establishing resilient marine protected area networks — making it happen

8/6/2019 Establishing Resilient Marine Protected Area Networks Making It Happen

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Establishing ResilientMarine Protected AreaNetworks Making ItHappen

Full Technical Version, including Ecological,Social and Governance Considerations, as wellas Case Studies

2008

EstablishingResilientMarineProtectedAre

aNetworksMakingItHappen

2008

U.S

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Local stakeholders can be strong proponents of marine conservati on when they receive tangible

benefits such as these fishermen at Tayrona National Park, Caribbean.

BRIdGETBESAw

This guide provides essential information to better understand

the role of marine protected area networks to achieve marine

conservation. It utilizes current scientific knowledge, institutional

experience and global case studies to present the most relevant

lessons in building resilient and functional networks. An

important feature is the balance among social, economic, legal

and ecological considerations, which collectively contribute to

management decisions. The tested techniques will be extremely

useful for practitioners, managers and field staff in designing and

implementing effective marine protected area networks that are

resilient to human and environmental threats.


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Establishing ResilientMarine Protected AreaNetworks Making ItHappen

Full Technical Version, including Ecological,Social and Governance Considerations, as well

as Case Studies

2008

U. S

. DEPARTMENTOFCOM

MER

CE

NAT

I

ONAL

OCEAN

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TRATION


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Authors:

Dan Laole, Vice Chair, World Commission on Protected Areas/International Union

or Conservation o Nature, Marine, and Natural England

Alan T. White, Senior Scientist, Global Marine Initiative, The Nature Conservancy

Stace Kilarski, Marine Technician, Global Marine Initiative, The Nature Conservancy

Mar Gleason, Senior Scientist, Caliornia State Program, The Nature Conservancy

Scott Smith, Senior Marine Policy Advisor, The Nature Conservancy

Ghislaine Llewelln, World Wildlie Fund, Australia Program Manager Oceans

Jon Da, Director, Conservation, Heritage & Indigenous Partnerships, Great Barrier

Ree Marine Park Authority

Annie Hillar, International Aairs Specialist, National Ocean Service, International

Program Oce, NOAAVictoria Wedell, Program Analyst, Oce o National Marine Sanctuary, NOAA

Daphine Pee, Regional Liaison, University o Maryland, Environmental Science &

Technology

2008 The World Conservation Union (IUCN)

Printed in Washington, D.C.

Citation: IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas (IUCN-WCPA) (2008). Establishing

Marine Protected Area NetworksMaking It Happen. Washington, D.C.: IUCN-WCPA,

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and The Nature Conservancy. 118 p.

This publication was made possible through the support provided by the United States NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Global Marine Initiative o The NatureConservancy (TNC). The designation o geographical entities in this book, and the presentation othe material, do not imply the expression o any opinion whatsoever on the part o IUCN, WCPA,NOAA, TNC, World Wildlie Fund (WWF), the Great Barrier Ree Marine Park Authority, NaturalEngland, or the authors parent organization concerning the legal status o any country, territory,or area, or o its authorities, or concerning the delimitation o its rontiers or boundaries. All viewsand opinions expressed are those o the authors and do not necessarily refect those o theseorganizations. This publication may be reproduced or quoted in other publications as long asproper reerence is made to the source.

Copy editing: Susan Yim, Honolulu, Hawaii

Layout and graphics: Michael Tamaru, Honolulu, Hawaii

Cover photos: Marci Eggers/TNC (Paracas National Reserve, Peru), William Perrin (dolphin),Mark Godrey (Ecuador sherman and son), Kim Maison (turtle) and Bridget Besaw (annualsurvey o groundsh status)

ISBN: 978-2-8317-1090-7

Contacts: [email protected] or www.iucn.org\bookstore or email to authors


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iii

Acknowledgements

This document represents a synthesis o the expertise, knowledge and views o

leading experts in marine protected area (MPA) network design and implementation.

The development began in 2003 at the World Parks Congress ollowed by a planningmeeting in Paris in November 2003. An authors meeting in April 2005 was ollowed by

the International Workshop at Coastal Zone 05 in New Orleans in July 2005.

This publication represents a collaborative eort and the evolution in our learning

and experiences in developing and planning o MPA networks. Much o the original

credit to drive this publication orward is due to the participants o the Coastal Zone 05

International Workshop. Additionally, participants at the International Marine Protected

Area Congress (IMPAC 1) Satellite Event, in Geelong, Australia in October 2005, provided

insights that helped urther develop what is oered in this document. In mid 2008, the

MPA group o the Global Marine Initiative o The Nature Conservancy took responsibility

to merge all o various contributions to this document.

Additional material was provided by collaborators, including: 1) A Literature Review o

Current Knowledge on the Biophysical Aspects o Marine Protected Area Network Design

and Implementation(Skilbred et al. 2006), 2) Establishing networks o marine protected

areas: A guide or developing national and regional capacity or building MPA networks

(WCPA/IUCN 2007) and 3) Establishing national and regional networks o MPAsA review

o progress with lessons learned(UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre 2008). The

rst document was developed to support collaboration between The Nature Conservancy,

World Wildlie Fund, Conservation International and the Wildlie Conservation Society.

The second was prepared to help guide implementation o the World Parks Congressrecommendations regarding MPA networks. The third was compiled by Sue Wells with

input rom most countries with MPAs and rom numerous experts.

Funders or this eort include: U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,

National Ocean Service, International Program Oce, National Marine Sanctuary

Program and the Marine Protected Areas Center; the Intergovernmental Oceanographic

Commission; The Nature Conservancy; Environmental Deense; World Wildlie Fund;

Natural England; the Great Barrier Ree Marine Park Authority; National Estuarine

Research Reserve Foundation; Parks Canada; and the United States Agency or

International Development, through the MPA Networks Learning Partnership.

Finally, many thanks are due to numerous contributors and reviewers o the various

iterations o this document over the past several years:

Eileen Alicea, Billy Causey, Gonzalo Cid, Sean Hastings, John Parks and Anne Walton

(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)

Vera Agostini, Jeanine Almany, Alison Green, Nina Hadley, Lynne Hale, Trina Leberer,

Stephanie Wear, Caitlyn Toropova, and Jay Udelhoven (The Nature Conservancy)

Leah Bunce Karrer (Conservation International)

Nick Drayton (Ocean Conservancy)


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Emily Goodwin (Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation)

Andrew Gude (U.S Fish and Wildlie Service, Department o the Interior)

Sean Hastings (Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary)

Monika Thiele (The Ocean Foundation)John Ugoretz (Caliornia Department o Fish)

Sue Wells (Marine conservation consultant)

This work has been accomplished in the spirit o collaboration and sharing o experience

and knowledge. Certainly not all contributors are recognized since there are undoubtedly

many more persons who were associated with the various workshops and discussions

that culminated with this book.


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v

Table o Contents

Tables and Figures

List o Tables vii

List o Figures vii

Acronms and Abbreviations

Foreword i

PreacePurpose and Use o This Guide

Chapter 1: IntroductionWh Marine Protected Areas? 1

The problem

Purpose an benets o MPAs 3

Chapter 2: Scaling Up to a Network Approach 9

Why scale up to networks? 10What constitutes an MPA network? 12

MPA networks in a broaer management context 13

MPAs an the ecosystem approach 15

Resilient MPA networks 15

Chapter 3: Broad-scale Considerations or Resilient MPA Networks 17

Institutional an governance consierations 18

Economic an social consierations 20

Spatial an temporal consierations 23

Scientic an inormation management consierations 24

Chapter 4: Best Practices or Planning MPA networks 29

Clearly ene goals an objectives 30

Legal authority an long-term political commitment 31

Incorporate stakeholers 33

Use o best available science & a precautionary approach 35

Integrate management rameworks 36

Aaptive management measures

Chapter 5: Five Ecological Guidelines or Designing

Resilient MPA Networks 39

Guieline 1: Inclue the ull range o bioiversity present in thebiogeographic region 40

Rprsntatin 40

Rplicatin 42

Rprsntatin rsilint and rsistant caractristics 43

Guieline 2: Ensure ecologically signicant areas are incorporate 45

Prtctin uniqu r ulnrabl abitats 46

Prtctin raging r brding grunds 46

Prtctin surc ppulatins 47

Guieline 3: Maintain long-term protection 48

Spillr lara, junils and adults rm lng-trm prtctin 49 Adapti stratgis t lng-trm prtctin 51


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Guieline 4: Ensure ecological linkages 52

Cnnctiit 52

Adult mmnt pattrns 53

Laral disprsal 54

Guieline 5: Ensure maximum contribution o iniviual MPAs to the network 58 Si 58

Spacing 59

Sap 59

Chapter 6: Case Studies o MPA Networks 63

Cas Stud 1: Scintic dsign Kimb Ba MPA ntwrk, Wst Nw Britain,

Papua Nw Guina 64

Lcatin and backgrund 64

Cnsratin basis 64

Ntwrk dsign and apprac 64 Implmntatin 66

Cas Stud 2: Palau, Micrnsia MPA Ntwrk 67


Cnsratin basis 67

Ntwrk dsign and apprac 68

Implmntatin 70

Cas Stud 3: Cbu Island, Pilippins MPA Ntwrk 71


Cnsratin basis 72


Implmntatin 73

Cas Stud 4: Cannl Islands, Calirnia MPA Ntwrk 77


Cnsratin basis 77


Implmntatin 81

Chapter 7: Implementation Strategies 83

Political will an leaership 84

Public ducatin, cmmunicatin and awarnss 86

Sustainable nancing 88 Cmpnnts nancial sustainabilit 88

Stps r building sustainabl nancing stratgis 91

Monitoring an assessment 97

Enorcement an compliance 100

Chapter 8: Conclusion and Net Steps 105

Sel-assessment checklist 107

Ke Denitions 111

Reerences 113


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vii

List o Tables

Table 1 Regional types and orms o MPAs 5Table 2 IUCN protected area management categories 7

Table 3 International commitments and current global status o MPAs 11Table 4 Important categories o spatial data or MPA planning 25Table 5 A database o the worlds MPAs 27Table 6 A national MPA database in the Philippines 28Table 7 Resistance actors o coral rees 45Table 8 Approximate adult and larval neighborhood sizes 53Table 9 Summary o ecological guiding principles to help build resilient

MPA networks 62Table 10 Application o design criteria, Kimbe Bay 65Table 11 Application o biophysical criteria, Palau MPA network 69Table 12 Application o design criteria, Cebu Island 73

Table 13 Capacity building training, Cebu Island 75Table 14 Application o design criteria, Channel Islands 79Table 15 Components o MPA network nancing strategies 93Table 16 Publications on MPA monitoring and evaluation 99Table 17 Sel-assessment checklist 108

List o Figures

Figure 1 Relative contribution to poverty reduction rom the three elementso poverty 4

Figure 2 Marine management zones and categories within ICM ramework 13Figure 3 ICM area in Philippines with various spatial management tools,including MPAs 14

Figure 4 Resilience system responses 16Figure 5 Adaptive management cycle 37Figure 6 Biomass enhancement at Apo and Sumilon islands MPAs 48Figure 7 Average changes in biomass and density in temperate and tropical

region MPAs 49Figure 8 Average numbers o young produced by mature sh 50Figure 9 Number o MPAs builds connectivity 54Figure 10 Estimated dispersal distance by organism group 56

Figure 11 Kimbe Bay location 64Figure 12 Reserve placement based on optimization analysis, Kimbe Bay 66Figure 13 Map o Palaus main island cluster 67Figure 14 MARXAN scenario, Palau Network 68Figure 15 Location o Southern Cebu 71Figure 16 Cebu Island MPA management rating 74Figure 17 Live hard coral cover, Cebu Island 76Figure 18 Channel Islands location 77Figure 19 MARXAN analysis, Channel Islands 80Figure 20 Priority conservation areas or Channel Island National Marine

Sanctuary 80

Figure 21 Channel Islands MPA network 81Figure 22 Important ingredients or MPA network success 107


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Acronms and Abbreviations

AOI areas o interest

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CCIF Conservation and Community Investment Forum

CDFG Caliornia Department o Fish and Game

CINMS Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary

CONAMA Chiles National Environmental Commission

CRM coastal resource management

FANP Natural Protected Areas Fund

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization o the United Nations

FMCN Mexican Nature Conservation Fund

GBRMP Great Barrier Ree Marine Park

GEF Global Environment Facility

GIS geographical inormation system

ICM integrated coastal management

IUCN The World Conservation Union (ormally The International Union or

Conservation o Nature )

LGU local government unit

LMMA Local Marine Management Area

MAR Mesoamerican Ree

MCA marine conservation areaMLPA Marine Lie Protection Act

MPA marine protected area

MRWG Marine Reserves Working Group

NGO non-governmental organization

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NRC National Research Council

PAN protected areas network

PISCO Partnership or Interdisciplinary Studies o Coastal Oceans

PLD pelagic larval durationSST sea-surace temperature

TNC The Nature Conservancy

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural Organization

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Program

WCMC World Conservation Monitoring Centre

WCPA World Commission on Protected Areas

WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development

WWF World Wildlie Fund


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ix

Foreword: Protecting Ocean EcosstemsThe Challenge Ahead

Regardless o where we live, all o us depend upon healthy ocean ecosystems: either as

a source o ood or revenue, or as a key shaper and regulator o climate and weather.

This dependency and the need to embrace sustainable development led nations o the

world to agree to a series o high-level political commitments or marine conservation

and marine protected areas. The World Summit on Sustainable Development, the 5th

World Parks Congress, the Convention on Biological Diversity and the G8 Group o

Nations have all called or the establishment o a global system o marine protected area

(MPA) networks by the year 2012. In line with this commitment are strategies o marine

conservation organizations and some governments to increase the development, use and

eective management o MPAs as a tool or marine conservation across the oceans.The challenge, however, is to turn such commitments into practical and eective

realitypart o a broader management approach to our oceans and seas to benet the

environment and people. It is particularly important at a time when the impacts rom

climate change and rom ocean acidication are major issues that will shape our uture.

The Second Millennium Assessment also tells us that wildlie and habitat losses continue.

Clearly, the need or action to conserve and restore marine ecosystems, and thereby help

sustain livelihoods, has never been greater.

We all have a common responsibility to ensure that uture generations enjoy such benets

o healthy marine ecosystems and abundant marine lie; this is, ater all, the cornerstoneo what sustainable development means. This publication, which has pooled global

experience on MPAs, is intended to be useul to countries and their various organizations

in helping them build eective networks o MPAs. Not only does it provide a wealth o

real-lie examples rom around the globe, it outlines the steps necessary to turn political

ambitions into reality.

This guide represents a global rst in capturing the emerging experience on building

MPA networks. We are grateul to all those who have worked so hard to bring it to ruition

over the last 5 years. We hope you will nd the advice it contains will support improved

protection and management o our marine areas, and ensure that uture generations

benet as we have done rom the oceans diversity o species, the opportunities itprovides, and its splendor and natural wonders.

Proessor Dan Laole Dr. Clement Lewse

Vice Chair Director

IUCNs World Commission on National Ocean Service,

Protected Areas International Program Oce


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Preace: Purpose and Use o This Guide

This guide helps us to better understand the role o MPAs and MPA networks at local and

regional scales to achieve marine conservation. It utilizes current scientic knowledge,

institutional experience and global case studies to outline the latest inormation pertainingto building resilient and unctional MPA networks. It also highlights global commitments

or marine conservation and shows how to move rom individual MPA sites to an eective

system o national and regional MPA networks.

The design o an MPA network encompasses many considerations, including social,

economic, legal and ecological, which collectively contribute to management decisions

and implementation. Guidance contained in this document provides MPA practitioners,

managers and eld sta with techniques or designing eective MPA networks that are

resilient to human and environmental threats.

Five main elements compose this guide or management application:

1. Essential inormation on the role o MPAs and the value o scaling up to networks.

2. The importance o understanding the social, economic and political context and the

need or broader marine and coastal management rameworks.

3. Emerging best practices or planning and implementing MPA networks.

4. A comprehensive summary o the best available scientic inormation on 5

ecological guiding principles in relation to MPA network design.

5. Case studies rom the eld that demonstrate methods used to design and implement

both scientically rigorous and unctional MPA networks.

The core o this guide is 5 biophysical and ecological principles most relevant or decision-

making by marine managers and practitioners in designing and implementing MPA

networks. These are: (1) include the ull range o biodiversity present in the biogeographic

region, (2) ensure that ecologically signicant areas are incorporated, (3) maintain long-

term protection, (4) ensure ecological linkages, and (5) ensure maximum contributions o

individual MPAs to the network.

While using this guide, it is important to remember that the sub-divisions o the overall

MPA process are articial. While many issues have been separated out within this

guide, all elements are to be considered parallel actions. Processes such as education,

communication, leadership and political will operate throughout the process o MPAdesign, implementation and management. This guide recognizes that MPA networks are

only one aspect o achieving sustainable development. Eectively managed networks

are intertwined with improvements in wider oceans and seas governance, especially or

sheries, climate change and water quality.

This inormation is intended or MPA planners, managers and other practitioners. We

also hope it will interest a wider audience, including those concerned with sustainable

development and the uture o our coasts, seas and oceans.


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Chapter 1

IntroductionWhy Marine

Protected Areas?

sh densities were 6 to 10 times greater

than in areas outside the reserve

(RobeRts and Hawkins 1997).

T Clmbian cast t Caribban Sa at Tarna Natinal Park. T park iswitin t Sirra Nada d Santa Marta rgin, lcatd in nrtrn Clmbia.

BRIdGET BESAW


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2

ESTABLISHING RESILIENT MARINE PROTECTED AREA NETWORKSMAKING IT HAPPEN

The Problem

Coastal and marine ecosystems are in decline worldwide. Overshing, runo o nutrients

and other land-based pollutants, habitat degradation and the increasing impacts o

climate change are leading to ecosystem collapses in all the major coastal and oceanregions o the world (Wilkinson 2004; Hughes et al. 2005)

Globally, over hal o the stocks (52%) o sheries are ully exploited and producing

catches that are at or close to their maximum sustainable limits, while more than 25%

are either overexploited, depleted or recovering rom depletion. Furthermore, most o the

stocks o the top 10 species (e.g. anchoveta, Alaska Pollock, herring, yellown tuna, etc.)

are ully exploited or overexploited and cannot be expected to produce major increases

in catches (FAO 2006). Large predatory shes are largely absent in many parts o the

ocean due to technological advances that enable shing and other extractive activities in

once remote ocean areas (Roberts 2007). Yet, despite these ominous signs, the annual

world total demand or sh and shery products is projected to increase to 183 million

tons by 2015, implying an 18% increase rom 2000 to 2015 (FAO 2004).

Increasing human population and demand or resources and development are causing

a rise in the distribution and size o harmul algal blooms and dead zones(marine areas

where oxygen levels are so low that naturally occurring organisms cannot survive)

(Anderson 1997; Verheij and Aitaro 2006; Golbuu et al. 2007; Hinchley et al. 2007). These

demands also contribute to the destruction o coral rees, with 70% o the worlds coral

rees threatened or destroyed, 20% o those damaged beyond repair, and within the

Caribbean alone, coral cover has declined by up to 80% on some rees (Wilkinson 2004).

Like harmul algal blooms and dead zones, coral bleaching events are also increasing inrequency and severity due to higher sea surace temperatures (SST) related to climate

change.

Mass coral bleaching events can cause whole

cral cln mrtalit.

In addition, rising levels o atmospheric

carbon dioxide are making surace waters

more acidic (Orr et al. 2005) . Such changes

diminish the amount o chemical ions

essential or the growth o organisms that

construct calcium carbonate shells or

skeleton (e.g. corals, mussels and calcareous

phytoplankton). Phytoplankton builds theoundation o marine ecosystem ood chains

and their productivity ultimately shapes the

ecosystem composition o the system.

A key management strategy to address

many issues aecting marine and

coastal ecosystems and resources is the

implementation o marine protected areas

(MPAs). A marine protected area is a coastal

or oshore marine area that is managed to

protect natural and/or cultural resources

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3

INTRODUCTIONWHY MARINE PROTECTED AREAS?

Introductionwhymarine

protectedareas?

(Agardy and Staub 2006). An international denition o a protected area, including

MPAs, is provided by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) (WCPA 2008):

A clearly dened geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed,

through legal or other eective means, to achieve the long-term conservation onature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values.

Purpose and benets o MPAs

Healthy marine resources require healthy, intact ecosystems. Marine and coastal

ecosystems are highly productive and deliver various goods and services that support

communities and economies, including ood security, clean water, recreational

opportunities and other benets. Eective area-based protection, through MPAs, helps

maintain ecosystem health and productivity, while saeguarding social and economic

development. They also help maintain the ull range o genetic variation, essential insecuring viable populations o key species, sustaining evolutionary processes and

ensuring resilience in the ace o natural disturbances and human use (Agardy and

Staub 2006).

In response to a growing recognition o the need or conservation eorts, as seen

through the degradation o ocean systems, MPAs are being established worldwide. I

designed correctly and managed well, MPAs have an important role to play in protection

o ecosystems and, in some cases, enhancing or restoring the productive potential o

coastal and marine sheries. However, it is recognized that MPAs are not the only solution

or coastal and marine problems. For example, when MPAs are used in conjunction

with other management tools, such as integrated coastal management (ICM), marinespatial planning and broad area sheries management, they oer the cornerstone o the

strategy or marine conservation. The benets that MPAs can deliver are also related to

the eectiveness o the management outside o the MPAs (Christie et al. 2002; Cicin-

Sain and Belore 2005).

When appropriately placed and well-managed, MPAs contribute to:

Conserving biological diversity and associated ecosystems.

Protecting critical spawning and nursery habitats.

Protecting sites with minimal direct human impact to help them recover rom

stresses.

Protecting settlement and growth areas or marine species and spillover benetsto adjacent areas.

Focal points or educating the public about marine ecosystems and human

impacts upon them.

Nature-based recreation and tourism.

Providing undisturbed control or reerence sites that serve as baselines orscientic research and or designing and evaluating other areas.

Sharing costs and benets among local communities, the private sector, regional

and national governments, and other stakeholders.Reducing poverty and increasing the quality o lie o surrounding communities(Figure 1).


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Eample rom the eld MPAs and povert reduction. Across 4 MPA sites(Navakavu, Fiji; Bunaken, Indonesia; Arnavon Island, Solomon Islands; ApoIsland, Philippines), clear evidence indicates that poverty has been reduced by

several actors:Improved sh catches, spillover eects to adjacent areas.

New job opportunities, mostly in tourism and MPA management.

Empowerment through stronger local governance and community decision-making.

Benets to women, by helping to empower women economically and in some cases

socially.

Benets to health rom greater protein intake rom greater sh catches, particularly

in childrens health.

Strengthened social cohesion and cultural tradition.

Figure 1 Relative contribution to povert reduction rom the three elements o

povert (Adptd rm Lisr t al. 2007)

MPAs cover a diverse set o tools and spatial, temporal and resource management

rameworks. MPAs exist in multiple orms, with diverse denitions and objectives. The

diverse array o MPA goals (e.g. biodiversity, shery, social and cultural) and their relative

priority vary throughout the world (Table 1), ranging rom village-level community-

managed areas to multi-million hectare national parks. Additionally, various names

including marine reserve, shery reserve, closed area, no-take area or zone, sanctuary,

park, wilderness area and locally managed area, among others, are used to describean MPA (Lutchman 2005; Marine Protected Areas Center 2008). The denition o the

terms can vary drastically, depending on national, local or international contexts (Agardy

and Staub 2006; White et al. 2006; Christie and White 2007). For example, in Kenya and

Belize, marine reserves allow or non-destructive orms o shing; whereas in Tanzania,

marine reserves are no-take areas. For purposes o this document, MPA is used as the

single, generic term to encompass the range o dierent protection and conservation

strategies, rom areas that allow multiple-use activities to areas that restrict all access.


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5



protectedareas?

INCREASING ECOLOGICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROTECTION INCREASING MANAGED LAND USE AND SOCIAL PROTECTION

COUNTRy BIODIVE RSITy CONSERVATION BALANCE OF CONSERVATION SUSTAINABILITy OF TRADITIONAL AND INDIGENOUS& HABITAT PROTECTION AND MULTIPLE USES ExTRACTIVE USES COMMU NITy PROTECTION

Philippines Community-basedMPA IntegratedCoastal FisheryManagement No-takeMPA Management Reserve MPANetwork Multi-useMPA Ecosystem-based NationalMarinePark FisheryReserve WorldHeritageSite LocallyManaged Ramsarsite MarineArea

Papua MarineProtectedArea IntegratedCoastal WildlifeManagement CustomaryMarineTenure-New Management Area based MPAGuinea Treaty-basedMPA FisheryManagement MarineSacredSites

Reserve Reserve

Solomon WorldHeritageSite IntegratedCoastal WildlifeManagement CustomaryMarineIslands MarineProtectedArea Management Area Tenure-basedMPA Treaty-basedMPA FisheryManagement MarineSacredSites

LargeMarineEcosystem Reserve

Brazil NationalMarinePark IntegratedCoastal CustomaryMarine MarineSacredSites RamsarSite Management Tenure-based Culture-ecological Multi-useMPA MPA IndigenousPeoples

Territory

Australia MPANetwork IntegratedCoastal FisheryManagement C ulture-ecologicalReserve Ecosystem-based Management Reserve Traditional(non-indigenous) Reserve Treaty-basedMPA communities WorldHeritageSite CustomaryMarineTenure- BiosphereReserve basedMPA IndigenousMPA IndigenousLandscape

Management MPA MarineSacredSites

(Adptd rm Wrld Bank 2006)

Table 1 Regional tpes and orms o MPAs

Ke Concept

MPAs can oer a spectrum o management strategies ranging rom ull protection, orno-entry areas, to multiple-use areas which prohibit limited activities. No-take MPAs arespatial closures that prohibit all orms o resource extraction, especially shing. Limited-take MPAs include those MPAs with mixed harvest or restricted harvest prohibitionareas.


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The broad applicability o MPAs as a tool or protection and management o marine

resources covers a wide spectrum. MPAs range rom no-entry areas, where access is

restricted and designed to protect all marine resources, to extensive, multi-use protected

areas that integrate multi-species and sheries management, incorporating regulatory

mechanisms enabling limited take or certain species. MPA protection levels include no-take areas, designated to protect a single species or habitat type. No-take areas prohibit

all orms o extraction, particularly shing (Dayton et al. 2000; Roberts et al. 2001; Russ

and Alcala 2004). As such, no-take areas are one o the most restrictive types o MPA,

and act as benchmarks or assessing the state o the environment and the success o

management regimes. They also contribute signicantly towards recovery and protection

o marine ecosystems (NRC 2000). Multiple-use, or limited take, areas include those

MPAs with mixed harvest, restricted harvest and/or complete harvest prohibition areas,

as well as other zones (e.g. recreation, research, etc).

MPAs involve a series o trade-os that must be balanced to meet ecosystem protectiongoals. For instance, a large MPA may be ecologically optimal but economically or

institutionally impractical. Multiple-use MPA zoning, to include no-take areas, provides

a way to accommodate multiple users, balancing the trade-os between sustainable use

and conservation objectives or eective management.

The World Conservation Union classies MPAs into 6 categories, ranging rom highly

protected reserves, intended only or scientic research or wilderness conservation,

to multiple-use areas, created to oster the sustainable use o natural ecosystems and

resources (Table 2).

Big- snappr aggrgat in t n-tak n an MPA in t Pilippins.

CASTILLo


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protectedareas?

Table 2 IUCN protected area management categories 1

IUCN CATEGORy MAIN OBJECTIVE OR PURPOSE

IA Strict Natur Rsr Strictly protecte areas to protect bioiversity an possiblyglgical / gmrplgical aturs. human isitatin,

use an impacts are strictly controlle an limite to ensure

prsratin t cnsratin alus. Ts aras can sr

as inispensable reerence areas or scientic research an

mnitring.

IB Wilerness Area Larg r sligtl mdid aras, rtaining tir natural caractr

and inunc, witut prmannt r signicant uman

abitatin, wic ar prtctd and managd s as t prsr

tir natural cnditin.

II Natinal Park Large natural or near natural areas set asie to protect large-

scal clgical prcsss, alng wit t cmplmnt spcis and csstms caractristic t ara, t prid

a ounation or environmentally an culturally compatible

spiritual, scintic, ducatinal, rcratinal and isitr

pprtunitis.

II I Natural Mnumnt St asid t prtct a spcic natural mnumnt, wic can b

a landrm, sa munt, submarin carns, glgical atur

suc as cas r n a liing atur suc as an ancint gr.

T ar gnrall quit small prtctd aras and tn a

ig isitr alu.

IV habitat/SpcisManagement Area

Protect particular species or habitats an management refectstis pririt. Rgular, acti intrntins tn ndd t

addrss t rquirmnts particular spcis r t maintain

abitats.

V Prtctd Landscap/

Seascape

Where the interaction o people an nature over time has

prouce an area o istinct character with signicant

clgical, bilgical, cultural and scnic alu; and wr

saeguaring the integrity o this interaction is vital to protecting

an sustaining the area an its associate nature conservation

and tr alus.

VI Manage Resource

Protecte Area

Larg, wit muc t ara in a natural cnditin and wr a

prprtin is undr sustainabl natural rsurc managmnt.

explitatin is a main aim t ara.(IUCN 1994; Wlls and Da 2004; WCPA 2008)

1 fr an in-dpt riw t applicatin IUCN prtctd ara managmnt catgris in t marin

nirnmnt, s Wlls and Da (2004).


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Chapter 2

Scaling Up to a

Network Approach

The power of synergy is great, lets makeit work for MPAs!

NANCy SefToN

enrcd n-tak aras accumulat s tat bcm tam quick l in tcrals t Caribban.


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Wh scale up to networks?

When used in isolation, small MPAs may not support sh and invertebrate populations

that are large enough to sustain themselves. To ensure that young marine organisms are

available to replenish and sustain populations within MPAs, the area o protection mustbe airly large. However, in many regions, economic, social and political constraints make

it impractical to create one single large MPA o sucient size to support viable, sel-

sustaining populations o all species. Establishing networks o several to many small to

moderately sized MPAs may help to reduce socioeconomic impacts without compromising

conservation and sheries benets (PISCO 2007). Furthermore, well-planned networks

provide important spatial links needed to maintain ecosystem processes and connectivity,

as well as improve resilience by spreading risk in the case o localized disasters, climate

change, ailures in management or other hazards, and thus help to ensure the long-term

sustainability o populations better than single sites (NRC 2000).

As science and experience continue to provide more evidence o the importance o

biological connectivity and resilience in the ace o climate change, natural disasters

and economic, political and social fuxes, networks o MPAs are increasingly valuable

management tools. MPA networks can contribute to sustainable development goals by

ostering integrated ocean and coastal management through 3 inter-related unctions

and benets:

Ecological A network can help maintain unctional marine ecosystems by

encompassing the temporal and spatial scales o ecological systems.

Social A network can help resolve and manage conficts in the use o natural

resources. Economical A network can acilitate the ecient use o resources.

The implementation o MPA networks that cover all major marine habitats and

ecosystems will be a major step in restoring and sustaining the health o the oceans. I

widely adopted, MPA networks can help stem the losses o marine resources and recover

not only marine lie, but entire ecosystems. When eective, MPA networks can magniy

benets o individual sites, protect large-scale processes, slow the loss o endangered

marine species and restore depleted sheries.

Setting aside marine areas to help replenish resources has been part o traditional

management in many societies. But conservation o biodiversity through managementtools, including MPAs, is a relatively new concept. It has its roots in the 1982 World Parks

Congress in Bali, where participants recognized that conserving biodiversity through the

use o protected areas should be applied to the oceans, as well as the land (McNeely and

Miller 1982). Since 1982, many international gatherings have endorsed the need or MPAs

and MPA networks. Recently, the 5th World Parks Congress called on the international

community to create a global system o MPA networks that greatly increases the coastal

and marine area covered, and that MPA networks should seek to include strictly protected

areas that amount to at least 20 to 30% o each habitat. Currently, only a small portion o

this area is being protected. Since 1984, the global marine area protected has grown at

an annual rate o 4.6%. This rate o increase will require more than 50 years to achieve

the current goal o 30% habitat protection. Thus, much work remains to reach sucient

area covered within networks and achieve international commitments (Table 3).


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SCALING UP TO A NETWORK APPROACH

Scalinguptoa

networkapproac

h

Table 3 International commitments and current global status o MPAs

n World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), 2002, called or

establishing a global system o MPA networks by 2012, as part o a strategy toprotect and restore marine biodiversity and to maintain the natural resource base or

economic and social development.

n Evian agreement signed b the G8 group o nations, 2003 , called or the

establishment o ecosystem networks o marine protected areas, consistent with

international law and based on scientic inormation by 2012.

n Convention on Biological Diversit (CBD), 2004, agreed to the establishment and

maintenance o MPAs to contribute to a global network. Various regional agreements

complement these global undertakings.

nThe 5th World Parks Congress, 2003, calls on the international community to

create a global system o MPA networks that greatly increases the marine and

coastal area covered. MPA networks should be extensive and seek to include

strictly protected areas that amount to at least 20 to 30% o each habitat (IUCN

2005).

Current global marine protection targets aim to protect 10 to 30% o marine habitats

within the next 2 to 4 years. Based upon the MPA Global database, current estimates o

MPA coverage include (Wood 2007):

u Approximately 5,000 MPAs have been designated worldwide.

u Approximately 2.58 million km2, 0.65% o the worlds oceans and 1.6% o the total

marine area within Exclusive Economic Zones, are currently protected.

u Only 0.08% o the worlds oceans, and 0.2% o the total marine area under national

jurisdiction is no-take, where extractive uses are prohibited.

u Currently, the three largest MPAs include: the Phoenix Islands Protected Area

(410,500 km2), The Great Barrier Ree Marine Park (344,400 km2) and the

Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (341,400 km2).

u An immediate global concern is the need or a rapid increase in MPA coverage in

conjunction with scaling up o ocean management. The increase required to meet

the targets is equivalent to another 35 countries creating an MPA the size o the

Phoenix Islands Protected Area (410,500 km2

) beore 2012.u The global distribution o protected areas is both uneven and unrepresentative at

multiple scales, and only hal o the worlds marine protected areas are part o a

coherent network.

u A global review o MPA network programs underway documents the

experiences generated and variety o approaches taken to develop MPA

networks (UNEP-WCMC 2008).


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What constitutes an MPA network?

An MPA network can be defned as a collection o individual MPAs or reserves operating

cooperatively and synergistically, at various spatial scales, and with a range o protection

levels that are designed to meet objectives that a single reserve cannot achieve.

Not just any collection o MPAs constitutes an MPA network2. A network can include

several MPAs o dierent sizes, located in critical habitats, containing components

o a particular habitat type or portions o dierent kinds o important habitats, and

interconnected by the movement o animals and plant propagules (PISCO 2007). They

must be appropriately placed, sized and spaced to unction collectively as an ecological

network and successully achieve biodiversity goals. Protection o the ecological

interconnectedness between and within ecosystems through strategically placed MPAs

can strengthen the resilience o the systems to maintain the key unctions and processes

in the ace o stresses (Holling 1973). Additionally, a network implies a coordinated systemo MPAs, linked through biological levels, as well as administrative levels, refecting a

consistent approach to design, nance, management and monitoring.

Incorporating no-take areas is considered a oundation in most networks. The proportion

o no-take areas contained in the network system depends on the degree o protection,

recovery being sought and the level o decline in an area. For some areas, preservation and

conservation may be the motivating orce or a no-take MPA. And or these areas, no-take

areas can be an eective tool or maintaining or enhancing sheries, especially those that

target long-lived demersal species with planktonic larval dispersal and sedentary adults.

Social, economic and environmental benets are generally greater where the no-take area is

suciently large and well-integrated into broad ecosystem-based management regimes.

An MPA network is also a network o people managing the components o individual MPAs

and promoting the networks viability and longevity. In addition to MPA networks based on

ecological considerations, social MPA networks can be ormed to acilitate learning and

coordination o administration and planning by linking people and institutions involved in

MPAs into a coordinate and holistic initiative (White et al. 2006). In the social MPA network,

all agencies, management authorities or communities share the same overall goal and

they can mature, just as ecosystems mature (Agardy and Wole 2002). The social network

provides a rationale or individual MPA stakeholders or communities to coordinate with

each other to share experiences and to enhance each others eorts in managing their

respective MPAs (White et al. 2006).

In association with the ormation o a network , an inormation base or the MPAs in an area

should be created. Having an inormation base or the MPAs helps to develop logical choices

in how to expand MPAs eectively and how to eciently manage them through strategic

eorts based on the network design. This inormation base stimulates the development or

eective expansion and management o MPAs within the network design by providing a

rationale or individual MPA stakeholders or communities to coordinate with one another

to share experiences, enhancing the eorts to manage their respective MPAs (White et al.

2006).

2 For a complete iscussion o what constitutes a network or system o MPAs in various countries aroun the

wrld, s UNeP-WCMC (2008).


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Scalinguptoa

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MPA networks in a broader management contet

MPA networks can only be eective at curbing the decline o ocean health andreducing threats i they are implemented within larger rameworks o ecosystem basedmanagement, integrated ocean governance and coastal management. Without eectivepolicy and management on a broad scale, MPAs can only serve as isolated aquaria oprotection in a larger sea o degradation.

Marine spatial planning is gaining momentum as a planning tool to align ocean resourcesuses with the most appropriate use and protection areas over the wide expanse o ocean.This tool can be linked with the many developed planning approaches that involve MPAsand integrated coastal management (ICM) . ICM is an intersectoral, spatial managementapproach that aims to align policies and incentives across sectors to minimize

environmental impacts rom coastal resource use while maximizing benets to society(World Bank 2006). Depending on community needs and management concerns withinthe context o a larger ICM plan, MPAs can be designed and managed to accommodatevarious objectives and activities. ICM governance can create an enabling environmentor MPAs and an ideal platorm or elevating the scale o marine biodiversity conservationand sustainable sheries management (Figure 2) (World Bank 2006). (For detailed

inormation on ICM, reer to Chapter 4.)

Example rom the eld social network o MPA networks . The PAMANA KA(Philippines) is a nationwide alliance o community-based MPA managers representedby sher-leaders. The network ocuses on capacity-building, alliance-building policy

advocacy and r esearch. The Local Marine Management Area (LMMA) network is a groupo conservation practitioners working in Asia and the Pacic with hundreds o members,including landowners, traditional leaders, government representatives, elected decisionmakers, scientists and donors. The network provides solidarity and learning opportunitiesor participants, with national policies in multiple coastal areas. Within this network o MPAmanagers, community members and scientists, cross-project knowledge and trainingsare shared and inormation is transerred (More inormation is available at http://www.lmmanetwork.org/) (White et al. 2006; Govan et al. 2008).

Figure 2 Marine management zones and categories within ICM ramework(Adopted rom World Bank 2006)


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Figure 3 ICM area in Philippines with various spatial management tools, including

MPAs(White et al. 2006)

Ke Concept

The process o ICM is aimed at guiding coastal area development in an ecologically,socially and ecomically sustainable manner, in context with the ollowing priorities(White et al. 2006):

n Protect physical habitat.

n Recover and protect species and populations.

n Rebuild ecosystem resilience.

n Saeguard against management uncertainty.

n Reduce conficts over the use o ocean space.

n Provide economic and cultural benets.

n Promote public education and enjoyment.

In places where integrated coastal management is insucient or lacking, the development

o an MPA can encourage a more integrated approach to coastal zone legislation andmore eective management o coastal areas in general (Agardy and Staub 2006; The

World Bank 2006). MPAs that meet their stated objectives can serve as a positive

reinorcement, or serve as a building block or the creation o additional MPAs and

scaling up to MPA networks, as well as other coastal management initiatives (Agardy

and Staub 2006). Currently implemented in about 100 countries, usually at the sub-

national level, ICM provides the potential to scale up marine management. This process

has occurred in the Philippines, where MPAs o the 1980s are presently managed within

an ICM ramework (White et al. 2005; UNEP-WCMC 2008) (Figure 3).


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Scalinguptoa

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MPAs and the ecosstem approach

An ecosystem-based management (EBM) approach takes into consideration the

cumulative impacts o dierent sectors aecting the structure, unctionality and key

processes o the ecosystem. EBM is generally dened as being all inclusive to the totalecosystem, including the human community. Thus, human use patterns, culture and

social norms are within the EBM planning ramework. EBM, while being sensitive to

the true marine ecological parameters, does not exclude the human elements o the

system.

MPAs networks, ormed through the scaling up o single MPAs to zoned networks with

multiple-use MPAs, can provide an ecosystem-based management approach (Christie

et al. 2007). Large-scale, multiple-use protected areas demonstrate the concept o

ecosystem management, where the geographical extent o protection is based on the

movements o organisms and physically linked processes. In recognition o these linkages,

MPA managers and planners should consider protection o ecosystem unction, structure

and integrity, in addition to individual resources (such as specic species or habitats)

and physical characteristics (Agardy and Staub 2006). Tools or regional planning to

advance marine and coastal ecosystem-based management can be accessed at www.

marineebm.org/index.htm.

Resilient MPA networks

The term resilience incorporates the capacity o socio-ecological systems to cope with,

adapt to, shape change and learn to live with uncertainty and surprise (Brand and Jax

2007).

Resilient systems are adaptable, fexible and prepared or change and uncertainty

(Hughes et al. 2005). Non-resilient systems, in contrast, are prone to irreversible change

and are at risk o shiting into another, oten undesirable, state (Marshall and Marshall

2007). Resilience is a critical aspect o MPA network design, particularly in the ace o

global climate change. I an MPA, or network, is resilient it can rebound rom or withstand

environmental fuctuations or unexpected catastrophes and support populations which

can potentially replenish other damaged populations (Figure 4) (West and Salm 2003).

Strong resilience can include both intrinsic actors, such as biological or ecological

characteristics o a community (i.e. potential or recruitment success), and extrinsicactors, such as physical eatures (i.e. current patterns that may avor larval dispersal

or an eective management regime) (West and Salm 2003). For example, certain

environmental actors, such as those that cause cooling o heated surace waters, can

ameliorate stress associated with thermal bleaching o corals in tropical systems. Sites

displaying these traits could be given higher priority in the selection process, as a means

o mitigating biodiversity loss rom climate change. Similarly, in temperate environments,

oceanographic regimes are expected to change due to climate change and some species

may move pole-ward as waters warm. Planning a connected network o MPAs across

latitudinal gradients can help to protect species as their ranges change. MPAs can ensure

healthier ecosystems that may also withstand climate changes and other stresses longerthan highly disturbed or degraded ecosystems.


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MPA networks, assuming all the ecological and biological actors are considered andmaximized, will only be resilient through time i the management regime is capable,

eective and sustainable. Thus, resilient MPA networks have social, economic and

governance aspects, related to the coastal communities that must be anticipated and

addressed to ensure development and maintenance (US-IOTWSP 2007) .

Threat orcatastrophic

event

System

Shock:resistance orresilience ofthe communityor speciesdecreases theseverity of the impact

HIGH RESILIENCE

Adaptivemanagementstrategies

afterlessonslearnedfrom

experience

Recovery Time: Enhanced resilience accelerates recovery time

Disaster threshold

ConditionoftheC

ommunity

LOW RESILIENCE

Eample rom the eld appling resilience principles in coral ree management.

The Nature Conservancys Ree Resilience Toolkit, provides guidance to coral ree

managers on how to incorporate resilience into management strategies in the context

o global climate change. While the ocus o the toolkit is primarily on coral bleachingand ree sh spawning aggregation conservation, the recommendations and tools within

the toolkit can be applied to most threats acing coral rees today. Access the Ree

Resilience Toolkit at www.reeresilience.org or request a copy at [email protected].

Ke Concep t

Components o a resilient MPA network include:

Effectivemanagement.

Riskspreadingthroughinclusionofreplicatesofrepresentativehabitats. Full protection of critical areas that can serve as reliable sources of seed for

replenishment/preserve ecological unction.

Maintenanceofbiologicalandecologicalconnectivityamongandbetweenhabitats.

Figure 4 Resilience sstem responsesAdptd rm (US-IoTWSP 2007)


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Chapter 3

Broad-scale Considerations

or Resilient MPA Networks

We must think globally to be effective locally.

Fishing village on derawan Islan within a large marine conservation area o EastKalimantan, Indnsia.

MARK GoDfRey


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MPA networks are set in a world context that varies by place and will aect their ultimate

success. Considering and adapting to the ollowing contextual variables is essential.

Institutionalandgovernanceconsiderations acknowledge institutional

structures and the importance o integrating actions within a broader managementcontext.

Economicandsocialconsiderations orm the 3 pillars o sustainable

development alongside ecological design criteria.

Spatialandtemporalconsiderations acknowledge that ecosystems unction at

dierent spatial scales and change over time due to actors such as human activities

and climate change.

Scienticandinformationmanagementconsiderations build upon the use o

the best available inormation or both planning and management purposes.

Institutional and governance considerations

Institutional and governance capacity can have a signicant eect and infuence on the

design, implementation and longevity o MPA networks. Governance relates to the power,

policies, structures and processes used or decision-making or an area o responsibility.

Emerging rom the interactions o many actors, including local communities, the private

sector and government, governance takes orm through laws, regulations, debates, and

negotiations, among other decision-making mechanisms (Lebel et al. 2006). In most

instances, institutional arrangements have developed over many years, oten devised to

meet the demands o the time. In general, there are 4 main protected area governance

types (Borrini-Feyerabend 2007)3:

Government-managed areas1.

Collaboratively managed areas2.

Private-protected areas3.

Community-based management areas4.

COORDINATION AND BUILDING LINKAGES

To work eectively within existing governance structures, network planners and

managers must coordinate and build linkages with all participatory stakeholders. This

includes engagement with applicable agencies, organizations and institutions, respecting

rights o indigenous and local communities and developing appropriate instruments3 fr mr inrmatin: IUCN prtctd ara matrix A tl twards cti prtctd ara sstms. ttp://

www.iucn.rg/tms/wcpa/tm/catgris/summit/paprs/paprs/Grnancpapr4.pd

Ke Concept: Governance vs. Management

Institutional capacity is the ability o government agencies to provide public goods andservices, ensuring that laws and regulations will be adequately enorced (Jameson et al.

2002). As the political dimension o human activity, governance acts to create a system oauthority and accountability, and management is the process leading to implementationwithin the institutional ramework.


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BROAD-SCALE CONSIDERATION FOR RESILIENT MPA NETWORKS

Broad-sc

aleconsideration

forresilie

ntMPAnetworks

(i.e. policies, regulations and standards) specic or the area. In the rst stages o the

planning process, network designers and managers need to identiy the ramework

and legal authorities and institutional responsibilities associated with the MPA network

(WCPA/IUCN 2007).

MPA management is oten part o an integrated coastal management (ICM) governance

ramework. In cases where no ICM institutions have been established, MPA management

should relate to the sectoral institutions concerned with watershed management, sheries,

tourism, maritime transportation or others (Cicin-Sain and Belore 2005). Supporting

such inter-departmental collaboration and coordination across all stakeholders requires

sustained leadership and recognition that diversity and capacity o the institutions and

groups involved will infuence the ecacy o the network (WCPA/ICUN 2007).

LEGAL FRAMEWORK AND AUTHORITy

Appropriate legislative and regulatory rameworks are undamental to achieving aneective MPA network. Many countries have special legislation enabling individual

MPAs, along with a variety o agencies with marine responsibilities, but ew have a

strategic legislative ramework or institutional arrangements or a representative MPA

network. Unless clarity is achieved, a poorly integrated array o legal and institutional

responsibilities can lead to problems such as competing mandates, overlaps, gaps and

ineciencies, all o which undermine an eective MPA network.

Special authorities are sometimes needed to coordinate overlapping and complex

jurisdictional arrangements. They can help establish coordination among coastal and

marine management regimes, and even establish mechanisms or public and stakeholder

involvement in developing an ecient, sustainable MPA network.

IMPROVING INSTITUTIONS TO SUPPORT MARINE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

To be successul, responsible parties or the management o MPAs and networks,

institutions need to be ecient and eective in meeting goals and legitimate among

relevant stakeholders. Key institutional attributes include (Hughes et al. 2005; Brown

2006):

Embrace uncertainty, be adaptive and able to unction with dynamic and fuctuating

ecological resources and conditions.

Recognize and manage a range o users, uses and the trade-os between them.

Build knowledge and understanding o resource and ecosystem dynamics.

Develop management practices that measure, interpret and respond to ecological

eedback.

Enable the sharing o management power and responsibility through linkages

among communities, government agencies and non-governmental organizations.

It is rare or a single agency to have complete authority; instead, a diverse range o

institutions and agencies may be involved in managing a network. Because each region

is unique, no single approach to MPA governance or legislation can be universally

advocated or applied.


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Socioeconomic actors an community ynamics nee to be consiere in the MPA planning anmanagmnt. Cildrn in Papua Nw Guina.

While there is growing emphasis on the role o MPAs in biodiversity protection and

maintenance o ecosystems, MPA networks can play a major role in sheries management.

This role o MPAs and their socioeconomic impacts (positive and negative) will depend on

the sheries management context. In areas with ineective shery management or poor

enorcement o shery regulations, MPAs can serve as a primary shery managementtool at the local level to protect stocks o targeted species. In those cases, the benets

and costs o MPAs can be directly related to either the improvements in shery benets or

the spatial loss o shing opportunities at the local MPA scale. In areas with regionalized

industrial-scale shing and eective top-down shery management, MPAs are oten

layered on an existing system o shery regulations. Such areas may include other types

o shery closures, catch limits or management measures. The socioeconomic cost o

MPAs has to be considered in the context o these other shery management measures.

The shery benets o MPAs may not be as high where sheries are already being well-

managed outside o MPAs.

Eample rom the eld: Communit perceptions o MPAs. As a way to understandcommunity perceptions and understanding o MPAs, The Nature Conservancy inIndonesia implemented a system to monitor the perception o stakeholders on resource

status, use and management at 4 sites: Komodo, Wakatobi, Derawan and Raja Ampat(Halim and Mous 2006). The objectives o the monitoring tool were to produce basicquantiable indicators on community attitudes (i.e. rules and regulations, perceptionson resource conditions, outreach and awareness programs, etc.) and to identiy culturaland socioeconomic actors that either obstruct or acilitate management strategies.Incorporated into the broader context o MPA design, the socioeconomic inormationgathered rom a monitoring program as illustrated above, can indicate areas or improvedpublic education programs, inorm adaptive management measures and measureprogram eectiveness.

S

TUARTGRee

N


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A.

WhITe

such as MARXAN5 that identiy optimal reserve designs based on explicit trade-os

that have been used in many locations as part o the planning process (e.g. MARXAN)

(Airame et al. 2003; Leslie 2005; Green et al. 2007). These sotware tools have limitations

as the solutions identied are very dependent on the data and assumptions included asinputs, they generally do not explicitly address network connectivity, and results may not

mesh with local knowledge or more complex socioeconomic considerations.

INFORMATION FOR MONITORING AND ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT

The inormation and data or the planning process also provide a oundation and a system

or designing and implementing a monitoring program that will be part o an adaptive

management ramework. To provide useul and durable inormation that assists with

adaptive management o MPA networks, it is critical that consistent, long-term data be

available so that changes over time can be measured. Long-term inormation provides

reliable eedback on the eectiveness o management that can be provided to managers,

scientists, the communities and stakeholders. However, it is important to identiy and

match the relevant monitoring indicators to the goals and objectives o the MPA network

rom the start o the planning process. This will allow or improvement o protected area

management through learning, adapting and the diagnosis o specic issues infuencing

whether goals and objectives have been achieved (Pomeroy et al. 2004).

5 MARXAN is a cmputr stwar dcisin supprt tl r rsr sstm dsign. Trug ptimiatin algritms,

MARXAN prducs an cint sstm spatiall csi rsr sits, b minimiing t csts and mting

bidirsit targts (Ball and Pssingam 2000).

onc data ar gatrd, analss can b prrmd b map rlas. Wit stakldr inlmnt,ts maps can b usd t lp dtrmin ptntial sits r prtctin.


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BROAD-SCALE CONSIDERATION FOR RESILIENT MPA NETWORKS

Broad-sc

aleconsideration

forresilie

ntMPAnetworks

Systematic monitoring and inormation gathering o key indicators or MPA networks

require the application o the appropriate scientic skills, personnel, training and

partnerships. Training, science programs and research priorities should be based on

the management strategies and needs o the network, as a method to optimize results.

For example, applied research on ecosystem unctions, sustainable shery yields andeconomic valuation analyses can provide essential detail and inormation o the system

when they are consistent with the goals and objectives o the network.

Government agencies can play an important role in improving access to inormation

by making publicly unded inormation readily available. They must also strive to make

privately unded studies and inormation available by purchasing access rights or creating

agreements to share the inormation publicly. Private donors can help this exchange o

vital inormation by requiring that their grantees share data publicly. Examples o publicly

open databases and the process to develop them are shown in Tables 5 and 6.

Table 5 A database o the worlds MPAs

MPA Global is a database o the worlds Marine Protected Areas. It is a collaborativeproject between the University o British Colombia Fisheries Centre, Sea Around UsProject, WWF, UNEP-WCMC and IUCN. The project has two main goals: 1) to developa robust global MPA baseline and 2) to develop alternative scenarios o global MPAnetworks using spatial modelling techniques. The database is reely searchable at http://www.mpaglobal.org, and is currently based on inormation rom the World Database onProtected Areas (WDPA).


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Six best practices have been identied or network planning that will apply in almost every

network planning process. Employing these best practices will help the network to realize

environmental, economic and social benets. These best practices, however, should also

be applied in conjunction with the broad-scale considerations or the development o

resilient MPA networks (Chapter 3) and with the ecological design principles (Chapter5) to achieve its objectives.

The 6 areas o best practice or planning MPA networks include:

1. Clearly dened goals and objectives.

2. Legal authority and long-term political commitment.

3. Incorporate stakeholders.

4. Use o best available inormation and precautionary approach.

5. Integrated management ramework.

6. Adaptive management measures.

Clearl dened goals and objectives

Clear and measurable objectives are essential or guiding management decisions and

tracking progress and perormance. Goals should be determined as early as possible

in the process because, once set, they will infuence critical decisions regarding such

things as the size, location, boundaries o the MPA, as well as the management measures

and the ocus o the monitoring and evaluation programs (Botsord et al. 2003; Roberts

et al. 2003; Leslie 2005; Halpern et al. 2006). Furthermore, such management goals need

to be ully endorsed by the community and solidly supported in an appropriate political

and social manner i they are to be eective.

Network goals and objectives must refect both the specic needs o an MPA network

and the objectives o individual component MPAs. Thus, goals and objectives can be

viewed at the level o individual MPAs that, through their placement, may perorm

dierent roles within the network to contribute to the goals or the larger network. The

combined eects o each individual MPA can achieve the overall goals or the network.

National conservation policies and regional and global environmental commitments, such

as biodiversity targets and sustainable development goals, should also be supported

through the objectives o the MPA network.

All MPA network objectives should be determined through an open, transparent and

balanced dialogue with all stakeholders. To ensure that the goals are compatible with localand traditional uses, community stakeholders, local leaders, resource users, government,

industry and other groups that infuence investment and development in the area should

Eample rom the eld Clearl dened goals in Mesoamerican Ree (MAR)region. In the eorts to scale up the MPA ramework in the Mesoamerican Ree (MAR)region, the TNC MAR Program has set as a goal the development o a network o MPA thatis resilient to bleaching events through representation and replication and conservationo key biological processes (Arrivillaga and Windevoxhel 2006). This network goalhas helped planners and managers concentrate the initial eorts on the elements orepresentation and replication, and critical areas through regional assessments oridentication o priority conservation sites.


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BEST PRACTICES FOR PLANNING MPA NETWORKS

Bestpracticesfor

planningMPAnetworks

be included in the goal-setting process. To be measurable, goals and objectives must

speciy time rames or achieving objectives and indicators or measuring perormance.

Unrealistic targets can hinder the MPA networks eectiveness, so timetables should be

appropriate.

Planners and designers should consider 3 broad categories o objectives or MPA

networks:

1. Ecological objectives. These typically seek to protect, manage and/or restore

marine ecosystems and their components, including processes, structure, unction

and integrity, as well as wildlie and geographic eatures. Planners must especially

consider objectives that a single MPA cannot achieve.

2. Economic objectives. To determine economic objectives, network planners mustunderstand current resource uses, users and economic prospects or the area.

Assessments need to be made on how the region will benet rom the network and

who may suer negative economic impacts. Economic considerations should involve

a short- and long-term view o costs and benets, as well as a perspective on how

local needs may interace with national sustainable development goals. Economic

objectives may seek to distribute benets to oset short-term costs incurred by

limiting unsustainable uses or to achieve national poverty reduction goals.

3. Socio-cultural objectives. MPA networks should contribute to quality o lie o the

local community. Fostering understanding, ownership and support or MPA networks

includes assessing the ull range o benets that biodiversity provides, including those

that directly aect human health and well-being. Exploring social and cultural values,

how those values are threatened, and the costs and benets involved in meeting

socio-cultural objectives will help ensure success. Such values might include pride in

the uniqueness o a natural area, local traditions that involve activities such as shing

or hunting, and places considered sacred to local groups.

Legal authorit and long-term political commitment

The authority to establish and manage MPAs is held by various levels o jurisdictions;

rom national, regional, local and/or traditional, depending on the region. One actor

that can greatly contribute to the implementation o the MPA is a solid legal authority

Ke Concept

Setting clear and agreed-upon network objectives at the outset:

Guide designation o component sites, levels o protection and management needs.

Guide monitoring and adaptive management o network sites.

Guide opportunities to reduce, mitigate or eliminate activities that degrade resources

or ecosystem services, while promoting those that support natural processes.

Help determine uture investments in sustainable use o coastal and marine

resources.

Improve transparent decision-making.

Provide a ramework or reviewing the contribution o existing MPAs to a network.Promote stakeholder buy-in and support.


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incorporating diverse interest groups should be recognized as a necessary component

o successul MPA planning. Active and continuous participation by stakeholder groups

is essential to the long-term success and sustainability o networks.

When designing the process or developing MPA networks, it will be important tounderstand stakeholders uses and values o the marine environment. Local and traditional

knowledge can help network designers identiy important traditional, cultural, historic

or religious uses o resources, places or species. Engaging stakeholders early allows

planners to better understand the range o stakeholder concerns and considerations,

including issues such as current social relationships; relevant distinctions among ethnic

or other groups; power dynamics and power-sharing relationships within communities;

jurisdictional issues and conficts (between dierent levels o government or between

traditional community leaders and ormal government agencies); and tenure rights,

conficts and other related issues.

Eample rom the eld - Stakeholders take local ownership to urther MPAnetwork development in New Zealand. During the 1980s and 1990s, concernamong stakeholders, marine scientists and conservation groups grew with noticeable

declines in sh catches and increasing growth pressures in New Zealands Fiordlandregion. In 1996, The Guardians o Fiordlands Fisheries and Marine Environment (theGuardians) ormed to initiate a more holistic approach to marine management o thearea. Representatives rom the commercial and recreational shers, charter boat andtourism operators, scientists, conservationists, communities and indigenous groupsgathered to address their concerns.

During 2000 to 2003, the Guardiansdeveloped a strategy or managing the marine area,utilizing the technical and nancial support o a number o key central governmentagencies and local government. This bottom-up approach initiated, by the Guardians,was a critical period during which the Guarians and central government worked togetherto produce a management strategy or the marine resources. As a result, in 2005, theFiordland Marine Management Act was implemented. The Act provided jurisdiction or

over 928,000 ha o sea, established a Guarians committee, created 8 marine reserves,introduced controls on anchoring and strengthened biosecurity measures.

When esigning the process ordlping MPA ntwrks, it will b

important to unerstan shermensuses an values o the marinenirnmnt.

A.

WhIT

e

Additionally, stakeholder involvement rom the initial planning stages helps to instill

a sense o ownership and commitment which can encourage long-term local interest

and support or overseeing activities (i.e. monitoring, enorcement) in the protected


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Bestpracticesfor

planningMPAnetworks

Eample rom the eld - Involving stakeholders, scientists and polic-makersin MPA network planning under Caliornias Marine Lie Protection Act. TheCaliornia Marine Lie Protection Act (MLPA), passed in 1999, has 6 goals ocusedon ecosystem protection; sustaining and restoring marine lie populations; improvingrecreational and study opportunities; representation o marine habitats; ensuringclearly dened objectives and sound science; and ensuring that MPAs are designedand managed, to the extent possible, as a network. The MPA network planning andimplementation process is guided by a Master Plan Framework (CDFG 2007) and is

characterized as science-based, but stakeholder driven. Regional groups o stakeholders,representing broad interests, are charged with designing alternative network proposalsor each region, which are then evaluated against science guidelines by a scienceadvisory team.

The planning process has been very open and transparent, with many opportunitiesor public input. A task orce, appointed by the governor, is charged with providingpolicy guidance and recommending a preerred alternative to the Fish and GameCommission, the nal authority or adopting a statewide MPA program. The task orcehas demonstrated in the 2 regions completed to date that the key actors weighed inidentiying the preerred alternative include meeting scientic guidelines, identiyingMPA designs that protect marine ecosystems while minimizing socioeconomic impact,and the degree o cross-interest support or proposals. Caliornias Department o Fish

and Game provides input throughout the process, especially on issues o easibility andenorceability. The interactive planning process has acilitated public understanding oand general support or the MPA proposals, allowed or scientic review and renemento proposals, and given policy-makers sucient inormation to guide their decisions.(More inormation on MLPA can be ound at http://www.dg.ca.gov/mlpa).

areas (Lundquist and Granek 2005). By involving a broad spectrum o stakeholders

in network design, managers and decision makers can address the social and scaling

up complexities involved in establishing a network. To be truly open, the development

process should seek to accommodate dierences in stakeholder groups, including

marginalized and disadvantaged communities. Timely, planned consultation processesoperating at meaningul spatial scales are critical to success.

Use o best available science & a precautionar approach

Optimal design o MPA networks requires ecological and socioeconomic inormation.

From the start o the planning process, network designers must bring all best available

data and inormation together in a orm that is useul or marine gap analysis, planningand decision-making. The data should consist o both scientic and socioeconomic

inormation and traditional and local ecological knowledgethe knowledge that

indigenous and local community groups have gained about the ecology o the area,

accumulated by experience and passed through generations. Incorporating traditional

and local ecological knowledge into the planning and design o MPA networks can oster

mutual learning and improve relationships between communities and management.

While the uncertainty and lack o inormation can be a challenge in conservation and

MPA design, MPA networks can still be established, making adjustments and lling in

gaps in science and inormation throughout the process. The precautionary approach

suggests that caution be taken in decision-making, but that it does not lead to paralysis

until perect inormation is available. Thus, a lack o certainty or science should not be

used as an excuse or not planning the MPA network.


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Bestpracticesfor

planningMPAnetworks

separate conficting uses, and ensures appropriate spatial allowances or industry,

wildlie and healthy ecosystems. Collaborative, fexible and transparent planning and

management processes are integral to the success o these rameworks, especially since

ecological boundaries rarely align with jurisdictional or political ones. One way to ensure

consistency across jurisdictions is to develop complementary management strategiesthat retain independent authority, such as rules and regulations.

Integrating the network into the economic and socio-cultural setting o an area

involves identiying economic opportunities that are compatible with the networks

social and ecological goals. This involves assessing the socio-cultural, economic and

ecological values related to all scales o local, national and regional economic settings.

Socioeconomic valuation should identiy the changes in current and potential resource

use, those beneting rom such uses and those disadvantaged by them. Discussions with

aected user groups about alternative sources o income and livelihoods help develop

consensus about uture economic goals.Promoting the use o sustainable technologies and industries in MPA networks provides

an opportunity to derive signicant economic benets and to support sustainable

economic development. Opportunities or cultivating sustainable practices include

using green buildings to house network managers and employees, promoting certied

sustainable aquaculture or partnering with restaurants that serve sustainable seaood.

Adaptive management measures

Adaptive management means using the best available inormation to develop the MPA

network and incorporating monitoring and evaluation systems to systematically test theeectiveness o management methods and rene them over time (Figure 5). The availability

o scientic inormation changes over time. As science evolves and new inormation is

distributed, MPA guidelines and strategies should be modied, i changes are warranted.

To do this, the managem

establishing resilient marine protected area networks — making it happen

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