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CHAPTER-5

TRADITIONAL HYDRAULIC TECHNOLOGY

5.1. TRADITIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT OF UTTARAKHAND

5.2. CONCLUSION

Over the centuries Uttarakhand has developed its own hydraulic

technology, which is quite unique in its usefulness. The ancient people

of this region evolved the hydraulic technology taking into

consideration all the necessary factors which suit the environment of

the region. The people were well aware of the importance of water;

they treated water sources as sacred and many rituals were and are

still performed at the very sources of water. They believed in

sustainable use of water and thereby efficiently managed it. Some

places in Kumaun region are known for its traditional water sources;

although they are diminishing fast but they have their great relevance

even today. Besides, other technologies evolved in Uttarakhand, its

hydraulic technology is also the outcome of its interaction with other

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regions. The detailed account of the traditional water management in

the .region is as follows:

5.1.TRADITIONAL WATER MANAGEMENT OF

UTTARAKHAND

The Himalayas are called the water towers of India. Through the

hoary and sacred rivers of the Ganga and its tributaries Uttarakhand is

closely related with the Ganga valley: physically through the mighty

streams which made life and civilization possible in the Ganga Valley

and through myth, legends and culture in which the Ganga binds

together Uttarakhand and the plains of north India. Even the legendary

Pandavas ascended to the Himalayas towards their last years. The

pilgrim centres are dotted all over the banks of the Ganga and its

tributaries from Badrinath to Hardwar which create not only a water

stream but also a cultural stream that links the Central Himalayas with

plains of the north. These pilgrimage centres – spread from Amarnath

in Kashmir, Badrinath in Garhwal, Puri in the east, Dwarka in the

west, to the southernmost tip of the continent - weave India into a

common cultural mosaic. Even the priest of Badrinath hails from

Kerala. Uttarakhand worshipped the Ganga and all her sisters and

maintained their purity. In course of time, the sacred river gradually

became a dumping ground of all the muck and was polluted badly in

the northern plains. Despite the myth of the obstacles of Himalayan

mountains, the people from all over the country came in continuous

streams to the pilgrim centres like Badrinath, Kedarnath, Jageshwar,

Gopeshwar, Baijnath, Bageshwar etc. thus providing a constant line of

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communication and exchange of cultures, languages, rituals,

knowledge and technology between the Central Himalayan region and

the rest of the country. Thus Uttarakhand transmitted its reverence for

water and for the Ganga and its sisters as well as the technology of

keeping the water pure and harvesting it for the people at large.

Though Uttarakhand had two monsoons and plenty of water came

down through rain and snow, its steep terrain and millions of tons of

pine needles accelerated the run off. Yet, the hill people devised

ingenious ways to harvest rain water and created inviolable

conventions to maintain its purity.

In this chapter we will describe the story of water in Uttarakhand and

how it was collected, used, preserved as a sacred substance. The

Ganga is the most vital link which relates the Himalayan land with the

northern plains – physically through the waters of the Ganga and her

sisters and culturally through innumerable myths and legends that tie

Uttarakhand with the rest of the northern plains which gave rise to the

mighty civilizations of the Ganga valley in the first millennium BCE.

Perhaps more important is the awe and reverence with which the

Ganga is treated by the hill people.

Food, shelter and clothes are considered to be the primary

requirements for survival of human being but life is not possible

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without water. Water is an integral part and also the most important

and fundamental natural resource, on the earth, playing a very central

role in our lives. Early people used to settle down near natural water

resources. Almost all the ancient cultures or civilizations (Indus,

Egyptian etc.) of the world developed near water resources or by the

shores of great rivers. Early people were totally dependent upon

nature. They used to worship rivers and other water resources like the

Ganga, the Yamuna etc. and also considered them as their mother.

According to the rituals water is worshiped in Uttarakhand since long.

There are still many Naulas - a traditional source of water in certain

parts of Uttarakhand - which have idols of various deities like the Sun,

the Moon, the Earth, the Vayu (Wind), Vishnu, Ganesh etc., which are

also being worshiped since olden times. The main motive of keeping

idols of gods and goddesses in the naulas, is to preserve water from

pollution created through anthropogenic activities. For example, a

stone sculpture of Lord Ganesha adorns the entrance of the Joshiyara

naula of Almora district. In Uttarakhand region water is considered

sacred. When the bride first enters the home of her in-laws/husband

(sasural), it is mandatory for her to go and perform at a nearby water

resource like, a spring, a naula, a stream etc. This traditional

procedure might have been adopted by the locals because they

probably thought that worshipping a living water resource would

bring the same continuity in their lives just like water which even

after crossing so many obstacles, keeps on flowing constantly. Water

is not only the basic need for human-life but also for any living being.

Water is used for various purposes. When a person pours water on

his/her body while taking a bath she/he chants the following Mantra:

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“Ganga Cha Yamuna Cha Godawari , Suraswati,

Narmade, Sindhu, Kaveri Jalwamin Sanndhim Kuru”

Water has thus been stated to be a deity. Such descriptions are found

in several religious treatises. Lord Krishna says, in Srimad

Bhagvadgita, “Water is my home”. This is stated by Lord Krishna as

he himself is a manifestation of Lord Vishnu.

At first, people used to obtain water from natural resources but when

demand for water increased with the increase in population, the

existing natural water sources fell short to fulfill their day to day

demand. People, therefore, started digging little holes on the land

called (chuptauls) for obtaining fresh water. As their experience and

knowledge increased, people started digging open naulas, then naulas

with shelters and later naulas with stairs. Lord Vishnu was

worshipped, whenever, naulas were built and when the construction of

a naula was completed the idol of a deity was established there. These

naulas were in the shape of a small chamber and were constructed

below ground level. The place, from where water oozed out of the

earth and got collected in a small pond, is locally called a Kund. The

kund remains covered with a rectangular roof. The entrance door and

a verandah were constructed in front of the naula. Some naulas were

built with nine steps and are still extant, particularly in the Chaukhutia

area of this state. They meet the day to day drinking water needs of

the locals. This type of naula is also found at Maneshwer Mahadev

in the Champawat area of this state.

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5.1.1. Traditional water resources of Uttarakhand

Uttarakhand has a glorious tradition of water harvesting and a number

of natural water resources are also found here. The traditional

structures of water management are similar in the mountainous areas

of the Kumaun and Garhwal of Uttarakhand. Mostly channels, rivers,

glaciers, lakes, rain water and streams of all dimensions are the main

sources of surface water in the state. These water resources have

played a significant and dominant role in the development of the

cultural, socio-economical and environment related activities of this

region. Common water wealth of Uttarakhand is as follows:

Table 5.1

Common Water wealth in Uttarakhand and its use

Sl.

No.

Source Local

Name

Use

1 Stream Gadhera Drinking, Domestic, Animals,

Irrigation

2 Natural

water

resources

Srot (Naulas),

Dharas

etc.)

Drinking , irrigation

3 Waterfall Ghuls For Irrigation

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4 Rainfall Dyo Rainwater harvesting and

assortment

5 River Gad Drinking, Domestic, Animals,

Irrigation, Waterpower

6 Ponds

and lakes Pokhar or

Khal and

Tal

For Animals

Traditional water collecting systems in Uttarakhand comprise a

variety of community control methods. Their assortments started from

the differences in the local circumstances. Many of these plans were

initially made by local leaders, dynasties and kings or by the

prosperous people of the society. They displayed a diversity of

technologies and minimal state intervention in water rights or

management. Sometimes, these systems failed to ensure social justice

in water use. About 49 water springs exist in Almora district, out of

which, around 18 have almost dried up due to the low ground water

table. All natural water systems affect the locals as well as the

environment, as the region is mainly rural and most of the local

population is dependent on traditional water sources for domestic and

other uses. Some decades ago, Naulas, Dharas, Ghuls and other

structures were usually treated as a common property. These resources

were mostly owned, used and maintained by the local communities.

Such water harvesting was practised in the state from ancient times.

The variety of water harvesting structures arose from the ecological

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and geological diversities of the region. Naulas are usually found in

the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. Large portions of the Patal Devi

area and the Shail village, near Almora (Bageshwar motor road,

between Dhar Ki Tuni and Ghaneli Dhar) have no permanent water

source. However, two springs are found at Shail (Sunarakhola) and

near Kalimat jungle Chauki, and, therefore, there is scarcity of

drinking water in village Shail and Patal Devi area, except during

the monsoon season.

5.1.1.1. Naula

Naulas are the most important hydraulic structures, which are unique

and commonly found in some particular parts of the Kumaon region.

Since ancient times, water from these Naulas is used primarily for

drinking purpose. Naulas are mostly found in the middle Himalayan

region of Kumaun. Naulas were generally constructed in every village

of this region according to population, availability of water resources

and its environmental conditions.

Naula is the most imperative source of natural seepage of drinking

water; it is normally in a four-sided (rectangle or square) shape with

stairs on all the sides (Fig: 5.3). This is commonly covered by stone

slates and a wall is raised along its three sides (Fig: 5.2). The Naulas

are designed to collect water from the underground seepage and are

used by the local population for fulfilling their everyday needs. The

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geographical appearance and shallow depth of ground water level are

responsible for the existence of springs in the mountainous region.

These springs are regenerated by the percolation of surface water

through the soil.

This structure is equivalent to the bawari of Himanchal Pradesh.

Some naulas are large and have undecorated structures with rooms

having a provision for bathing and washing of clothes in its vicinity.

These naulas are considered to have been built by the local rulers,

carpenters, masons, and Muslim workers. Chand rulers also invited

workers from Manihar, Rajasthan, Orissa and other parts of the

country for the construction of naulas.

The construction of a naula is described by U.C. Pande (a retired

Engineer from State Irrigation Department) as follows:

“Once a site has been identified, a pit is excavated gently so that the

water source is not disturbed. A dry stone masonry wall is built across

the direction of flow of water. A backfill of pieces of stone, gravel or

other coarse material is placed behind this wall. Stone masonry walls

in mud mortar constitute the other three walls of the tank. To ensure

that water does not seep through the three outer sides of the tank,

these are built as double walls, i.e. two walls with an intervening

space. This space is filled with a clay puddle. A raised platform is

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made on one side underneath which a narrow drain is provided to lead

excess flow away from the naula. This structure is built entirely

underground and is shaped as an inverted pyramid. Since water from a

naula is used generally for domestic consumption, it is invariably

provided with a roof” (from Ravi Chopara 2003).

In this region some naulas are decorated with different types of

natural scenes and/or idols while others are undecorated, simple or

less decorated. Perhaps the water of these decorated naulas was used

by the royal families or the people of high position. And undecorated

naulas were used by villagers, general public and communities.

Perhaps, such naulas were used only for collecting water. These

naulas are found abundantly in the Kumaun region.

Naulas are a traditional source of water mostly in the rural areas.

They are used to fulfill the demand of clean drinking water. These

water springs are the wonders of the traditional hydraulic technology.

According to Upadhayay and Bisht (Upadhayay and Bisht 2001),

naulas definitely used to be public property. There were no detailed

policies of administration. Villagers traditionally respected their

naulas and the rituals observed in constructing them resembled those

practised in constructing temples. The Naula water was often used

with therapeutically important plants such as amla, and neem

(Agrawal and Narain in Ravi Chopara 1997: 36). Naulas of pre-

medieval period to 18th

century have been found in this region. We get

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information about these naulas from ancient inscriptions but because

of lack of proper evidence, they have not been properly identified. In

ancient times, kings also got naulas constructed. Many ruined naulas

were renovated by them also. These naulas are found in Almora,

Pithoragarh, Gangolihat, Baleshwar, Dwarahat etc. in Uttarakhand

region. Jhakarsem Naula of Almora, Paran naula of Champawat,

Therp Naula, Naula of Haththarp, naula of Kharakwal, naula of

Yogeshwar in Pithoragarh, naula of Majpipal and naula of Dungra

Kaki in Champawat are some of the naulas with shilapadd (stone

steps ladder). Kumaun was ruled for many centuries by various local

dynasties such as Katyuris, Chands and Pals. Many naulas were

constructed by them for the convenience of the general public like the

Syunara kot ka naula, the Ekhatiya naula of Champawat (according to

local legend a one handed sculptor made the naula from a single

rock), naulas of Paran, Ghot, Baleshwer, Janhawi naula of

Pithoragarh, are some of them. Some of the naulas like Baleshwar

naula and Ek-Hatiya naula are famous for their architectural

magnificence and the Baleshwar naula is the only one with an image

of Lord Buddha. Janhawi and Baleshwar naulas belong to the 13th

century and Badrinath–Ji-Ka naula (Bageshwar District, Uttarakhand)

dates back to the 7th century. The technology used in naulas is very

old and numerous naulas are still in use. These are symbols of the

sustainable technology.

In Nasiar naula of Almora district water flows out of two streams. Out

of these two streams, one represents the male and other one the female

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deity. A naula in Dwarahat (Almora) is made in the shape of a

circular well, locally known as Kuan naula, which is fulfilling the

demand of pure drinking water of its consumers. Mallihat naula is

also found below a road passing through a village, near Dwarahat. In

Champawat district, Karankarait ka naula is found constructed

underneath a terraced agricultural field and its roof is propped up by

two sculpted stone pillars. A six domed naula in Suraikhet is located

on the border of the Kumaun and the Garhwal regions.

It is believed that about 365 naulas were found in Almora district

only which were constructed by the Chand kings. Some of them have

dried up, whereas others are in a dilapidated condition. Recently, two

naulas have been discovered in Almora district, one near Badreshwar

temple, below the Dharamshala, while the other in Tilakpur, behind

the Gurudwara. I also found naula buried in Baijnath ( 5.3). These

naulas are not only excellent examples of water management but also

of the traditional architecture. The naulas bear inscriptions; one such

inscription is on the rear wall of the garbh-graha (sanctum-

sanctorum) of the Baleshwar naula. This inscription is difficult to

read. However, one word, identified as Kumm Chand, suggests its

existence since the period of Kumb or Kumm Chand (from 1121 to

1140 A,D.). There are some other naulas, with inscriptions on rocks.

Janhawi naula (1263 CE) of Gangolihat in Pithoragarh district is

datable to the 13th century; its construction started in the year 1269

and completed in 12 years. It was commissioned by Raja Chandra

Dev near the Kali temple for the worshipers. After this the Suryakot

Naula in Almora and Partan Ka Naula in Gangolihaat were

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constructed in the 14th

-15th

century. Mantande naula (built by Raja

Gyan Chand and Sonpal in 1402 CE), Patan naula and Bagauli naula

(built by Raja Vikram Chand in 1452 CE), Hat naula of Tharkot,

naula of Raja Narchand, Pungeshwar naula of Berinag are some other

important ancient naulas of this region. It is said that Pandeshwar

naula was renovated by King Udyot Chandra in 1569 CE.

Many inscriptions about these naulas have been found in surveys.

According to Dr. Chandra Singh Chauhan, the naula of Baleshwar is

the oldest of all and the Janhawi naula of Gangolihat is the next in

age. Pungeshwar naula of Pithoragarh district is the largest naula of

the Kumaun region of Uttarakhand. There is An individual naula at

Baijnath the owner of this naula is mr. Padam Singh Negi ( Fig: 5.4)

Many naulas were also built by different rulers along the major

pilgrimage routes for travellers.

5.1.1.2. Dhara

Dharas, another common source of drinking water, are of three types:

Sirpatia Dhara, Mudpatia Dhara and Patviyan Dhara. (Ravi

Chopara, in Agrawal, Jamal and Shah (Eds) 2007: Pp. 38.). These

water resources of the region are being utilised since long back for

domestic and drinking purposes. Most of the villagers of this region

still depend on dharas for a secure supply of water. Dharas provide a

source of running water and thus play a key role in irrigation. Dhara is

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one of the most beautiful structures and is ubiquitous in the

Uttarakhand region. There are also some wellknown dharas in

Devalthal, Berinag, Chopata, Thal, Naini, Jainti, Tharkot, Tehri

Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal, Dwarahat, Garampani , etc. there is a dhara

of Katuryies time still in use at Baijnath which is known as Katyuri

Dhara (Fig: 5.5). A major part of the drinking water requirement is

still met through cthese age old devices. Sipahi dhara and Parda

dahara of Nainital serve quite a large population. In the Ganga and the

Yamuna dharas of Gupt Kashi water is routed through the mouths of

beautifully moulded brass heads of cows and elephants. It is believed

that these Dharas were constructed in the 16th

century. Prahlad,

Kurma, Bhrigu, Urvashi & Indira dharas are the five famous dharas of

Badrinath and are locally known as the Panch Dharas. The most

outstanding of these is the Indira dhara, which is 1.5 km to the north

of the town Badaripuri. In ancient times Bhrigudhara flowed through

a number of caves. Th e one on the right of the river Rishi Ganga,

originates from the Neelkanth range is called Urvashi dhara. The

water of Kurma dhara is very cold while that of the Prahlad dhara is

lukewarm, the overflow of which moves smoothly down the rocks of

Narain Parvat. In Uttarkashi distrct, the Shiv dhara, located in

Pharikoti village, has recently been renovated. The Kalinag dhara, in

Sarnaul village of Uttarkashi has a wall ornamented with stone

carvings with water flowing through the mouth of a carved cow mask

Dharas used to be adorned with carvings of deities and animals. Water

used to emerge from a hole, known as Mungra in local language.

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Initially people used broad leaves to regulate the force and direction

of the flowing water; later on stones in various beautiful shapes were

being used to build the mouth of the dhara. In Almora an old dhara is

known as Ranidhara and is used extensively by the local people for

drinking purposes, and is preferred to the piped water.

Ravi Chopra (Chopra 2003: Pp. 1-15.) has described three types of

Dharas in his book, Himalayan Jal Sanskriti, as follows:

“There are three types of dharas, depending on their height above the

ground. If one can drink from a dhara while standing straight, it is

called a sirpatia dhara. These dharas are sometimes decorated with

facemasks of animals and cows, lions, elephants, snakes or crocodiles.

If one has to bend over to drink from one‟s hand or to fill a container

to drink from the dhara, then it is called a mudpatia dhara. These

dharas also have animal facemasks or simple pipe structures. The

third type of dhara is a seasonal one. During the monsoon season,

wooden spouts or broad leaves are stuck in the path of a flowing

spring or seepage to create them. They are called Patvinyan dharas.

Often one has to sit on the ground to drink water from them.”

Some dharas are still in use but most of them have dried up.

Deforestation, environmental disorders and ecological activities are

responsible for the destruction of these natural water resources. Many

dharas have dried up in the Garhwal region as a consequence of

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earthquakes and landslides. Amni-ka-dhara in Tehri Garhwal district

dried up after the Uttarkashi earthquake of 1991. An ancient dhara

found along the main road of Pauri Garrhwal, has now vanished. This

dhara too was used as a source of drinking water and also for

irrigation as it provided water for ghuls and canals. An ancient dhara

of Patal Bhuwaneshwar has also dried up (fig: 5.6). These dharas are

also used for various other proposes, e.g. the Bhotia peoples use the

water of these dharas to for cleaning the wool.

5.1.1.3. Ghuls

In ancient times the problem of irrigation was solved by diverting the

water of streams and rivers through channels to agricultural fields.

These channels served as viable options for water management in this

region; the small barriers, known as baan in local parlance and

Kuliyana in Kumauni language, were built by the locals to meet many

ends, which indicate that the land was irrigated with Ghuls and Khuls.

These water channels were owned by individuals, the public or the

state. The stream water was brought down through long channels

using the contours of the hill slopes. Ghuls are primarily meant for

irrigation and play a vital role in the agriculture of the region. Ghuls

are managed totally by the people themselves without any assistance

from the government. The water from Ghuls is not only used for

irrigation but also for drinking and running water mills (gharats).

Along the length of the ghuls, there are openings which lead to small

secondary channels, known as hawarrs, and supply water to the fields.

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Irrigation canals are of different dimensions. The channel, which is

smaller than that of kul, is known as baul. A stone is put at the

opening for controlling the running water. An opening is made at the

lower side of the land, which helps in the flow of the extra water

towards the lower terraces from where it finally returns into the

channels. Some times the running water of ghuls is blocked by a stone

or solid rock. In such a case the peeled bark of a banana tree is used as

a water conveyer or the water is canalized all the way through a pipe

(wooden pipe). Ghuls can simply be dug by hand and plastered with

cement. Some ghuls cater to more than one village, if they are long

enough.

5.1.1.4. Gharats

The word Gharat has been taken from „Ghat‟ of the Kumauni dialect

and „Ghatt‟ of Sanskrit Language. Gharats are the traditional mills,

run by water which have been used in this region since a very long

time and are made on the banks of rivers and near other water sources.

gharats are mainly used for grinding wheat and many other grains

such as maize, ragi etc .Chakki, doka and firki are some main pars of

Gharat (Fig: 5.7). Most of the civilizations had settled near the banks

of rivers. Stone tools were made by people at that time not only for

hunting but also for other purposes. The people had started making

small huts with stone and wood. The Ganga Valley Civilisation

started between 700 and 800 BCE. Wheat and barley were cultivated

at that time with gram and peas. This shows that cultivation was quite

developed at that time. Probably the silbatta was used as the first

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grinding device. The hand mill and wind mills might have followed

suit. In Uttarakhand, silbattas have been found. Subsequently big

gharats might have been constructed. These gharats have been found

in Chamoli, Champawat etc. In Kafara village of Almora district, a

gharat which was in use nearly 40 years ago exists to date. In the

Garhwal region, gharats or water mills are fulfilling the grinding

requirement of the remote isolated rural communities. In ancient times

kings used to donate gharats, temples and lands to priests and other

local people. Old copper inscriptions provide information about the

daan (charity) of kings. Descriptions of daan are also found in the

copper inscriptions of Pandukeshwar.

According to Chandra Singh Chauhan description of ghat daan has

been found in nearly 48 copper inscriptions. There were near about

60,000 gharats found in this region. About 5000 gharats still survive

in Almora district and approximately 2956 in the Garhwal region.

(Chauhan 2010 (Eds.) Pandey and Joshi: Pp. 104-123)

Table 5.2

District wise distribution of gharats

Sl.

No.

Name of District Total Registered At present

in use

1. Almora 5726 1607

2. Udhamsingh Nagar 99 7

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3. Uttarkashi 1235 694

4. Champawat 809 305

5. Chamoli 2701 1647

6. Tehri Garhwal 1121 523

7. Nainital 1938 211

8. Pithoragarh 1134 494

9. Pauri Garhwl 888 10

10. Bageshwar 1433 759

11. Rudraprayag 503 98

12. Dehradun 781 425

13. Hardwar 108 -

All the records were taken from the Zila Panchayat Office in 1998 by

Drs. Chandra Singh Chauhan and Harish Singh Nayal.

A little improvement in the machinery of gharats can make them

much more efficient and these can also be used very feasibly for

production of power. Each Gharat could produce 3-5 KW power,

which is sufficient to meet the electricity demand of 25-50

households. Stowell (1992) informs us as to how beneficial these

mills proved to the owners and how Sir Henry Ramsay laid down a

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policy against these mills without articulating a clear plan to support

irrigation. Sapru (1924 and 1925) gave due significance to these

watermills as they served as a helping hand for the people of Almora

and that of Tehri Garhwal districts (Shah and Shah 2007: 138).

The Himalayan region is the abode of many rivers and glaciers.

Glaciers cover about 33,000 sq km area of this region, thus

appropriately called the “Water Tower of Asia”. The Geological

Survey of India reports that there are around 6,500 glaciers in this

region. It provides about 86,000,000 cubic m. of water per year. For

example, the four sub-basins of the Ganga, Yamuna, Bhagirathi and

Alaknanda jointly constitute nearly 900 glaciers in the state of

Uttarakhand. Some famous glaciers of this region are listed below:

Table 5.3

Some Famous Glaciers of Uttarakhand Region (From Internet)

Sl.

No.

Name of

Glacier

District

1. Pindari Glacier Bageshwar

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2. Kafni Glacier Bageshwar

3. Milam Glacier Pithoragarh

4. Gangotri Glacier Uttarkashi

5. Sunderdhunga Bageshwar

6. Poting Glacier Pithoragarh

7. Nabhik Glacier Pithoragarh

8. Ralam Glacier Pithoragarh

9. Doriyani Glacier Uttarkashi

10. Choura Bari

Glacier

Rudraprayag

11. Dunagiri Glacier Chamoli

12. Namic Glacier Pithoragarh

13. Maiktoli Glacier Bageshwar

14. Tipraambak

Glacier

Chamoli

15. Panchachuli

Glacier

Pithoragarh

This state is home to various natural resources, forests and many

ecosystems, separated by several Himalayan rivers. There are many

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rivers flowing in this state, the water of which has been utilized for

irrigation and many other purposes by the people of this region.

Various rivers and their streams flow through this state. These are

termed Gaadh in the local dialect. Some main rivers of Uttarakhand

are as follows:

Table 5.4

Some main rivers of Uttarakhand (From Internet)

Name

of the

river

Drainage area

Bhagira

thi river

From Gaumukh to Devprayag

Tons From Her Ki Dun to Daak

Pathar

Saryu From Bhadra Tunga to

Panchewasher

Kosi From Kausani to Sultanpur

Yamuna From Yamunotari to Dhalipur

Dhouli

(in

Garhwa

l )

From Devwan Himani to

Vishnu Prayag

Mandak

ani

Kedarnath to Rudraprayag

Gaula From Paharpani to Udham

Singh Nagar

Ram

Ganga

From Doodha Toli to Kalagarh

Pinder From Pindari glaciers to Karn

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Prayag

Nayar

east

From Gadri to Satpuli

Nayar

west

From Khirsu to Satpuli

Kali

river

Lipulekh to Tanakpur

Nandak

ani

Nanda Ghughati to Nandprayag

Lohawa

ti

From Abbar mount to Kali

Alakhna

nda

Satopanth to Devprayag

Gori From Milam Himrali to Joulgivi

Kuti From Lapayan Dhura to Kali

Ladhiya From Thali to Chuka

Dholi

(in

Kumau

n)

From Gowan Khanna Himani to

Twadhar

The Ganga, Yamuna, Kali, Mandakini, Sharda, Saryu, Tons, Kosi,

Bhagirathi and Ram Ganga are the prominent rivers of this state.

Gangotri (the ice formation here resembles a cow‟s mouth) represents

the origin of the river Ganga, near Kedarnath. At this point the river

is known as Bhagirathi after the king Bhagirath. According to the

Indian mythology this river has descended from the heavens. It is said

that King Sagar had 60,000 sons who conquered all the demons on the

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earth and in order to assert his power he performed an Ashwamegh

Yagya. According to the tradition during the Ashwamegh Yagya a

horse was kept open and if horse was stolen by anybody then it was

considered that, that person is ready to fight a war with the king who

is doing Ashwamegh Yagya. So the horse was stolen by Lord Indra

because he feared the power of king Sagar and wanted to stop him,

therefore he tied the horse in the ashram of Kapil Muni. When the

60,000 sons of King Sagar, found the horse at Kapil Muni‟s Ashram

they got angry and attacked the hermitage. At that time the Muni was

in meditation and by getting disturbed he opened his eyes in rage and

as a consequence of which all the sons of king Sagar were reduced to

ash, except prince Asamanjas. Anshuman, the grand son of King

Sagar, carried the horse back and asked for his forgiveness. Kapil

Muni demanded that if the Ganga could be brought down from the

heavens to the earth, the sons of the king could be brought back to

life”. Anshuman and his son Dilip were not successful in this job but

Dilip‟s son Bhagirath was determined to do this job. He started deep

meditation and after many years the Ganga got satisfied with his

penance and descended upon the earth. The Ganga was held by Lord

Shiva on his matted hair to stop it from flooding the earth. The

Bhagirathi, Bhilangana, Mandakini, Janhvi, Rishiganga, Saraswati

and Alaknanda are the seven tributaries of the river Ganga. The

confluence of river Mandakini and Bhagirathi is at Dev Prayag and

gets the name of the river Ganga. River Yamuna originates from

Yamunotri glacier, located to the south west of Banderpoonch. The

river Ram Ganga from the southern division appears near Almora.

After crossing the mountainous area it arrives at Kalagarh. A dam has

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been built at Kalagarh on this river. The tributaries of the Alaknanda,

well-known as Mandakani, Pindar and Dhawal Ganga join the river

Ganga after that. The river thereafter reaches the plains at Hardwar

after crossing the mountainous region.

The Kosi is a major river of this region, draining a geographical area

of 1475 km2 along the central and the south-central parts of Kumaun.

It is the principal tributary of the Ramganga, a prominent river of

Kumaun. It flows along in the Lesser Himalaya and Shivaliks and

ultimately disappears in Bhabhar near Ramnagar in Nainital district.

The Suyal is the main tributary of the river Kosi which joins it at

Kwarab flowing through the eastern part of Almora district. The main

tributaries joining it upto Kwarab are: the Bhutagaon Gad, Dhoni Gad

or Sumari Gad, Sim Gad, Nana Kosi, Patia and Ron Gad, Shail-

Jamthara Gad.

Not only many rivers but also many lakes are found in this region. As

most of the lakes (tals) of this hilly region are in Kumaun, it is known

as the region of Tals. Some famous lakes of this region are as follows:

Naini Tal- the length of this lake is 1465 m, breadth 455 m and the

average depth 25 m. According to a legend this lake was formed

where one of the green eyes of Goddess Parvati fell, after Vishnu slit

up her dead body and spread it all over the land to stop Shiva‟s cosmic

dance of destruction.

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Bhim Tal -is one of the largest lakes of Kumaun. This lake has a

legendary association with Bhima of Mahabharata. The length of the

lake is 1674m, breadth 427m and the average depth 30 m.

Saat Tal- is a cluster of seven interrelated lakes. Depth of this lake is

19 m.

Nal Damyanti Tal- its length is 20m, breadth 15 m and depth 8 m.

Khurpa Tal- The shape of this tal is like a khur (hoof) of an animal,

hence the name.

Sukha Tal – The name literally means dry; the lake usually remains

dry but gets filled after the rains )

Naukuchia Tal - This is the deepest lake of Uttarakhand. The length of

the lake is 1004 m, breadth 750 m and depth 45 m.

Sarita Tal Where is ( Nainital)

Vishnu Tal- This Tal is in Badrinath near Satyapatha.

Roopkund – Roopkund is located near Vedini Bugyal.

Tarag Tal – In Almora district.

Dewariya Tal – This is located in Ukhimath (Rudraprayag).

Chora Bari Tal – This is in Kedarnath.

Aanchari Tal- This lake is in the valley of flowers Uttarakhand

(Chamoli).

Upsara Tal- This lake is in Tehri Garhwal.

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Vasukee Tal- This lake is in Kedarnath.

Ling Tal- This lake in located Near Gangotri (Uttarkashi).

Dron Sagar- This lake is in Kahsipur, in district Udham Singh Nagar.

Bani Tal- This lake is situated on the hill of Aadi Badri (In Chamoli).

Dugadh Tal- This lake is located east of the River Birahee.

Dodi Tal- This lake is located between Pachan Village of Dhanari

and an old Village (in Tehri)

Diviya Sarowar – Situated in Vilab Mountain

Nachiketa Tal- This lake is located to the north of Dodi Tal

Despite a large number of rivers and tals in this region, the water

supply is gradually dwindling due to increasing population and other

factors. Due to mismanagement the critical water resources of this

region are getting depleted and degraded rapidly. Today thousands of

naulas are vanishing. If these water resources are not used sustainably

they will soon disappear. It, therefore, becomes our moral

responsibility to save these natural water resources, otherwise they

may become extinct.

Although nominally water is worshiped in Uttarakhand but most of

the water resources, especially those located in villages, are drying up

and rivers are getting polluted.The existence of rivers in Uttarakhand

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has become endangered because of the proposed 220 small and big

dams on these rivers. Problems of landslides and earthquakes are

always there. The rivers of this state serve as the lifeline for over 7

crore people and are now on the verge of drying up. In spite of its

various projects, the government has paid no attention towards the

rejuvenation of these rivers and has blindly handed over these rivers

to private companies for hydropower projects. At present about 60

hydropower projects are being run by private companies due to which

many people will lose their lands, gharats, homes and animals. In

Uttarkashi district alone, private companies have been allotted ten

small scale hydroelectric projects, which are expected to provide

nearly 23 MW of electricity. Dams are also being built on the Yamuna

River which will adversely affect it. Water level of four main rivers

(the Ganga, Bhagirathi, Tons & Yamuna) of this region has fallen

down considerably. The main rivers of Kumaun (viz. the Gomati,

Gaula, Ramganga, Panar, Gagas and Kosi etc.), which are surrounded

by dense forests, have also come under threat. According to a recent

investigation, it has been found that the water level of the river Kosi

has considerably fallen down and the pollution has also severely

affected it. This is true for many other rivers of Uttarakhand as well.

According to Dr. J.S. Rawat the water discharge of the river Kosi is

reducing per year by 50 liters because of poor rains.

Natural springs are also drying up due to this very reason. He also

says that if no effective plan is made soon enough, the river Kosi

could completely dry up within the next 12 years because its four

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contributing rivers have already dried up and almost 13 perennial

watercourses of the river system have been converted into seasonal

streams. The water flow of river Kosi has been given by Dr. J. S.

Rawat as follows:

Table 5.5

Water Flow of river Kosi

Flow of the river Year

790 liter

440 liter

995 liter

780 liter

530 liter

430 liter

315 liter

423 liter

290 liter

285 liter

250 liter

85 liter

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

Not only water streams but also some lakes like naini lake (Nainital)

are drying up. The water label of naini Lake is being reducing

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continuously for the last few years, on account of increasing

population, adverse weather conditions and lack of rain water. The per

year water reducing level of Naini lake is as follows:

Table 5.6

Per year water reducing level of Naini lake

(Hindustan, 3 April 2011)

Year Water level in

ft.(1st April)

2003 8.70

2004 4.90

2005 7.30

2006 5.80

2007 6.51

2008 6.40

2009 5.44

2010 4.75

2011 3.15

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Water scarcity has increased due to the distressing condition of rivers.

It seems that in future these rivers will completely cease to exist.

Water resources of the Garhwal region have started drying due to the

erroneous planning of the Government. These water resources are

vanishing day by day, thereby increasing the scarcity of water.

Reckless felling of broad leaved trees and priority of plantation of

pine trees are two main reasons. Broad leaved plants should be

planted to increase the water level. The Government should also take

some effective steps for the conservation of water resources.

The Kumaun and Garhwal Water Act 1975 and the U.P. Water Supply

and Sewerage Act 1975 are the only two acts in operation in

Uttarakhand, regarding the retention, collection and distribution of

water. Streams, natural channels, natural lakes, ponds and rain water

are the sources of water here. Kumaun and Garhwal Water Act define

water as “Water means water of rivers, streams, flowing in natural

channels, natural lakes and ponds or reservoirs and includes rain

water”. Some substantive water laws implemented in Uttarakhand are

as follows:

Indian Penal Code, 1860

U.P. Land Revenue Act, 1901

Panchayat Rules 1931, U.P. Panchayat Forests

U.P. Village Panchayat Act, 1947

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U.P. Kshetra Panchayat and Zila Panchayats Act, 1961

Forest Conservation, Act, 1980

Indian Evidence Act, 1872

Civil Procedure Code, 1908

Criminal Procedure Code

U.P. Minor Minerals Concession Rules, 1963

Indian Easements Act, 1882 U.P.

Kumaun and Uttarakhand Zamindari Abolition Act, 1960

The management of rain water is very crucial as the water in springs

and rivers will not be sufficient to cope up with the increasing demand

of water in future and rain water will be the only cost effective

alternative. We should conduct public awareness programmes in

every village of this region. Rain water harvesting is very necessary

for increasing ground water table and municipalities should make it

mandatory that construction of a new house would be sanctioned only

if appropriate provision for rain water harvesting is made. We can

store rain water by constructing kachha small ponds and planting

broad leaved species of trees etc. In my opinion pine trees should be

replaced with oak trees. By this I don‟t mean deforestation because

pine trees are found in abundance in this region. The needles of pine

trees spread toxicity in the soil due to which vegetation growth in its

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vicinity is hindered. These trees contain inflammable resin and tons of

pine needles play the main role in the spread of devastating forest

fires. On the other hand, Oak trees are hydrophilic and help in

retaining the humidity in the soil. They thus help in maintaining

ground water table by absorbing water in their expanded root systems

and leaf litter. So we should plant oak trees around natural water

resources, which would be helpful in recharging the aquifers.

According to a local legend, once upon a time, Nanda, the most

popular goddess, was coming to her mother‟s home. To make it to her

mother‟s home she had to cross difficult paths, mountains and rivers.

One day when Nanda got tired she stopped under the pine tree to take

rest. She asked the pine if he could tell her the distance of her

mother‟s home from there but the pine tree answered her rudely that

he didn‟t care the least about her mother‟s home. On getting this rude

response, Nanda cursed the pine tree that no plants would sprout

under its canopy, no animal would eat leaves and no bird would nest

in it and no bee would like to make a hive on it. Nanda then stopped

under the Oak (Banj) tree and Oak welcomed Nanda and asked her to

consider its canopy itself as her mother‟s home. On hearing this

affectionate answer Nanda got delighted and blessed the Oak tree that

many plants would sprout under its canopy and birds and bees would

love to live in it and that there will be plenty of water in its vicinity.

Though Nanda‟s story of this folk lore may be apocryphal, it gives us

a fairly good idea of the ecological properties of the pine (Chir) and

the Oak (Banj) trees.

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Not only the plantation of oak but also of some other broad leaved

trees like Siling, Bargad, Peepal, Kharik, Dudhaila, Timil, Padam,

Utis, Shahtut, Amla etc. are beneficial for augmenting the water

wealth. Among them peepal tree is considered very sacred and it can

be seen everywhere in Uttarakhand. It is called the tree of Brahama

Vishnu and Mahesh. (Joshi & Bisht 2010: 66) small ponds, and other

water resources. Digging tube wells and installing hand pumps for

fulfilling water requirements in large numbers will prove dangerous in

future for our coming generations because after some decades natural

water resources will dry up and disappear from this region,

consequently hand pumps and tube wells would also dry up due to

lack of water. According to J.S.Rawat, (a well known hydrologist)

these hand pumps are a curse for the hill areas, as in the absence of

sufficient water, they extract water from deep below the earth‟s

surface, which is needed to keep the earth wet. However the

government is installing hand pumps all over the area of this state

including villages. Though these hand pumps are being set up by the

government to solve the water crisis, the installation of such hand

pumps will only aggravate the water crisis in the Himalayan regions

(Rawat 1988: 201-212).

We can solve the problem of water scarcity by rain water harvesting

as it is an appropriate technology for our hill state, Uttarakhnd. Rain

water harvesting systems can collect a lot of rain water from roofs,

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which can be lifted to over head tanks with solar water pumps. This

water can be used even for drinking purposes after filtration through

sand filters.

Depressions in the mountainous areas of Uttarakhand are used for

rainwater harvesting. Chaals or khals are most common and are made

on the saddles between two peaks, which are used for collecting rain

water. The unexploited land was converted into khal like formations

by ancient communities; they dug them up and made stone masonry

walls around them. “That such khaals were widely known may be

surmised from the abundance of place names suffixed with the word

khaal as Agrakhaal, Paurikhaal, Dwarikhaal, Jharikhaal,

Pandwakhaal, Ghingarikhaal and so on. Such khaals are common in

the Garhwal region due to high frequency of pilgrimages; they have

now developed into sprawling townships. H.G. Walton (Gazetteer on

British Garhwal 1921) has mentioned Bironkhal, which is now on the

borders of district Almora in Kumaun and district Pauri in Garhwal,

that it was the name of a pass near Domila village, which was a much

frequented camping ground (Manikant Shah, in press).

Small ponds are also utilized for collecting rainwater. Smaller ponds

are commonly known as tallias in the local language. Khals can

collect much quantity of water which is used for irrigation and other

proposes. In Pauri Garhwal district alone 70 khals have been recorded.

These ponds are generally utilized for animals and rarely for human

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use. Wild animals and birds also depend on these structures.

Chuptaulas and simars are other natural rainwater harvesting

configurations of this hilly region. These hole-like formations are also

used by animals and occasionally by human beings. These save water

from springs or water coming out of the earth. “Simars, on the other

hand, are natural features - a sort of quicksand that is found in

agricultural fields in this region. High quality crops like basmati rice

are sometimes grown in simars. Some medicinal plants and herbs are

also grown in them” (Chopra 2007: 35).

5.2. CONCLUSION

The vital importance of these traditional water resources will remain

forever in our social and cultural life. We are now realizing the

potential of the technological capability of our ancestors. So the time

has come when we must look back into the traditions of our past and

learn to restore our relationships with nature and all forms of life. We

should also respect the knowledge of our forefathers. We have

considered the ecological and social advantages of these traditional

water resources. It will help us understand our cultural legacy and

glorious past. The next chapter is based upon folk medicine which

was developed by the primitive people over centuries through trial and

error and interaction with other regions by breaking the geographical

barriers.

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