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UTILITARIANISMUTILITARIANISM•Conceived in the 19Conceived in the 19thth century by Jeremy century by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill,Bentham and John Stuart Mill,•the most popular in business: the cost-the most popular in business: the cost-benefit analysis in business is a form of this benefit analysis in business is a form of this theory. theory. •basis for the rightness of an action: basis for the rightness of an action: consequences or effect on all persons consequences or effect on all persons affected (including the agent).affected (including the agent).

An action is right if and only if An action is right if and only if the sum total benefits produced the sum total benefits produced by that act is greater than the by that act is greater than the sum total benefits produced by sum total benefits produced by any other act the agent could any other act the agent could have performed in its place.have performed in its place.

UTILITARIANISMUTILITARIANISM

Two main limitationsTwo main limitations

1. In its traditional form, it is difficult to use 1. In its traditional form, it is difficult to use when dealing with values that are difficult when dealing with values that are difficult and perhaps impossible to measure and perhaps impossible to measure quantitatively.quantitatively.

UTILITARIANISMUTILITARIANISM

                   

2. It 2. It ignores the questions of rights (individual ignores the questions of rights (individual entitlements to freedom of choice and to well entitlements to freedom of choice and to well being) and justice (how benefits and burdens being) and justice (how benefits and burdens are distributed among people). are distributed among people).

Rule utilitarianism (vs. case utilitarianism) Rule utilitarianism (vs. case utilitarianism) tries to answer this by proposing the tries to answer this by proposing the evaluation of rules instead of cases.evaluation of rules instead of cases.

UTILITARIANISMUTILITARIANISMTwo main limitationsTwo main limitations

•the individual’s entitlement to something.the individual’s entitlement to something.• In contrast to legal rights, moral or In contrast to legal rights, moral or human rights are derived from a system human rights are derived from a system of moral standards that specify that all of moral standards that specify that all human beings are permitted, empowered human beings are permitted, empowered to do something, or entitled to have to do something, or entitled to have something done for them.something done for them.

RIGHTSRIGHTS

The basis of moral The basis of moral rights is Immanuel rights is Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Kant’s Categorical ImperativeImperative, which, , which, for our purposes, for our purposes, has two has two formulations:formulations:

First formulation: First formulation: ““I ought never to act I ought never to act except in such a way except in such a way that I can also will that I can also will that my maxim that my maxim should become a should become a universal law.”universal law.”

An action is morally right An action is morally right for a person in a certain for a person in a certain situation if, and only if, situation if, and only if, the person’s reason for the person’s reason for carrying out the action is carrying out the action is a reason that he or she a reason that he or she would be willing to have would be willing to have every person act on, in every person act on, in any similar situation.any similar situation.

Two criteria, therefore, are Two criteria, therefore, are necessary for determining moral necessary for determining moral right and wrong:right and wrong: 

• UNIVERSALIZABILITYUNIVERSALIZABILITY• REVERSIBILITYREVERSIBILITY (similar to the Golden Rule: Do (similar to the Golden Rule: Do unto others what you would want unto others what you would want them do unto you.)them do unto you.)

Second Formulation:Second Formulation:““Act in such a way that Act in such a way that you always treat you always treat humanity, whether in humanity, whether in your own person or in your own person or in the person of any the person of any other, never simply as other, never simply as a means, but always a means, but always at the same time as an at the same time as an end.”end.”

An action is morally An action is morally right for a person, if, and right for a person, if, and only if, in performing the only if, in performing the action, the person does not action, the person does not use others merely as a use others merely as a means for advancing his or means for advancing his or her own interest, but also her own interest, but also both respects and develops both respects and develops their capacity to choose their capacity to choose freely for themselves.freely for themselves.

““Justice consists…in treating equals equally Justice consists…in treating equals equally and unequals unequally, and in giving each and unequals unequally, and in giving each person his due.” person his due.”

JUSTICE & FAIRNESSJUSTICE & FAIRNESS

Three categories of justice and fairness:Three categories of justice and fairness:

a. Compensatory Justice: concerns the just a. Compensatory Justice: concerns the just way in compensating someone for a past way in compensating someone for a past injustice or what he/she lost when wronged injustice or what he/she lost when wronged by others.by others.  

b. Retributive justice: consists in the just b. Retributive justice: consists in the just imposition of punishment and penalties on imposition of punishment and penalties on those who do wrong. This is related to those who do wrong. This is related to procedural justice, referring to fair decision procedural justice, referring to fair decision procedures, practices, agreements.procedures, practices, agreements.

c. Distributive Justice: involves the fair c. Distributive Justice: involves the fair distribution of benefits and burdens.distribution of benefits and burdens.

When issues concerning the common good are When issues concerning the common good are at stake, distributive justice comes into play. at stake, distributive justice comes into play. The principle of distributive justice simply The principle of distributive justice simply states:states:Individuals who are similar in all respects Individuals who are similar in all respects relevant to the kind of treatment in question relevant to the kind of treatment in question should be given similar benefits and burdens, should be given similar benefits and burdens, even if they are dissimilar in other irrelevant even if they are dissimilar in other irrelevant respects; and individuals who are dissimilar in a respects; and individuals who are dissimilar in a relevant respect ought to be treated relevant respect ought to be treated dissimilarly, in proportion to their dissimilarity.dissimilarly, in proportion to their dissimilarity.

4. 4. VIRTUE ETHICSVIRTUE ETHICS

Virtues are dispositions, attitudes, habits that Virtues are dispositions, attitudes, habits that form the character of a person, developing form the character of a person, developing his or her highest potentials. Aristotle held his or her highest potentials. Aristotle held that virtues are habits that enable a person to that virtues are habits that enable a person to act in accordance with reason, and acting in act in accordance with reason, and acting in accordance with reason is choosing the accordance with reason is choosing the mean between the two extremes, the mean between the two extremes, the extreme of excess and the extreme of lack. extreme of excess and the extreme of lack.

An action is morally right if in carrying An action is morally right if in carrying out the action the agent exercises, exhibits, out the action the agent exercises, exhibits, or develops a morally virtuous character, or develops a morally virtuous character, and it is morally wrong to the extent that by and it is morally wrong to the extent that by carrying out the action the agent exercises, carrying out the action the agent exercises, exhibits, or develops a morally vicious exhibits, or develops a morally vicious character. character.   

Virtue ethics then determines the rightness Virtue ethics then determines the rightness or wrongness of an action or wrongness of an action “by examining “by examining the kind of character the action tends to the kind of character the action tends to produce or the kind of a character that produce or the kind of a character that tends to produce the action.”tends to produce the action.”

5. CARE5. CARE   One criticism of Kohlberg comes from Carol One criticism of Kohlberg comes from Carol Gilligan, a psychologist who studied the moral Gilligan, a psychologist who studied the moral development of women. For Gilligan, the moral development of women. For Gilligan, the moral development for women is marked by progress development for women is marked by progress towards more adequate ways of caring. towards more adequate ways of caring. (Most ethicists recently have pointed out the (Most ethicists recently have pointed out the ethics of caring is not only for women but also for ethics of caring is not only for women but also for men.)men.)

An ethics of care emphasizes two An ethics of care emphasizes two moral demands:moral demands:

a. We should preserve and nurture those concrete a. We should preserve and nurture those concrete and valuable relationships we have with specific and valuable relationships we have with specific persons who have become part of our lives and persons who have become part of our lives and have formed us as we are.have formed us as we are.

b. We should care for those with whom we are b. We should care for those with whom we are concretely related by attending to their particular concretely related by attending to their particular needs, values, desires, well-being as seen from needs, values, desires, well-being as seen from their own personal perspective, and by responding their own personal perspective, and by responding to these needs, values, desires, well-being, to these needs, values, desires, well-being, especially of those who are vulnerable and especially of those who are vulnerable and dependent on our care. dependent on our care.

Two important points: Two important points:

1.1. An ethics of care should An ethics of care should encompass larger systems of encompass larger systems of relationship leading to a relationship leading to a “communitarian ethic”.“communitarian ethic”.

2. An ethics of care provides a 2. An ethics of care provides a corrective to other ethical principles corrective to other ethical principles that emphasize impartiality and that emphasize impartiality and universality.universality.

In Summary, when making a In Summary, when making a moral decision, ask the moral decision, ask the following questions:following questions: 

1. Does the action maximize 1. Does the action maximize social benefits and minimize social benefits and minimize social injuries?social injuries?

2. Is the action consistent with 2. Is the action consistent with the moral rights of those the moral rights of those affected?affected?

3. Will the action bring just 3. Will the action bring just distribution of benefits and distribution of benefits and burdens?burdens?

4. What kind of person will one 4. What kind of person will one become if one makes this become if one makes this decision?decision?

5. Does the action exhibit care 5. Does the action exhibit care for the well being of those who for the well being of those who are closely related to or are closely related to or dependent on oneself?dependent on oneself?