".Gandhi's influence put pressure on various Industrialists to act towards building the nation and its socio-economic development. According to Gandhi, Indian companies were supposed.to be the "temples of modern India". Under his influence businesses established tkists for schools and colleges and also helped in setting up training and _cientific institutions. The operations of the trusts were largely in line with Gandhi's reforms which sought to abolish untouchability, encourage empowerment of women and rural development. The third phase of CSR (1960-80) had its relation to the element of "mixed economy", emergence of Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs) and laws relating iabour and environmental standards. During this period the private sector was forced to take a baCkseat. The public sector was seen as the prime mover of development. BecauSe of the stringent legal rules and regulations surrounding the activities of the

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private sector, the period was described as an "era of command and control". The policy of industrial licensing, high taxes and restrictions on the private sector led to corporate malpractices. This led to enactment of legislation regarding corporate governance, labour and environmental issues. In 1965 Indian academicians, politicians and busine§sMen set up a national workshop on CSR aimed at reconciliation. They emphasized upon transparency, social accountability and regular stakeholder dialogues. In spite of such attempts the CSR failed to catch steam.

In the fourth phase (1980 until the present) Indian companies started abandoning their traditional engagement with CSR and integrated it into a sustainable business strategy. In 1990s the first initiation towards globalization and economic liberalization were undertaken. Controls and licensing system were partly done away with which gave a boost to the economy the signs of which are very evident today.Increased growth momentum of the economy helped Indian companies grow rapidly anithis made them more willing and able to contribute towards social cause. Globalization has transformed India into an important destination in terms of production and manufacturing bases of TNCs are concerned. As Western markets are becoming more and more concerned about and labour and environmental-Standards in the developing countries, Indian companies who export and produce goods for the developed world need to pay a close attention to compliance with the international standards.

Today, CSR programs ranges from community development to development in education, environment and healthcare etc.

A more comprehensive method of development is adopted by some corporations such as Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited, Maruti Suzuki India Limited, and Hindustan Unilever Limited. Provision of improved medical and sanitation facilities, building schools and houses, and

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empowering the villagers and in process making them mote self-reliant by providing vocational training and a knowledge of business operations are the facilities that these corporations focus on. • Many of the companies are helping other peoples by providing them good standard of living. Also Corporates increasingly join hands with Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and use their expertise in devising programs which address wider social problems. For example, a lot of work is being undertaken to rebuild the lives of the tsunami affected victims. This is exclusively undertaken by SAP India in partnership with Hope Foundation, an NGO that focuses mainly on bringing about improvement in the lives of the poor and needy. The SAP Labs Center of HOPE in Bangalore was started by this venture which looks after the food, clothing, shelter and medical care of street children.

With the implementation of the new company law from April 1, 2014, India has become the only country in the world with legislated CSR and a spending threshold of up to $2.5 billion (Rs.15,000 crore). The new law mandates that all companies, including foreign firms, with a minimum net worth of Rs.500 crore, turnover of Rs.1,000 crore and net profit of at least Rs.5 crore, spend at least two percent (2%) of their profit on CSR. According to industry estimates, around 8,000 companies will fall into the ambit of the CSR provisions in India and this would translate into an estimated CSR spend of $1.95 billion to $2.44 billion. With higher economic growth and increase in companies' profits, this mandatory spending will go up.

The Act lists out a set of activities eligible under CSR. Companies may implement these activities taking into account the local conditions after seeking board approval. The indicative activities which can be undertaken by a; company under CSR have been specified under Schedule VII of the Act.

• The company can implement its CSR activities through the following methods:

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- Directly on its own

- Through its own non-profit foundation setup so as to facilitate this initiative

- Through independently registered non-profit organizations that have a record of at least three years in similar such related activities

- Collaborating or pooling their resources with other companies

• A format for the board report on CSR has been provided which includes amongst others, activity-wise , reasons for spends under 2% of the average net profits of the previous three years and a responsibility statement that the CSR policy, implementation and monitoring process is in compliance with the CSR objectives, in letter and in spirit. This has to be signed by either the CEO, or the MD or a director of the company • List of Activities under Schedule VII

- Promotion of Education

- Eradication of extreme .hunger and poverty

- Gender equity and women empowerment

- Reducing child mortality and improving maternal health

- Combating HIV-AIDS, malaria and other diseases

- Environment sustainability

- Social Business projects

- Contribution to PM's relief fund and other such state and central funds

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- Employment enhancing vocational skills

• Governance

Clause 135 of the Act lays down the guidelines to be followed by companies while developing their CSR programme. The CSR committee will be responsblefor preparing a detailed plan on CSR activities, \ncluding the expenditure, hetype of activities, roles and responsibilities of v rious stakeholders and a monitoring mechanism for such activities. The CSR committee can also ensure that all the kinds of income accrued to the company by way of CSR activities should be credited back to the community or CSR corpus.

• Reporting

The new Act requires that the board of the company shall, after taking into account the recommendations made by the CSR committee, approve the CSR' policy for the company and disclose its contents in their report and also publish the details on the company's official website, if any, in such manner as may be prescribed. If the company fails to spend the prescribed amount, the board, in itreport, shall specify the reasons.

• Business responsibility reporting

The other reporting requirement mandated by the government of India, includiNCSR is by the SEBI which issued a circular on 13 August 2012 mandating the top 100 listed companies to report their ESG initiatives. These are to be reported in the form of a BRR as a part of the annual report. SEW has- provided a template for filing the BRR. Business responsibility reporting is in line with the NVG published by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs in July 2011.

Provisions have also been made in the listing agreement to incorporate the submission of BRR by the relevant

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companies. The listing agreemenI also provides the format of the BRR. The BRR requires companies to report their performance on the nine NVG principles. Other listed companies have algo been encouraged by SEBI to voluntarily disclose information on their ESG performance in the BRR format.

CSR and Sustainability

Sustainability (corporate sustainability) is derived from the concept of sustainable development which is defined by the Brundtland Commission as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations meet their own needs". Corporate sustainability essentially refers to the role thatcompanies can play in meeting the agenda of sustainable development and entails a balanced approach to economic pi-Ogress, social progress and environmental stewardship.

CSR in India tends to focus on what is done with profits after they are made. On the other hand, sustainability is about factoring the social and environmental impacts of conducting business, that is, how profits are made. Hence, much of the Indian practice of CSR is an important component of sustainability or responsible business, which is a larger idea, a fact that is evident from various sustainability frameworks. An interesting case in point is the NVGs for social, environmental and economic responsibilities of business issued by the Ministry of Corporate Affairs in June 2011. Principle eight relating to inclusive development encompasses most of the aspects covered by the CSR clause of the Companies Act, 2013. However, the remaining eight principles relate to other aspects of the business. The UN Global Compact, a widely used sustainability framework has 10 principles covering social, environmental, human rights and governance issues, and what is described as CSR is implicit rather than explicit in these principles.

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Globally, the notion of CSR and sustainability seems to be converging, as is evident from the various definitions of CSR put forth by global organizations. The genesis of this convergence can be observed from the preamble to the recently released draft rules relating to the CSR clause within the Companies Act, 2013 which talks about stakeholders and integrating it with the social, environmental and economic objectives, all of which constitute the idea of a triple bottoin line approach. It is also acknowledged.in -the Guidelines on Corporate Social Responsibility and Sustainability for Central Public Sector Enterprises issued by the DPE in April 2013. The new guidelines, which have replaced two existing separate guidelines on CSR and sustainable development, issued in 2010 and 2011 respectively, mentions the following:

"Since corporate social responsibility and sustainability are so closely entwined, it can be said that corporate social responsibility and sustainability is a company's commitment to its stakeholders to conduct business in an economically, socially and environmentally sustainable manner that is transparent and ethical."

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CHAPTER 10

INFORMATION SHARING AND RIGHT

TO INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION SHARING

The free flow of information is a basic human right. The ability to seek, receive and impart information is crucial for respect of human rights.

One way of looking at "Democratisation of Information" is the ability of every person to get the information they need to make their lives better as it helps them in effective decision-making. Another dimension to this .is building an information-driven society which has access to all services and facilitie; with minimum bureaucratic and procedural formalities.

An information-driven society leads to transparency and accountability. This provides .impetus to programmes aimed at improving the processes and systems of public bodies thereby improving service delivery. Amumber of international bodies with the responsibility of promoting and protecting human rights have recognised the fundamental nature of the Right to Information (RTI)

Information is required at multiple levels as follows:

- At the first level, the public should be aware of their rights. There are numerous examples where millions of people are not even aware of their basic rights. For example, the Targeted

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Public Distribution System (TPDS) has been in place for many decades in India, but a number of the targeted beneficiaries are not even aware of their entitlements.

- At the second level, people need to have information that will enable them to use the services provided by the government. For example, a beneficiary needs to know the ration card registration process in order to avail the benefits. A simple IT based system of ration card registration where the beneficiary is helped through the process can make a huge difference.

- At the third level, people will be able to demand services as per service level agreements set by the government and raise grievances so that the system is able to correct itself based on the feedback from the-users.

Unfortunately, many people do not have information at the first level itself. Thus, awareness of rights, government services and welfare schemes is central to democratisation of information. The electronic delivery of services provides information to users so that they are aware of the services and benefit from it by using multiple communication channels. Some of the electronic channels being used today include Web portals (available on the Internet), e-mails, SMS, kiosks that ensure that information flows to people wherever they are. Other channels of information dissemination include print media, television, radio and public office premises.

In this context, civil society organisations and media have a key role to play. The challenge is, however, not in the absence of law but in its implementation. This includes bringing about a cultural change towards 'openness' in the way public authorities work. It also means managing the cost of information and using innovative ideas and Information Technology (IT) to make information accessible to public wherever they are at a reasonable cost. Use of technology is the only way by which information can be

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made available to a billion-plus people in India, as it can remove economic, language and other barriers to information flow.

While the flow of information has some obvious benefits like increased transparency, accountability, public participation and empowerment, it has some pitfalls too. If the information is used to make allegations to malign public servants or create disorder it can negatively impact the working of public bodies. Adequate checks and balances are needed in the systems to ensure that information is not misused by such elements.

Today, a number of public authorities at the central and state levels are using IT to manage and disseminate information. However, the progress has been slow. While

India is miles ahead of other countries in the maturity of its IT industry; the pace of adoption within the government space is slow. Various governments have been striving to bring about changes in the way public authorities function. Large transformational projects have been implemented. The success of these projects hinges not only on the technical solution but also on its adoption by various stakeholders.

DEMOCRATISATION OF INFORMATION

The vision of building an information-driven, inclusive society that has access to all information and services with minimal bureaucratic and procedural delays is driving governments worldwide to move towards digitisation so that information and services can be provided to the public easily.

To make this happen, the following are imperative:

• Relevant informatioM3-should be available to everyone. • Information available should be understandable (language). • Information should be available in such form which is easily accessible (Internet, mobile telephony, notice boards, public

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announcements, media broadcasts, newspapers, inspection of offices of public authority etc).

The key tenets 'to ensure Freedom of Information are listed as follows:

• Maximum Disclosure - This tenet has multiple implications such as the body seeking to deny access to information bears the onus of proving that it may legitimately be withheld; No public bodies should be excluded from the ambit of the law. • Obligation to Publish - Public bodies should be under an obligation to publish key information. The amount of information covered should increase over time particularly as new technologies make it cheaper and easier to disseminate information. • Promotion of Open Government -The success of Freedom of Information lawdepends on having a culture of openness. This may be the biggest challenge facing democratisation of information as a cultural change is difficult to bring about. • Limited Scope of Exceptions - Exceptions should be clearly and narrowly drawn and subject to strict "harm" and "public interest" tests. • Process to Facilitate Access - Requests for information should be processed rapidly and fairly, and an independent review of any refusals should be available. • Costs - Individuals should not be deterred from making requests for information due to excessive costs.

CHALLENGES TO DEMOCRATISATION OF INFORMATION

While there is consensus that information needs to reach everyone, there are several barriers that need to be surmounted. These barriers include:

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•Economic Barriers - Certain sections of citizens may not be able to pay for thecost of information even though it is available.

• IT infrastructure Barriers - Communication infrastructure may not be available leading to poor accessibility. The table below shows Internet penetration for India, China, Russia and United States. India lags in this area.

•Language Barriers - Information should be available in a language that is understood by the citizens.

Other Barriers - These include government organisation barriers. Also, manypeople need assistance in accessing/understanding information due to factors like illiteracy and disability.

Data needs to be managed.in a way that it is easily processed and presented to people through multiple channels. The cost of information includes the cost of media (print, electronic etc), cost of collating data, administrative costs etc. Public authorities need to plan proactively to identify and manage these costs. A cultural change to bring about openness has become necessary

RIGHT TO INFORMATION ACT

The RTI Act empowers the Indian citizens to seek information from a public authority, thus making the government and its functionaries more accountable and responsible. RTI is an act that sets out the practical regime of RTI for citizens to ensure access to information under the control of public authorities in order to ensuretransparency and .accountability in the working of every public authbrity, the constitutionof a Central Information Commission and State Information Commissions and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Highlights of the Act

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-Every public authority will maintain all its records in a manner that facilitates RTI under the Act and ensures that all records that are appropriate are computerised.

- Constant endeavour to provide as much information Suo Moto to the public at regular intervals through various means of communication, including Internet to ensure that the public resorts to this Act minimally.

- Information will be disseminated widely and in such form or manner which is easily accessible to the public.

- Allmaterials will be disseminated taking into consideration the cost effectiveness, local language and the most effective method of communication in that local area, and the information will be easily accessible to the extent possible in electronic format, available free or at such cost of the medium or the print cost as may be prescribed.

- Information that cannot be shared is also listed in the RTI Act.. For example, there is no obligation to give any citizen: Information, disclosure which may prejudicially affect the sovereignty and integrity of India; strategic, scientific or economic interests of the states; India's relation with foreign countries or lead to incitement of an offence.

- Information which has been expressly forbidden to be published by any court of law or the disclosure of which may constitute contempt of court.

Impediments in Making the RTI Act — An Effective Tool and Way Forward Provisions of Law Not Fulfilled in Spirit

1. There is a mandatory provision that within 120 days of the enactment Of thelaw, every government office would publish 16 varieties of information. Not even a single government organization can claim to have really complied with _ thi. If the disclosure had been done faithfully and truthfully, then a lot of

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the RTIs would have become redundant because that information would have been in the public domain.

2. RTI Act says that it is responsibility of government to make sure that peopleknow about the Act. Only 30% of the Indian knew about the act. The percentage further dipped to 10% in rural areas. To create awareness-

- RTI should be incorporated in school syllabus.

- Its brand creation thrOugh awareness campaign should be done.

- The role of civil society is significant in creating awareness.

Procedural Delay

1. Fee Format: In Maharashtra, every time an RTI application was sent, the response was "You have not made the payment in a correct format", and nobodyagrees on what is the correct format. There are officers who deny information because the fee hadn't been paid'in 'A' or 'B' way. There is a total lack of training and knowledge about RTI. Manjr people in civil society have suggested the government come out with au- RTI stamp worth Rs 10. It would be so muchsimplier to introduce a stamp which would be readily available and which is irrespective of the officer concerned, recognized as n application fee.

2. Record Keeping: The record keeping is in an abysmal condition in every government office. This law mandatorily provided that every department must catalogue and index its records and keep it in a manner that the retrieval of information is easy. Unfortunately, very little has been fone in this regard. In the absence of records, the government will find it difficult to defend itself before civil society of the courts

3. Information seeking: If you ask a nodal agency for information, they will tell you this is with 25 different officers,

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please file an RTI to all 25 officers. This is not fair. Some departments and ministries have cleverly appointed far too many information officers. So i'vhen you make an application and it contains five pieces of .information, it is split among five different information officers. CIC has said in his orders that large ministries like Home, Defence, DoPT, HRD must have an RTI cell which should have the responsibility to collect the information and give it in a consolidated form.

4. Process Simplification: There is a need to simplify RTI procedures. For instance, Bihar has established a 24-hour phone line service in Patna. They takesuch calls, record the request and then send it to the respective governmendepartment. They have simplified it by saying that RTI request need not be accompanied by the application fee but it could be paid separately. We could trythis on a pilot basis. •

Fresh Controversy

1. The RTI should be extended to Public Private Partnerships (PPPs).

2. Privacy Bill vs. RTI: Justice Shah has recommended privacy commissioners so will there be conflict of work between the CIC and the privacy commissioner? The RTI Act itself has sufficient safeguard against the invasion of privacy of any individual. Section 8 (1)Q) clearly says that any information the disclosure of which will cause invasion of anybody's privacy need not be given, except when would serve a larger public interest. Now the SC has come out with the interpretations of the scope of this. In an order, it has decided that in the case of disciplinary proceedings against a government employee, the charge sheet an: the related documents would be construed as personal information. The ClC didn't consider it like that till now, we used to allow it to be given but now the La.'of the land is that it can't be given.

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3. Should CBI be taken out of the RTI? Section 24 of the RTI Act has a provision which says that any information which pertains to allegations of corruption or allegations of human rights violation has to be given. Up to 95% of requests made to CBI for information is for allegations of corruption, so how are they out of RTI's ambit? If the intention of this notification was to keep CBI outside RTI l ike IB or RAW, it has not worked out that way.

4. Government as the Largest Litigant: A serious problem is that important orders of the CIC are being challenged by government departments themselves. The cases are in court and the SC has not ruled. What is the point of the law if departments are going to challenge the orders? This is very worrying because in about 99% of cases where anybody has gone to court against an order of the CIC, it is a government department; hardly any priVate individual goes to court. In many cases, government departments have appealed against the CIC order on what appears to us as innocuous pieces of information. For Instance, when an individual is appointed with the approval of the Appointments Committee of theCabinet, many people ask for papers relating to that appointment. The law is very clear that Cabinet papers will not be disclosed. However, when the decision of the Cabinet is implemented and the matter is over, then all the papers leading to the Cabinet's decision will be disclosed. We passed orders in several cases and the government went to the High Court of Delhi and there is a stay order.

CONCLUSION

Information to all is the foundation of a democracy. Innovative use of IT can make the task of organising data, processing it into information and disseminating it cheaper and easier. As technology evolves, more and more people have access to technology including Internet, mobiles and telephones. This opens up new means of information dissemination and service

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delivery. However, ensuring information dissemination to all requires active participation from all stakeholders including the government, public bodies; cozens, media and civil society. The public bodies need to adopt technology aggressively. They also need to embark on a journey of cultural change that takes them from being secretive to being open. Use of technology by various departments like the Ministscy of Corporate Affairs, State Portals, District Administration Computerisations, Social Welfare Schemes etc. have in many cases changed the lives of millions of people for the better. This needs to be followed up with a more planned approach targeted at reducing barriers to information flow. Leveraging existing infrastructure like the State Wide Area Network (SWAN), State Data Centre (SDCs) and CSCs is the way forward for aggressive implementation of IT programmes.

One of the parameters for measurement of performance of public bodies should be the progress made on democratisation of information. This will ensure that all public bodies will plan, set targets and review status based on this parameter. Adequate checks and balances need to be put in place to ensure that information is not misused.

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CHAPTER - 11

CODE OF CONDUCT AND CODE OF ETHICS

INTRODUCTION:

A number of countries have prescribed a Code of Conduct/Ethics for Ministers. In Canada, the 'Guide for Ministers (2006)' sets out core principles regarding the role and responsibilities of Ministers. This includes the central tenet of ministerial responsibility, both individual and collective, as well as 'Ministers' relations with the Prime Minister and Cabinet, their portfolios, and Parliament. It outlines standards of conduct expected of Ministers as well as addressing a range of administrative, procedural and institutional matters.

In UK, the Ministerial Code provides guidance to Ministers on how they should act and arranae their affairs in order to uphold these standards. It lists the principles which may apply in particular situations drawing on past precedent. it also stipulates that: Ministers are personally responsible for deciding how to act and conduct themselves in the light of the Code and for justifying their actions and conduct in Parliament.

CODE OF CONDUCT Vis-a Vis CODE OF ETHICS

Codes of Conduct are the guidelines of behaviour or the do's and don'ts of behaviour. In code of conduct, actions and inactions are explicitly written. Code ofconduct works through punishment in case of flouting of rules. Hence, these are measurable element. They are not abstract and are based on administrative realities.

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Unlike code of conduct, actions and inactions are not explicitly written in code of ethics. Code of ethics should not be confined to don'ts of administrative behaviour but should also be helpful in resolving ethical dilemmas. But it is not easy to legislate morality that provide answer for every decisional dilemmas, yet such a code can provide guidelines while dealing with critical moral paradoxes in administrative decisions.

Both code of conduct and code of ethics are based on virtue theory which emphasises on the virtuous character of administrator as well as on deontology which is engaged in discovering standard code of human behaviour based on reasons. Out of Lile two, code of ethics is of our concern and hence will be dealt in details next.

MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF CODE OF ETHICS

1. It must serve a norm of behaviour according to which fresh entrants could be counselled. 2. It should contain complete guide for everyday behaviour at workplace. 3. It must serve as a tool of administrative control. 4. It must include norms identifying conflicts of interest and set priorities guiding decisions in such conflicts.

DIFFICULTY IN FORMULATING CODE OF ETHICS

1. It is not possible to formulate an everlasting code of ethics since values and norms keep changing with time. 2. There is prevalence of various approaches to ethics such as deontology, teleology, etc. This poses challenge to reaching consensus on formulating a code. Ethical relativist are against any rigid codification. 3. It is difficult to codify immeasurable subjective elements like empathy, compassion etc.

CODE OF ETHICS FOR CIVIL SERVANTS

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The changing time has necessitated thought and action plan there must be a code of ethics for civil servants. The inculcation of values facilitating the subordination of the self to a larger, societal good, and engendering a spirit of empathy for those in need of ameliorative state interventions are not skills which could be easily imbibed after joining the civil services. Such attitudes need nurturing over not merely individual life-times, but through successive generations - the 'right' ethos takes long to evolve.

- Nevertheless, it must be accepted that our civil service system has .a tradition of attitudes and achievements which sets examples to be emulated by current and prospective civil servants. It must also be accepted that, the existing framework for maintaining and promoting the norms of 'right conduct' cannot be enforced through a rigid mindless enforcement of laws and rules. It is all a question of striking the right balance. - Within the civil services there are formal, enforceable codes setting out norm of expected behaviour with 'sanctions' prescribed for unacceptable departures from such norms. There are also inchoate conventions of propriety and acceptable behaviour without formal sanctions but with non-observance of such practices and conventions attracting social disapproval and stigma. - Civil servants have special obligations because they are responsible .formanaging resources entrusted to them by the community, because they provide and deliver services to the community and because they take important.decisions that affect all aspects of a community's life.

The community has a right to expect that the civil service functions fairly, impartially and efficiently. It is essential that the community must be able- to trust and have confidence in the integrity of the civil service decision-making process'. Within the civil service itself, it needs to be ensured that the decisions and actions of civil servants reflect the policies of the government of the day and the standards that the community

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expects from them as government servants. The expectation that the civil service will maintain the same standards of professionalism, responsiveness and impartiality in serving* successive political governments is a key element of the way our democratic polity functions.

ASPA Code of Ethics

1. Advance the Public Interest. Prbmote the interests of the public and put service to the publid above service to oneself.

2. Uphold the Constitution and the Law. Respect and support government constitutions and laws, while seeking to improve laws and policies to promote the public good.

3. Promote democratic participation. Inform the public and encourage active engagement in governance. Be open, transparent and responsive, and respect and assist all persons in their dealings with public organizations.

4. Strengthen social equity. Treat all persons with fairness, justice, and equality and respect individual differences, rights, and freedoms. Promote affirmative action and .other initiatives to reduce unfairness, injustice, .and inequality in society.

5. Fully Inform and Advise. Provide accurate, honest, comprehensive, and timely information and advice to elected and appointed officials and governing board members, and to staff members in your organization.

6. Demonstrate personal integrity. Adhere to the highest standards of conduct to inspire public confidence and trust in public service.

7. Promote Ethical Organizations: Strive to attain the highest standards of ethics, stewardship, and public service in organizations that serve the public.

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8. Advance Professional Excellence: Strengthen personal capabilities to act competently and ethically and encourage the professional development of others.

SUGGESTION FOR IMPROVING CODE OF CONDUCT AND CODE OF ETHICS FOR MINISTERS

(a) An Office of 'Ethics *Commissioner' may be constituted by each House of Parliament. This Office, functioning under the Speaker/Chairman, would assist the Committee on Ethics in the discharge of its functions, and advise Members, when required, and maintain necessary records. (b) In respect of States, the following can be-

recommended:

(i) All State legislatures may adopt a Code of Ethics and a Code of Conduct for their Members.

(ii) Ethics Committees may be constituted with well defined procedures for sanctions in case of transgressions, to ensure the ethical conduct of legislators.

(iii)'Registers of Members' Interests' may be maintained with the declaration of interests by Members of the State legislatures.

(iv) Annual Reports providing details including transgressions may be placed on the Table of the respective Houses.

(v) Office of 'Ethics Commissioner' may be constituted by each House of theState legislatures. This Office would function under the Speaker/Chairman, on the same basis as suggested for Parliament.

SCENARIO IN INDIA

In India, civil service values have evolved over years of tradition. These values also find place in various rules, including the Cody of Conduct. The current set of 'erhorceable

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norms' are 'Conduct Rules', typified by the Central Civil Services (Conduct) Rules - 1964 and analogous rules appircable to members of the All India Services or employees of various State Gove-rriments. The code of behaviour as enunciated in the Conduct Rules, while containing some general norms like 'maintaining integrity and absolute devotion to duty' and not indulging in 'conduct unbecoming of a government servant', are generally directed towards cataloguing specific activities deemed undesirable for government servants. There is no Code of Ethics prescribed for civil servants in India although such Codes exist in other countries.

A comprehensive Civil Service Code can be conceptualized at three levels. At the apex level, there should be a clear and cancise statement of the values and ethical standards that a civil servant should imbUDe. These values should reflect public expectations from a civil servant with reference to political impartiality, maintenance of highest ethical standards and accountability for actions. At the second level, the broad principles which should govern the behaviour of a civil servant may be outlined. This would constitute the Code of Ethics.

At the third level, there should be a specific Code of Conduct stipulating in a precise and unambiguous manner, a list of acceptable and unacceptable behaviour and actions. The values and the Code of Ethics should be given a statutory backing by including them in the proposed Civil Services Bill. In addition to commitment to the Constitution these values should include:

(1) Adherence to the highest standards of probity, integrity and conduct

(2)Impart ial i ty and non-part isanship .

(3) O b j e c t i v i t y

(4) Commitment to the citizens' concerns and public good

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(5)Empathy for the vulnerable and weaker sections of society.

These values, per se, may not be enforceable. But a mechanism may be put in place so that efforts are made, particularly, by those in leadership positions, for inculcating these values in all persons in their organization.

CHAPTER – 12

CITIZEN CHARTER

WHAT IS A CITIZEN'S CHARTER?

Citizen'eCharter is a document which represents a systematic effort to focus on the commitment of the Organization towards its Citizens in respects of Standard of Services, Inforiination, Choice and Consultation, Non-discrimination and Accessibility, Grievance Redress, Courtesy and Value for Money. This also includes expectations of the Organisation from the Citizen for fulfilling the commitment of the Organization. The Citizen's Charter is not legally enforceable and, therefore, is non-justiciable. However, it is a tool for facilitating the delivery of services to citizens with specified standards, quality and time frame etc. with commitments from the Organisation and its clients.

RATIONALE OF A CITIZEN'S CHARTER

• Promoting Good Governance: It has been recognised the world over th6t good governance is essential for sustainable development, both economic and social. The three essential aspects emphasised in good governance are transparency, accountability and responsiveness of the administration. The "Citizen's Charters initiative" is a response to the .quest for solving

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the problems which a citizen encounters, day in and day out, while dealing with organisations providing public services. The concept of Citizen's Charter enshrines the trust between the service provider and its users. • Ensuring Rights of The Public And Obligations Of The Public Servants: As public services are funded by citizens, either directly or indirectly through taxes, they have the right to expect a particular quality of service that is responsive to their needs and is provided efficiently at a reasonable cost. It is essentially about the rights of the public and the obligations of the public se-

rvants. • Attitudinal Change In Public Servants.:A further rationale for the Charters is to. help change the mindset of the public official from someone with power over the publi0 tb someone with the right sense of duty in spending the public money collected through taxes and in providing citizens with necessary services.

PRINCIPLES OF A CITIZEN'S CHARTER

The basic objective of the Citizen's Charter is to empower the citizen in relation to public service delivery. The six principles of the Citizen’s Charter movement as orgininally framed were.

1.. Quality: Improving the quality of services;

2 C h o i c e : w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e

3. Standards:. Specifyingwhat to expect and how to act if standards are not met;

4. Value: For the taxpayer’s money

5. Accountability: Individuals and Organisations and

6. Transparericy: Rules/ Procedures/ Schemes/ Grievances.

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CITIZEN'S CHARTERS - COMPONENTS AND MODEL GUIDELINES

• The need for a Citizen's Charter arises from the dissatisfaction of the citizen/consumer with the erstwhile quality of serives offered by a public sector organization. The components of a citizen charter should include

1. Vision and Mission Statement;

2. Details of Business transacted by the Organisation;

3 . Deta i l s o f c l i en t s ;

4. Details of services provided to each Client group;

5. Details of grievanceredressal mechanism and how to access it; and

6. Expectations from the clients

The following guidelines should therefore be followed in drafting a charter:

1. To be useful, the Charter must be simple;

2. The Charter must be framed not only by senior experts, but by interaction withthe cutting edge staff who will finally implement it and with the users (individual organisations)

3. Merely announcing the Charter will not change the way we function. It is important to create conditions through interaction and training for generating a responsive climate;

4. Begin with a statement of the service(s) being offered;

5. A mention .be made against each service the entitlement of the user, service standards and remedies available to the user in case of the non-adherence to standards;

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6. Procedures/cost/charges should be made available on line/display boards/booklets inquiry counters etc at places specified in the Charter;

7. Indicate clearly, that while these are not justiciable, the commitments enshrined in the Charter are in the nature of a promise to be fulfilled with oneself and with the user;

8. Frame a structure for obtaining feedback and performance audit and fix a 'schedule for reviewing the Charter every six months at least;

9. Separate Charters can be framed for distinct services and for organisations/agencies attached or subordinate to a Ministry/Department.

PROBLEMS FACED IN IMPLEMENTING THE CHARTERS

The Citizen's Charters initiative in India had started in 1997 and most of the Charters formulated thereupon are in a nascent stage of implementation. Introduction of new concepts is always difficult in any organisation. Introduction and implementation of the concept of Citizen's Charter in the Government of India was much more difficUltdue to the old bureaucratic set up/procedures and the rigid attitudes of the work force. The major obstacles encountered in this initiative.are:-.

1. Direction From Above: The general perception of organisationswhichformulated Citizen's Charters was that the exercise was to be carried outbecause there was a direction from above. The consultation process was minimal or largely absent. It, thus, became one of the routine activities of the organisationand had no focus.

2. Lack Of Training:For any Charter to succeed the employees responsible for its implementation should have proper training and orientation, as commitments of the Charter

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cannot be expected to be delivered by a workforce that is unaware of the spirit and content or the Charter. However, in many cases, the concerned staffs were not adequately trained and sensitised.

3. Vagueness In Charter Document: In some cases, the standards/time norms of services mentioned in Citizen's Charter were either too lax or too tight and were, therefore, unrealistic, there0y creating an unfavourable impression on the clients of the Charter.

4. Awareness about The PrinctAeOf Charter: The concept behind the Citizen's Charter was not properly understood. Information brochures, publicity materials, pamphlets produced earlier by the organisations were mistaken for Citizen's Charters. Awareness campaigns to educate clients about the Charter were not conducted systematically.

HOW TO MAKE THE CHARTERS-A SUCCESS

For making citizen's charter a success, it should be seen as a partnership between people and the Government. Citizen's Charter is not just a concept, but a programme of action. They areapart of democratic reforms and a pro-active approach to good governance.

To Make the Citizen's Charters a success the following are needed:-

1. A Sense of urgency;

2. Ownership of the Charter by the Head of the Department and the entire staff;

3. At the State level, a committee headed by the Chief Minister should be constituted to oversee the implementation and progress of the Citizen's Charters;

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4. Constant interaction with the stakeholders: As with any new effort, the Citizen's Charter initiative is bound to be looked at initially with skepticism by bureaucrats as well as citizens. The issuance of Citizen's Charter will not change overnight the mindset of the staff and the clients, developed over a period of time. Hence,an effective awareness campaign amongst all the stakeholders at the initial stage is essential to overcome this skepticism. Regular, untiring and persistent efforts are required to bring about attitudinalchanges;

5. Motivating the staff and performance review of the staff based on the criteria outlined in the charter;

6. Taking corrective measures: The charter initiative should have a built-in mechanism for monitoring, evaluating and reviewing the working of the Charters, preferably through an outside agency;

7. Simplification of procedures and systems;

8. Reducing hierarchy, decentralization.

CONCLUSION

The implementation of Citizen's Charter is an on-going exercise. !t has to reflect the extensive and continua! changes taking place in the domain of public services. The Government must be committed to serve the citizens in an effective and efficient manner to not only meet but also to exceed their expectations. The Citizen's Charter initiative is a major step in this direction.

LESSONS LEARNT IN QUALITY ASSURANCE FROM EXAMPLES WORLDWIDE

1. Involve customers in the creation of guarantees, standards, redress policies, complaint systems, and customer service agreements.

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This is necessary to know what is important to the customer. It is prudent not to assume what the customer wants. Customer surveys are useful here, but face-to-face contact with customers is even more important. Customer councils and different types of customer voice tools can be used for this.

2. Educate customers about the services that an organisation provides, so they will have realistic notions of what is possible and will understand their own responsibilities.

Often services won't work unless customers uphold their end of the deal. e.g., tax agencies can't send. speedy refunds if taxpayers don't fill out their returns completely and accurately. Permit offices cannot process permits rapidly if developers hide information from them. In cases like these, add customer (or complier) responsibilities to the service standards and guarantees and publicise the same.

3. Keep pressure on from outside the organization to create meaningful guarantees, standards, redress policies and complaint systems.

Most organizations won't be able to accomplish both setting meaningful standards and fulfilling the same. They will only do it until the leader who drove it moves on. Thus there is a need for some external force that keeps the pressure on — forever. Another good method is a customer council or board with real powers.

4. Create an outside review process to approve guarantees, standards, redreSs policies, complaint systems, and the performance measurement processes associated with them.

Just as there is need for outside pressure, there is also need for an external body to review and approve standards, redress policies, and the rest. Otherwise, vague `standards that cannot be measured and have no means of redress attached — "We will

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do our best to provide timely courteous service" — should be the norm. The review process should involve both customers (ideally through a customer council or board) and a neutral reinvention office such as the Charter Unit in UK. In the UK, the LabourGovernment required all departments to review their charters at least once every two years, whereas the Cabinet Office has set up an audit system to check on the quality of charters and intervene when necessary.

5. Publicize your standards, guarantees, redress policies, complaint systems, and results

If people don't know about these policies, they will have far less effect than they should. E.g. the U.S. Postal Service has publicized its first-class-on-time delivery standards (three days within the continental U.S., one day locally) and reported quarterly on its performance. The results have generated front-page newspaper stories; creating useful urgency within top management

The postal service, however, was found to be rather silent about another standard. "You will receive service at post office counters within five minutes." If one looks hard next time one goes into a post office, they may find a tiny, 4-inch by 5-inch sign announcing the standard. But they might have probably never noticed it. As a result, it is meaningless to the customer. Nor does it seem to have any impact on employee behavioui, (as found by observations made). It is, sadly, .a wasted opportunity to win over the public.

6. Involve frontline employees in creating standards and other tools — and in figuring out how to meet them — to help them buy in

If standards and redress policies are simply imposed on employees, few will respond to the challenge. The British also learned this lesson. Their review pointed out that frontline employee had "often been ignored in the past". The

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government's guide, How to Draw up a National Charter, added, "They are the people who will have to deliver the standards in your charter, and they are often well placed to offer practical suggestions for improvements, and to identify people or organizations to be consulted.

7 . Empower frontl ine staff to make decisions

When organizations fail to deliver the quality of service that they have promised or when customers have legitimate complaints, the frontline staff needs to be able to make it right, immediately. If you have to wait three weeks for management to make a decision, you will alienate your customers.

8. Use standards, guarantees, complaints, and customer councils to redesign, reengineer, and restructure.

There's only so much improvement you can produce by changing attitudes and getting employees to work harder. If customer quality assurance don't lend to reengineering work processes and restructuring organizations, then it won't be worth using. Customer-driven agencies typically organize around customers' needs and organizational functions. They create single points contact for customers, one-stop services, and integrated work teams to handle all of a custorrier's needs.

9. Study other organizations including private companies, to see how you might rethink, redesign, and reengineer.

Studying the best in business gets the organisation out of the box. It just opens up this whole world that you never even contemplated might be there.

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CHAPTER - 13

WORK CULTURE INTRODUCTION

Work culture refers to the altitudes, values, and behaviour of individuals and collectivities pertaining to diligence, perseverance, devolution to duty, caring for 3Es (Economy, Efficiency, Effectiveness), and concern for the service rendered to the clientele group or citizens.

It is the work culture which decides the way employees interact with each other and how an organization functions. In layman's language work culture refers to the mentality of the employees which further decides the ambience of the organization.

An organization is said to have a strong work culture when the employees follow the organization's rules and regulations and adhere to the existing guidelines. However there are certain organizations where employees are reluctant to follow the instructions and are made to work only by strict procedures. Such organizations have a weak culture.

ELEMENTS OF POSITIVE WORK CULTURE

The working of most government organizations is based on the Weberian principle of decision making governed by rules and regulations to ensure objectivity and uniformity. As a result, the processes and structures in any government organization generally owe their existence to and are regulated by statutes, rules and regulations etc.

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These rules and regulations or procedural manuals have been formulated- over a longperiod with many processes still continuing from the colonial period.

However such work culture is not conducive to the organisation. Hence,-positive work culture should be created which encompasses the following elements:

Efficiency and economy of time as well as performances.

Punctuality

Promptness: Quick response reduces cost overruns.

Simplicity of rules and regulations.

Flexibility in operation

Goal orientation

Organisational humanism

Quality of service

Authority- Responsibility balance

Climate of self-motivation should prevail.

ADVANTAGES OF POSITIVE WORK CULTURE

Such positive work culture has many advantages:

1 . A happy and s tress relaxed organisat ion.

2. Higher productivity and efficiency.

3. E n h a n c e d c r e a t i v i t y .

4. Improved job satisfaction leading to higher morale.

5. Heigherlevel of cl ient/cit izen satisfact ion

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6. Time and qual i ty service del ivery

WHY POOR WORK CULTURE IN INDIA

The expanse of governance, the complexities and above all the aspirations of-citizens have changed substantially in the last few decades. Though there have been sporadic attempts at modifying the old rules and procedures, there has not been an exhaustive and thorough examination of these especially keeping citizens at the centrestage. The reasons for poor work culture in India can be attributed to-

1. British legacy: British administration in India was half child and half brute. There are many tenets of British administration that we still carry today in Indian administration.

2. Inappropriate Personnel Management

3. Poor Office Layouts And File Management

4. Social Cause: Centralization of decision making in family have madeparticipatory zeal low. In Indian society, socio-psychological aspects are not managed rationally.

5. Impact Of India Culture:

- Manual.labour is despised and mental work is preferred.

- Attitude of casualness. No perceptible feeling of nationalism or of oroanisation loyalty.

- Hol iday cul tu re

IMPROVING WORK CULTURE IN INDIA

Work culture in administration can be externally as well as internally improved.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF ARC

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The ARC while dealing with Ethics in Governance, in its Fourth, Report had suggested:

(a) There is need to bring simplification of methods to the centre-stage of administrative reforms.• Leaving aside specific sectoral requirements, the broad principles of such reforms must be: adoption of 'single window' approach, minimizing hierarchical tiers, stipulating time limits for disposal etc.

(b) The existing Departmental Manuals and Codes should be thoroughly reviewed and simplified with a responsibility on the Head of the Department to periodically update such documents and make available soft-copies on-line and hard copies for sale. These manuals must be written in very precise terms, and phrases like 'left to the discretion of, 'as far as possible', 'suitable decision may be taken' etcshould be avoided. This should be followed for all rules and regulations governing issue of permissions, licenses etc.

(c) A system of rewards and incentives for simplification and streamlining of procedures may be introduced in each government organization.

(d) The principle of 'positive silence' should generally be used, though this principle cannot be used in all cases. Wherever permissions/licenses etc are to be issued, there should be a time limit for processing of the same after which permission, if not already given, should be deemed to have been granted.. However, the rules should provide that for each such case the official responsible for the delay must •be proceeded against.

(e) Supervision: Lack of proper supervisicin in several government offices is evident from the low levels of performance,- inadequate discipline, delays in internal processes and consequently citizens' dissatisfaction. This lack of supervision is often due to incompetency at the supervisory levels. Another more important reason is the reluctance on the part of officers to supervise the work of their subordinates in the

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real sense of the term. The supervisory role of all officers needs to be re-emphasised. Also, in the Annual Performance Report of the officer, while rating his/her own performance, the performance of his/her subordinates should be an input...

(f) Monitoring and Evaluation: Monitoring is the process of collecting information • about the performance of an organizational unit with a view to ensure that the activities are carried out as mandated. Evaluation, on the other hand, assesses the impact.of the activities of an organizational unit. Broadly speaking, while monitoring focuses on internal performance, evaluation focuses on the external impact created by the activities of the organization. In other words, while monitoring deals with outputs, evaluation is concerned with outcomes. It has been observed that most of the monitoring tools. like periodic reporting by subordinates, formats for inspections etc are mainly based on process parameters. The extent to which citizens are satisfied is seldom captured by these tools.

CONCLUSION

It is good news that government work culture is improving. The reasons for this are the growing competition between private and government or different states; practice of preparing RFD; enlightened citizenary: emergence of new accountability forces like NG0s. RTI etc. However, Indian work culture is still marred by rigidity, laziness, lack of transparency etc. Hence, there are further needs of improving work culture if the country has to see progress in quick time.

CHAPTER -14

QUALITY OF SERVICE DELIVERY

• How Governments Deliver Services

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• Service Delivery Reform - Vision And Objectives • Developments At Centre • Case Study: Right To Service In Madhya Pradesh • Lessons Learned • A 10 Point Plan For Service Delivery Reform • Conclusion.

HOW GOVERNMENTS DELIVER SERVICES

Governments use a mix of methods to deliver services to the community. It includes:

- delivering or providing the services directly (a 'delivery/provider' role)

- funding external providers through grants or the purchase of services (a `purchaser' role)

- subsidising users (through vouchers or cash payments) to purchase services Jrom external providers

- imposing community service obligations on public and private providers

- providing incentives to users and/or providers, such as reducing tax obligations in particular circumstances (known as 'tax expenditures').

SERVICE DELIVERY REFORM - VISION AND OBJECTIVES

Service Delivery Reform will:

- make it easier for people to do business with government in a time and manner that suits theircircumstances;

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- give people better quality services and more intensive help and support at times in their lives when they need it; and

- give people better service from government that ensures they receive the benefits and support they are entitled to in ways that are effective for them.

Three objectives support this vision:

- to drive service delivery that is easy, high quality and works for all peoples- to make people's dealings with government easier through better delivery and coordination of services;

- to achieve more effective service delivery outcomes for government -to contribute to government policy objectives by developing an agile service delivery system; and

- to improve the efficiency of service delivery — to drive benefits by integrating and automating service delivery and creating a flexible and agile system.

DEVELOPMENTS AT CENTRE

It has been recognised in the world that good governance is essential forsustainable development, both economic and social. The three essential aspects emphasised in good governance are transparency, accountability and responsiveness of the administration.

Public service delivery looks poised on a groundbreaking cusp. In 1991. the UK government first articulated and implemented a Citizen's Charter to provide quality services within specified time frames to its citizens. Or 24 May, 1997, a conference was held by chief ministers from various states of India and chaired by the country's Prime Minister, during which an "Action Plan for Effective and Responsive Government" was adopted at the Centre and State levels.

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At a meeting chaired by the PM in first week of March 2013, the Union cabinet approved The Right of Citizens for Time-Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011_ Yes, the title is a bit of a mouthful. But the occasion is suitably momentous. This legislation might just remind India's ramshackle, unresponsive bureaucracy that to be accountable doesn't just mean to be accountable to administrative or political superiors. The core accountability of a democratic state is, by definition, to its citizens.

- The proposed law will require every public authority to publish a citizen's charter specifying its obligations, including information about goods and services to be provided, the individual responsible for the same, and the time limits for delivery.Every public authority will also designate a grievance redressal officer and anaggrieved citizen can expect this officer to provide a remedy within 30 days.

- The babus found guilty of causing the grievance will have to cough up a penalty of Rs 250 a day, subject to a maximum of Rs 50,000. If this is implemented properly then from the garbage piling up or the street lights going dim in one's neighbourhood, to delays in passport verification, property registration and pension delivery, our plaints will get a time-bound hearing.

The Centre has the power to promulgate it under the concurrent list, as long asthe states have independence in implementation. Still, it will have to be properly integrated into existing grievance redressal mechanisms - which exist in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act as much as in the Madhya Pradesh t-u'olic Services Guarantee Act and the Bihar Right to Public Services Act - and ones like Lokpal and Lokayukta laws.

CASE STUDY: RIGHT TO SERVICE IN MADHYA PRADESH

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In response to the inability of citizen's charters to fully succeed in enabling efficient and effective public service delivery, the Government of Madhya Pradesh designed the Right to Service. At present this scheme includes 52 services for which there are legal consequences if they are not delivered within a stipulated timeframe to citizens who demand them. Penalties and compensation for service delays have been outlined clearly within the scheme.

The State Government has described the Bill as historic and a reflection of the state's commitment to achieving good governance. Under the Bill, key public services like issuing caste, birth, marriage and domicile certificates, drinking water connections, ration cards, copies of land records will be notified. A time period will be fixed for the delivery of each service. If officials fail to perform their, duties and provide these services on time, they will have to pay a fine starting from Rs. 250 per day to a maximum of Rs. 5000. This will check delays in the provisioning of services and remove inordinate pendency.

The Bill provides for a two stage appeals process: In the event that citizens do not receive notified services in time, they can make an appeal to the first appellate authority. If the first appellate authority is negligent or if citizens are dissatisfied with the ruling, they can file an appeal with the second appellate authority, which can direct thesubordinate authorities to deliver services. The second appellate authority also has the power to impose fines and order disciplinary action against officials. The new legislation also stipulates the number of days a particular file related to the delivery of a service can be kept with the officer concerned. The fine received from delinquent officers will go to the applicants to compensate them for the inconvenience caused to them. It is envisaged that the offices of the Chief Minister and other Ministers will also be brought under the purview of the law in the future.

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The path-breaking law seeks to operationalise the system of Citizen Charters that have been in place for some time but have been quite ineffective. While previous governments in Madhya Pradesh have implemented the citizen charter arrangement,their efforts have largely .been ineffective. This can be attributed to the parochial set-up of the bureaucracy, the absence of a consultative process in the formulation of theCitizens Charter and the lack of training and capacity building of officers and service seekers about the Charter and its potential. The new law provides an effective instrument for realizing the concept of citizen's charter while ensuring services to people in an assured manner. It will also prove an effective check on corruption.

The aim of the programme is to create a government mechanism by which the response to citizen's questions and concerns is given in a timely and effective manner.

LESSONS LEARNED

Madhya Pradesh Public Services Guarantee Act 2010 is the first ever law in the country which guara6tees delivery of public services to common people in a stipulated time frame. This legislation- will further improve citizen charter arrangement. It is well-considered and solely aims at guaranteeing effective delivery of public services to the people in a stipulated time limit. The bill is a beginning and provision would be made whenever needed. It has become imperative to ascertain accountability of the public servants. There are many public servants working with commitment but those not performing their assigned duties in fixed time limit should face action.

The law intends to fix accountability and will provide legal teeth to the citizen charter system. The common people will be benefited immensely. Transparency and accountability are the integral part of democracy. The delay in timely delivery of

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services leads to corruption and this legislation would also check corruption.

• Operationalising Citizen Charter: The main objective of Citizen's Charter is to improve the quality of public services. This is.to inform citizens about the mandate of the concerned Ministry/ Department/ Organisation, how one can get in touch with its officials, whit to expect by way of services and how to seek a remedy if something goes wrong. The Citizen's Chrter does not by itself create new legal rights, but it surely helps in enforcing existing rights. The concept of Citizens' Charter enshrines the trust between the service provider and its users. It is to empower the citizen in relation to public service delivery.

• Indicates Government's Firm Commitment To Deliver Public Services OnTime: With the enactment of the public services bill, the government of MP has'set a standard process of providing services to citizens. The 3 stages- sending of epplication to designated officers, if no response then leading to first appeal and then finally second appeal. A delayed/ no response will lead to fine. This enforces government's dedication to deliver public services on time. • Citizens' Trust on the Government: When citizens' get a positive response from the government officials, they start to repose their faith and confidence on the government. The bond between the government and governed is re-enforced. The law is non-discriminatory, an individual regardless of their sex, race and language can benefit from this initiative.

Checks Delays In Providing Services To Citizens And Corruption In Government Functionaries: The corruption in government functionaries right. To information and right to service are legitimate rights of every indiVidual. Inaccessibility to information or service is a drawback on good governance. The right to public service has streamlined governmental activities by checking inefficiencies, preventing delays and lack of coordination

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across various departments. The citizen is directed to submit his/her application and is ensured of getting a response within a stipulated timeframe. This practice aims towards good governance.

A 10 POINT PLAN FOR SERVICE DELIVERY PERFORM

Service Delivery Reform will be achieved by:

1. Progressively Re-Engineering Servicesto better meet people's needs. These universal services will become easier to access and use, reducing the burden onpeople, with more of the work happening 'behind the scenes'. Processes will be simplified, allowing people to undertake more transactions at a time and place of their choosing.

2. Supporting the Government's Social Inclusion And Workforce Participation Agendas. through initiatives to help vulnerable people. Additional community engagement officers and social workers will help people who are facing barriers to social inclusion like homelessness.

3. Implementing A Customer Needs Assessment Framework to identify people who need more intensive support by drawing on exist.ng information about a person's circumstances and asking questions to identify the services they need.

4. Providing Services and Referrals to People Based on Their Needs AndCircumstances across the following service levels:

(a) 'SelfManaged' — people who can independently access and navigate services without support or assistance;

(b) 'Assisted'— people who, at certain times, are unable to self-manage as a result of a particular circumstance and require additional assistance to access or interpret services;

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(c) 'Managed' — people who require services to be coordinated into a support plan to meet compliance obligations or other obligations such as parole conditions or child protection issues; and

(d) 'Intensive' — people facing significant disadvantage or multiple complex challenges who require coordinated assistance.

5. Implementing a Customer Relationship Management System to give staff abroader view of a person and their dealings with the department and to provide a consistent view of a person's information to help identify the services they. need, with the appropriate privacy protections in place.

6. Transforming The Way People Interact with the portfolio to provide betteraccess to services regardless of location and circumstances through:

(a) improved mobile and outreach services to people in rural and regional areas, and to others who are isolated;

(b) Co-locating offices to provide one-stop-shop access to departmental services and extend the reach of the department; and

(c) A s ingle te lephone number and website to improve access to the department's information and services through a single point of contact_

7. Implementing Streamlined Customer Registration And Proof Of Identity Arrangements that improve convenience for people while protecting :heirpersonal information so they only need to prove who they are or tell their story once when accessing services, with their consent or where legislation already permits.

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8. Integra t ing the Human Services Agencies Into A Single DepartmentOfState to better enable the departments to contribute to policy development and bring together key corporate and enabling services to drive efficiency, freeing up resources for frontline services.

9. Bringing Together the Department's Frontline Service Delivery Networks into A Single Customer Facing Network to provide coordinated support to people. Staff will receive more training and will be able to deliver tailored services at the local level. Services will be delivered through a combination of shop fronts and specialist service centres (telephony and processing).

10. The Implementation of A Work Management System to optimize the waywork is allocated to staff based on capacity ans." skills.

CONCLUSION

The government has realised the requirements of the common man and is striving to convey the benefit of welfare schemes to the last man in the last row of the society. The Right to Public Service Delivery Bill will be a step towards understanding people's sentiments and a medium through which • people are connected with their concerns. The government should be committed to bring in such law for ensuring good governance.

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CHAPTER – 15

UTILIZATION OF PUBLIC FUNDS

INTRODUCTION

Public Finance Management (PFM) basically deals with all aspects of resource mobilization and expenditure management in government. Just as managing finances is a critical function of management in any organization, similarly public finance management is an essential part of the governance process. Public finance management includes resource mobilization, prioritization of programmes, the budgetary process, efficient management of resources and exercising controls. Rising aspirations, of people are placing more demands on financial resources. At the same time, the emphasis of the citizenry is on value for money, thus making public finance management increasingly vital.

THE NOTION SO FAR.

For a long time, financial management in developing countries was viewed as a process that enabled central agencies like the Ministry/Department of Finance to keep "spending agencies under control through continuous review and specification of inputs and verification of documents, submitted for payment. As an extension of this approach, financial management was viewed as being restricted to budget implementation, administration of payment systems, accounting and reporting in the states of fundsreceived and spent. This approach with a long lineage continues to be prevalent evennow, through a declining scale".

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• Reforms in financial management have concentrated on taxation reforms, the use ofgovernment budget as a vehicle for economic development, through improved budget classification system, accounting system reforms etc. cost-benefit analysis techniques were also applied.' • From the 1970s, the need for containment of fiscal deficits through tightened fiscalmanagement, pre-occupied the economists_ in the 1980s, the management approach came to be prevalent which included a corporate. type of financial management within an overall framework of accountability. .; • The overall assessment is that the system of financial management in developingcountries has generally been slow in adapting itself to chan.ging requirements. Basically, there has been a segmented approach to reforms.

WEAKNESSES IN THE BUDGETARY PROCESS

The World Bank after analyzing the budgetary processes of several countries came to the conclusion that gov6rnment budgets, especially in the case of India, generally have the following shortcomings:

Weaknesses that undermine public sector performance include:

(i) Poor planning;

(ii) No links between policy making, planning and budgeting;

(iii) P o o r e xp en d i tu r e c on t ro l ;

( i v ) I nadequate funding of operations and maintenance;

(v) Little relationship between budget as formulated and budget as executed;

(v i ) Inadequate account ing sys tems;

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(Vii) Unreliability in the flow of budgeted funds to agencies and to lower levels of government;

(viii) Poor management of ex ternal a id ;

(ix) Poor cash management ; •

(x) Inadequate reporting of financial performance; and

(xi) Poo r ly mo t iva t ed s t a f f

Many of the weaknesses in budgeting reflect the failure to address linkage; between the various functions of budgeting. The following factors contribute to budget systems and processes that create a disabling environment for performance in the public sector, both by commission and by omission:

- Almost exclusive focus on inputs, with performance judged largely in terms of spending-no more, or less, than appropriated in the budget; - Input focus takes a short-term approach to budget decision making; failure to adequately take account of longer-term costs (potential and real), and biases in the choice of policy instruments (e.g., between capital and current spending and between spending, doing, and regulation) because of the short-term horizon; - A bottom-up approach to budgeting that means that even if the ultimate stance of iscal policy was appropriate (and increasingly after 1973 it was not) game playing by enough to generate managerial flexibility as various central management rules inhibit this flexibility.

It is in the area of human resource management where most of the central ri-ia'clagement rules exist. The cost of staff is generally the largest component of operating expenditures, and it makes little difference to consolidation budget lines if central rules in this area prevent any flexibility.

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All countries are increasing flexibility in this area, although to significantly varying degrees.

AN INCREASED FOCUS ON RESULTS IN CASE OF INDIA

An increased focus on results is a direct quid pro quo for relaxing input controls as described above. Accountability in the public sector has traditionally been based on compliance with rules and procedures. It didn't matter what you did as long as you observed the rules. Now, when the public sector is deregulated, a new results-based system is needed to hold managers accountable. This is a fundamental change: holdingagers accountable for what they do, not how they do it. Effectively implementing this is, however, very difficult in practice. The difficulties can be divided into several groups of issues.

- At the most basic level, some government activities simply lend themselves to results measurement much more readily than others. For example, an agency that produces a single or a few homogenous products or services can be rather easily measured. An agency that issues passports is a good example, On the other hand, agencies that produce heterogeneous and individualized services can be very difficult to measure. The majority of government services fall into the latter category. Various social services are the outstanding example

- We are also faced with the choice of defining results either in terms of outputs or outcomes. Outputs are the goods and services that government agencies produce. Outcomes are the impact- on, or the consequences for, the community of the outputs that are produced.

- An example highlights this. A government may wish to reduce the number of fatalities on highways caused by drunk drivers. This would be the outcome. In order to achieve this, it may

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launch a series of advertisements in the media highlighting the dangers of drunken driving.

- It's easy to measure the' output, i.e. that the prescribed number of advertisements were in fact shown in the media›.Lefs, however, assume that at the same time the number of fatalities went up, not down. The link between the advertisements and this outcome is very.unclear, since many other factors than the advertisements would impact on the outcome. But what lessons do we draw from this. Do we abandon the advertisement campaign? Do we expand it? Do we try other outputs? Do we wait to see if this is a one off or a sustained trend?

From an accountability point of view, the question arises whether you hold managers responsible for outputs or outcomes. Outputs are easier to work with in this context; but outcomes are what • matters in the final analysis. Do we want an accountability regime based on outputs even though the outputs may not be contributing to the desired outcome? Or do we have an accountability regime based on outcomes, even though a number of factors outside the control of the director-general of the agency may have contributed to it? Of course, a combination of the two is. the optimum choice, but experience in Member countries shows that one will always dominate. It is a well known phenomenon in management that "what gets measured, gets managed."

As noted above, some activities lend themselves to measurement more readily than others. This also applies within agencies in that certain of theiractivities are more easily measured than others. If the agency's measurement systems are biased in favourof those activities that are more easily measured, there's every likelihood that management will focus its attention disproportionately on those activities since theiraccountability is based on that. This may lead to all sorts of unforeseen and undesirec, consequences. This creates a huge

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onus on those designing the agency's measuremen, system to ensure that it captures all aspects of their activities.

BUDGET TRANSPARENCY

Increased transparency in budgeting made significant advances in the late 1980s and early 1990s. This was a period associated with unfavourable budget conditions in most Member- countries; high annual deficits and increasing levels of outstanding debt. Governments needed to institute large fiscal consolidation programmes. These were often painful and getting the public's understanding of the problems was necessary. The most effective manner for achieving that was simply to throw open the books and say to the public: "Look, things are really as bad as we told you, we're not hiding anything?" This may sound a bit sinister at first, but in actuality it is government at its best: Being horlestwith citizens, explaining the problem to them in order for an understanding to emerge as to the best course of action to take. This time period also coincided with inc.fesedattention being paid to good governance in general. The budget is the principal pOlicy document of government, where the government's policy objectives are reconciled and implemented in concrete terms. Budget transparency — openness about. Policy intentions, formulation and implementation — is therefore at the core of good governance agenda.

ELEMENTS OF BUDGET TRANSPARENCY

If we take a look at fiscal transparency in concrete terms, we can say that it has three essential elements

• The first is the release of budget data. The systematic and timely release of allrelevant fiscal information is what we typically associate with budget transparency. It is an absolute pre-requisite, but it is not enough.

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• The second element is an effective role for the legislature. it must be able to scrutinise the budget reports and independently review them. It must be able to debate and influence budget policy and be in a position to effectively hold the government to account. This is both in terms of the constitutional role of the legislature and the level of resources that the legislature has at its disposal. • The third element is an effective role for civil society, through the media and nongovernmental organisations. Citizens, directly or through these vehicles, mustbe in a position to influence budget policy and must be in a position to hold the government to account. In many ways, it is a similar role to that of the legislature albeit only indirectly.

These three elements work together. The scrutiny of fiscal information by the legislature and by civil society can only take place if the information is released in the first place. • Similarly, released budget information is only of value if it is effectively scrutinised by the legislature and by civil society. The legislature and civil society have a very similar function, one is responsible for shaping budget policy and for hoidinggovernment directly to account.while the other performs this role indirectly.

WHAT REFORMS ENTAILS

A review of the literatOre on public finance management shows that initially the term 'public finance management' was defined quite narrowly and was confined to budgeting accounting, monitoring and evaluation. But, it is now widely accepted that it includes • taxation and other resource mobilization, debt and cash management, budgetary process, accounting systems, information systems and internal and external audit. Thus, reforming the public finance system would entail several measures:

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(i) Aimproving the collection of revenue is critical. No country can be run properly without revenue. Moreover, tax can help to establish a government's authority.Tax policy itself is increasingly limited by external forces: in a glcbalised world,governments' choices are less about the tax rate than about the efficiency with which tax is collected and the reach of the tax net. Thus, the revenue services must be properly resourced and motivated to collect tax more efficiently.

(ii) Debt and cash must be managed efficiently. In particular, sound principles for deficit funding should be established, efficiencies sought and proper risk management procedures introduced. Proper management of the government's borrowing program will reduce the cost of funding.

(iii) Effective planning and a) location of resources is key and government should develop and institutionalise planning processes of all levels of government. The budgeting process must be transparent and inclusive. There should be focus on outputs rather than on mere expenditure and related inputs, with strong accounting and reporting procedures. The office of the accountant-general must be properly rescurced and funded to fulfill this function.

(iv) Effective oversight and monitoring are crucial to sound governance and PFMreform. A well functioning PFM system must have clear rules on transparency and reporting, as well as enforceable sanctions for failure. Oversight should be established by internal mechanisms in the national treasury as well as external oversight by bodies like independent parliamentary committees, a public ombudsman, a free media and civil society, and an independent auditor-general

CORE PRINCIPLES OF REFORMS

(i) Reforms in Financial Management System are part of overall governance reforms: Governance reforms to bring

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about improved transparency, greater accountability, streamlining the structure of the Government, elimination of corruption, and fiscal and environment susl'ainability have to be backed by reforms in the financial management system in order to deliver the desired results. At the same time, it needs to be understood that reforms in the management system are not an end in itself but a means to achieving food governance.

(ii) Sound financial management is the responsibility of all government departments/ agencies: Maintaining financial prudence, discipline and accountability, while at the same time, ensuring prompt and efficient utilization ofresources towards achieving organizational goals is the responsibility of all government agencies/ organizations and not only of the Finance wing/Finance - Ministry.

(iii) Medium-term plan/budget frameworks and aligning plan budgets and accounts: Medium-term plan/budgei frameworks attempt to bridge the gap between the short-term time horizon of annual budgets with the medium-term objectives of the schemes and progrbmmesof government. Even when there are medium term frameworks like five-year development plans, there is need for aligning the annual budgets explicitly with the plans and with the accounting mechanisms so that there is a clear 'line of sight' between the medium term developmental plan and the annual budget exercise.

(iv) Prudent economic assumptions: The economic assumptions that underline the budget have to be prudent and accurate in order to ensure hat the budgetary estimates do not go haywire. The tendency to be overly optimistic has to be avoided.

(v) Top-down budgeting techniques: There is need to shift from the traditionlbottom up approach to budgeting to a top-

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down framework where the desi-e: outcomes should point to the resources required which should be allocate: thereafter at the macro level sector-wise. This in -turn would lead to focus or outputs and outcomes rather than on inputs.and processes.

(vi) Transparency and simplicity: The budget documents should be simple and easy to comprehend and be available in the public domain. Also the procedures involved in operating the budget and release of funds should be simple. Suitable financial management information systems need to be developed in order to ensure that all transactions are captured and ultimately made available for public scrutiny.

(vii) Relaxing central input controls: Government agencies need to he given greater operational autonomy and flexibility by consolidating budget items and decentralization of administrative and financial powers.

(viii) Focus on results: Accountability in government needs to shift from compliance with rules and procedures to achievement of results_ This is all the more necessary with relaxed central input controls. There should be emphasis on `value for money'.

( ix) Adopting modern f inancia l management pract ices: Modern f inancia l management tools like accrual accounting, information technology, financial information systems etc. need to be used to improve decision making and accountability. However, care needs to be exercised to ensure that a congenial environment is created and adequate capacity is developed before adopting new practices.

(x) Budgeting to be realistic: Unless the projections made in the budget are reasonably accurate, the budgetary exercise loses credibility.

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CHAPTER 16 CHALLENGES OF

CORRUPTION

INTRODUCTON

Corruption is an abuse of public resources or position in public life for private gain. The scope for corruption increases when control on the public adrninistrators is fragile and the division of power between political, executive and bureaucracy is ambiguous. Political corruption which is sometimes inseparable from bureaucratic corruption tends to be more widespread in authoritarian regimes where the public opinion and the Press are unable to denounce corruption.

MENACE OF CORRUPTION IN PUBLIC LIFE

The increase of opportunities in State intervention in economic and social life has vastly increased the opportunity for political and bureaucratic corruption, more particularly since politics has also become professionalized. We have professional politicians who are politicians on .a full time basis, even when out of office. Corruption today poses a danger not only to the quality of governance but is threatening the very foundations of our society and the State_

Corruption in defence purchases, in other purchases and contracts tend to undermine the very security of the State. Some of the power contracts are casting such financial burden

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upon some of the States that the very financial viability of those States has fallen into doubt. There seems to be a nexus between terrorism, drugs, smuggling, and politicians, a fact which was emphasized in the VoraCommittee Report.

Corruption is also anti-poor. Take, for example, the Public Distribution System (PDS) and the welfare schemes for the poor including Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs). It is well-known that a substantial portion of grain, sugar and kerosene oil meant for PDS goes into black-market and that hardly 16% of the funds meant for STs and SCs reach them — all the rest is misappropriated by some of the members of the political and official class and unscrupulous dealers and businessmen. The famous economist, Late Mehbub-Ul-Haq succinctly and poignantly set out the ill-effects of corruption in a South Asian country like ours.

He said: "Corruption happens everywhere. it has been at the centre of election campaigns in Italy and the United Kingdom, led to the fall of governments in Japan and Indonesia, and resulted in legislative action in Russia and the United States. But, if corruption exists in rich, economically successful countries, why should South Asia be worried about it? The answer is simple: South Asian corruption has four key characteristics that make it far more damaging than corruption in any other parts of the world..

First, corruption in South Asia occurs up-stream, not down-stream. Corruption at the top distorts fundamental decisions about development priorities, policies, and projects. In industrial countries, these core decisions are taken through transparent competition and on merit, even though petty corruption may occur down-stream.

Second, corruption money in South Asia has wings, not wheels. Most of the corrupt gains made in the region are immediately smuggled out to safe havens abroad. Whereas

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there is some capital flight in other countries as well, a greater proportion goes into investment. In other words, it is more likely that corruption money in the North Asia is used to finance business than to fill.foreign accounts.

Third, corruption in South Asia often leads to promotion, not prison. The big fish —unless they belong to the opposition — rarely fry. In contrast, industrialised countries often have a process of accountability where even top leaders are investigated andprosecuted. For instance, former Italian Prime Minister Bettino Craxi was forced to live in exile in Tunisia to escape extradition on corruption charges in Rome. The most frustrating aspect of corruption in South Asia is that the corrupt are often too powerful to go through such an honest process of accountability.

Fourth, corruption in South Asia occurs with 515 million people in poverty, not with per capita incomes above twenty thousand dollars. While corruption in rich rapidly growing countries may be tolerable, though reprehensible, in poverty stricken South Asia, it is political dynamite when the majority of the population cannot, but to massive human deprivation and even more extreme income' meet their basic needs while a few make fortunes through corruption. Thus corruption in South Asia does not lead to simply Cabinet portfolio shifts or newspaper headlines inequalities. Combating corruption in the region is not just about punishing corrupt politicians and bureaucrats but about saving human lives. There are two dimensions of corruption. One is the exploitative corruption where the public servant exploits the helpless poor citizen. The other is collusive corruption where the citizen corrupts the public servant by a bribe because he gets financially better benefits. Collusive corruption depends on black money."

Corruption has flourished because one does not see adequately successful examples of effectively prosecuted cases of corruption. Cases, poorly founded upon, half-hearted

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and incomplete investigation, followed by a tardy and delayed trial confluence a morally ill-deserved but a legally inevitable acquittal. The acceptance of corruption as an inexorable reality has led to silent reconciliation and resignation to such wrongs. There needs to be a vital stimulation in the social consciousness of our citizens — that it neither has a. place in the personal nor social sphere. It is true that the present process of withdrawing the State from various sectors in which it should have never entered or in which it is not capable of performing efficiently may reduce the chances of corruption to some extent but even if we migrate to a free market economy, there has to 'be regulation of economy as distinct from restrictions upon the industrial activity. The requirements of governance would yet call for entering into contracts, purchases and so on.

INDIA AS A 'SOFT SOCIETY'

The Scandinavian economist-sociologist, Gunnar Myrdal, had described the Indian society as a 'soft society'. He also clarified what the expression 'soft society' means. According to him, a soft society is:

(a) one which does not have the political will to enact the laws necessary for its progress and development or does not possess the political will to implement the laws, even when made, and

(b) Where there is no discipline. In fact, he has stressed the second aspect more than the first.

According to him, if there is no discipline in the society, no real or meaningful development or progress is possible. It is the lack of discipline in the society - which expression includes the administration and structures of governance at all levels - that is contributing to corruption. Corruption and indiscipline feed upon each other. One way of instilling the discipline among the society may be to reduce the chances of corruption and to deal with it sternly and mercilessly wherever it is found. For this

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purpose, the inadequacies in the criminal judicial system have to be redressed.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF CORRUPTION

The primary classifications of corruption include bribery, nepotiam, embezzlement, fraud, clientelism, and rent-seeking. All of these shady behaviours can occur among people in government positions, positions of leadership in the private sector, and among ordinary citizens.

Bribery is the form of corruption that receives the greatest share of reference. It is the essence of corruption. Bribery is an offer of money or favours to influence a public official and can come in the formof a fixed sum, a certain percentage of a contract, or any other favour in money in kind, usually paid to a state official or`bbusiness person who can make contracts on behalf of the state or business or otherwise distribute benefits to companies or individuals, businessmen and clients. Sometimes the concept of bribery can be hidden under the guise of other terms such as kickbacks, gratuities, sweeteners, commercial arrangements, hush money, pay-offs, and milking. In all cases, these words explain payments that serve to make things pass more swiftly, smoothly and more favourably between two parties who are, in the case of this module, the government and an outside party.

Nepotism is another common form of corruption that occurs when officials favourrelatives or close friends for positions in which they hold some decision-making authority. This type of favouritism is the natural human proclivity to givepreferential treatment to friends and families, and occurs in both the public and private sectors. For example, imagine that student A is the headmaster's nephew and his teachers. report low marks for his classes. If the headmaster changes the low marks to high marks, he has fallen victim to the temptations of nepotism. Or conceptualize an elected official who comes to

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office and fills the posts in the executive branch with his under-qualified friends and family rather than qualified people who apply for the posts. The official is also guilty of nepotism. In the case of the young student, he will likely not learn well the content of the lesson put to him by his teacher, will lose a level of academic self-esteem, and learns that you need not work hard to get ahead, but to have connections to people of power. In the case of the political positions granted to under-qualified friends, the fate of the nation is hampered since unqualified people will be guiding policy and national decision-making process.

Clientelism is at the heart of how corruption is spread through the government. It is characterized by "patron-client" relationships in which relatiVely powerful and rich "patrons", in the case of parliamentarians, political candidates, promise to provide relatively powerless and poor "clients" with benefits, such as jobs, protection or infrastructure, in exchange for votes. These relations are corrupt because they exploit the poor or disenfranchised to become indebted to the elected, for work that is a part of his job responsibilities. Thus, the democratic principles that define the political process are reduced. The problem is further exaggerated when clients are not only fed promises, but coerced and intimidated so that control is maintained.

Embezziement occurs when public officials steal money or other government property, or when disloyal employees steal from their employers in the public and private sectors. When embezzlement occurs in the public sector it affects the innocent citizens because public officials misappropriate resources meant for public services. Embezzlement is not limited to money, but includes all goods that were meant for the people. Sometimes parliamentarians and parliamentary staff, among other public figures, will participate in embezzlement in subtle or accidental ways. When, for

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example, they forge receipts, or use government property or personnel for personal, unofficial use.

Embezzlement is a form of corruption and power abuse that can develop in more confined environments, secretly without the public's knowledge, or opportunities for public sanctions. Embezzlement presents a threat to corrupt countries, as it is sometimes one of the quickest ways to gain wealth. For example, some power holders use their political office to build their private busiriess interest. In some countries businesses and property are nationalized and given government officials or their families. The trend may be further expanded when a government aims to expand its privatization efforts and sells former state enterprises aril/ parastatals under cost to friends and family members of parliamentarians, ministers or presidents.

Fraud occurs when a person cheats another through deceit. It is usually a financial crime in which someone manipulates or dislorfs information and facts. For example, false advertising; identity theft, illegal trade networks, counterfeiting and racketeering, forgery, smuggling, confidence tricks and other actions of deceit are examples of fraud. In the public domain, a public official who commits fraud manipulates the flow of information for his personal profit.

In cases of extreme fraud, government employees facilitate economic crimes by “official” sanction. Even when they are not actually involved in fraudulent activities, government official who ignore the fraud are set to be passively participating in the fraud that is committed by others..

Extortiohis another example of corrupt behaviour in which one person coerces another to pay through money, goods, or favours for an action. In government, extortion occurs when government agencies do hot provide services quickly, and as a result individuals will offer money to make the application or

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service be delivered more quickly. As a result, those who pay receive preferential treatment, making the service not really public.

Rent seeking is cutting you a bigger slice of the cake rather than making the cake bigger, or trying to make more money without improved productivity. Technically speaking, that is just a part of the definition as it can manifest itself in many different ways. It is the process by which an individual, organization, or firm seeks to profit by manipulating the economic environment, rather than improving and expanding economic activity. Often times rent-seeking behaviour is considered corrupt because it implies that money, or potential earnings, ae reallocated in a manner that is not beneficial to or approved by all stakeholders

THE COSTS OF CORRUPTION

Corruption is damaging for the simple reason that important decisions are determined by ulterior motives with no concern for the consequences to the wider community, and its costs reach just about every sector of a government and society where corruption occurs_ Even if you do not come into direct contact with corruption, it affects you_ From increasing poverty to changing social norms, to environmental degradation, to impacting the economy, corruption proves a very dangerous vice that raises the costs of goods and services and increases the debt of a country.

High levels of corruption can threaten economic stability, slow down growth, weaken institutional capacity, and reduce resources available for social programs. But where institutional capacity is weak, governments cannot effectively implement their poverty- eradication policiJS and programs.

For example, if the government is unable to make accurate budget forecasts, it is hard to see how appropriate spending decisions

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can be made. However, corruption undermines public institutions and distracts officials from their duties.

Corruption & Poverty

Corruption's impact on a nation's economy and developmental growth is great. It reduces the overall wealth in a country, often discouraging .businesses from operating in the instability that defines it.

• The average income is about three times lower than in less corrupt countries.

• Reduces the amount of money the government has to pay good workers and purchase supplies for government operations.

• 'Distorts the way the government uses its money;

As a result, schools, health clinics, roads, sewer systems, police forces, and many other services that governments provide are worse than they would otherwise be as the government doesn't have trust, economy or the workforce to ensure that supply meets demand. Citizens are therefore less healthy, less- educated, unsafe, and unable to grow their economy. In addition, corruption allows money or connections to determine whether rules or laws are enforced. For example, they can pay off judges through bribery to divert resources to their land, or pay off police to prevent personal conviction. For these reasons, corruption harms the environment and undermines trust in government.

Corruption is also arlenormous contributor to poverty in a nation or community. Politically, corruption creates an .environment for unsound economic policies, unpredictable processes, distorted public expenditures. In business corruption will often result in unnecessary payments- and the misallocation of talent. Administrative barriers and weak property rights will also hit the poor harder. Healthcare and education are also unequally distributed due to low government revenues, poor service

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delivery, and less money for bribes, causing the poor to also be denied those basic human rights due to corruption. Finally, in a corrupt environment the elite have power over judicial decisions, with decisions often made to the detriment of the poor.

WHAT CAUSES CORRUPTION

The specific resions which create and foster corruption can be thus listed

1. Desire for an Unfair Adv-antage 2. Lack of Punitive Measufes 3 . Lack of Transparency 4 . Poor Incent ive St ructu res 5. Problems with the law: Lawless and Over Regulated Governments 6. Dysfunctional Systems as a Cause for Corruption

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CORRUPTION & DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE

The relation between corruption and development assistance is somewhat paradoxical. Usually today, when development aid is granted to a needy country, it is monitored quite-closely to avoid corruption. A threat fob corruption occurs because development assistance provides new resources to plunder. But the problem can be more complex because when money goes in for one purpose, say improving civic education, it frees up the previously earmarked funds for another, potentially corrupt use. In. addition, corruption can appear at all stages of aid from the design and bidding stages to the implementation and auditing stages. Therefore, without the pillars of good governance in place, aid effectiveness declines.

— Development assistance and aid is also worth noting because with increasing _frequency, development aid

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organizations will not give funding to a country unless there is a clearly stated anticorruption platform. — Since corruption encourages .and rewards selfishness and denigrates collective action, it can be disempowering to the people and encourage their sense of alienation by undermining respect for authority and increasing cynicism about leaders at all levels of society. Corruption also impacts social and cultural norms as it discourages participation in civil society. Finally, corruption's tendency to divert resources from the poor also impacts social norms, for example, by reducing the quality of education, literacy levels and civic empowerment. As a result of corruption, researchers believe that the poor will be marginalized and social exclusion will increase.

A brief note on the above has been laid down below-

(1) Desire for an Unfair Advantage

Many officials are motivated to participate in corrupt behaviour because of the inherently selfish desire to have an unfair advantage over their peers. Through bribery, extortion, embezzlement, nepotism and other means, corruption can help dishonest people- get ahead while the public pays the price. A corrupted politician may seek to sway a person's opinions, actions, or decisions, reduce fees collected, speed up government grants, or change outcomes of legal processes.

- Through corruption, people seeking an unfair advantage may pay courts to vote in their favour or, as with police, customs units, and tax collectors, to disregard a penalty. Bribery may be paid to allow for otherwise unacceptable building and zoning permits, to sway school exam results or allow acceptanc by an unqualified student into a school system. People in the private sector-mgy pay off politicians so that they dismiss rules and regulations to protect emplOyees in the workforce.

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- Corruption motivated by an unfair advantage may also occur in immigration, passport and visa offices in which unqualified individuals may IA allowed an unfair advantage to obtain these important documents, at the expense of others.

- In order to obtain an unfair advantage, governments and government officials `may apply any number of methods to abuse their power over the citizens.

First, a politician may apply diplomatic, political, or financial pressure, for example trade embargoes. However such pressures may also work to effectively bully vulnerable citizens. Also, many countries are the recipients of development aid, WNch might cause politicians who seek an unfair advantage to earmark this funding towards their particular cause. The threat of reduced foreign aid, defense ties, arm deals, dnd gifts may help politicians to obtain an unfair advantage through corruption.

(2) Lack of Punitive Measures

Thomas Hobbes, the great political philosopher, once said, "A man's conscience and his judgment is the same thing; and as the judgment, so also the conscience, may be erroneous.” This idea what individuals cannot always rely on a woring inner moral compass alone to guide them to virtue is at the heart of the 'next motivating factor for participating in corrupt behaviour.

When the legal agencies do not impose sanctions on parliamentarians and other government officials who have violated their public duties there is a lack of punitive measure for corrupt behaviour. This is the case, for example when judges are in the pay of the ruling party or there are too few police officers to enforce the law. When there are not punitive measures to assure transparency, monitoring, and accountability through a working justice system, some people will participate in corrupt behaviour simply because they can get away with it.

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•

Politicians and other individuals require a legal, monitoring system to assure that -corruption will not occur in the planning and execution of public sector budgets. Social 'and internal control mechanisms are required for civil society and autonomous state auditing agencies. Without them or with only weak enforcement measures, people in power are more likely to embezzle money from the national budget, sway votes or participate in other actions that will result in personal gain at the public's expense.

(3) Lack of Transparency: Transparency describes when there is free access by citizens to public information. When the rules, procedures, and objectives of the government are 'not available to the public, there is not budgetary and administrative oversight to balance the power of government officials, transparency is lacking and corruption can be bred. Without oversight and transparency of budget and rules, national resources may be plundered and power may be abused in favour of the corrupt official only.

Further, when there are not public sector mechanisms that channel social preferences and specific complaints of the population to the agencies involved in those complaints, people of power will not serve their purpose of representing the populace, but have free reign to do as they please in the public sector

Lack of transparency creates opportunities for public officials to abuse theirofficefor private gain. This closely relates to accountability, and weak accountability mechanisms tend to facilitate corruption. Where there is a lack of transparency and accountability corruption will flourish. Once corrupt bureaucrats realize that they can take advantage of regulations, they will produce more regulations and run the risk of becoming less transparent.

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(4) Poor Incentive Structures: Bad incentives, such as clerks not earning a living wage or not having job security might also encourage corrupt beHaviSur such as supplementing income with bribes. Some people who do not have an incentive to perform their official duties, but actually pay for their jobs with the understanding that they will make money through bribes. A lack of incentive also results wherr positions of power are granted as a result offavouritism and nepotism. Making people resist hard work.

Incentives also come into the picture when salaries are so low that people cannot meet the basic living standards for food dnd housing. As a result, people will often take other jobs that cause absenteeism of public officials, and often increase the demand by government officials for bribes and other 'paybacks in order to supply the public services.

In another example, teacher' absenteeism, teachers who are underpaid sometimes feel forced to supplement their income with other work, causing absenteeism. This absenteeism may not result in bribes, but may instead result in a lost public service for the students, thus stalling progresamona that student population.

(5) Problems with the law: Lawless and Over Regulated Governments

Corruption can also be - caused when there is excessive control and a sort of monopoly of power. In these circumstances, there again is not a level playing field, and decisions will always be made at the advantage of the group or person who dominates political control. As a result, ordinary citizen rights are lost and public resources are often plundered for the personal gain of the public officials. Poverty or scarcity of goods may also push people to live outside the law.

Finally, corruption occurs when government officials resist government policies and programs. Introducing policies that allow for greater oversight would help to assure that power

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were balanced and no one person would be making all of the political dec'sions. When politicians resist this change they prevent political and cultural progress for their country, prohibit civic interests from being met, and allow the pattern of corruption to flourish.

(6) Dysfunctional Systems as a Cause for Corruption

Instability in government may also catapult a nation and its leaders towards corruption. Among them, war, ethnic or religious conflict, economic hardship, and social inequalities may instigate corruption. Any circumstance that threatens a nation or its people either through identity or establishment may diminish the good governance practices of a nation. Even in less difficult times, the institutions and policies of government may undermine how well the government carries out its work.

When institutions and policies are weak, individuals tend to take advantage of them. Therefore, poor governments are a product of sick institutions, or institutions that function poorly because of inadequate resources or bad policies and procedures. As stated earlier, good governance refers to the provision of services that are responsive to citizen needs.

When government services are not provided to citizens, either because they were deemed unnecessary, services providers demanded bribes or were lazy, or the services are provided in theory but are not readily available in practice without a bribe, people will aim to have their needs met illegally or unofficially. Likewise, when financial systems are outdated, they are more corruptible.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR FIGHTING CORRUPTION in INDIA

In the pre-independence period, the Indian Penal Code (1PC) was the main tool to combat corruption in public life. The Code had a chapter on 'Offences by Public Servants'. Sections

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161 to 165 provided the legal framework to prosecute corrupt public servants. At that time the need for a special law to deal with corruption was not felt. The Second World War created shortages which gave opportunity to unscrupulous elements to exploit the situation leading to large scale corruption in public life. This situation continued even after the war. The lawmakers concerned about this menace, felt thatdrastic legislative measures need to be taken. Hence the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1947 was enacted to fight the evils of bribery and corruption.

- The Prevention of Corruption Act 1947: This Act did not redefine nor expand the definition of offences related to corruption, already existing in the 1PC. Similarly, it also adopted the same definition of 'Public Servant' as in the IPC3B. However the law defined a new offence - 'Criminal misconduct in discharge of official duty' - for which enhanced punishment (minimum 1 year to maximum 7 years) was stipulated. in order to shift the burden of proof in certain cases to the accused, it was provided that whenever it was proved that a public servant had accepted any gratification, it shall be presumed that the public servant accepted such a gratification as a motive or reward under Section 161 of IPC. In order to prevent harassment to honest officers, if was mandated that no court shall take cognizance of offences punishableunderSettions 161,164 and 165 without the permission of the authority.

- Comptent to remove the charged public servant.

- The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 1952 brought some changes in laws relating to corruption. The punishment specified under Section 165 of 1PC was enhanced to three-years instead of the existing two years. Also a new Section 165A was inserted in the 1PC, which made abetting of offences, defined in Sections 161 and 165 of IPQ, an offence. it was also

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stipulated that all corruption related offences should be tried only by special judges.

- The anti-corruption laws underwent comprehensive amendments in 1964. The ciefinition of 'Public Servant' under the IPC was expanded. The Cr.P.C. was amended to provide in camera trial if either party or the court so desires. The presumption which was available under Section 4 of The Prevention of CorruptionAct, was extended to include offences defined under Sections 5(1) and 5(2). Thedefinition of 'criminal misconduct' was expanded and possession of assets disproportionate to the known sources of income of a public servant, was made an offence.

- Section 5(A) was amended so as to empower the State Governments to authorize officers of the rank of Inspectors of Police to investigate cases under the Act (earlier, this could be done only with the approval of the Magistrate (The SanthanamCommittee recommended this). Police officers, competent to investigate casesunder the Act, were empowered to inspect bankers' records, if they had reasons to suspect commission of an offence under the Act

The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 received Presidential assent cn 9th September, 1988. It consolidates the provisions of the Prevention of Corruption Ac: 1947, the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1952 and some provisions of IPC. Besides. it has certain provisions intended to effectively combat corruption among public servants.

The Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988, lists offences of bribery and other related offences and the penalties from Sections 7 to 15. These . offences broadly cover accptance of illegal gratification as a motive or reward for doing or forbearing to do any official act, or favouring or disfavouring any person; obtaining a valuable thing without consideration or. inadequate consideration; and criminal misconduct involving receiving

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gratification, misappropriation, obtaining any pecuniary advantage to any person without any public interest, or being in possession of pecuniary resources or property disproportionate to his known sources of income. Attempts to commit such offences and abetment are also listed as offences, in keeping with the principles usually applied in criminal law. The accent is thus on consideration, gratification of all kinds and pecuniary advantage.

INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK TO FIGHT CORRUPTION

The Administrative Vigilance Division of the Department of Personnel & Training is the nodal agency for dealing with Vigilance and Anti-corruption. Its tasks,-inter alia, are to oversee and provide necessary directions to the Government's programme of maintenance of discipline and eradication of corruption from the public services.

The other institutions and agencies at the Union level are -

( i ) The Central Vigilance Commission (CVC); ( i i ) Vigilance units in the Ministries/Departments of Government of India, Central public enterprises' and other autonomous organisations; and ( i i i ) The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI).

(i) Central Vigilance Commission: In pursuance of the recommendations madebythe Committee on Prevention of Corruption, popularly known as the Santhanam Committee, the Central Vigilance Commission was set up by the Government ofIndia by a Resolution dated 11.2.1964. It was accorded statutory status, consequent upon the judgement of the Hon'ble Supreme Court in VineetNarainv. Union of India, through the Central Vigilance Commission Act, 2003. The CVC advises the Union Government on all matters pertaining to the maintenance of integrity in administration. It exercises superintendence over the working of the Central Bureau of Investigation, and also over the

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vigilance administration of various Ministries and other organizations of the Union Government.

(ii) Vigilance Units in the Government of India: All Ministries/Departments in the Union Government have a Chief Vigilance Officer (CVO) who heads the Vigilance Division of the organization concerned, assisting and advising the Secretary or Head of Office in all matters pertaining to vigilance. He also provides a link between his organisation and the Central Vigilance Commission on the one hand and his organisation and the Central Bureau of Investigation on the other. Vigilance functions performed by the CVO include collecting intelligence about :orrupt practices of the employees of his organisation; investigating verifiable allegations reported to him; processing investigation reports for further consideration of the disciplinary authority concerned; and referring matters to the Centi-al Vigilance Commission for advice wherever necessary.

(iii)The Central Bureau of Investigation: The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)is the principal investigative agency of the Union Government in anti-corruption matters. It derives its powers from the Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, 1946 (DSPE Act) to investigate certain specified offences or classes of offences pertaining to corruption and other kinds of malpractices involving public servants. The Special Police Establishment, which forms a division .of the Central Bureau of Investigation, has three units, viz.

(1) Anti-corruption Division,

(2) Economic Offences Wing, and

(3) Special Crimes Division.

THE PREVENTION, EDUCATION, AND ENFORCEMENT OF CORRUPTION:

A good strategy to address corruption involves a step by step approach:

• Recognizing and acknowledging the problem;

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• Understanding the problem through diagnostic survays

• Identifying what is needed to address the problem through education and action planning workshops

• Drawing up a strategy that is prioritized into short, medium and long term plans

• Implementing the strategy

• Reviewing outcomes through monitoring

• Identifying new challenges

Under the segment, the brief outline of the following has been laind down which will bring home the point –

1. Prevention

2. Transparency

3. Accountablility

4. Reciprocity

5. Participation

6. Rule of Law

7. Oversight

8. Incentives

9. Elimination of price controles

10. Simplification of procedures.

11. Education: The Backbone to Corruption Prevention.

12. Civic and Anticorruption Education is Important

13. Enforcement

14. Advocacy and Lobbying

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15. Involving Civil Society in Good Governance.

16. The Role of the Media in Corruption Prevention

17. The Role of Parliament in Curbing Corruption.

A brief description of the above has been laid down below

(1) Prevention

Most will agree that evidence fo widespread corruption in adequate cause for addressing its prevention through education. The diagnoses of corruption through data collection and analysis will help in planning and designing a path to address the largest problems in a particular country or community. However, this is not ever enough. Developing a prevention scheme also requires reformers to consider the social and economic context of the nation, determine the level of government commitment to respoinding to and preventing the roblem, determine what resources are available and needed for the prevention process. Reformers should also determine the stakeholders, and who, whether government or nongovernmental entities, should participate in the prevention strategies.

- Still, in order to be effective, the prevention mechanism needs a sense of order. Imagine how ineffective prevention would be if every inspired organization followed its own technique and were motivated by its own priorities; or worse, envision the consequences if no one were adequately motivated to impact change and promises were never realized.

- Rather, corruption prevention willmake the greatest impact when there is a national focal point to coordinate the corruption prevention efforts, and when this body has the political authority to make an impact. One option is to creae a single agency that acts as an anticorruption Agency. Since a single agency usually requires a large budget and and effective staff. However, that may not always be a viable option. The institution assures the cooperation of existing institutions that are directly faced with corruption, each

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assigned to different tasks to end the corruption problem. Whatever method is applied, a prevention mechanism is most effective when there is a clearly stated plan.

Preventing corruption entails eliminating opportunities for its growth, increasing transparency and oversight of government founctions, and improving incentives for good erformance in public office. Eliminating permit reuirements, pricecontrols, tariffs and other controls may also remove opportunities for corruption. Simplifying procedures for granting permits, licenses, bank loans and passports and explaining these procedures in signs, leaflets, and handbooks will raise awareness and reduce factors that motivate individuals to thoughtlessly participate in corrupt behaviour.

- Complicated and concealed procedures often force applicants to resort to payoffs to maximize their chances of getting that which they -are legitimately entitled. it is also important to provide incentives for ethical behaviour by paying a living wage and improving professionalism and morale in public employment. In addition,

- Because of transparency, citizens know what they can expect from their government. Without it, they are unaware of opportunities, regulations or procedures established by the government, and therefore, they cannot use them for their benefit.

- Transparency in governance is crucial because if enables citizens to control their government's actions and builds trust among politicians.

Therefore, it also involves the clarity of roles and responsibilities between and within institutions that are part of government processes. Because transparency is built on the free flow of information, processes, institutions and information are directly accessible to those concerned, and ecouqh information is provided for incentives hould be

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granted for people who report corruption, or whistleblowers since they can be an invaluable source of information about where corruption and inefficiency occur in an organization.

Governance can be good or bad. Good governance indicates a more constructive relationship between the people and the governmbnt is vital in almost every aspect ofout daily lives, and as such, we can improve governance to create a better society by applying some key components/concepts to good governance.

(2) Transparency

Transparency is key to good governance because it indicates openness in government systems. Therefore, because people in positions of leadership have nothing to hinder a commitment to it means that information is available in a timely and accurate fashion and that information provided to the public is useful.

Transparency is crucial, therefore, because it enables citizens to control their government actions, and defines the roles and responsibilities between and within institutions that are part of government processes. Without transparency people in positions of leadership are more prone towards abusing their power and working under or outside of their responsibilities.

( 3 ) A c c o u n t a b i l i t y

Once positions are well defined and government activities and information is made available in the public, parliamentarians must also learn to be accountable in order to prevent corruption. Through accountability public officials and their representatives are held to standards of conduct that are clearly in the public interest. This requires rules of conduct that are transparent, straightforward and broadly accepted in society, as well as administrative and legal processes to discipline or remove officials who do not respect such rules.

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- There are two relationships of accountability: that of government workers to elected officials, and that of the elected officials to the citizens who elect them. In the first type accountability can be difficult to achieve since civil servants, particularly professionals in such fields as health, education, and agriculture often evade control by locally elected officials.

- When accountability occurs between elected officials and the citizenry government officials have to explain or justify what they have done or failed to do to for their people. Only then can we guarantee that leaders will actually act according to their citizens wishes.

Accountability is reporting actions and being held to standards. Because of the power .o• accountability, citizens have not only a say in official decisions, but also have the right to hold their rules to account. It is the obligation of parliamentarians and other power holders to account for or take responsibility for their actions.

(4) Reciprocity

In Philosophy, reciprocity refers to the fundamental moral principle to "treat others as you would like to be treated." In governance, this rule is also considered golden with the word's meaning tweaked to refer to nations, classes, and levels of power among a community's citizens.

- Through the principle of reciprocity, favours, benefits, or penalties that are granted by one institution or individual to another, should be returned. For example, reciprocity has been used in the reduction of tariffs, the grant of copyrights to foreign authors, the mutual recognition and enforcement of judgments, and the relaxation of travel restrictions and visa requirements between nations.

- Cooperating in a system that reflects the principle of reciprocity demonstrates that the government is building a

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standard for behaviour among officials. These standards exert their own pressure for government action, contributing to the development of long-term obligations between institutions, individuals, and levels of power.

This concept is important as a goal for good governance since ultimately, they will not need to seek repercussions to poor behaviour, but can act with confidence knowing that their cooperative actions will be repaid in the long run.

(5) Participation Reciprocity, accountability, and transparency refer largely to the people in positions of power, but for corruption to truly be avoided, the other part of the equation, citizens, must also be considered.

Participation is the process through which citizen's influence and share control over government's priority setting, policymaking, resource allocation, and access to public goods and services. Parliament is in .a position to play a leadership role lei promoting greater participation by opening up its practices and procedures to the public.

For example, parliamentary debates could be televised and records of these debates could be° made publicly available, including through the Internet. Constituency offices as well as elected officials at all levels can also help foster greater participation, Furthermore, committee meetings should be open to the public so that closed meetings are the exception rather than the rule.

(6) Rule of law Effective government should also be able to contribute toward improving the ;uality of governance in a country by ensuring that the rule of law is administered fairly, and in general, the government conducts sound policies that improve the lives of

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its people. The rule of law implies equality before the law and equal protection of the law in good governance systems, violations of the law should result in punishment no matter what position the lawbreaker holds.

- Rule of law also maintains that the guilty not escape punishment and that the innocent not be punished. The lack of rule of law leads to an inefficient, unfair and corrupt system, which is inconsistent with an environment for good governance. Systems with rule of law create opportunities for overlapping authorities, which aim to extract benefits from their strategic situations to benefit themselves over the citizenry.

- A fair and effective application of the rule of law, to the contrary, contributes to providing a deterrent effect towards corruption anc criminal behavior in general.

(7) Oversight:

Taking all of these components to corruption prevention a step further is the opportunity for oversight responsiblility that both the citizens and parliament can play. Parliaments have a key role to play in overseeing and reviewing access to information regimes and ensuring that the public’s right to know is guaranteed.

Oversight involves monitoring the appointment processes of officials to assure that government is conducted in transparent and ethical manner.

- Parliaments oversight role includes mechanisms such as questioning ministers about their activities and priorities to holding ministers accountable for any failures to implement the access to information law in their ministeries, to mainting the national budget

- Parliament has an opportunity to play an oversight role with the independent administrative bodies and can play leading role with respect to appointments to and funding of

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(8) Incentives:

Just as rewards are often granted for individuals who return a lost item, or turn in a criminal, it is important to promote incentive4s through rewards and protection for people who report corruption, or whistleblowers, wince they can be an invaluable source of information about where corruption and institutional inefficiency.

- The public interest-institutionalist perspective also promotes incentives for ethical behavior but puts the onus on the institution rather than on the whistleblower. This theory explains that institutions shape individual officials rather than the general population, and that financial advancement is as much an incentive f:-corruption as non-financial benefits.

- The frequency and scope of corruption by individual officials is limited by the norms, structure, and capacity of the institution in which they work. Therefore, people act corruptly because their institution allows it.

(9) Elimination of Price Controls

- Price controls are a form of government intervention in the economy in which a government agency regulates the prices that would have othet.mise fluctuated with consumer needs.

- The government agency may attempt to enforce the exact prices at which a particular good or service could be sold, or set "ceiling prices", which set a maximum price that may be charged but do not prohibit transactions at lower prices or "floor prices", which set a minimum price that may legally be charged but do not prohibit transactions at higher prices for particular goods or services.

- Price controls involve a distinction between those involving theft and those without. Price controls are dangerous when officials turn over the actual price of the

government bodies.

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good to the government, sell a license for a government price plus a bribe and,- the official keeps the bribe. In the case of corruption with theft, the official keeps all the money and does not give any to the government. For example, customs officials let goods through for less than official duty but do not pass the money on to the government.

(10) Simplification of Procedures

- Simplifying public procedures can also help avoid opportunities for corruption as they make the transaction between citizens and the services they are entitled to swifter. By making information publicly accessible, legal right are not infringed and obligations of confidentiality are kept.

- When public data and official information are made available by the government to the people. Procedures for such things as granting permits, licenses, bank loans and passports are simplified and opportunities for bribery are reduced. When procedures are complicated applicants are forced to resort to payoffs to maximize their chances of getting what they ask ( 11 ) Education: The Backbone to Corruption Prevention In addition to the prevention methods, educating people of all ages and backgrounds is a key component to corruption prevention. Through education, citizens can learn both their rights and raise awareness about their government systems, work, and learn how corruption is a problem that lowers their standard of living, and how it can be resisted in their own lives. As a result of education, citizens learn to think beyond whether giving a bribe contributes to the problem in their country more generally, but also understand to what government services they are entitled, why corruption occurs, and what, if any, institutions are available to help them to be prcitlected whistleblowers.

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-Civic and Anti corruption education can be both formal and informal, preventative and reactionary. It is organized to teach.a people their rights, the government services available to them, and to explain how corruption itself occurs and how the public can play a role in its prevention. Civic, and anti corruption education programs develop expectations for good citizenship and good governance, enable citizens to think and act in the context of their own world, and. lay the foundation for sustainable development in the future.

(12) Civic and Anti Corruption Education is Important

Civic educat ion works to improve knowledge about government gystems, to empower people with confidence, of voice, to inspire people to form advocacy and public interest groups to help them to achieve gbals for change, and finally to have the desire to become actors for development, human rights, and a .representative government.

Civic and Anti corruptionEduction teaches primarily five things:

1.The functions and procedures of government institutions.

2. The rules of law.

3. Democracy.

4. Vaues and attitudes of god

- Civic and anticorruption education can be taught by using formal and informalteaching methods. Formal teaching is delivered in schools by teachers, most typically following a national, government-mandated curriculum, and are often housed in Social Studies and History classes.

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- Informal Civic and anti corruption education lessons are delivered in school clubs, community and civil society organizations, and through life experiences. Participation in informal civic education, on the other hand, is usually voluntary and applies a participatory learning model using conversation, dialogue, games, and action to build community knowledge about the government services relevant to their own lives, current events, and problems and prospects for development in their nations and communities_ informal Civic Education encourages participation in the governance process, and civil society.

(13) Enforcement Sometimes fears of strong penalties or imprisonment will reduce the likelihood that people will participate in corruption. Some common penalties include firing, fines, imprisonment, negative publicity, demotions, and quiet transfers to new locations or departments. Enforcing the law against corrupt behaviour alone does not take care of the problem

(14) Advocacy and Lobbying

As a result of civic and anticorruption education, citizens may be inspired to participate with politicians in advocacy and lobbying activities to influence law making. Advocacy is a strategy for influencing policy makers when they make laws and regulations, distribute resources, and make decisions that affect people's lives. It entails creating policies where they are needed or when none exist, reforming harmful or inefectivepolicies, and ensuring good policies are implanted and enforced. Together these concepts refer to policy change. Advocacy strategies can be used to help civil society participate in the decisions of policy makers by discussing problems directly with them, delivering messages through the media, or strengthening the ability of local organizations to advocate.

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Advocacy can, therefore be one more option in a wide .range of program strategies for reducing corruption and holding both public and private officials to account. This is especially important when we consider those policies that are at the root of increased corruption in a country.

(14) Involving Civil Society in Good Governance Solving the corruption problem in a nation involves more than just the good example of political figures and progressive legislation. In order to fully respond to corruption at' every level of society, civil society organizations must also play an active icie in corruption prevention.

- Good governance can only be permanently established if political participation functions at a local level. This, however, is only possible if all citizens participate politically, economically, socially, and culturally.

(16) The Role Of The Media In Corruption Prevention

Media has an important role to play in raising awareness on rights to official information. It does this by supporting and facilitating in'tiatives that sensitize government officials on the importance of making public information available, working with information centers to promote civic education on rights and entitlement under official legislations.

The media is important as it is a non biased source of information for politics and

- Education. However the media is sometimes faced with limitations to their progress, such as ramifications for exposing state-run wrongdoings. In others, there are strict libel laws, which are meant to protect media stories from unsubstantiated claims, but are often so stifling that the media is again prohibited from fulfilling its defining function — to share the news with the people.

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As Media is so important to fighting corruption, designing an environment which enables a productive and successful media is imperative. An enabling environment comprises a set of often inter-related conditions that impact the capacity of citizens to engage in development processes in a sustained and effective manner.

These conditions include legal, regulatory and policy frameworks, and politicaVgovemmental, economic, and socio-cultural factors that mandate governments to make information available to citizens, businesses, civil society, and the media. In addition, journalists must have information on policies, rules, regulations, and government procedures, as well as the relative speed with which this can be accessed.

(17) The Role of Parliament In Curbing Corruption The first majOrstep of parliament is to prevent corruption in parliament is to build a parliament that is accountable to any wrong doings in office. When parliament is accountable to acts or even just threats of corruption, the people recognize that it is dangerous. As a result, many nations have instituted laws and policies to help curb corruption or opportunities therein in parliament and other bodies of government. Indeed, this is an emotion that is taken seriously at all levels of parliamentary organizations.

- Legislative Role: Parliaments have the authority to create the legal framework needed to provent and curb corruption, for example laws against inappropriate behavior by citizens, businesses and other organizations. In addition, parliaments can bolster integrity in governance by establishing incentivies to public officials and transparency and accountability. In order to be effective, laws must follow a key set of principles in clear language to minimize areas of discretion, and adap;t them to the local circumstances and should address some issues such as conflicts of interest, nepotism, and statures but also to

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promote an administrative and social environments adverse to corruption.

- Oversight- Parliaments can also curb corruption by holding the government accountable. This can be achieved through effective participation in the budgetary process, the exercise of parliamentary oversight through anticorruption commission, cooperation with supreme audit institutions, and promoting a media-friendly environment.

- Financial Control: Parliament also plays a key role in the budgetary cycle; financial integrity is central to anti-corruption efforts. The budget cycle is comprised of drafting, legislation, implementation and audit. In most countries, the ultimate control ver the national budget rests with parliament. This power of the purse constrains governments to tax and spend in only specific ways and seeks to ensure management of funds, disciplined reporting and transparency. It also provides a means to parliamentarians to be heard on how money is to be obtained and spent. Parliamentalso considers the audit findings and provides recommendation for the next budget.

Other oversight practices employed by parliament include mandatory executive reporting and the suthority to question ministers policy on the operations of their departmental and program proformance by calling for witnesses and documents and doing all of this in a transparent fashion in cooperation with outside bodies. Also in some countries parliaments have a authority to review and approve appointments of certain public officials.

- Specialized Agencies: Parliament is also involved in the functioning of the major oversight tools of specialized agencies. The second major specialized agency is an anti corruption agency. To work successfully, anti corruption commissions must be independent, part of a broader anticorruption strategy, embedded in a reporting hierarchy

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encompassing the legislative and executive and have the government enact its recommendations.

- Representation: Representation,- which occurs through a number of different channels such as the participation of civil society or the formation of political parties, is an important parliamentary instrument for building ,integrity in public governance. It can have the effect of empowering citizens to reject •corrupt practices and expose politicians and officials who engage in corrupt activity providing a role for parliamentarians in helping to establish public standards for appropriate behaviour. A good parliamentarian will travel back regularly to their home regions to organize forums of discussions, listen to their constituents, understand the causes and effects of corruption, .include this information in the anticorruption policies, and monitor their impact.

- Parliament and Civil Society: Parliament can also help to channel the interests and concerns of civil society into an open debate and help create political will to fight corruption. This will allow parliament to gain_ credibility and legitimacy thereby extending support for anticorruption efforts.

- Corruption in Political Parties and Parliament: Politicians must first tackle corruption within their own ranks through political party financing, and codes of conduct for parliamentarians. In many systems political parties have become a potential agent of corruption compromising legitimacy and integrity of democracy of political parties. Parliamentarians must also adhere to ethical behaviourthrough such means as ethical regimes, which cover everything from conflicts of interests and the disclosure of assets to rules on post governmental employment and nepotism, codes of conduct, and codes of ethics:Internally, ethics regimes improve the behaviour of legislators.

- Externally, they restore the often shattered public confidence in parliamentarians. To be effective such codes. must be

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accompanied by enforcement mechanisms and be based on a shared understanding by parliamentarians of what is appropriate behaviour and what is not.

ATTITUDE An attitude can be defined as a positive or negative evaluation of peope, objects, event, activities, ideas, or just about anything in your environment, but there is debate about precise definitions. Eagly and Chaiken, for example, define an • attitude "a psychological tendency that Is expressed by evaluating a particular.entity with some degree of favour or disfavour"

Though it is sometimes common to define an attitude as affect toward an object, affect (i.e., discrete emotions or overall arousal) is generally understood to be distinct from attitude as a measure of favorability. This definition of attitude allows for one's evaluation of an attitude object to vary from extremely negative to extremely positive, but also admits that people can also be conflicted or ambivalent toward an object meaning that they might at different times express both positive and negative attitude toward the same object.

Thus, attitude is just a mental- construct. It is an intervening variable between stimulus and response.

Implicit and Explicit Attitudes-

• Explicit attitudes are deliberately formed. • Implicit attitudes, generally unacknowledged or outside

of awareness, have effects that are measurable through sophisticated methods involving people's response times to stimuli.

• Implicit and explicit attitudes seem to affect people's behavior, though in different ways. They tend not to be strongly associated with each other, although in some

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cases they are. The relationship between them is poorly understood.

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDE/CAB MODEL

Every attitude has three components: Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral. s,ugh every attitude has these three components, any particular attitude can be based on one component more than another. It is also called ABC model_

1. Cognitive or Belief - It is our thoughts, beliefs, and ideas regarding an attitude object. When a human being is the object of an attitude, the cognitive component is frequently a stereotype, e.g. "welfare recipients are lazy". 2. Affective or Emotion- It is positive or negative feelings or emotions about an attitude object. E.g. fear, sympathy, hate. It is responsible for bringing evaluative element in our judgments.

3. Behavioral or Action Tendency- Itis tendendy or disposition to act in certain ways toward something. Emphasis is on the tendency to act, not the -actual acting; what we intend and what we do may be quite different. For a particular attitude object, each of the above components of attitude vary with respect to:

Valence (related to quantity): Degree of positivity and negativity of a component. atVlultiplexity; Simplicity or complexity of an attitude component.

Centrality (related to quality): Degree of impact of a particular component.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTITUDE

1. Attitude is learned.

2 . I t i s endur ing and cons i s ten t .

3. It involves subject-object relationship.

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4. It is communicated; hence expression of attitude is a social act.

5. It is hold because it performs certain functions for us. Attitudes serve four major functions for the individual:

A. The adjustments / utilitarian / adaptiire (or instrumental) function

B. The ego defensive function

C. The value expressive (or ego-expressive) function

D. The knowledge function

Adjustment Function/Utilitarian Function

• The adjustment function directs people toward pleasurable or rewarding objects and away from unpleasant, undesirable ones. It serves the utilitarian concept of maximizing reward and minimizing punishment. We develop favorable attitudes towards things that aid or reward us:

• We favor political parties that will advance our economic lot — if we are in business, we favor the party that will keep our taxes low, and if unemployed we favor one that will increase social welfare benefits.

• We are more likely to change our attitddes if doing so allows us to fulfill our goals or avoid undesirable consequences.

Ego - Defensive Function

• The ego-defensive function refers to holding attitudes that protect our self-esteem or that justify actions that make us feel guilty.

• This function involves psychoanalytic principles where people use defense mechanisms to protect themselves from phychological harm. Mechanisms include:

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- D e n i a l

- Repress ion

- Pro ject ion

- Rationalization

• For example a consumer who has made a poor purchase decision or a poor investment may staunchly defend the decision as being correct at the time or as being the result of poor advice from another person. Such ego defensive attitude helps us to protect out self-image and often we are unaware of them.

Value Expression Function

• Whereas ego defensive attitudes are formed to protect a person's self-image, value expressive attitudes enable the expression of the person's centrally held values. Central values tend to establish our identity and gain us social approval thereby showing us who we are, and what we stand for.

• Some attitudes are important to a person because they express values that are integral to that person's self-concept (i.e. their ideas about who they are).

• For Example: if you view yourself as a Muslim, you can

reinforce that image by adopting Islamic beliefs and values.

Knowledge Function

Some attitudes are useful because they help to make the world more understandable. They help people ascribe causes to events and direct attention towards features of people. or situations that are likely to be useful in making sense of them.

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Consequently, they help to make the world more understandable, predictable and `knowable'

PSYCHOLOGICAL

NEED

EXAMPLE

Utilitarian Liking your psychology degree because it will help you get a' job in.the future

Knowledge Liking your psychology degree because it provides you with useful information in dealing

ith l Knowledge Liking your psychology degree because you really wanted to become a vet but weren't good

h Value-expressive Liking your psychology degree because it illustrates your commitment to helping people

ATTITUDE FORMATION

The study of attitude formation is the study of how people form evaluations of persons, places or things. Attitudes form directly as a result of experience and learning. They may emerge due to direct personal experience, or they may result from observation.

Social roles and social norms can have a strong influence on attitudes. Social roles relate to how people are expected to behave in a particular role or context. Social norms involve society's. rules for what behaviors are considered appropriate.

Theories of Attitude Formation:

There are four distinct ways in which attitudes can form towards some issue, event, person or thing. These four ways in which attitudes can form are (in order of increasing psychologcal complexity) by mere exposure, by associative learning, by self..:eption, and for functional reasons.

• Mere Exposure:

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The mere exposure effect is the tendency to develop more positive feelings towards objects' and individuals the more we are exposed to them. No action or interaction with the object is required, and we do not need to possess or even develop any explicit beliefs about the object.

• A s so c ia t iv e Le a r n in g

There are two ways in which we can learn by association, either implicitly through classical conditioning, or explicitly through operant conditioning.

A. Classical Conditioning or Respondent Conditioning

Clapsical conditioning theory involves learning a new behavior via the process of association. Classical conditioning helps forming an attitude when a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes an emotional response (Learning through association).

Example: You are driving down a dark and curvy road when you narrowly miss a collision with a large truck that has edged over into your lane. You experience a rapid pulse, sweating palms, and your stomach begins to chum. After this near miss, you continue driving down the road. A few days later, as you approach the same curve, you begin to experience the same reactions (your heart beats faster, your palms begin to sweat) but there are no other vehicles around.

Classical conditioning was made famous by Pavlov and his experiments conducted with dogs: Bell was rung when dogs received food. Food made dogs salivate. Then whenever a bell was rung, dogs salivated even when food was .not present.

e.g., advertisers use classical conditioning to influence your attitude toward a particular product. In a television commercial, when you see a young, beautiful lady having fun in on a tropical beach while enjoying a sport drink. This

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attractive and appealing imagery causes you to develop a positive association with this particular beverage.

B. Operant Conditioning or Instrumental Learning

Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs Trough reinforcements and punishments for behavior. Behaviors or attitudes that...are followed by positive consequences are reinforced and are more likely to be repeated than are behaviors and attitudes that are followed by negative consequences.

Operant conditioning can be used to influence how attitudes develop. Imagine a young man who has just started smoking. Whenever he lights up a cigarette, people complain, chastise him and ask him to leave their vicinity. This negative feedback from those around him- eventually causes him to develop an unfavorable opinion of smoking and he decides to give up the habit.

Operant conditioning is distinguished from classical conditioning in that operant conditioning deals with the reinforcement and punishment to change behavior. Operant behavior operates on the environment and is maintained by its antecedents and consequences, while classical conditioning is maintained by conditioning of reflexive behaviors, which are elicited by antecedent conditions.

C. Observational learning (Observing the people around)

People also learn attitudes by observing the people around them. When someone you admire greatly espouses a particular attitude, you are more likely to develop the same beliefs. For example, children spend a great deal of time observing the attitudes of their parents and usually begin to demonstrate similar outlooks.

• Self-Perception

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The idea behind self-perception theory is that we form attitudes not due to exposure or associative learning, but from observations of our own behavior. Attitudes are formed from observing our own behaviors (e.g. the opinions we openly express on particular issues) and then attributing them to either internal or external causes, with internal attributions (inference that the behavior is indicative of an attitude) more likely when the behavior was freely chosen.

• Functional Approach

The three ways in which attitudes can form discussed so far — exposure, learning and self-perception — all operate apparently outside of people's awareness. All of these th,...ories argue that attitude formation is a passive process. In other words, it does not require any introspettion, or conscious consideration of issues. Instead, attitudes are formed via observation or association. However, it seems self-evident that not all at''udes are formed outside of our awareness — sometimes we engage in deliberate thought about an issue with the aim of forming an opinion. According to the functional approach attitudes are sometimes formed based on the degree to which they satisfy different psychological needs, so this is an active rather than passive attitude theory. There are four basic psychological needs that adopting different attitudes can address: uti!itarian, knowledge, ego-defensive and value-expression.

ATTITUDE CHANGE

Factors Influencing Attitude change

• Characteristics of Existing Attitude: Valence, multiplexity, and centrality of all the three _attitude component will influence attitude change. Positive attitudes are easy to change than the negative attitudes.

• Source Characteristics: The probability, that you will change your attitude is higher if the message is

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conveyed by experts, who are considered to be trustworthy, attractive and similar to the person receiving the message. Thus, if the cricketer SachinTeridukar says that a particular drink gives him energy, the i:arget audience is likely to be young children who consider him as a role model in the field of sports. They are likely to buy the drink because they assume that they would be able to 'play like him'.

• Message Characteristics: The nature of message is important. The amount of information as well as the node of spreading (face to face, media etc) has affect en attitude change. The nressageshould be clear and well organized. Messages that produce anxiety and fear are more effective. Thus an advertisement on soap may explain that perspiration from the body results in bad odour and your friends will turn away from you.. Or, if you have a bath with a particular soap then you are likely to be flooded with friends.

• Target Characteristics: The characteristic of the person whose attitude is to be changed plays an important role in attitude change. Attitudes that are strong, personally important, complex and interconnected are difficult to change. Thus your attitude towards family would be difficult to change rather than preference of a soap or drink. c,

Thus 'who' (communicator) says 'what' (message) to 'whom' (person for whom the communication is meant for) will determine whether attitude change will take place or not. What other people qay and do has an effect on us. The advertising industry's aim is to change attitudes towards a particular product or services. They use these three aspects of attitude change in their advertisements.

THE THEORIES OF ATTITUDE CHANGE

1. Consistency Theories

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The basic assumption of these theories is the need of the individual for consistency. There must be consistency between attitudes, between behaviors, and among attitudes and behaviors. A !ack of consistency causes discomfort so that an individual attempts to ease the tension by adjusting attitudes or behaviors in order to once again achieve balance or consistency. Relationships among the perceiver, another person, and an object are the main focus of balance theory. Relationships are either positive or negative, based on the cognitive perceptions of the perceiver.

In this theory, there are eight-possible configurations; four balanced and four unbalanced. Unbalanced states are recognized as being unstable. Under these conditions, perceivers attempt to restore balance by changing their attitudes toward objects or other persons. Persuasive communications attempt to change the affective component of an attitude system by changing the cognitive component of attitude. In c her words, providing an individual with new information that changes the cognitive component of attitude will tend to cause that individual to change overall attitudes toward

II. Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive dissonance theory argues that behaving in a way that contradicts existing attitudes creates a feeling of discomfort. Put another way, people feel bad when they. perform an action that is inconsistent with their attitudes. For example, an animal lover may feel upset if they accidentally run over a hedgehog; a pro-environmentalist may feel bad if they drink a little too much and throw their chips on the ground at the end of a night out. According to Festinger, when people carry out an action that is incongruous to their attitudes, this knowledge creates an internal imbalance, or dissonance. Festinger suggested that people will be motivated to try to resolve this dissonance. People will look for ways to

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try to explain it and, if none are apparent, they will resort to the only means left to them to resolve the discrepancy: they will change their attitude so that it matches the behavior they have performed.

Like self-perception theory, cognitive dissonance theory predicts that behaviors cause attitudes rather than the other way around, but unlike self-perception theory, a weak prior attitude is not a prerequisite for the effect. In fact, dissonance will not occur unless there is a prior attitude that is fairly strong; otherwise there will be no discrepancy, and no strong feelings of discomfort

III. Persuasion

While cognitive dissonance is attitude change via an internal discrepancy, persuasion refers to attitude change via an external message. Now do people think about, and incorporate, information they receive that is counter to their current point of view? What determines whether they are persuaded by arguments or not? This is a question of obvious relevance to our understanding of how people think, feel, and behave. Do TV adverts work? When do people change their brand of toothpaste? What changes people's vote in political election campaigns? What makes people decide to adopt a healthier diet? Now people react to messages intended to make them change their mind is the focus of this final section.

IV.Reinforcement Theories

The main aspect of the reinforcement theory is that when behaviour is reinforced; then it will be repeated and used again, and when if the behaviour is not reinforced, then that behaviour will continue without change. Therefore if this behavior is currently bad, it will stay that way, unless something is done. The Reinforcement Theory starts to look into punishment and reward for behaviour. This is what Skinner started to go into,

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saying that punishment was needed to make sure people stay on the right track and produce work which is of an adequate quality. This theory includes all kind of conditioning that has been discussed in Attitude Formation section-

• Classical Conditioning • O p e r an t Con d i t i on in g • Observa t iona l Cond i t ion ing

V. Self-Perception Theories (Discussed In Theories of Attitude Formation)

VI . Socia l Judgment Theories

Social judgment theory focuses on how people's prior attitudes distort their perceptions of the positions advocated in persuasive messages, and how such perceptions mediate persuasion. In general terms, the theory assumes that a person's own attitudes serve as a judgmental standard and anchor that influences where along a continuum a persuader's advocated position is perceived to lie. Social judgment theory is an attempt to apply the principles of judgment to the study of attitude change.

According to this theory, an individual's initial attitude serves as an anchor for the judgment of related attitude communications. Opinions are evaluated against this point of reference and are placed on an attitudinal continuum. Opinions that most characterized the individual's own opinion are in the latitude of acceptance. Those opinions found most objectionable are placed in the latitude of rejection. The latitude of non-commitment consists of those opinions that are neither accepted nor rejected.

Communication that falls within the latitude of acceptance is assimilated, and if judged to be fair and unbiased will result in a change in attitude. Within the limits of the latitude of

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acceptance, the greater the difference between the initial opinion and the communicated opinion, the greater the attitude change. Though some change is possible when opinions fall within the latitude of rejection, the greater the discrepancy the less the change in attitude.

ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOUR LINKAGES

Difference between Attitude and Behavior

Attitude and behaVior are closely related but they are two Following differences can be observed between both:

• Attitude is internal whereas behaviour is external. In other words, behaviour can very well be seen by others as it is external whereas attitude is shelled within the mind of the individual and hence cannot be seen by others immediately.

• Attitude is what you think whereas behavior is what you do. Attitude has to do with the mind whereas behavior has a lot to do with actions.

• Attitude is thought-oriented whereas behavior is action-oriented. Attitude can shape the behavior of a persbn. A person with the right attitude may be with right behavior too. But sometimes people act in accordance with their attitudes, and other times they act in ways that are quite inconsistent with their attitudes.

Factors Governing Attitude-Behavior Linkages

Strength of the attitude-behavior relation can be studied through qualities of the person, qualities of the situation in which the behavior is exhibited, qualities of the attitude itself etc. Let's see them in detail:

Qualities of the Person

Some people typically display greater attitude-behavior consistency than do others. In general, two classes of individuals have been considered: those who are aware of

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and guided by their internal feelings and those who tend to rely heavily on cues in the situation to decide how to behave. in general, people who are aware of their feelings display greater att itude behavior consistency than do people who rely on situational cues. Any given behavior of an individual can be guided both by the individual's internal feelings and by external cues. Yet a number of personality dimensions have been developed and used successfully to assess whether a given person tends to rely more heavily on one type of cue or the other.

Following are two personality dimensions:

(a) Level of moral reasoning: Level of moral reasoning has been found to effect the relation between attitudes and behavior. More advanced moral reasoning is characterized by principled, morally responsible thought based on people's own general principles of moral action. Lower levels of reasoning focus on the general positive or negative consequences of a particular action or on a feeling of being bound by social or legal rules.

(b) Self-monitoring: Individuals who score low on the self-monitoring scale claim to be guided by dispositions (i.e., their inner feelings). They agree with statements such as "My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs."

In contrast, individuals who score high on the self-monitoring scale view their behavior as stemming typically from a pragmatic concern with what is appropriate in each situation. They agree with statements such as "In different situations and with different people, I often act like very different persons." Thus, these individuals are said to monitor the impression that they make on other pdople and adjust that impression to fit with others' expectations.

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Low self-monitors behave more consistently with their attitudes than do high self-monitors.

People who focus on themselves tend to act more consistently with their attitudes (e.g., people with high moral reasoning and/or low self-monitoring). On the other hand, people who are guided more by the environment or other external factors often do not act in a manner that is consistent with their attitudes (e.g., people with low moral reasoning and/or high self-monitoring).

II. Qualities of the Situation:

A number of situational variables also affect the strength of the attitude—behavior relation. These include normative factors and time pressure to reach a decision.

(a) The Effect of Norms: Norms, or beliefs about how one should or is expected to behave in a given situation, can exert a powerful influence on behavior. People often behave as they believe others expect them to behave. A norm may be so strcIng and so universally held that virtually everyone in that situation behaves the same regardless of his or her attitude. For example, you might wish that someone were dead, but you would very rarely act on this attitude. Hence, attitude--behavior consistency is low.

(b) Time Pressure: Individuals are more likely to base their decisions on their attitudes when they are under time pressure. Time pressure pushes people away from a careful examination of the available information and toward a reliance on their pre-existing attitudes.

III. Qualities of the Attitude .

Some kinds of attitudes appear to be stronger than others. In thiscontext, the word stronger is not used in the sense of the attitude being more extreme. Instead, stronger refers to the

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apparent influence that the attitude has on the individual's behavior. In fact, in all of the research that is explained earlier. groups of participants with different degrees of attitude strength were compared, but the distributions of attitude scores (i.e., the extremity of attitudes) in the various groups were equivalent to one another.

• The Role of Direct Experience: One attitudinal quality is the manner of attitude formation. On the one hand is attitude formation through, direct behavioral experience with the "attitude object, and on the other hand is attitude formation through indirect non-behavioral experience with the attitude object. For example, a child may form an attitude toward a toy by playing with the toy (direct experience) or on the basis of a friend's or an advertisement's description of the toy (indirect experience). Attitudes based on direct experience have been.found to be more predictive of later behavior than attitudes based on indirect experience.

• Attitude Strentgth (Intensity of Attitude: Weak or strong/Positive or negative) it depends on three factors:

- Certainty: Based on knowledge/information (bureaucratic attitude develops because of this)

- intensity of Feeling: Based on emotion, not knowledge (Religious attitudes)

- Attitude Origin: Instrumental > Observational (e.g. A person action of corruption has a strong negative attitude towards corruption than someone observing it)

Positive or strong attitude corresponds to behavior • Attitude Spacificity - Goal specific - Action specific - Time specific

Goal or action specific attitude corresponds to behavior, while Time specific attitude does not transform into behavior.

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General attitude (Goal and Action) does not correspond to behavior. For example: General attitude about inter-caste marriage is positive in majority, but it does not translate into action i.e. very few people do so.

• Attitude Accessibility (Accessible or Romote) - Ease with specific attitude can be brought into

consciousness or awareness - When attitude is easily accessible, it transform into

behavior. - For example, Baby cries after seeing a doctor if once

injected earlier. • Attituede Relevance(Extent of impact of attitude abject on

attitude holder) Greater is the attitude relevance, more is the chance of attitude being transformed into behavior.

IV. Expecancy about Consequences: Positive expectancy about the consequence result in attitude-behaviour congruence V. External Pressure: It weakens attitude-behaviour congruence. Attitue-Behaviour Linkages Mechanism: This is explained by the Theory of Reasoned Action: The theory of reasoned action assumes the people deliberate about the wisdom of a given course of action. According to this theory an individual’s behavioral intention is the single best predictor of his or her eventual behavior. There are factors that an individual considers in forming a behavioral intention. The person considers, weights, and combines (a) his or her attitude towards the behavior in question and (b) subjective norms regarding the behavior. The second component, subjective norms, involves both the person's beliefs about what important others think he or she should do and the person's motivation to comply with the wishes

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of these others. In deciding whether to attend college, an individual may consider what his or her friends and parents think about attending college as well as how important it is to comply with the wishes of his or her friends and parents.

MORAL ATTITUDES

Moral attitudes give a basis to the whole of moral life. Moral values are the highest among all natural values. Moral values are the standards of good and evil, which govern an individual's behavior and choices.

Moral values are always personal values. They can only inhere in man, and be realized by man. A material thing, like a stone or a house, cannot be morally good c-bad, just as moral goodness is not possible to a tree or a dog. Similarly, works of the human mind (discoveries, scientific books, works of art), cannot properly be said to be the bearers of moral values; they cannot be faithful, humble and loving. They can, at ths.--, most, indirectly reflect these values, as bearing the imprint of the human mind. Man alone, as a free being, responsible for his actions and his attitudes, for his will and striving, his love and his hatred, his joy and his sorrow, and his basic attitudes, can be morally good or bad. A man will have personality radiating moral values if he is humble, pure, truthful, honest and loving.

As long as a man blindly disregards the moral values of other persons, as long as he does not distinguish the positive value which inheres in truth, and the negative value which is proper to error, as long as he does not understand the value which inheres in the life of man, and the negative value attached to an injustice, he will be incapable of° moral goodness.

Virtues of Moral Attitudes:

• Reverence

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• Faithfulness

• Awareness of Responsibility

• Veracity

• Goodness REVERENCE:

The capacity to grasp moral values, to affirm them, and to respohd to them, is the foundation for realizing the moral values of man. These marks can be found only ir.1 the man who possesses reverence.

Reverence is a feeling- or attitude of deep respect towards others tinged with awe; veneration. Reverence is the attitude which can be designated as the mother of all moral life, for in it man first takes a position toward the world which opens his spiritual eyes and enables him to grasp values. Faithfulness or Constancy

Among the attitudes of man which are basic for his whole moral life, faithfulness is ranked next to reverence. Faithfulness is the concept of unfailingly remaining loyal to someone or something and putting that loyalty into consistent practice, regardless of extenuating circumstances. One can speak of faithfulness in a narrow sense and in a large one. We have the narrow sense in mind when we speak of fidelity toward men, such as fidelity to a friend. marital fidelity, fidelity to one's country or to oneself. The more faithful, the more constant a man is, the more substantial will he be, the more capable of becoming a vessel of moral values, a being in whom purity, justice, humility, love and goodness will dwell lastingly and will radiate from him to the world about him.-

Awareness of Responsibility

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When we call someone a "morally conscious" man, and another man a "morally unconscious" one, we have in mind a difference which is decisive from the ethical point of view. Thaiinconscious man behaves according to the impulses of his nature; he has not yet discovered within himself the capacity to direct himself freely toward the objective demands of the world of values independently of what is or is not congenial to his nature. Consequently, they ignore the necessity for conscious effort to develop and improve their moral stature. In their lives we find no moral self-education. This moral sluggishness is an obstacle to the formation of a moral personality.

Veracity

Truthfulness is another of the basic presuppositions for a person's moral life. An untruthful or mendacious person not only embodies a great moral disvalue, but he is crippled in his whole personality; the whole of his moral life; everything in him which is morally positive is threatened by his untruthfulness.

The untruthful man lacks reverence toward values. He assumes a lordly position over being, he deals with it as he pleases. This attitude implies an element of arrogance of irreverence and impertinence. 0

Goodness Goodness is the very heart of the whole reign of moral values. is by no accident that the term "good' means moral value as such, and also the specific moral quality of goodness. Among the different moral values there is none which embodies more completely the entire reign of moral values than goodness.

It is the center of all morality, and at the same time, it's most sublime fruit. Its central importance in the moral sphere is, therefore, of a completely different type from that of the

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fundamental attitudes previously mentioned: reverence, fidelity, awareness responsibility and veracity. For, apart from their own high moral value, these virtues are accepted as a presupposition for the moral life. Goodness, on the contrary, is not a pre supposition, but the fruit of moral life. It culminates all morality; it is the queen of all virtues.

POLITICAL ATTITUDES

Political attitudes are the attitudes of people to the a'reas of public life covered by political psychology so for example views on nationalism, political conservatism, political liberalism, political radicalism etc.

Political attitude tells us which party someone- vote for, what kind of political ideology someone prefer most, which social, economic; cultural, international policy someone prefer etc.

The terms radical, liberal, moderate, conservatjve, and reactionary are among the words most often used in political discourse.

Radicals are people who find themselves extremely discontented with the status quo. Consequently, they wish an immediate and profound change in the existing order, advocating something new and different for society.

Considerably less dissatisfied, but still wishing to change the system significantly, are the liberals. All liberals share a belief in the equality, intelligence, and competence of people.

Moderates find little wrong with the existing society, and their reluctance to change it is exceeded only by the conservatives.

Differing from liberals in most respects, conservatives are dubious about bold efforts to improve the world for fear that incompetent meddling might, indeed, make things worse.

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Only the reactionaries reject current institutions and modern values. They would see society retrace its steps and adopt former political norms and policies.

People on the right of the political spectrum revere authority, tradition, elitism, and property rights, whereas those on the left emphasize political liberty, social change, human equality, and human rights. Beyond these philosophical convictions, there are several other motivations that cause people to lean to the left or right. Psychological factors about the need for change are important. Economic circumstances also play a part. Age is another factor. Finally, one's view about the condition of human nature is probably the most if/portantconsideration in determining with which side of the spectrum one will identify. Each of these factors predisposes people's political attitudes about certain policy alternatives.

Just as people's views can modify over time, thus changing their location on the continuum, the spectrum can shift to the left or right while a person remains stationary.

It is also appropriate to point out that the political spectrum of one society bears no particular similarity to that of any other society unless the status.quo is the same in each. A given policy could be conservative in one society, liberal in another, and radical in a third.

SOCIAL INFLUENCE

Social influence occurs when one's emotions, opinions, or behaviors are affected by others. Social influence takes many forms and can be seen in conformity, socialization, peer pressure, obedience, and leadership, persuasion, sales and marketing.

Three broad varieties of social influence:

• Compliance is when people appear to agree with others, but actually keep their dissenting opinions private.

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• Identification is when people are influenced by someone who is liked and respected, such as a famous celebrity.

• Internalization is when people accept a belief or behavior and agree both publicly and privately.

Compliance

Compliance is the act of responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request offered by others. Technically, compliance is a change in behavior but not necessarily attitude- one can comply due to mere obedience, or by otherwise opting to withhold one's private thoughts due to social pressures.

The satisfaction derived from compliance is *due to the social effect of the accepting influence (i.e. people comply for an expected reward or punishment-aversion)

Compliance refers to a response — specifically, a submission — made in reaction to a request. The request may be explicit or implicit.

Identification:

Identification is a psychological process whereby the subject assimilates an aspect, property, or attribute of the other and is transformed, wholly or partially, by the model the other provides.

Identification is the changing of attitudes or behaviors due to the influence of someone that is liked. Advertisements that rely upon celebrities to market their products are taking advantage of this phenomenon. The desired 'relationship that the identifier relates with the behavior or attitude change is the "reward".

Internalization:

Internalization is-th- process of acceptance of a set of norms established by People or groupswhicF are influential to the individual. The -individual accepts the influence because the

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content of the influence accepte0s intrinsically rewarding. It is congruent with the individual's value system, and the "reward" of internalization is 'the content of the new behqvior".

Part - E

Emotional Intelligence A Brief History of Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence and ‘emotional literacy’ are ideas that have leapt to prominence in education as well as in business and else where over the last twenty years. In 1966, a German psychiatrist name leuner wrote an article called ‘Emotional Intelligence and emancipation’ in which he hypothesized that the reason some women willfully rejected the social roles and responsibilities that were expected of them was because of their ‘low Emotional Intelligence’

In 1983, Howard Gardner’s Frames of Mind: the theory of Multiple Intelligences introduced the idea that traditional types of intelligence, such as IQ, fail to fully explain congnitive ability. He introduced the idea of multiple intelligences which included both cognitive ability. He introduced the idea of multiple intelligences which included both interpersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people) and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one’s feelings, fears and motivations.)

In 1985 Wayne Leon Payne, then a graduate student at an alternative liberal arts college in the USA, wrote a doctorialdissertation which included the term “emotional

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intelligence in the little. This seems to be the rfirst academic use of the term “emotional intelligence.” In next five years, no one else seems to have used the term “emotional intelligence” in any academic papers.

In 1990, researchers Jack Mayer, Peter Salovey and their colleagues published two articles that introduced the term ‘Emotional intelligence’ itself into mainstream American psychology. In 1995, the concept of emotional intelligence is popularized after publication of psychologist and New York. Times science writier Daniel Goleman’s book “Emotional Intelligence: Why it can Matter More than IQ”

DEFINITIONS :

• Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions, to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavavior

• People with high Emotional Quotient (EQ) de4monstrae

a high level of self awareness, motivation, empathy and social skills

• Daniel Goleman believes that IQ is a threshold quality. It matters for entry to high-level management jobs, but once you get there, it no longer helps leaders, becaude most leaders already have a high IQ. According to Goleman, what differentiates effective leaders from ineffective ones becomes their ability to control their own emotions and understand other people’s emotions, their internal motivation, and their social skills.

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EIGHT COMPETENCIES OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

“Under” the tree pursuits lie eight specific, learnable, measurable competencies. They’re measured through the Six Seconds Emotional Intelligence Assessment – or SEI. Here are the eight competencies with defginitionsshownin the table.

Pursuit Competency Definition Know Yourself

Enhance Emotional Literacy

Accurately identifying and interpreting both simple and compound feeling

Recognize Patterns

Choose Apply Consequential

Evaluating the cost and benefits of your

Yourself Thinking Choices

Navigate Emotions

Assessing, harnessing, and transforming emotions as a strategic resource.

Engage Intrinsic Motivation

Gaining energy from personal values and commitments vs. being driven by external forces.

Exercise Optimism

Taking a proactive perspective of hope and possibility.

Give Yourself

Increase Empathy

Recognizing and appropriately responding to others emotions

Pursue Noble Connecting your daily

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Goals choices with your overarching sense of purpose

MEMEMEMENE EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT VS INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENT

(a) Measure of Ability to Manage Emotions (EQ) and Measure of Intelligence:

EQ or Emotional Quotient is a measure of your ability to notice and then manage your interior and exterior perceptions of your feeiings and then control your reactions. Your mood will always control your ability to resolve problems making this an important 'skill to develop and use. Using a well-developed EQ will help you manage your emotions. And developing a higher EQ can be done quite easily.

IQ or Intelligence Quotient is a measure of intelligence. A way to rate this for any individual is by taking an IQ test. An IQ test measures different types of abilities: verbal, memory, mathematical, spatial, and reasoning. This test has a preset standard based on a representative group of the population. The majority of people rank in at about 90-110. Generally, IQ tests actually test general intelligence. Many experts feel IQ tests are a measure of an individual's problem solving ability and not an actual measure of general intelligence.

(b) Social Skills (EQ) and Tactical Skills (IQ):

Necessary social skills that students need are associated with high levels of EQ or emotional intelligence. if a student does not develop the EQ skills needed to successfully transverse the maturation process, he or she will be left in a situation of having the intelligence

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to functionally work or play but not have the emotional skills to successfully work or play, thus limiting their potential future. But at the same time a student also needs to have knowledge i.e. high la, in order to contemplate the right and wrong, and make the correct decisions. If a student lacks logic then he would not be in a situation to empathize with others, in turn not achieving his goals.

(c) More Convincing (EQ) and More Logic (IQ):

When working in an organization, an employee with higher El than others can convince his or her colleague(s) about a certain argument by appealing to their emotions rather than presenting facts and figures. Having a high IQ will help build interpersonal. and intrapersonal skills to a certain extent, unlike EQ, which talks about one's character based on the way he or she writes or replies to mail, collaborates and networks With peers and subordinates and works towards attaining Company goals. FOr best results, employees must develop communication and organizational skills for good decision-making as well as good inter-personal relations with co- workers. An individual's success rate at work depends on his or her EQ as well as IQ in the ratio of 80:20. This is so, because EQ help individuals build and maintain relations with peers and superiors, increases productivity and opens up doors for clarity in communication.

MODELS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

Three main models of emotional intelligence exist. The first 'model by Peter Salovey and John Mayer perceives E.I. as a form of pure intelligence, that is, emotional intelligence is a cognitive ability. A second model by Reuven Bar-On regards E.I. as a mixed intelligence, consisting of cognitive ability and personality aspects. This model emphasizes how cognitive and personality factors influence general welt-being. The third model, introduced by Daniel Goleman, also perceives E.I. as a mixed intelligence involving

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cognitive ability and personality aspects. However, unlike tbP model proposed by Reuven Bar-On, Goleman's mode! focuses on how cognitive and personality factors determine workplace success.

Mayor and Salovey's Ability Model

Mayer and Salovey's conception of emotional intelligence is based within a model of intelligence, that is, it strives to define emotional intelligence within the confines of the standard criteria for a new intelligence. It proposes that emotional intelligence is comprised of two areas:

• experiential (ability to perceive, respond, and manipulate emotional information without necessarily understanding it) and • Strategic (ability to understand and manage emotions Vvithout necessarily perceiving feelings well or fully experiencing them). Each area is further divided into two branches that range from basic psychological processes to more complex processes integrating emotion and cognition.

The ability-based model views emotions as useful sources of information that help one to make sense of and navigate the social environment. The model proposes that individuals vary in their ability to process information of an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to a wider cognition_ This ability is seen to .--n:Inifest itself in certain adaptive behaviors.

The model claims that El includes four types of abilities:

1. Perceiving emotions — the ability to be self-aware of emotions and to express emotions • and emotional needs accurately to others. Perceiving emotions represents a basic aspect of emotional intelligence, as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible.

2. Using or facilitating emotions — the ability to harness emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities, such as thinking and problem solving. The emotionally intelligent person can capitalize

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fully upon his or her changing moods in order to best fit the task at hand.

3. Understanding emotions — the ability to comprehend emotion's language and to appreciate complicated relationships among emotions. For example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to slight variations between emotions, and the ability to recognize and describe how emotions evolve over time.

4. Managing emotions -- the ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others. Therefore, the emotionally intelligent person can harness emotions, even negative ones, and manage them to achieve intended goals.

Goleman's Mixed Model

The model introduced by Daniel Coleman focuses on El as a wide array of competencies and skills that drive leadership performance.

Coleman's model outlines four main El constructs:

1. Self-awareness — . It is about establishing truthfully the feeling one has. It involves the ability to know one's emotions, strengths, weaknesses, drives values and goals and recognizes their impact on others.

2. Self-regulation Self-management — It implies managing one's own emotion and motivating self. It involves controlling or redirecting one's disruptive emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances. –

3. Social awareness — It involves recognizing and understanding other people's emotion.

4. Relationship Management It includes influencing others, conflict management, team building etc.

Goleman includes a set of emotional .competencies within each construct of El. Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and can be developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman pcsits that individuals are born with a general

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emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies. Emotional competence refers to one's ability to express or release one's inner feelings (emotions). Emotional capital is the set of personal and social emotional competencies which constitute a resource inherent to the person, useful for the personal, professional and organizational development and takes part in social cohesion, to personal, social and economic success. Furthermore, because of its impact on performance (as at work), on well-being (life satisfaction, health etc.) and on social cohesion and citizenship, emotional capital should be taken into account seriously by public and educational policy-makers and companies.

Trait Model

Trait emotional intelligence is formally defined as a constellation, of crootional perceptions located at the lower levels of personality hierarchieS. El refers to an individual's self-perceptions of their emotional abilities. This definition sif El. encompasses behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities and is measured by self-repolt, as opposed to the ability based model which refers -to actual abilities, which have proven highly resistant to scientific measurement. An- alternative label for the same construct is trait emotional self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the extent or strength of ones belief in one's own ability to complete tasks and reach goals.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LOW AND HIGH EQ PEOPLE

A person with High EQ:

• Expresses his feelings clearly and directly with three word sentences beginning with "I feel..."

• Does not disguise thoughts as feelings by the use of "I feel like...." and '1 feel that...." sentences.

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• Is not afraid to express her feelings. Is able to read non-verbal communication. Let's his feelings lead him to healthy choices and happiness.

• Balances feelings with reason, logic, and reality. • Acts out of desire, not because of duty, guilt, force or

obligation. • Is independent, self-reliant and morally autonomous. • Is intrinsically motivated. is not motivated by power,- wealth,

status, fame, or approval. • Tends to feel optimistic, but is also realistic, and can feel

pessimistic at times. • Does not internalize failure. • Is not dominated by negative emotions such as: fear, worry,

guilt, shame, embarrassment, obligation, , disappointment, hopelessness, powerlessness, dependency, victimization, discouragement.

A person with Low EQ:

• Doesn't take responsibilities for his feelings; but blames you or others-for them.

• Tries to analyze you, for example when you express your feelings. Often begins sentences with "I think you..." Ex - I think you need to-.. I think you should...

• Is uncomfortable to be around. • Acts out his feelings, rather than talking them out. • Has no empathy, no compassion. • is rigid, inflexible; needs rules and structure to feel secure. • Is not emotionally available; offers little chance of emotional

intimacy. • Avoids responsibility by saying things like: "What was I

supposed to do? I had no choice! • Holds many distorted and self-destructive beliefs-which cause

persisteill negative emotions.

HOW CAN EQ BE IMPROVED?

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Below are some of the steps to improve EQ

1. Understand the importance of emotional intelligence in all aspects of your life: Being intellectually capable is important in life, but being emotionally intelligent can be considered even more so, as there are many benefits associated with high emotional intelligence. Having high emotional intelligence can help you to lead a happier life because it is easier to talk with and understand a,kers, acting rationally and calmly in difficult situations becomes second nature and it also lead to better relationships and job opportunities. There are four core elements to emotional intelligence that help you lead a balanced life:

• Self-awareness: This is the ability to recognize your own emotions for what they are and to understand their origins. It is also about knowing your strengths and limitations and self-esteem.

• Self-management: This is the ability to delay gratification, balance your needs with those of others, and take initiative and to pull back on impulsivity. It is also about being able to cope with change and to stay committed. Social awareness: This is about be. ing attuned to other people's emotions and concerns, as well as being able to notice and adapt to social cues. It is also about being able to see the power dynamics at play within any group or organizational context.

• Relationship management: This is about the ability to get along well with others, manage conflict, inspire and influence people and to communicate clearly.

2. Learn to recognize stress triggers and how to deal with them- Life is filled with difficult situations from relationship breakdowns to job loss. In between, there are myriad stress triggers that can make any daily issue seem much more challenging than it probably is and the more stressed we are, the more vulnerable we are to not coping with life's many stressors. A very important part of improving your emotional intelligence. is about being able to spot stress triggers and recognize them for what they are and to bring yourself back to feeling calm and relaxed.

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3. Be open-minded, intellectually curious and agreeable- Openness and being agreeable go hand-in-hand when it comes to emotional. intelligence. Be open to new ideas — a narrow mind is generally an indication of a lower EQ. To develop a more open mind, seek to understand and reflect upon the emotions and ideas cq others. Be open to their ideas and opinions so that you are in a position to consider all possibilities in a positive manner. Remember that you can't always be right, and by opening your mind and considering new possibilities your mind will be able to both expand and be more accepting when you discover that your take on reality isn't as accurate as you once thought. When your mind is open through understanding and internal reflection, it becomes easier to deal with conflicts in a calm and self-assured manner. You will find yourself socially aware and new possibilities will be open to you. While changing your mindset can be difficult if you're stuck on seeing everything in your life in terms of absolutes, opening up a bit can lead to new insights and less personal angst.

4. Be outgoing and empathetic- Those who have the ability to understand others and direct interest toward external properties instead of being focused on oneself (self-absorbed) have the qualities of extroversion and empathy. A selfish, self-centered person generally lacks empathy, and a person who lacks empathy generally directs a lot more interest to them, seeing life through the eyes of their own needs and wants only. By strengthening this element of emotional intelligence, your communication abilities will increase, allowing you to experience stronger and more satisfying relationships. The ability to communicate clearly also helps you to manage conflict better and increases your capability to influence others effectively.

5. Be conscientious and prepared to deliberate- Rational thinking and actions are abundant aspects of emotional intelligence. Conscientiousness is the act of analyzing a situation and deliberation is the act of responding accordingly in a rational manner. In other words, it is the act of seeing a situation, analyzing .it, then acting upon it in a positive manner. Many a person can "see" what's wrong

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but they stop there and don't move on to the positive action as follow-through. Through the process of rational thinking and acting upon the deliberation, you will find yourself making better decisions and your ability to survive hardships will increase drastically. Paired with an open mind you will find yourself taking the best possible route out of any sticky situation.

6. Be attentive and self-aware — know thyself. To be attentive is to pay attention to oneself and your surroundings in a positive manner. Knowing who you are comes in big here. If you don't know who you are how can you expect to know others? Worse still is expecting others to define you, to remove your autonomy and sense of life purpose by delineating your pa.thWay for you. Finding yourself is an enlightening journey and it can take time — indeed, a lifetime — but it is the awareness that you continue to grow, change and learn more about yourself that keeps you on an even keel.

7. Practice communication skills- Having good communication skills results in a better EQ. A high level of communication skills makes it is easier to send across and receive messages tligt are clear, to-the-point and respectful of both your own boundaries and those of other?.-It is important to not only build on your verbal communication, but also to take note- of your body language. You can learn a lot about a person and their emotions by studying their body language and equally, you are always sending certain messages through your body depending on how you control it (or omit to control it).

8. Be optifnistic- Those who are optimistic tend to live a happy, successful life. When you're optimistic, it's easier to see the beauty in life and everyday objects. In a way, being optimistic results in an open mind, making it a crucial element of improving your emotional intelligence. If you have a negative outlook on everything, how can you expect to be'emotionally intelligent? Negativity encourages us to stay wrapped up in ourselves, fqcused only on what can go wrong in our lives rather than building our resilience and shoring ourselves against the vicissitudes of life. Optimism results in emotional well-being and greater opportunities — people want to be around the

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optimistic person and this draws them to you, with all the possibilities that more connections bring you.

USE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE IN ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNANCE

• Emotional Intelligence (El) can be a valuable tool for an administrator and managers in government or any company. Since research on Emotional Intelligence began, results overwhelmingly show that peOple high in various combinations of emotional competencies outperform people who are weak in those areas_ When emotional competencies are used in leader selection, example, performance and retention rates increase significantly.

• The research shows that the most successful people, those who consistentIy outperform their peers, exhibit more of the skills and traits known as Emotiona' Intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

• Studies show that high performing leaders tend to have higher Emotiona Intelligence than their peers. For Ex: We have many example of a more successful non-technical CEO in a technical company compared to a technical CEO. The reason is that El becomes more decisive factors rather than 10 '- many areas of leadership.

• Goleman believed that leaders with high in emotional intelligence are the key of organizational success. Goleman stated that, as leaders, they must have the ability to know employees feelings especially in the workplace environment, to interfere when trouble occur among the employees, able to control theft own feeling, and able to realize the political and social interventions within an organizations.

• Effective leadership basically correlated with the ability of the leaders to establish confident among employees, respect and intelligently build relationship with the employees.

Emotional Intelligence and Team Building

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Emotional Intelligence has a significant impact on team member relationships and their effectiveness in reaching a team's goals. Understanding our own El strengths and weaknesses, as well as those of other team members, provides a means fof improving the interpersonal dynamics of teamwork.

• El training can help team members learn how: • Individual El fits with the El of other team members,

managers, clients, etc • work assignments can be made and accomplished more

effectively • to improve communication ® to minimize the negative aspects

of conflict • to present information most effectively • to design more effective problem solving group • to assist team members in maximizing their individual and

collective strengths

Emotional Intelligence and Conflict

Emotional Intelligence significantly influences how we go about solving interpersonal problems. Thus, conflict in organizations often stems from El differences. Understanding how to use our El more effectively helps us solve interpersonal problems more effectively and efficiently and• increases the overall effectiveness of work teams. When people understand the basics of how they are different from each other and their strengths and weaknesses, they can take steps to reduce conflict and become more accepting.

El training can help to manage conflict which might include:

• Overcoming El Differences • Problem solving • Emotional Dynamics • Working Together

Emotional intelligence and Profession

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There is a relationship between El and the outcome in the job performance in workplace. Profession such as cabin crew, hospitality staff as well as jobs related to the customer service, are the kinds of task that need high emotional' level. in this situation, the employees are expected to have positive emotion and have the ability to hide the negative emotions.

Emotional Intelligence in Workplace

• El has found to be beneficial in daily life as well as in workplace environment. Nevertheless, the appliance of El has been most often documented in the workplace situation.

• There are four significant reasons why the environment of the workplaCe is the best applied setting for assessing and improving El competencies:

(i) El competencies are-crucial for success in doing work task

(ii) Most of the leaders enter the workplace lacking in competencies needed to succeed in doing work task

(iii) Employers already have the standard means in order to provide El training

(iv) Most people spend their time in workplace

Emotional intelligence at work is about how people and relationships function:

(a) Relationships between colleagues, between directors and staff;

(b) Relationships between the organization and its customers, stakeholders, suppliers, competitors, networking contacts.

• Founded on excellent practice and understanding of communication, the emotionally intelligent business consistently excels in all these areas and has insight into how this happens.

• Emotional intelligence is applicable to every human interaction in business: from staff motivation to customer service, from brainstorming to company presentations. But the

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subject is far deeper and wider than these examples, and emotional intelligence must be able to understand and deal with:

(a) how we assess people

(b) how relationships develop

(c) how our beliefs generate our experience

(d) as well as resistance, power. struggles, judgement, competition, vision,

leadership, success, and much more.

Only in a business in which the staffs are emotionally intelligent can they work together to maximum effectiveness. This can only increase the organization's success, however measured. Emotional intelligence is essential for excellence°. In terms of economic point of view, research has revealed that the cost-effectiveness of emotional intelligence especially in the workplace has found tc be an interests topic among organizations. It is to be found out that hiring process of employees when taken into consideration of emotional intelligence aspect can help organizations to be economic in their management. Benefits of using El in Selection:

- Hire the best fit candidate the first time

- Put the right person into the right job

- Reduce costly mis-hires

- Create targeted developmental plans based on the results

- Reduce the expense of screening and training candidates who don't stay with the organization

- Improve employee satisfaction with the right job fit that plays to their strengths

CRITICISM OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE

1. Cannot be recognized as form of intelligence

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Golernan's early work has been criticized for assuming from the beginning that El is a type of intelligence.

The essence of this criticism is that scientific inquiry depends on valid and consistent construct utilization, and that before the introduction of the term El, psychologists had established theoretical distinctions between factors such as abilities and achievements, skills and habits, attitudes and values, and personality traits and emotional states. Thus, some scholars believe that the term El merges and conflates such accepted concepts and definitions.

Goleman tries to .make us believe he is presenting something new, when in fact much of what he is reporting has been studied for years under personality research.

2. Confusing Skills with Moral Qualities

The common but mistaken perception of El is that it is a desirable moral quality rather than a skill. A well-developed. El is not only an instrumental tool for accomplishing goals, but has a dark side as a weapon for manipulating others by robbing them of their capacity to reason.

3. EI has little predictive value

Goleman made unsupported claims about the power and predictive ability of emotional intelligence.

The studies conducted on. El have shown that it adds little or nothing to the explanation or prediction of some common outcomes (like work success).

Similarly, many researchers have raised concerns about the extent to which self-report El measures correlate with established personality dimensions.

4. Other Criticisms:

Goleman represents his work as "scientific" when it does not hold up to scientific scrutiny. Unlike 10, emotional intelligence has no as definite -objective test. (i0, or intelligence quotient, is score derived

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from one of several standardized tests designed to assess an individual's intelligence.)

He implies that anyone can learn emotional intelligence and fails to acknowledge either the relatively fixed nature of the personality traits he includes in his definition of El or the differences in innate potential among individuals.

His personal beliefs about what is "appropriate" contradict the academic theory concerning the value of our emotions. He still seems to regard emotions as largely something to be controlled and restrained, rather than something to be valued.

PART F

MORAL THINKERS AND PHILOSOPHERS

Much of Western philosophy finds its basis in the thoughts and teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle: the Big Three ancient Greek philosophers. The virtue ethics of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the Epicureans, and the Stoics were very individualistic and primarily concerned with helping one person become a better person though self-improvement.

Virtue ethics requires us to understand how to be transforming ourselves into :totter people. That means we have to understand what is moral, how to be motivated to be moral, and how to actually behave morally. The values and ethical trend in contemporary Indian philosophy may be seen in philosophy of Gandhi, Vivekananda, Aurobindo, Flavindranath Tagore and Radhakrishnan. Most of the Indian brand of humanistic values and ethics stem from the ancient Vedas, the Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita. A. MORAL THINKERS FROM THE WORLD

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Socrates - Born in Athens around 469 BCE, Socrates lived during the period of the city's greatest cultural expansion.

He did not keep a formal school, nor did he charge for his services. He was a popular guest at social gatherings, and could often be seen arguing against illogical reasoning and prejudice wherever people congregated. Socrates did not sympathize with the ascetics -- he believed in enjoying life. He found fault with the Sophists, contemporary teachers who were willing to argue either side of any controversy and with whom he was often wrongly associated. Socrates believed that truth, beauty, and justice have objective content, and that we are born with an innate understanding of their existence. He taught his students to use their rational understanding to rediscover knowledge they already had. He also believed that a moral life brought men happiness, and that this morality was something that could be transmitted through education. He himself was fond of claiming that he knew nothing, which was his way of stating that he had no fixed doctrine. Socrates alleged ignorance was called by the Greeks eironeia. Socratic irony.

According to Socrates, the ideal life focuses on self-development, especially the pursuit of goodness, virtue, justice, integrity, and friendship. His doctrine of the soul led him to the belief that all virtues converge into one, which is the good, or knowledge of one's true self and purposes through the course of a lifetime. Knowledge in turn depends on the nature or essence of things as they really are, for the underlying forms of things are more real than their experienced exemplifications. This conception leads to a teleological view of the world that all the forms participate in and lead to the highest form, the form of the good. Plato later elaborated this doctrine as .cebtral to his own philosophy. Socrates's view is often described as holding virtue and knowledge to be identical, so that no man knowingly does wrong. Since virtue is identical with

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knowledge, it can be taught, but not as a professional specialty as the Sophists had pretended to teach it. However, Socrates himself gave no final answer to how virtue can be learned.

Plato Plato's beliefs and writings contributed much to the organized study of ethics. Plato believed that all people in some way desired happiness. A person's actions do not always create happiness but this is because people do not know what their actions will produce. Happiness is a result of a healthy soul but moral virtue makes up the health of the soul.

People do not always seek to be virtuous but this is because they do not realize that moral virtue produCes happiness. However, Plato set forth that if a person knows that moral virtue leads to happiness, he or she should act accordir,g to this knowledge. Being moral or ethical°, then, has its basis in knowledge or reason. if a person knows that virtue leads to happiness but acts contrary to this idea, he or she is immoral, and immoral behavior is the sign of a diseased soul.

Plato said that good men had to be those who were just, temperate, courageous and wise. He was speaking of moral excellence in a somewhat similar way than that of Socrates. In his work, The Republic, he presents all these characteristics. The relation he gives between State, citizens and moral excellence; he says that for a State to be good, it has to allow, help and even encourage people to be good as individuals; that good citizens were those who were good as persons and thus useful to the nation; and that moral excellence, or Virtue, is the basis of every sound society and the only way to have great men lead other great men properly.

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Platonic Idealism:

• In The Republic, his major treatise on the ideal state, Plato believed. that the physical world around us is not real; it is constantly changing and thus you can never say what it really is. There is a world of ideas which is a world of unchanging and absolute truth. This is reality for Plato. Does such a world exist independent of human minds? Plato thought it did, and whenever we grasp an idea, or see something with our mind's eye, we are using our mind to conceive of something in the ideal world.

• In the allegory of the cave, created by Plato, the world was like a cave, and a person would only see shadows cast from the outside light, so the only reality would be thoughts.

Aristotle Aristotle was Plato's best student. Plato influenced Aristotle, just as Socrates influenced Plato. One of his best known ideas was his conception of The Golden Mean" — "avoid extremes," the counsel of moderation in all things.

Aristotle concludes that (a) the proper object of virtue is happiness and (b) we can become wise through habit.

Aristotle categorized the virtues as moral and intellectual. He identified a few intellectual virtues, the most important of which were wisdom; sophia (theoretical wisdom) and phronesis (practical wisdom). The main moral virtues identified include:

• Prudence • Justice • Fortitude (Courage)

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• Temperance

Aristotle argued that each of the moral virtues was a mean (called golden mean) cetween two corresponding vices, one of excess and one of deficiency. For example: courage is a virtue found between the vices of cowardliness and rashness.

Aristotle spoke of the good citizen as being someone who does what he is intended to by the government and accomplish his social role. He said that there could be good men who were not good citizen. He then considered that being a good citizen doesn't make you a good person.

Difference between Plato and Aristotle:

In Philosophy-

• Plato believed that concepts had a universal form, an ideal form, which leads to his idealistic philosophy. Aristotle believed that universal forms were not necessarily attached to each object or concept, and that each instance of an object or a concept had to be analyzed on its own. This viewpoint leads to Aristotelian Empiricism. For Plato, thought experiments and reasoning would be enough to "prove" a concept or establish the qualities of an object, but Aristotle dismissed this in favor of direct observation and experience.

• In logic, Plato was more inclined to use inductive reasoning, whereas Aristotle used deductive reasoning. The syllogism, a basic unit of logic (if A = B, and B = C, 'then A = C), was developed by Aristotle. (Deductive logic uses given information, premises or accepted general rules to reach a proven conclusion. On the other hand, inductive logic involves making generalizations based upon behavior observed in specific cases.)

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• Both Aristotle and Plato believed thoughts were superior to the senses. However, whereas Plato believed the senses could fool a person, Aristotle stated that the senses were needed in order to properly determine reality_

• An example- of this difference is the allegory of the cave, created by Plato. To him, the world was like a cave, and a person would only see shadows cast from the outside light, so the only reality would be thoughts. To the Aristotelian method, the obvious solution is to walk out of the cave and experience what is casting light and shadows directly, rather than relying solely on indirect or internal experiences.

In Ethics:

• Plato was Socratic in his belief that knowledge is virtue, in and of itself. This means that to know the good is to do the good, i.e., that knowing the right thing to

do will lead to one automatically doing the right thing; this implied that virtue could be taught by teaching someone right from wrong, good from evil. Aristotle stated that knowing what was right was not enough, that one had to choose to act in the proper manner—in essence, to create the habit of doing good, This definition placed Aristotelian ethics on a practical plane, rather than the theoretical one espoused by Socrates and Plato.

• For Socrates and Plato, wisdom is-the- basic virtue and with it, one can unify all virtues into a whole. Aristotle believed that wisdom was virtuous, but that achieving virtue was neither automatic nor did it grant any unification (acquiring) of other virtues. To Aristotle, wisdom was a goal achieved only after effort, and unless a person chose to think and act wisely, other virtues would remain out of reach.

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• Socrates believed that happiness-cobld be achieved without virtue, but that this happiness was base and animaltsiic, Plato stated that virtue was sufficient for happiness, that there was no such thing as "moral luck" to grant rewards. Aristotle believed that virtue was necessary for happiness, but insufficient by itself, needing adequate social constructs to help a virtuous person feel satisfaction and contentment.

In political theory:

• Plato felt that the individual should subsume his or her interests to that of society in order to achieve a perfect form of government. His Republic described a utopian society where each of the three classes (philosophers, warriors, and workers) had its role, and governance was kept in the hands of those deemed best qualified for that responsibility, those of the "Philosopher Rulers."

• Aristotle saw the basic political unit as the city (polis), which took precedence over the family, which in turn took precedence over the individual. Aristotle said that man was a political animal by nature and thus could not avoid the challenges of politics. In his view, politics functions more as an organism than as a machine, and the role of the polis was not justice or economic stability, but to create a space where its people could live a good life and perform beautiful acts. Aristotle moved beyond political theory to become the first political scientist, observing political processes in order to formulate improvements.

Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is one of the most influential philosophers in the history of Western philosophy.His contributions to metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics have had a

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profound impact on almost every philosophical movement that followed him.

A large part of Kant's work addresses the question "What can we know?" The answer, if it can be stated simply, is that our knowledge is constrained to mathematics and the science of the natural, empirical world. It is impossible, Kant argues, to extend knowledge to the supersensible realm of speculative metaphysics. the reason that knowledge has these constraints, Kant argues, is that the mind plays an active role in constituting the features of experience and limiting the mind's access only to the empirical realm of space and time.

Kant responded to his predecessors by arguing against the Empiricists that the mind is not a blank slate that is written upon by the empirical world, and by rejecting the Rationalists' notion that pure, a priori knowledge of a mind-independent world was possible. Reason itself is structured with forms of experience and categories that give a phenomenal and logical structure to any possible object of empirical experience. These categories cannot be circumvented to get at a mind-independent world, but they are necessary for experience of spatio-temporal objects with their causal behavior and logical properties. These two theses constitute Kant's famous transcendental idealism and empirical realism.

John Rawls John Bordley Rawls (1921-2002) was one of the most influential American philosophers after the Second World War. He published his first book and widely considered his greatest work, A Theory of Justice, only in 1971 at the age of 50 but the book immediately came to be regarded as one of the most important works of political philosophy. His philosophy, also known as Rawlsianism received

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either strong support or strong opposition from political philosophers, especially the proponents of utilitarianism as Rawls's concepts challenge the utilitarian principles.

Rawlsianism-

Rawlsianism describes the ideas and concepts of John Rawls but above all, the term describes Rawls's principles of justice as he presented them in his first and most influential book A Theory of Justice. In it, he introduced the so-called original position. a hypothetical situation involving hypothetical subjects who are given the task to create a political and economic system for a society in which they are to live after reaching an agreement. Each of the hypothetical subjects, however, was put behind the so-called veil of ignorance which deprived them of knowledge about their social position, income, wealth, gender, religion, race and similar factors they could take advantage of to improve position for tfierhselves and their immediate descendants. Rawls gave them only the basic knowledge about social organization and human psychology, and knowledge of what he called social goods - things every rational person would want: opportunities, rights, libertiqs, wealth and self-respect. Rawls argued that his hypothetical subjects behind the veil of ignorance would agree on two principles of justice. They would agree that every member of the society should have 1) political liberty such as the freedom of speech, the_ rigtit to assembly, the right to vote, etc. (equality principle) and that the social and economic inequalities are a) to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged and b)to guarantee equality of opportunity (difference principle).

Jeremy Bentham

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Jeremy Bentham was born on February 15th, 1748 in London, England. From an early age it was clear to see that he was a child prodigy. At just three years old, Jeremy began reading a multi-volume history of England and also began to study the Latin language. By the time he was 12, Jeremy was attending Queen's College in Oxford.

Jeremy Bentham is known as the founding father of Utilitarianism. Simply defined ,Q, Utilitarianism is the philosophy that a moral act is one which produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. He outlined this theory in 1789 in his writings of the Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Bentham began° with the simple premise that people are motivated by two strong, primary desires: 1 - To achieve pleasure; and 2 - To avoid pain.

• Bentham's moral theory was founded on the assumption that it is the consequences of human actions that count in evaluating their merit and that the kind of consequence that matters for human happiness is just the achievement of pleasure and avoidance of pain. He argued that the hedonistic value of any human action is easily calculated by considering how intensely its pleasure is felt, how long that pleasure lasts, how certainly and how quickly it follows updn the performance of the action, and how likely it is to produce collateral benefits and avoid collateral harms. Taking such matters into account, we arrive at a net value of each action for any human being affected by it:

In basic terms, Bentham's Principle of Utility:

(a) Recognizes the fundamental role of pain and pleaSure in human life.

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(b) Approves or disapproves of an action on the basis of the amount of pain or pleasure brought about i.e., consequences.

(c) Equates good with pleasure and evil with pain.

(d) Asserts that pleasure and pain are capable of quantification and hence measurable.

John Stuart Mill - John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was born in London, the son of James Mill a radical politician., administrator and historian of British India. For a time the Mills rented a house in the grounds of the Londrin home of Jeremy Bentham the great radical philosopher and founder of utilitarianism. The young Mill was educated by his father separately from the influence of other children, beginning classical Greek at three years of age, followed by Latin, then history and political economy. In his teens he became involved in radical politics and in his late teens he entered the employment of the East India Company in a position equivalent to.a senior civil servant.

Mill was the author of numerous large and important books on logic, political economy and philosophy, yet his reputation is largely based on a series of short essay-length works written towards the end of his life of which the two most famous are Utilitarianism and On Liberty.

Utilitarianism offers an alternative basis to natural law for our moral and political obligations. It asserts that actions, policies and laws are right and obligatory in so far as they maximize the greatest happiness of the greatest number.. Mill understands happiness to be the psychological sensation of pleasure and the absence of pain, so he is often described as a psychological hedonist. Utilitarianism seems to suggest that if a restriction on liberty (such as free speech)

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makes people happier, then it is justified. Yet Mill is also a defender of unrestricted personal liberty. His essay On Liberty is one of the most important modern defences of freedom of speech, expression or lifestyle even when this causes offence to others. Mill's arguments are still deployed in contemporary debates about multiculturalism and whether the state should legislate on moral or religious matters.

What motivates people to do the right thing? Mill claimed universal agreement on the role of moral sanctions in eliciting proper conduct from human agents. But unlike Bentham, Mill did not restrict himself to the socially-imposed external sanctions of punishment and blame, which make the consequences of improper action painful. On Mill's view, human beings are also motivated by such internal sanctions as self-esteem, guilt, and conscience. Because we all have social feelings on behalf of others, the unselfish wish for the good of all is often enough to move us to act morally. Even if others do not blame or punish me for doing wrong, I am likely to blame myself, and that bad feeling is another of the consequent pains that I reasonably consider when deciding what to do.

"It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, is of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question. The other party to the comparison knows both sides". (Utilitarianism by Mill)

On Liberty-

• John Stuart Mill's On Liberty is the classic statement and defence of the view that governmental encroachment upon the freedom of individuals is. almost never warranted. A genuinely civil society, he maintained, must always guarantee the civil liberty of its citizens—their protection against interference by an abusive authority.

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• The tyranny of the majority is especially dangerous to individual liberty, Mill supposed, because the most commonly recommended remedy is to demand that the recalcitrant minority either persuade the majority to change its views or learn to conform to socially accepted norms.

• The proper balance between individual liberty and governmental authority, he proposed, can be stated as a simple principle: "The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others."

• Although society has a clear responsibility for protecting its citizens from each other, it has no business interfering with the rest of what they do. In particular, anything that directly affects only the individual citizen must remain babsolutely free, No society is truly free unless its individual citizens are permitted to take care of themselves.

The Subjection of Women

• One of John Stuart Mill's last and finest literary efforts was written in support of a political cause of which he had long been a leading champion. The Subjection of Women offered both detailed argumentation and passionate eloquence in bitter opposition to the social and legal inequalities commonly imposed upon women by a patriarchal culture.

• Mill pointed out, the domination of men over women like conquest or slavery in any other form--originated in nothing more than the brute application of physical. power. Mill argued that reliance upon physical strength and violence should pot be tolerated.

• Although it is often claimed that male domination over women is a purely natural expression of biological necessity, Mill found little

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genuine evidence for this. Any conventional social discrimination, made familiar by long experience and q.ocial prevalence, will come to seem natural to those who have never contemplated any alternative. The appearance of voluntary subrriission by women is even more misleading, on Mill's view; since' if could as easily reflect enslavement of mind and feeling as genuine sentiment.

Efforts to secure suffrage for women had been a major issue of Mill's own service in the British Parliament.

Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau was born June 28, 1712 in Geneva and died July 2, 1778 in Ermenonville, France. He was one of the most important philosophers of the French enlightenment. He was born in a poor house of a watch maker he was not educated properly he received informal education by his father at home. At the age of 13 he was apprenticed to an engraver. However, Rousseau left Geneva at 16, wandering from place to place, finally moving to Paris in 1742. He earned his living during this period, working as everything from footman to assistant to an ambassador.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a French philosopher and writer of the Age of Enlightenment. Rousseau as a revolutionary thinker and philosopher begins by questioning the premise of society as the protector and arbiter of good. One of his basic principles is that man is free in the natural state but that within society his is more or less enslaved to that society. He refers to this free man as the "noble savage" and sees him and the natural state he lives in'as good. if there is evil it is due to the constrictions on freedom and to the corruption of the social compact.

Rousseau insisted that men must bear the moral responsibility for the kind of society they construct or accept. Of course, Rousseau

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used men as the inclusive "mankind", not being barred from sexist language during that era. Both men and women had the moral responsibility for the society, if they accepted what is and it wasn't good, 4-'--11 they bore the responsibility for it. According to Rousseau when man passed through the state of nature, he passed from a place where he was perfectly free to do what he wanted to a place where he was constrained by others. In nature he could choose to build a house wherever he wished, but in society he has to defend it. He must defend it because there may be somebody else who feels that he has a right to it. Rousseau was not a supporter of wealth, property is fine as everyone has some and nobody has too much.

Rousseau says that education comes to us by nature, man and things. Here he is regarding nature as equal to endowment. According to nature is repeatedly interpreted to the development of a child. The naturalistic hierarchy of educational objectives represents a complete reversal of traditional purposes of the school, chiefly, perfecting of man's highest powers via study of literature, philosophy, and classics.

Rousseau said that a child is born good, free from all sins. After the influence of society he learns evil. In Christian era a child is born with mortal sin and therefore he was treated harshly. Rousseau focused on that period of a child where he develops different stages and builds his character.

According to Rousseau "Childhood has its place in the sequence of human .life; the man must be treated as man and the child as a child". He emphasized that a child has different capacity of learning and he builds his character gradually. He should be treated differently, not like adult humans and being a learner he should be given enough space to learn and grow on his own because in the end he is the result of the society. People are always looking for an adult in the society without even knowing what a child Rousseau was the first one to give childhood its rightful place. He felt the need of education according to the demands of a child.

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Dalai Lama The 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, is the spiritual leader of Tibet. He was born on July 6, 1935, to a farming family, in a small hamlet located in Taktser, Amdo, and northeastern Tibet.

In addition to being the spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism, His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama has dedicated his life to offering contemplative dialogues on the subject matters of Science and Buddhism, Education and Sbcular Ethics, Compassion and Universal Responsibility, as well as Ethics in the fields of Environmental Sustainability, Global Warming and Leadership. He has unbiasedly embraced the essence of all reilgions, as loving kindness and caring which our 21st century society is in much need And he has included in his message the value of all religions, i.e. the recognition of Jalue of loving kindness and caring, as a benefit To all humanity. in all these areas, he regards humans as possessing common basic values, and for this reason, he sustains that we must work together in peace for abetter world. His work in all these areas has made him one of the most influential figures of the 20th and 21st Centuries.

He has forged the idea that religion alone is no longer adequate as a basis for the fostering of ethics, and has become 'a strong voice for the promotion of Secular Ethics, according to the Indian definition of the words, which is defined in a broader .sense as part of basic human moral philosophy, valuing all humans including non-believers, and respecting all religions through genuine and unbiased compassion.

He is a man who lives what he teaches, and his teachings on universal responsibility, ethics, compassion, environmental issues and science of the mind have Jccome great inspiration and encouragement to millions of people around the world. He: constantly reminds us that we are all taking part in a special journey, so each individual has the moral responsibility to make

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the ecosystem that is our planet a better place. Together we bring great changes into our world.

He has the following ideals

1 Universal humanitarianism is essential to solve global problems;

2. Compassion is the pillar of world peace;

3. All world religions are already for world peace in this way, as are all humanitarians of whatever ideology;

4. Each individual has a universal responsibility to shape institutions to serve human needs.

Mother Teresa 'There is more hunger in the world for love and appreciation in this world than for bread.. We think sometimes that poverty is only being hungry, naked and homeless.

The poverty of being unwanted, unloved and uncared for is the greatest poverty. We must start in our own homes to remedy this kind of poverty."

Mother Teresa was born in Yugoslavia in 1910. She took the name `Teresa' when she joined the Sisters of Loreto, an Irish community of nuns in 1928. Mother Teresa was given permission to live as an independent nun and devoted her life to the poor. She founded a school for homeless children in Calcutta and set up her own order, which became the Missionaries of Charity. She expanded this order to other countries in 1965, creating a global network of over 517 missions around the world.

Her work has been recognized and acclaimed throughout the world and she has been the recipient of a number of awards, including the Nobel Peace Prize,- the Nehru Prize and the Pope John Paul XXIII Peace Prize.

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Mother Teresa's projects have included hospices for these with fatal or debilitating diseases, soup kitchens, counseling programs, relief work in natural catastrophes, and orphanages. In 1982 at the height of the siege in Beirut, she persUaded the Israelis and Palestinians to cease fire long enough to allow the rescue of 37 children from a hospital.

Her fight for dignity for the poor, gave the world a moral paradigm, bridging -cultural and religious divides. Her legacy and message of peace and love— something that we need in our lives more than ever before.

Key lessons from her life include:

• Take up a great cause: Mother Teresa spent over 60 years of her life in the' slums. of Calcutta and devoted all of her life to service of the poor, especially lepers, the sick, the dying and the abandoned. It took a. lot of resolve, determination and faith to keep going in the face of incredible difficulties and challenges.

• Start with your home and those around you: You don't need to go to a remote place to make a difference. Start with your own home and community. Also, you don't need to make huge sacrifices or give money. Learn to contribute from the heart and not just the pocket. If nothing else, just spend a bit of time with those are lonetly and alone.

• Have a solid personal foundation: Mother Teresa had a solid foundation that kept her going through all the turmoil and challenges in her life — her strong faith. It has been well documented how throughout her life she faced personal doubts about her faith and how she ran her missions. But her core values of love and wanting to serve others kept her going.

• Keep Smiling and loving: Mother Teresa's most endearing and enduring qualities were.her ability to keep smiling and loving, even faced with the harshest of challenges. If you come from a place of love and with a mindset of helping, then somehow you will find the ability and internal resources to do so.

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Nelsons Mandela- '1 was not a messiah, but an ordinary man who had become a leader became of extraordinary circumstances." - Nelson Mandela

Nelson Mandela was born in Transkei, South Africa, in 1918. He spent his youth in a traditional tribal community in which he would have been granted a high-office position by righrof his ancestry. Instead of choosing a life of comfort and ease, however, he chose a path of struggle and sacrifice in order to secure for his country the basic human rights deserved by all people.

Mandela spent his early adulthood as a member of the African National Congress (ANC), striving for political and social change in a climate of extreme racial oppression resulting from the South African government's apartheid laws.

In 1961, Mandela's decision to engage in more aggressive forms of political struggle led to Mandela's arrest. The trial resulted in a life sentence for Mandela. During his imprisonment, Mandela became a symbol of the anti-apartheid movement by continually refusing to sacrifice his ideals in exchange for freedom.

Even in prison, Mandela relused to compromise his values and beliefs, until in 1990, following discussions with the then president of South Africa; he was released, and soon became president of his country.

He was a man of courage and morals, who maintained his vision for change, and led his people to a new democracy. His was a major voice against the AIDS epidemic that claimed many lives in his country, including his son. He had also leveraged his international stature to bring awareness to solutions of global poverty„ Mandela's latest project was called The Elders. Begun in 2007, The Elders is a group of renowned and independent world leaders working publicly and behind the scenes to "support

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courage where there is fear, foster agreement where there is conflict, and inspire hope where there is despair."

We are inspired by the patience, wisdom, and integrity with'\;Nhich Mandela led his nation in their pursuit of equality and freedom. He was a great*mgira/ hero and we ail could learn much from his long road of sacrifice toward personal and national liberation,

Morl Values we must learn from Nelson Mandela:

• Patience, wisdom and a willingness to sacrifice for others • Learn from his mistakes rather than repeat them. • Integrity

Albert Einstein Einstein was also a great philosopher and moral le.ader. A brilliant man who was passionately curious about the mysteries of science, Akbert Einstein changed the world as the most influential physicist of the 20th century. Einstein received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his services to theoretical physics and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect".

Top lessons from his life

• Follow Your Curiosity: Curiosity helps to fuel our imagination. When we ask questions of others, we can find out important information to help us solve problems, open new doors and form connections. When we ask questions of ourselves, we can shake up our beliefs, reveal our innermost desires and make positive change.

• Perseverance is Priceless: If you have a dream, you'll be faced with obstacles but by staying with problems longer, as Einstein says, can mean the difference between failure and success. Some ways to begin practicing perseverance is by committing to your

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dream, keeping a positive attitude, staying focused on what you want every day and bouncing back from adversity.

• Focus on the Present: What a great example Einstein uses to illustrate the importance of focusing on the present. We can miss the pleasures of the present by becoming too preoccupied with the past and/or future. Reminding ourselves daily to be present will bring us more peace and joy as well as provide us with a greater appreciation for life.

• Imagination is Powerful: Imagination is everything. It is the preview of life's coming attractions. Imagination is more important than knowledge. With one idea; an empire can be built. Take for example, Walt Disney, a true master at imagination. He got the inspiration for Mickey Mouse from an old pet mouse he used to have on his farm. That black and white mouse became an animated legend. Imagination opens the door to a Kingdom of possibilities!

• Learn the Rules and Then Play Better: To become an expert at something, learn all you can about that subject, study other's successes and then aim to do it better than them. The stronger your commitment and passion is to your endeavor, the greater your resolve will be to succeed.

Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln, nicknamed 'Honest Abe' or 'Father Abraham', Lincoln was, by far, one of the most powerful and greatest Presidents' that America has ever witnessed. Rising from a modest and humble beginning, it was his sheer determination and honest effort that led him to the nation's highest office.

An astute politician and proficient lawyer, he played a vital role in unification of the states and led from the front for the cause of abolishing slavery from the country, eventually giving people equal rights, irrespective of caste, color or creed. He was a man of profound feeling, just and firm principles, and incorruptible

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integrity. He was so modest by nature that he was perfectly content to walk behind any man who wished to walk before him.

Mr. Lincoln's personal philosophy was based on reason and respect for the law. "Mr. Lincoln believed in laws that imperiously ruled both matter and mind. Honesty was a key value for Lincoln throughout his life. Lincoln had a special reverence for truth. Fellow attorney Samuel Parks wrote that the great feature in Mr. Lincoln's character was his integrity in the longest sense of that term — his devotion to truth and justice and freedom in every department of human life-and under every temptation.

B. MORAL THINKERS FROM INDIA

Gautam Buddha Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, was born in a royal family. He lived for eighty years, dying in 487 B.C.. He attained enlightenment (i.e., he became the Buddha) at the age of thirty-five. During the years 532-487 B.C., he systematized the fundamental principles of his thought; which came to be known as Buddhism. The term Buddha means 'enlightened', one who has attained the knowledge of life. Buddhism derives from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a Hindu prince in a small kingdom in South Nepal in the"sixth century B.C.

The central principle of Buddhism is that a particular way of life would lead to salvation (nirvana), i.e., liberation 4from the life cycle. Buddhism recognizes the four 'noble truths':

1. Life is suffering.

2. The cause of sufferings rests in desires (trishna, Iobha), the emotions of attachment (moha), and ignorance (avidya).

3. As the desires cause jealousy, anger, and hatred, thus yielding sorrow, their elimination is a necessary condition for salvation.

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4. Therefore, one should follow the path leading to the state of desirelessness, because it is the only way to happiness (sukh), which is liberation.

Because human beings have desires, they are chained to the wheel of destiny, and pass from one body to another, suffering each time. At the end of their lives, most people have so much of desires left with them that they are reborn in another body. Once again, they start the cycle of desire and sorrow.

In order to start one's journey along the. path of liberation, one should follow the Eightfold-Path (asthapatha). It consists of right views, right attitude, right speech, right conduct, right means of livelihood, right effort or purpose, right mind control, and right meditation. This path will lead one from the state of selfishness (ahamkara) to that of compassion (karma). It is by following a path of moral living that one will be able to break from the chain of re-birth, old age, and death.

Besides the Eightfold Path, one must adhere to the following principles:

• Refrain from injuring living things.

• Refrain from taking what is not given..

• Refrain from all forms of sexual desires (Kama).

• Refrain from all forms of falsehood, i.e., lies, in word and deed_ Refrain from : worldly enjoyments: no drugs, no drink, and no laziness.

The Buddhist should try to raise himself to a state of brahmavihara, i.e., where his body is inhabited by divine entity. For this he should follow following four rules:

• Loving kindness (me/tar): A Buddhist acquires a complete understanding of his fellow beings. He regards them as his own relatives, whose sufferings he knows.

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• Compassion (karma): Once the Buddhist knows that he is one of the elements in the entire existence, he tries to help others in their sufferings. He tries to help them come out of that.

• Joy (mudita): The Buddhist shares the joy he gets with all those who are in need of it. The Buddha is said to have said repeatedly: 'Let all be happy.'

• The state of being calm in mind and temper (upekkha, upeksha): Nothing must be allowed to disturb the clarity of the Buddhist mind. All strong emotions are harmful. Death does not frighten those who are not attached to life. In other words, one who is enlightened fears no one

Vardhmana Mahavira Vardhmana Mahavira, usually regarded as the founder of Jainism, was born Vaishali. He attained supreme knowledge at the age of forty-two. The effective period of his religious life may be placed between 497 and 467 B.C. But Jainism claims to be much older than this period. Jains believe that there were twenty-three 'teachers' (tirthankara) before Mahavira, and Mahavira was the last tirthankara.

Buddhism does not acknowledge the presence of any supreme god. The ideas, therefore, built around god have no place in it_ Neither does it have the idea of a personal god, one with whom one has relations of love and affection. In Buddhism, the only way to attain salvation (nirvana, i.e., permanent release from the cycle of birth and, death) is by following a set of ethical and moral principles. It refuses to accept the principles of the Hindu social order, i.e., the Varnaand Jati system. It does not lend support to.the system of animal sacrifice.

Jainism also consists of many of the elements that characterize Buddhism. It championed the practice of 'non-violence' (ahimsa), which is central to its ideology.

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Swami Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda is one of the greatest thinkers of Indian Renaissance. Viveknanda was moved with pity on seeing the impoverished state of the masses.

According to Swami Vivekananda, social economic and political reconstruction of thp country is a pre-requisite for the spiritual uplift of the masses. When the people ask for food, to offer religion to a starving people is to insult him. To teach religious principles to a starving man is an affront to his self-respect. He criticizes strongly the failings and weaknesses of the people, the evil practice of untouchability, the feeling of caste superiority, priest craft and religious tyranny. He prefers to see the people as confirmed atheists rather than as superstitious fools, for the atheists may be of some use. But with regard to superstitions it holds away, the brain is bread, the mind is frozen and decadence engulfs life. So it holds good if the mankind becomes atheist by relying an reason rather than blindly believing in two hundred millions of Gods on the authority pf anybody

He has expounded progressive ideas and vehemently opposed escapist doctrines like mysticism. He maintains that occultism and mysticism have destroyed the people.

Vivekananda opposed child marriage, oppression of lower castes, and subjugation of women. He stressed the need for service to the poor, illiterate, and the sick. He, believed that no religion or law was higher than 'service to mankind'. He called his religion 'practical Vedanta, because for him, religion must be put into practice only. Vivekananda's mission was to create a 'European society' with India's religion, i.e., a religious society where the needs of all were fulfilled. In other wants, Vivekananda tried to combine in his thoughts both the spiritual and material aspects.

Contribution of Swami Vivekananda for India-

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In several ways, the life and work of Swami Vivekananda mark the historical process of India rediscovering herself in modem times. These are also emblematic of the ways in which a tradition modernizes or creates alternative forms of modernity.

Generally speaking, his contribution to India and to the larger world may be summed up in four ways:

1. First, in modern India, it was Vivekananda who first emphasized that our everyday lives would become more meaningful only when spiritualized. It was in this spirituality that he re-discovered, as it were, India's message to herself and.to the world. For Vivekananda, this spiritual self-realization ied to people more fully realizing their own potentialities. Especially in the context of a colonized society like that of 19th century India, this was tantamount to men and women locating greater self-belief in themselves.

2. Second, even though the Swami rejected political praxis and West-inspired social and religious reforms, his essential message was the empowerment of the people: through education, collective thought and action but above all, realizing he underlying unity of all human existence. In the Hindu tradition, ascetic detachment from the world had been criticized even before Vivekananda but it was he who first actively joined the idea of individual' renunciation to committed social service In this sense, he gave new meaning or signification to the very idea and institution of sanyas.

The Ramakrishna math and Mission is today, an active embodiment of this legacy.

3. Third, there is the love that Vivekananda consistently exhibited for the socially marginalized and oppressed. He could be equally at home in poor homes and princely quarters, be sumptuously hosted by the rich and the powerful and also share the coarse chapatti of a scavenger or share the hookah with a

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cobbler. It is he, who even before Gandhi, reinvented and effectively used the older religious idiom of God especially residing in the lowly and the poor (daridranarayan).

4. Fourth, it was the Swami's consistent desire to bring back India's pride of place in the assembly of nations, as a civilization which, notwithstanding momentous historical changes, had yet retained subterranean threads of commonness and unity. At the same time, like' his guru, Sri Ramakrishna, Vivekananda fully believed in universality, cosmopolitanism and compassion. As he saw it, mutual kindness and compassion between man and man was more important than that coming from a distant God.

In addition to above, he also took religion not to be some private feeling or idiosyncrasy but that which was socially committed and responsible. Freedom for him was really a larger concept; it had more to do with the freeing of the mind than the body. The Swami pinned his faith in individuals, not institutions and hence chose a path that was silent, indirect, and organic. One can only hope that the more enduring aspects of his life and work continuenspire us in the days to come.

Swami Vivekananda becarne one of India's leading social reformers of the modern era and was a champion of humanitarianism and service to God through service to others. He is revered both in the East and West as a rejuvenator of mankind through the eternal truths of Hinduism. He spoke widely on Hinduism and its true meaning as written in the Vedas and founded the Ramkrishna Mission, one of India's leading charitable institutions.

Selected moral teachings of Swami Vivekananda:

• We want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded, and by which one can stand on one's own feet.

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• So long as the millions live in hunger and ignorance, I hold every man a traitor who, havihg been educated at their expense, pays not the least heed to them.

• Whatever you think; that you will be. If you think yours'elves weak, weak you will be; if you think yourselves strong, strong you will be.

• if you have faith in all the 330 millions of your- mythological -gods, and still have no faith in yourselve's, there is no salvation for you. Have faith. in yourselves, and stand up on that faith and be strong; that is what we need.

• Strength, strength it is that we want so much in this life, for what we call sin and sorrow have all one cause, and that is our weakness. With weakness comes ignorance, and with ignorance comes misery.

• Purity, patience, and perseverance are the three essentials to success, and above all, love_

• Teach yourselves, teach everyone his real nature, call upon the sleeping .soul and see how it awakes. Power will come, glory will come, goodness will. come, purity will come, and everything that is excellent will come when this sleeping soul is roused to self-conscious activity.

• They alone live who live for others, the rest are more dead than alive.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy The Indian Renaissance of the nineteenth century lays mo stress essentially at revival of the Indian spirit, vvi/th the grandeur of antiquity and purity profoundly affecting religion, society and

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culture/ National awakening has expressed itself as a reflection of religious awakening. In the initial stages, religious consciousness is found to be a reflection of political consciousness. Social and political notions, democratic and patriotic aspirations hope for a better life have been expressed in the form of religion. The Indian Renaissance initiated in the nineteenth century by the social reformers does not aim at a complete .break with religion. It is opposed to the out moded religious customs and practices on the one hand and reinterpretation and revitalization of religion to suit the new conditions on the other.

Macnicol says: "Raja Ram Mohan Roy is the spiritual father of this Renaissance who appears to be the herald of a new age."

He is opposed to many customs and beliefs of the decadent social system_ He has totally rejected the dogmas prevalent in Hindu society in regard to their numerous ads, rituals, the doctrine of rebirth; avatars, their practice of idol worship, animal sacrifices and above all the evil praCtice of sati prevalent in those days which inhumanly 'orces.

In order to promote the human equality, the removal of th6 disabilities of women social life is another important issue. He stands for the granting of equal property -rights to men and women. He campaigns in support of widow remarriage and against child marriages. He advocates the women education. He seeks to assimilate the new values created by Western science to blend them with the traditional values of India in order to meet the challenge of the new age

Hinduism as he understands is rooted in a broad humanistic outlook. Therefore he has set himself the task of purifying Hinduism and sweeping the cobwebs of superstitions which have accumulated through the ages. He is of the opinion that the regeneration of Hinduism as a truly national religion would suit to the new conditions of social life.His humanism can be termed as universal

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humanism for his emphasis on world fellowship with a liberal spirit, and for his laying stress on cordial relationship among the various nations of the world.

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was one of the very few people who impressed an idea upon a historical epoch. That idea was nonviolence. Gandhi's creed of non-violence insisted that people struggle for their rights should never violate their basic obligation to respect life.

Gandhi was both religious and open-minded, and saw all religions as paths to reach the same goal. He was inspired by the teachings of Jesus, in particular the emphasis on love for everyone, even one's enemies, and the need to strive for justice. He also took from Hinduism the importance of action in one's life, without concern for success. The Hindu text Bhagavad-Gita says: "On action alone be thy interest, / Never on its fruits / Abiding in discipline perform actions, /Abandoning attachment / Being indifferent to success or failure"

Gandhi's approach to reality is religious rather than philosophical. He approached reality through non-violence.

Non-violence is an integral part of every religion. He says that: "Non-violence is in Hinduism, it is in Christianity as well as in Islam. If non-violence disappears, Hindu Dharma disappears. Islam does not forbid its followers from following nonviolence as a policy.

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After having studied the Bhagavad-Gita against the background of Indian culture and tradition, he has come to the conclusion that the central teaching of the Gila is to follow truth and non-violence.

Gandhi's contribution to the human civilization lies in his presenting truth and non-violence in every walk of life for individuals or nations.

According to him non-violence is the Kingdom of Heaven. It promises peace and bliss, harmony and concord, sympathy and cooperation, in human affairs. These are its fruits. As the aspirant seeks the kingdom of heaven as the highest goal, so non-violence is the Heaven, it is a perfect state.

Gandhi as a Practical Idealist-

Gandhi was not a visionary but he claimed to be a practical idealist. He was a man of action. It was the idealist that made him function as a practical man. He was also an irrepressible optimist. His optimism was based on the belief that man is endowed with infinite possibilities of development. His belief in the law as the ideal is unquestionable. It matters whether individuals fail short of the ideal;Though he was aware of the reality, his striving was always to reach the idea.

It is a means of focusing his attention to the ultimate goal. He has to tread the right path without digression. This is the yardstick by which man's progress is measured. Gandhi's philosophy was the direct result of puman relations and it was in the sphere of human interaction that his plan of action took concrete shape. His approach was liberal and human. The world is there for all practical purposes. It is the field of greatest activity. Gandhi has faith in the fallible man who can improve his condition by cultivating a perfectly innocent heart incapable of evil. Thus, the fallible man, being a hindrance to his own self-development, can be corrected to follow the path of

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progress in the right spirit. It can only happen through life-education. Gandhi observes that: "It is not literacy or learning which makes a man but education for real life."

The life of Mahatma Gandhi is full of lessons that still inspire people across the world. Top lessons to learn from Mahatma's life-

• Change yourself before you wish to see the change: Gandhi said that before we expect to see our desired qualities in others, we should assimilate them in ourselves. We all are wonderful and extremely beautiful from the inside and the more we will see the same. thing in others, we shall get the same in return.

• Mental strength is more important than physical:. In life it is more important to -eve a strong mind— also called will power — than a super strong body. A man with a strong will can literally move mountains even if he may not be a Hercules. Strength is choosing what is right despite the choice being difficult. Gandhi was not a physically strong man but it was his sheer will power that forced the British on their knees.

Forgiveness is the virtue of the strong and not of weak: To forgive the person who has hurt you once is not easy. It takes great courage to exonerate and move ahead in life. But he who is able to do so is truly a man of great and strong values.

Happiness is anything done with harmony: Mahatma Gandhi concluded that only when our thoughts, actions and words are balanced and connected to each other, can we achieve true harmony.

Peace is within and not affected by outside circumstances: Do we really seek peace within ourselves? The answer will, most probably, be 'No' because we have defined peace by external and delusive factors. We meet someone for the first time and his opinion matters to us so much that our confidence pulverizes. Instead we should try

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to do introspection and listen to our inner voice and find peace within unaffected by outside forces.

An honest 'No' is better than a dishonest 'Yes': People often say 'Yes' instead of No' out of compulsion or simply to appease the other. Gandhi said that° saying yes when you actually do not mean it can lead you nowhere. On the other hand it creates a drift, indignation and. umbrage amongst the people whom yoti have been closed once. So, a yes must always be expressed with a strong conviction.

• Route to goal is as divine as goal itself: Mahatma Gandhi was a man of strong character. He didn't employ any method to achieve independence that was against his conscience. He upheld non-violence as the most potent weapon frit-India's independence. For him, means were as important as ends. Action speaks the priority: If the goal in our life is very important and we are not taking any step to complete or fulfil that goal then we need to reassess our priorities. .

Never give up and be consistent: Mahatma Gandhi never gave up; he was imprisoned several times but he fought consistently fought for freedom. In the same way we should persistently pursue whatever goals we have set for ourselves until we reach our intended destination and achieve our dreams. It is befitting to have a great plan so that we can see the success through it. And consistency always helps us in realizing our dreams.

We become what we think: Gandhi said that we are the expression of our own thoughts. If we think we will fail and will not reach our goal then our own definition of success. can never be realized. Positive and negative thoughts together bombard our minds, but we should try to eliminate the negative ones and retain the positives. Our thoughts shape our nature and, therefore, we become what we think.

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Sarvepalli Radhakrishrian In confem.joorary Indian philosophers, Radhakrishnan was a great thinker who was a professor in Eastern and Western universities and also as a Vice-Chancellor. As the head cf the University Education Commission he had an occasion to probe deep into the problems of higher education in India. Along with his wide experience of the field of education, Radhakrishnan had wide learning and deep insight into Indian and Western, ancient and 'contemporary philosophy. He was undoubtedly one of the most qualified persons to speak about Indian philosophy of education with authority. His views are found scattered in his various books such as An Idealist view of Life, The Philosophy of Rabindranath Tagore, The Brahma Sutra, The Bhagavad-Gita, The Hindu View of Life, Eastern REiligion and Western Thought. Rddhakrishnan was an advocate of ancient Indian Vedanta philosophy. He was an idealist philosopher. He defined philosophy as a combination of reflection and Intuition. Radhakrishnan's aim of philosophy is to search -that synthesis which may include all the aspects of creation. Philosophy,_ according to him: "Is an attempt of human being to know the problems of creation and the nature of ultimate reality?" •

Radhakrishnan admitted the value of reason and faith, logic and experience and the value of perceptual, conceptual and intuitive knowledge in education. According to him intuitive knowledge is the highest knowledge it is an integral experiences. He explained mystic experience as a part of intuitive experience. Total experience is gained by total self and it is much higher than any other experience gained by total self and it is much higher than any other experience and creative insight has an important place in total knowledge. His philosophy has been rightly interpreted as integral experience, and this experience finds place for every other type of experience in it.

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According to Radhakrishnan, human personality is not determined by economic or physical environment. So far as physical changes are concerned they may be generally determined by the environment by the human will which is free to decide to win or loose. The real human freedom is the freedom of will. In the tradition of ancient Indian thinkers Radhakrishnan had admitted the principle of Karma. According to this principle our present is determined by our past and future depends upon the present. In the words of Radhakrishnan:

"Karma or relationships with the past does not mean that man cannot do anything freely but free action is involved in it."

The law of Karma is not fatalism ''An individual will-ggin according to the use of his energy. The world will respond to the individual JTvatrria's demand. The nature will reply the insistent call of the man." Like Karl Marx, Radhakrishnan believed that man can change the world. On the basis of his will he can make his future. The principles 6f Nature are the principles of justice. In nature and in human world, everywhere, one universal divine law functions. Therefore, the law of Karma is not an external but an internal determinant of human life. In the line of evaluation, man is distinguished by self-consclousness which is not found either in plants or in animals. The mental processes cannot be interpreted in terms of physical changes. The physical movements do not explain total behavior.

Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam A.P.J. Abdul Kalam was born to a poor Tamil Muslim family in 1931 at Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu. By profession he was a scientist and an administrator in India. He worked with ISRO and DRDO as an aerospace engineer before becoming the President of India. His work on the development of launch vehicle and ballistic missile technology had earned him the name of the 'Missile Man of

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India'. Key values possessed by Dr. Kalam- Honesty, self-discipline, Faith in goodness, Deep kindness, Patriotism, Secularism etc.

Top Lessons from Dr. Kalam-

• Be Prepared: Life does not always follow the path we have set for it. Sometimes, it takes its own course and makes us follow it instead. And when that happens — an emergency; as some would term it, we better be prepared. At least have the presence of mind to know what is the best course of action suited to that particular situation?

• Have a Vision: This is that single most potent factor that drives our civilization. Having a vision, nurturing it, waiting for its fruition, reaping its rewards — all give meaning to life. The human spirit collapses not when it is deprived of food but when it is denied a dream. People with purpose move far ahead in life than those with none. The auto-pilot mode that works well for an aircraft is fatal for a human. The youthful lament of 'getting bored' or the elderly refrain that all 'responsibilities are over' and there's nothing else left, does not bode well for a nation that still has a long way to go.

• Connect With People: In the mad race for success, we often distance people and embrace numbers. If this is inadvertent and not deliberate, the realization of the same comes as a shock to even oneself. Gregarious that we are by nature, it is in our best interest that we make an effort to know our neighbors and keep in touch with our family. Healthy inter-personal relations contribute greatly to our happiness and longevity.

• Be Humble: This should top the list because all else fails in the absence of this. Spiritual Masters have extolled the virtues of humility and parents have taught us to be humble. The value education classes in schools aim to instill this virtue in our being. All success in life comes to naught if it is laced with vanity.

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Modesty has, and will remain, an alluring trait because where egoism falters, humility conquers.

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