essentials of research methodology

7/25/2019 Essentials of Research Methodology

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ESSENTIALS OF

RESEARCHMETHODOLOGY


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Chapter 1 - Overview of Researh

PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

1. Rigid control is maniplation o! t"# r#s#arc" $aria%l#s.&. O%'#cti$it( is t"at t"#r# s"old %# no %ias or partialit( in tr#ating t"#

r#slts o! in)ir(.

S(st#matic organi*ation r#!#rs to prop#r and accrat# ta%lation o! data as +#ll

as pr#s#nting t"#m in statistical ta%l#s r#ad( !or int#rpr#tation.

,. Rigoros standards r#!#rs to t"# s#tting p o! standards or principl#s

+"ic" s#r$#s as -asis !or t"# #$alating t"# ndings o! a std(. T"is also

r#!#rs to t"# accrat# statistical comptation and int#rpr#tation o!

)ali#d data.

DESIGNING THE ST!DY

D#signing t"# std( mst !ollo+ t"# sci#ntic m#t"od o! r#s#arc". /sid#

!rom c"oosing t"# pro%l#m0 !orming t"# "(pot"#sis0 and li%rar( r#s#arc"0 it also

incld#s d#ciding on t"# m#t"od o! r#s#arc" to %# s#d0 t"# std( o! poplation0

t"# instrm#nts !or gat"#ring data and its pr#paration0 t"# sampling d#sign0

statistical tr#atm#nt o! data0 and anal(sis and pr#s#ntation o! data.

T"#r# ar# t"r## ,2 ma'or r#s#arc" m#t"ods +it" t"#ir r#sp#cti$# $ariations

!rom +"ic" t"# r#s#arc"#r ma( c"oos# t"# m#t"od to s# d#p#nding pon t"#

natr# o! in$#stigation. T"#s# ar# as !ollo+s3

1. Historical&. D#scripti$#


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,. E4p#rim#ntal m#t"ods o! r#s#arc"

Chapter " - The Researh #ro$%e&

ASS!M#TIONS

/n assmption is a s#l!5#$id#nt trt"0 +"ic" is %as#d pon a 6no+n !act or

p"#nom#non. It is a proposition o! som# occrr#nc#s or consid#ration t"at ma( %#

consid#r#d in d#limitating t"# ar#a o! t"# std(. O!t#ntim#s0 #sp#ciall( in d#scripti$# and "istorical r#s#arc"#s0 assmptions

ar# not #4plicitl( #4pr#ss#d %t l#!t implicit or n+ritt#n. 7#n#rall(0 #$#r( sp#cic )#stion is implicitl( %as#d pon an assmption.

G'i(e%i)es i) the !se of *asi Ass'&ptio)s

R#s#arc"#r cannot assm# t"# $al# o! t"# std(. Sc" an argm#nt s"old

"a$# %##n mad# nd#r t"# s#ction0 signicanc# o! t"# std(. R#s#arc"#r cannot assm# t"# r#lia%ilit( o! t"# instrm#nts %#ing propos# to

s# in r#s#arc". Sc" a ratio)a%e a)( (efe)se sho'%( $e &a(e ')(er

&etho(o%o+, R#s#arc"#r cannot assm# t"# $alidit( o! %asic data. 8alidit( is #sta%lis"#d

nd#r m#t"odolog(. /n assmption is not t#st#d0 n#it"#r it is d#!#nd#d or arg#d.

HY#OTHESIS


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Goo( a( Sates .1/0" d#n#d it as a s"r#+d g#ss o! in!#r#nc# t"at is

!ormlat#d and pro$isionall( adapt#d to #4plain#d o%s#r$#d !acts or condition

and to gid# its !rt"#r in$#stigations.

It is propositions0 condition0 or principl# +"ic" is assm#d p#r"aps +it"ot

%#li#!. Ga, .1/02 d#n#d "(pot"#sis as a 9t#ntati$# #4planation !or c#rtain

%#"a$iors0 p"#nom#na0 or #$#nts +"ic" "a$# occrr#d or +ill occr. MG'i+a) .1/03said t"at "(pot"#sis is a t#sta%l# stat#m#nt o! a pot#ntial

r#lations"ip %#t+##n t+o or mor# $aria%l#s.

#'rposes4 F')tio)s4 a)( I&porta)e of H,pothesis

H#lps t"# r#s#arc"#r in d#signing t"# std(3 +"at m#t"ods0 r#s#arc"

instrm#nts0 sampling d#sign0 and statistical tr#atm#nt to s# +"at data to

gat"#r0 #tc. S#r$# as %asis !or d#t#rmining assmptions.

S#r$# as %asis !or d#t#rmining t"# r#l#$anc# o! data.

S#r$# as %asis !or t"# #4planation or discssion a%ot t"# data gat"#r#d.

H#lps or gid#s t"# r#s#arc"#r in consolidation o! ndings and in !ormlating

conclsions. 7#n#rall(0 ndings and conclsions ar# ans+#rs to t"# "(pot"#sis

or sp#cic )#stions rais#d at t"# start o! t"# in$#stigation.

T,pes of H,pothesis .A(a)5a4 1//6

1. R#s#arc" H(pot"#sis&. Statistical H(pot"#sisA Researh H,pothesis

5is a t#mporar( soltions to t"# pro%l#ms stat#d in t"# std(.

* Statistia% H,pothesis


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T"# t+o !orms o! "(pot"#sis s#d in statistical t#sting3

1. Nll H(pot"#sis&. /lt#rnati$# H(pot"#sis

N'%% H,pothesis .Ho

5 al+a(s t"# rst t#mporar( soltion to a pro%l#m

5 %asis o! t"# action o! acc#ptanc# or r#'#ction

5 t"# +ord 9nll: in mat"#matics m#ans 9#mpt(: or 9*#ro:

5 ass#rts t"at t"#r# is no signicant di;#r#nc# or r#lations"ip %#t+##n t"#

$aria%l#s

5 r#comm#nd#d %( r#s#arc"#rs and statisticians on t"# grond t"at t"#r# +ill

%# l#ss #rrors in acc#pting sc" "(pot"#sis

E7a&p%e8 N'%% H,pothesis .Ho

a. T"#r# is no signicant r#lations"ip %#t+##n ag# and l#ad#rs"ip

dim#nsions.%. T"#r# is no signicant di;#r#nc# in t"# #;#cts o! Fis" Oil and

P"armaton# on t"# tr#atm#nt o! an#mia.c. T"#r# is no signicant r#lations"ip %#t+##n Englis" and Mat"#matical

a%ilit(.A%ter)ative H,pothesis .HaT"r## !orms o! alt#rnati$# "(pot"#sis3a. Non5dir#ctional "(pot"#sis%. Positi$# Dir#ctional H(pot"#sis

c. N#gati$# Dir#cti$# H(pot"#sis


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a No)-(iretio)a% H,pothesis

5 indicat#s t"at t"# r#s#arc"#r is not int#r#st#d on +"#t"#r on#

$aria%l#s +"#t"#r on# $aria%l# is gr#at#r or l#ss#r t"an t"#

ot"#r0 %t onl( t"# di;#r#nc#.

$ #ositive Diretio)a% H,pothesis

E4. Drg / and Drg - "a$# signicant #;#cts on t"# cr# o!

!#$#r.

Ha3 / < -

Ne+ative Diretio)a% H,pothesis

E4. Drg / and Drg - "a$# signicant #;#cts on t"# cr# o!

!#$#r.

Ha3 / = -

So'res of H,pothesis

1. It ma( %# %as#d simpl( on a "nc".&. It ma( r#st in t"# nding o! anot"#r std( and a #4p#ctation t"at a similar

r#lations"ip ma( #4ist in t"# pr#s#nt o! std(,. It ma( also st#m !rom a %od( o! t"#or(0 t"at %( a proc#ss o! logical d#dction0

l#ads to t"# pr#diction t"at i! c#rtain conditions ar# pr#s#nt0 som# #;#cts ma(

r#slt

For&'%ati)+ of H,pothesis


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/ "(pot"#sis is !ormlat#d a!t#r t"# pro%l#m "as %##n stat#d and t"#

lit#ratr# std( "as %##n concld#d. It is !ormlat#d +"#n t"# r#s#arc"#r is totall(

a+ar# o! t"# t"#or#tical and #mpirical %ac6grond o! t"# pro%l#m.

G'i(e%i)es i) the For&'%atio) of E7p%iit H,pothesis

1. In #4p#rim#ntal in$#stigations0 comparati$# and corr#lational stdi#s0

"(pot"#sis "as to %# #4plicit or #4pr#ss#d.&. In d#scripti$# and "istorical in$#stigations0 "(pot"#sis ar# s#ldom

#4pr#ss#d i! not #ntir#l( a%s#nt. T"# sp#cic )#stions s#r$# as t"#

"(pot"#sis.,. H(pot"#s#s ar# sall( stat#d in t"# nll !orm %#cas# t#sting a nll

"(pot"#sis is #asi#r t"an a "(pot"#sis in t"# op#rational !orm.>. H(pot"#s#s ar# !ormlat#d !rom t"# sp#cic )#stion pon +"ic" t"#(

ar# %as#d.

Criteria i) For&'%ati)+ H,pothesis

Stand a t#st

-# #4pr#ss#d in cl#ar langag#

-# in accordanc# +it" t"# g#n#ral t"#m# o! ot"#r "(pot"#sis stat#m#nts in

t"# sam# #ld o! std( and s"old %# r#gard#d as $alid

-# coordinat#d +it" t"# t"#or( o! sci#nc#

-# a t#ntati$# ans+#r to t"# !ormlat#d pro%l#m

-# logical and simpl#

Consid#r a$aila%l# r#s#arc" t#c"ni)#s to %# a%l# to anal(*# and int#rpr#t

t"# r#slts2

-# sp#cic

-# r#l#$ant to t"# coll#ction o! #mpirical p"#nom#non

Concld# $al# 'dgm#nts

Aspets that sho'%( $e 9ept i) &i)( whe) for&'%ati)+ a h,pothesis


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H(pot"#sis can onl( %# !ormlat#d a!t#r t"# r#s#arc"#r "as gain#d #nog"

6no+l#dg# r#garding t"# natr# #4t#nt and int#nsit( o! t"# pro%l#m.

H(pot"#sis s"old gr# t"rog"ot t"# r#s#arc" proc#ss in ord#r to gi$#

strctr# to t"# r#s#arc". H(pot"#sis ar# t#ntati$# stat#m#nts?soltions or #4planations o! t"#

!ormlat#d pro%l#m. Car# s"old %# ta6#n not to o$#r5simpli!( and g#n#rali*#

t"# !ormlation o! "(pot"#s#s.

T"# r#s#arc" pro%l#m do#s not "a$# to consist o! on# "(pot"#sis onl(. T"#

t(p# o! pro%l#m ar# in$#stigat#d0 t"# #4t#nt +"ic" #ncircl#s t"# r#s#arc"

#ld ar# t"# d#t#rmining !actors on "o+ man( "(pot"#s#s +ill %# incld#d in

t"# r#s#arc" proposal.

H,pothesis Testi)+

T"is proc#ss in$ol$#s t#sting t"# r#lation #4pr#ss#d %( "(pot"#sis.

T"# prpos# o! t#sting a "(pot"#sis is to d#t#rmin# t"# pro%a%ilit( t"at it is

spport#d %( !acts.

Chapter : - Desriptive Researh

Mea)i)+ of Desriptio) Researh

/ccording toYi) .";;: 8

Desriptive Researh d#scri%#s +"at is. It in$ol$#s t"# d#scription0

r#cording0 anal(sis0 and int#rpr#tation o! t"# pr#s#nt natr#0 composition or


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proc#ss#s o! p"#nom#na. T"# !ocs is on pr#$ailing conditions0 or "o+ a p#rson0

grop or t"ing %#"a$#s or !nctions in t"# pr#s#nt. It o!t#n in$ol$#s som# t(p# o!

comparison or contrast.

/ccording toA


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comparison and contrast in$ol$ing m#asr#m#nts0 classication0 int#rpr#tation and

#$alation.

In ord#r +ords0 d#scripti$# r#s#arc" ma( %# d#n#d as a prposi$# proc#ss

o! gat"#ring0 anal(*ing0 classi!(ing0 and ta%lating data a%ot pr#$ailing

conditions0 practic#s0 %#li#!s0 proc#ss#s0 tr#nds0 and cas# #;#ct r#lations"ips and

t"#n ma6ing ad#)at# int#rpr#tation a%ot sc" data +it" or +it"ot t"# aid o!

statistical m#t"ods.

Charateristis of Desriptive Researh

D#scripti$# r#s#arc" "as t"# !ollo+ing c"aract#ristics3 . Ha%pi)4 1//2

1. D#scripti$# r#s#arc" asc#rtains pr#$ailing conditions o! !acts in a grop or

cas# nd#r std(.&. It gi$#s #it"#r a )alitati$# or )antitati$#0 or %ot"0 d#scription o! t"#

g#n#ral c"aract#ristics o! t"# grop or cas# nd#r std(.

,. B"at cas#d t"# pr#$ailing conditions is not #mp"asi*#d.>. Std( o! conditions at di;#r#nt p#riods o! tim# ma( %# mad# and t"#

c"ang# or progr#ss t"at too6 plac# %#t+##n t"# p#riods ma( %# not#d or

#$alat#d !or an( $al# it gi$#s.. Comparisons o! t"# c"aract#ristics o! t+o grops or cas#s ma( %# mad#

to d#t#rmin# t"#ir similariti#s and di;#r#nc#s.. T"# $aria%l#s or conditions stdi#d in d#scripti$# r#s#arc" ar# not sall(

controll#d.. D#scripti$# stdi#s0 #4c#pt in cas# stdi#s ar# g#n#rall( cross5s#ctional0

t"at is0 it stdi#s t"# di;#r#nt s#ctions %#longing to t"# sam# grop.. Stdi#s on pr#$ailing conditions ma( or ca% %# r#p#at#d !or prpos#s o!

$#rication and comparison.


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=a%'e4 I&porta)e4 a)( A(va)ta+es of Desriptive Researh

/mong t"# $al#0 importanc#0 and ad$antag#s o! d#scripti$# m#t"od o!

r#s#arc" ar# t"# !ollo+ing3 .Travers4 1/03

1. D#scripti$# r#s#arc" contri%t#s mc" to t"# !ormlation o! principl#s and

g#n#rali*ations in %#"a$ioral sci#nc#s. T"is is #sp#ciall( tr# in casal5

comparati$# and corr#lation stdi#s. B"#n s#$#ral in)iri#s r#gist#r t"#

sam# ndings on a c#rtain s%'#ct0 t"#n a principl# or g#n#rali*ation ma(

%# !orm#d a%ot t"at s%'#ct.

&. D#scripti$# r#s#arc" contri%t#s mc" to t"# #sta%lis"m#nt o! standard

norms o! condct0 %#"a$ior0 or p#r!ormanc#. T"is is #sp#ciall( tr# in

ps(c"ological t#sting0 as !or instanc#0 norms in a int#llig#nc# t#st.

Normati$# standards ar# %a#d on +"at ar# pr#$al#nt.,. D#scripti$# r#s#arc" r#$#als pro%l#ms or a%normal conditions so t"at

r#m#dial m#asr#s ma( %# institt#d. It r#$#als to s +"at +# do not

+ant0 +"at +# +ant0 and "o+ +# ac)ir# +"at +# +ant.>. D#scripti$# r#s#arc" ma6#s possi%l# t"# pr#diction o! t"# !tr# on t"#

%asis o! ndings on pr#$ailing conditions0 corr#lations0 and on t"# %asis o!

r#actions o! p#opl# to+ard c#rtain iss#s. For instanc#0 t"# +inning

candidat# in an #l#ction ma( %# pr#dict#d on t"# %asis o! a sr$#(.. D#scripti$# r#s#arc" gi$#s a %#tt#r and d##p#r nd#rstanding o! a

p"#nom#non on t"# %asis o! an in5d#pt" std( o! t"# p"#nom#non.. D#scripti$# r#s#arc" pro$id#s a %asis !or d#cision5ma6ing. -sin#ss

manag#rs o!t#n %as# t"#ir d#cisions r#s#arc"#s. 7o$#rnm#nt polic(

ma6#rs0 sall( r#l( pon d#scripti$# in$#stigations !or ma6ing t"#


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n##d#d polici#s. In #dcation0 t"# crriclm "as %##n constrct#d %as#d

pon d#scripti$# in c"ild adol#sc#nt ps(c"olog(.. D#scripti$# r#s#arc" "#lps !as"ion man( o! t"# tools +it" +"ic" +# do

r#s#arc"0 sc" as0 instrm#nts !or t"# m#asr#m#nt o! man( t"ings0

instrm#nts t"at ar# #mplo(#d in all t(p#s o! )antitati$# r#s#arc". T"#s#

instrm#nts incld# sc"#dl#s. C"#c6lists0 scor#cards0 and rating scal#s.

D#scripti$# stdi#s contri%t# to t"# d#$#lopm#nt o! t"#s# data5gat"#ring

d#$ic#s in t+o +a(s rst t"rog" cr#ating dir#ctl( a d#mand !or t"#m0

and s#cond t"rog" t"# normati$#0 standardi*ing proc#dr#s %( +"ic" t"#

scal#s ar# #$alat#d and cali%rat#d.

TECHNI>!ES OF DECRI#TI=E METHOD OF RESEARCH

1 S!R=EY

Ot"#r+is# 6no+n as normati$# sr$#(0 is a !act nding std( +it"

ad#)at# and accrat# int#rpr#tation. It is s#d to coll#ct d#mograp"ic data

a%ot p#opl#Gs %#"a$ior0 practic#s0 int#ntions0 %#li#!s0 attitd#s0 opinions0

'dgm#nts0 int#r#sts0 p#rc#ptions and t"# li6# and t"#n sc" data ar#

anal(*#d 0 organi*#d0 and int#rpr#t#d0 .Ca%(ero)4 1//:

" CASE ST!DY

Is a compr#"#nsi$#0 comp#t#0 d#tail#d0 and in d#pt" std( and

anal(sis o! an indi$idal0 instittion0 grop0 or commnit(.

: CONTENT ANALYSIS


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Is a r#s#arc" t#c"ni)# !or t"# o%'#cti$# s(st#matic0 and )antitati$#

d#scription o! t"# mani!#st cont#nt o! commnication.

" DIFFERENCES *ET?EEN S!R=EY AND CASE ST!DY

S!R=EY CASE

ST!DY

1. T"# grop sr$#(#d is sall(

larg#.

1. Cas# Std( ma( in$ol$# and sall(

in$ol$#s on# p#rson0 !amil(0 small

grop0 or small commnit(.&. T"# nm%#r o! asp#cts or

$aria%l#s in t"# li!# o! t"# grop

sr$#(#d is limit#d.

&. sall( all asp#cts or $aria%l#s in t"#

li!# c(cl# or t"# cas# nd#r std( ar#

incld#d.,. Cas#d5#;#cts r#lations"ips ar#

not gi$#n #mp"asis. /im o! a std(

ma( onl( %# to d#t#rmin# stats.

,. Finding t"# cas#s o! c#rtain

p"#nom#na is al+a(s a part o! a std(.

>. R#pr#s#ntati$#n#ss is important

and is gi$#n #mp"asis

>. R#pr#s#ntati$#n#ss is not important.

T"# r#slts o! a singl# cas# std( do not

pro$id# c#rtainl( t"at t"# cas# is trl(

r#pr#s#ntati$#.. Criosit(0 int#r#sts0 or 'st to

d#t#rmin# norm or stats ma(

initiat# a sr$#(.

. /%normaliti#s or nd#sira%l# traits or

conditions sall( initiat# a cas# std(.

. Onl( conditions or practic#s

pr#s#nt dring t"# sr$#( ar#

consid#r#d #4c#pt in comparati$#

stdi#s +"#n pr#s#nt conditions ar#

compar#d +it" conditions in t"#

past.

. Data a%ot t"# cas# !rom %irt" or

origin or #$#n o! t"# !tr# ar#

consid#r#d.

AD=ANTAGES OF THE S!R=EY A##ROACH O=E THE

CASE ST!DY A##ROACH

1. Sr$#( r#$#als +"at is t(pical0 a$#rag#0 or normal against +"ic" t"#

%#"a$ior or p#r!ormanc# o! an indi$idal can %# 'dg#d or #$alat#d.


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E4ampl#3 T(pical !or Filipino p#opl# to !orm a grop and condct rall( i! t"#r#

is an iss# t"at t"#( +ant to %# addr#ss.

&. T"# r#slts o! a sr$#( ma( %# s#d !or pr#diction.

,. Sr$#( ma6#s possi%l# t"# !ormlation o! g#n#rali*ation %#cas# t"# sampl#

"as a "ig" d#gr## o! r#pr#s#ntati$#n#ss.

>. Sr$#( r#$#als pro%l#ms0 !or +"ic" tim#l( r#m#dial m#asr#s ma( %#

institt#d.

. It is #as( to g#t r#spond#nts !or a sr$#(.

. T"# instrm#nts !or gat"#ring data ar# #as( to d#t#rmin#0 constrct0

$alidat#d0 and administ#r.

T"# sr$#( instrm#nts ar# sall( t"# int#r$i#+ sc"#dl# as +#ll as t"#

)#stionnair# and t"#( ar# $#r( similar i! not t"# sam# in strctr#.

DISAD=ANTAGES OF THE S!R=EY A##ROACH OR TECHNI>!E

1. Lac6 o! maniplation o$#r ind#p#nd#nt $aria%l#s.

&. On# cannot progr#ssi$#l( in$#stigat# on# asp#ct a!t#r anot"#r o! t"#

ind#p#nd#nt $aria%l# to g#t to t"# r#al cas#.

,. Statistical d#$ic#s ar# not al+a(s a%l# to s#parat# t"# #;#cts o! s#$#ral

ind#p#nd#nt $aria%l#s +"#n t"#r# is mlti$aria%l# casation0 #sp#ciall( +"#n

t+o ind#p#nd#nt $aria%l#s t"#ms#l$#s "ig"l( associat#d.


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>. Sr$#( approac" (i#lds a lo+ d#gr## o! control or t"#r# is no control at all

o$#r #4tran#os $aria%l#s.

. T"# instrm#nt !or gat"#ring data ma( lac6 $alidit(0 r#lia%ilit( or ad#)ac(.


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TY#ES OF S!R=EY TECHNI>!E OR A##ROACH

1. Total poplation sr$#( T"# #ntir# poplation is in$ol$#d in t"# sr$#(.

E4ampl#3 Lat#st NSO sr$#( on total poplation o! t"# P"ilippin#s.

&. Sampl# Sr$#( Onl( a sampl# or portion o! t"# poplation is in$ol$#d in t"#

sr$#(.

E4ampl#3 a clst#r or a portion ot o! t"# total poplation +ill %# sr$#( on a

c#rtain iss# or iss#s.

,. Social sr$#( T"# in$#stigator r#s#arc"#s on t"# attitd#s and %#"a$iors o!

di;#r#nt grops o! p#opl#.

>. Sc"ool sr$#( T"is s#d to gat"#r data !or and a%ot sc"ools and to ass#ss

#dcational ac"i#$#m#nt and #dcation its#l!.

. P%lic opinion sr$#( T"is is s#d to gag# t"# r#actions o! p#opl# to+ards

c#rtain iss#s or p#rsons.

. Poll sr$#( T"is is a sr$#( in +"ic" t"# r#spond#nts ar# as6#d i! t"#( ar#

$oting !or a c#rtain candidat# in an #l#ction.

E4ampl#3 Sr$#( sall( condct#d %( N7OGs SBS0 H/RI-ON2 %#!or# t"#

#l#ction to g#t t"# political l#ad#r pr#!#r#nc# o! t"# p%lic.

. Mar6#t sr$#( T"is is aim#d at nding ot +"at 6inds o! p#opl# prc"as#d

+"ic" prodcts0 and "o+ pac6aging0 ad$#rtising0 and displa(ing a;#cts

%(ing0 pric#s0 and so on.


17/56

E4ampl#3 T"# prodct is s"ampoo. B"at do r#spond#nt s#s a c#rtain %rand

o! s"ampoo and +"(. O!t#ntim#s0 s#rs or consm#rs ar# #ntic#?#ncorag#

to %( a prodct d#p#nding on "o+ t"# prodcts ar# pr#s#nt#d t"r

comm#rcial.

. E$alation sr$#( T"# r#s#arc"#r loo6s %ac6 to s## +"at "as %##n

accomplis"#d and0 +it" a critical #(#0 #$alat#s t"# r#slts +"#t"#r t"#( ar#

satis!actor( or not0 +it" t"# #nd in $i#+ o! ma6ing impro$#m#nts.

J. Comparati$# sr$#( T"# r#slts !rom t+o di;#r#nt grops. T#c"ni)#s or

proc#dr#s ar# compar#d.

E4ampl#3 Comparison %#t+##n t"# n#+ and old administration. Sr$#( on

"o+ t"# r#spond#nt r#acts on "o+ t"# t+o pr#sid#nts trn or contr(.

1K. S"ort5t#rm sr$#( Data ar# coll#ct#d o$#r a p#riod o! +##6s0 mont"s0 or

#$#n (#ars %t t"# p#riod s"old %# l#ss t"an $# (#ars.

11. Long5t#rm sr$#( /n( sr$#( condct#d !or mor# t"an $# (#ars.

1&. Longitdinal sr$#( T"is is almost t"# sam# as t"# long5t#rm sr$#(. T"#

data coll#ct#d in t"# past +ill %# compar#d +it" t"# pr#s#nt data.

1,. Cross5s#ctional sr$#( In t"is t(p#s o! sr$#(0 s#$#ral grops in $arios

stag#s o! in$ol$#m#nt ar# stdi#d simltan#osl(.

E4ampl#3 Condct simltan#os sr$#( r#garding t"# cltr# and %#li#!s o!

Ilocanos0 C#%anos0 and Tasg. /!t#r t"# sr$#(0 d#t#rmin# t"# similariti#s

o! t"#ir cltr# and %#li#!.


18/56

1>. o% anal(sis sr$#( T"is pro$id#s in!ormation on t"# g#n#ral dti#s and

r#sponsi%iliti#s o! +or6#rs0 t"#ir #dcations0 training0 #4p#ri#nc#s0 salari#s

t(p#s o! 6no+l#dg# and s6ills0 and ot"#r t"at "#lp administrators or

manag#rs in s#tting p training programs and r#critm#nt polici#s.

1. Commnit( sr$#( T"is sr$#( pro$id#s in!ormation on t"# $arios asp#cts

o! t"# commnit(.

E4ampl#3 In ord#r to "a$# a $ia%l# data0 t"# r#s#arc"#r condct a commnit(

sr$#( p#rsonall( %( sta(ing or li$ing in a c#rtain commnit( to 6no+ t"#ir

%ac6grond sp#cicall(0 %#li#!0 traditions0 sorc# o! incom#0 #dcation0

!amil( poplation0 social pro%l#m0 #tc.

1. Corr#lation std(T"is is a sr$#( t"at s"o+ t"# r#lations"ip %#t+##n t+o or

mor# $aria%l#s0 t"at is0 "o+ a $aria%l# $ari#s +it" anot"#r.

E4ampl#3 /n #4amin## in a lic#nsr# #4amination0 it is #4p#ct#d t"at I! "#?

s"# g#ts a passing grad# in s%'#ct 10 it is assm#d t"at "#?s"# +ill g#t

passing grad# in all s%'#ct and #$#ntall( pass t"# lic#nsr# #4amination.

CASE ST!DY a)( CASE ?OR@S .=o9e%%4 1//:

Case St'(, an #4t#nsi$# and int#nsi$# in$#stigation o! a r#pr#s#nt#d0

+"#t"#r t"# nit is an indi$idal0 a !amil(0 a social grop 0 an instittion0 or a

commnit(0 t"# ai0 o! +"ic" is to id#nti!( casal !actors to som# a%normalit(

or d#ci#nc( and to nd and r#comm#nd#d a soltions0 a tr#atm#nt0 or

d#$#lopm#nt proc#dr#s.


19/56

Case ?or9 r#!#rs #sp#ciall( to t"# d#$#lopm#nt0 ad'stm#nt0 r#m#dial0 or

corr#cti$# proc#dr#s t"at appropriat#l( !ollo+ diagnosis o! t"# cas# o!

malad'stm#nt or o! !a$ora%l# d#$#lopm#nt.

Case Metho( "as %##n #mplo(#d to d#scri%# a plan o! organi*ing and

pr#s#nting instrctional mat#rials in la+0 m#dicin#0 social +or60 and #$#n in

#dcation0 ps(c"olog(0 and sociolog(0 +"#r# as a rl#0 t"# cas# mat#rials

s#d ar# t"# prodcts o! cas# std( in$#stigation.

Case Histor, a %iograp"( o%tain#d %( int#r$i#+ and ot"#r m#ans0

som#tim#s coll#ct#d o$#r t"# (#ars to #na%l# s to nd#rstand t"# pro%l#ms

o! an indi$idal and to sgg#st +a(s o! sol$ing t"#m

C%i)ia% Metho( a proc#ss %( +"ic" +# coll#ct all a$aila%l# #$id#nc#

social0 ps(c"ological0 #dcational0 %iograp"ical0 and m#dical0 t"at promis#s

to "#lp s nd#rstand an indi$idal c"ild.

?ho Sho'%( *e St'(ie(

1. C"ildr#n +it" som# !orms o! a%normaliti#s.

& . D#lin)#nt c"ildr#n

,. C"ildr#n +it" p"(sical and m#ntal "andicap.

>. Social grops s"o+ing som# 6ind o! a%normaliti#s or malad'stm#nt.

@i)(s of I)for&atio) )ee(e( i) Case St'(ies8

/ compl#t# cas# "istor( or %iograp"ical in!ormation containing a 6inds o!

in!ormation a%ot t"# s%'#ct o! a cas# std( is n##d#d.


20/56

1. Id#nti!(ing data3 nam#0 s#40 dat# o! %irt"0 ag#0 plac# o! %irt"0 t#l#p"on#

nm%#r i! an(.

&. Id#ntication and stat#m#nt o! t"# pro%l#m an( s(mptoms o! complaints

a%ot "#alt"0 social +or60 !amil( r#lations"ip0 a%normal %#"a$ior0 +or60

d#lin)#nci#s0 #tc.

,. H#alt" and d#$#lopm#nt "istor( d#tails o! %irt"0 an( a%normalit( at %irt" or

cong#nital d#ci#nc(.

>. Famil( "istor( a%normaliti#s among anc#stors0 par#nts0 and si%lings.

. Edcational "istor( cannot r#ad0 cannot do simpl# mat"#matical

comptation0 lo+ grad#s0 no int#r#st in sc"ool +or6.

. Social "istor( c"rc" m#m%#rs"ip0 att#ndanc#0 and in$ol$#m#nt.

. Economic "istor( #conomic stats +"#t"#r lo+0 a$#rag# or "ig".

. Ps(c"ological "istor( p#rsonalit( traits sc" as m#ntal a%ilit(0 sp#cial

tal#nts0 int#r#sts0 s6ills0 moods0 #motional patt#rns0 d#sir#s0 n##ds0

#4tro$#rsion and intro$#rsion0 dominanc#5s%mission.

Data-+atheri)+ I)str'&e)ts8

1. Int#r$i#+ all p#rson +"o ma( %# a%l# to s"#d lig"t on t"# pro%l#m ar#

int#r$i#+#d.

&. O%s#r$ation in$ol$#s o%s#r$ing t"# pati#ntGs %#"a$ior !or an ad#)at#

l#ngt" o! tim#.


21/56

,. #stionnair# gi$#n to t"# pati#nt "ims#l! and to som# p#opl# +"o an( %#

a%l# to contri%t# som#t"ing to t"# disco$#r( o! important data a%ot t"#

cas#.

>. Ps(c"ological t#sts administ#r#d to t"# pati#nt !or in!ormation a%ot "is

pro%l#m.

. /n#cdotal r#cords r#cords o! signicant asp#cts o! t"# pati#ntsG %#"a$ior.

. /to%iograp"i#s ric" sorc#s o! in!ormation a%ot t"# pati#nt and "is

pro%l#m.

. Ot"#r d#$ic#s c"#c6list0 scor# cards and ratings scal#s2

Charateristis of a Satisfator, St'(,8

1. Continit(

&. Compl#t#n#ss o! data.

,. 8alidit( o! data.

>. Cond#ntial r#cording

. Sci#ntic s(nt"#sis

Soia% S9i%%s of Case ?or98

T"# social s6ills o! cas# +or60 +it" particlar r#!#r#nc# to ad'stm#nt

Proc#dr#s incld#3


22/56

1. Social insig"t a compl#4 conc#pts o! gr#at importanc# in m##ting

administrati$#0 sp#r$isor(0 t#ac"ing0 and organi*ational pro%l#ms in +#l!ar#

ag#nci#s and social s#r$ic#s.

&. Empat"( social nd#rstanding as to "o+ ot"#r p#opl# !##l.

,. Socialit( positi$# %#"a$ior o! d#!tn#ss and spontan#it( in !ri#ndl( rationsG

+it" ot"#rs.

>. Commnication t"# proc#ss %( +"ic" +# transmit #4p#ri#nc# o! s"ar#

common #4p#ri#nc#.

. Coop#ration acting or +or6ing 'ointl( +it" ot"#rs.

. Participation social int#raction +it"in a grop dir#ct#d to som# #nd0 or

s"aring a common #4p#ri#nc#.

. Organi*ation t"# proc#ss o! s(st#maticall( niting in a grop t"# p#rsons

+"o participat# and coop#rat# in +or6ing to+ard common #nd.

. Social Cons#ling assisting t"# cli#nt to !ormlat# and anal(*# "is pro%l#m0

#4plor# r#sorc#0 d#t#rmin# a cors# o! action0 and s#cr# "##d#d s#r$ic#s.

J. 7idanc# !or cr#ati$# ac"i#$#m#nt to li%#rat# t"# po+#rs o! indi$idals !or

t"#ir o+n "appin#ss and !or contri%tions o! social $al#.

T"# C(cl# o! t"# Cas# Std( and Cas# Bor63

1. T"# r#cognition and d#t#rmination o! t"# stats o! t"# p"#nom#non.

&. Coll#ction o! data r#lating o! t"# !actors or circmstanc#s associat#d +it" t"#

gi$#n p"#nom#non.


23/56

,. Diagnosis or id#ntication o! casal !actors as a %asis !or r#m#dial or

d#$#lopm#nt tr#atm#nt.

>. /pplication o! r#m#dial or ad'stm#nt m#asr#s.

. S%s#)#nt !ollo+ ps to d#t#rmin# t"# #;#cti$#n#ss o! t"# corr#cti$# or

d#$#lopm#nt m#asr#s appli#d.

CONTENT ANALYSIS

DeB)itio) CONTENT ANALYSIS IS A RESEARCH TECHNI>!E FOR THE

O*ECTI=E4SYSTEMETIC4 AND >!ANTITI=E DESCRI#TION OF THE

MANIFEST CONTENT OF COMM!NICATION .*erse%so)4 ";;1Sinc# cont#nt

anal(sis d#als +it" docm#ntar( mat#rials0 cont#nt anal(sis and docm#ntar(

anal(sis is on# and t"# sam# t"ing. Cont#nt anal(sis d#als +it" docm#ntar(

mat#rial t"at is alr#ad( #4isting and a$aila%l#.

From its d#nition0 o)te)t a)a%,sis "as t"# !ollo+ing

harateristis8

1. It is O$etive. It mst %# o%'#cti$#. T"#r# s"old %# no %ias in$ol$#d in t"#

s#l#ction and t"# cont#nt to %# anal(*#d0 in its sampling d#sign0 and in t"#

int#rpr#tation o! r#slts. To %# o%'#cti$# as mc" as possi%l#0 all it#ms and

asp#cts in t"# cont#nt to %# anal(*#d mst %# incld#d and all mst %#

plac#d nd#r appropriat# cat#gori#s. B"#n t"#r# is a larg# $olm# o!

docm#ntar( mat#rials to %# anal(*#d and sampling is n#c#ssar(0 t"# $alid

principl#s o! sampling mst %# appli#d. Ot"#r+is#0 t"# mat#rials s#l#ct#d !or

in$#stigation ma( "a$# som# t#nd#nci#s to+ard c#rtain conditions t"at ma(


24/56

ad$#rs#l( a;#ct t"# tr# ndings o! t"# in$#stigation. /lso int#rpr#ting t"#

r#slts o%'#cti$#l( mst %# o%s#r$#d as mc" as possi%l# t"# p#rc#ption o!

t"# r#s#arc"#r mst not %# inA#nc#d %( !actors ot"#r t"an t"# tr#

otcom#s or t"# tr# !r#)#nc( conts o! t"# $aria%l#s %#ing in)ir#d into.

&. It is S,ste&atiIt mst %# s(st#matic and mst !ollo+ t"# st#p o! sci#ntic

m#t"od t"# r#cogni*ing and d#t#rmining t"# pro%l#m0 !orming t"#

"(pot"#sis or "(pot"#s#s0 doing li%rar( +or60 d#signing t"# std(0

d#$#loping t"# instrm#nts0 coll#cting t"# data0 anal(*ing t"# data0 ma6ing

conclsion and r#comm#ndations.

,. It is >'a)titative. Cont#nt anal(sis o! docm#ntar( is )antitati$# %#cas#

int#rpr#tation and conclsion !rom nding mst "a$# to d#p#nd almost

#ntir#l( on t"# !r#)#nc( conts on t"# it#ms o! asp#cts stdi#d. T"#

occrr#nc# o! t"# it#ms0 asp#ct0 or p"#nom#non to %# stdi#d "as to %#

!ail#d on# %( on#0 and0 pon t"# !r#)#nc( o! t"# occrr#nc#s d#p#nds t"#

anal(sis and int#rpr#tations.

Steps i) CONTENT ANALYSIS

1 Reo+)i5i)+ the pro$%e& Sppos# t"# pro%l#m r#cogni*#d t"#

commission o! #rrors o! std#nt in composition +riting.

" For&i)+ the H,pothesesIn non #4p#rim#ntal r#s#arc"0 t"# "(pot"#s#s

+ritt#n in )#stion !orm. H#nc#0 t"# )#stions t"at ma( %# as6#d ar#3

a. B"at ar# t"# common #rrors +"ic" mst %# committ#d in composition

+ritings


25/56

%. B"at mig"t %# t"# most possi%l# cas#s o! t"# commission o! sc" #rrors

c. B"at m#asr#s ma( %# adopt#d to minimi*# t"# commission o! sc"

#rrors

: Doi)+ %i$rar, researhOn# prpos# o! li%rar( s#arc" is to loo6 !or som#

gid#s in condcting t"# std(. I! ot"#r stdi#s o! t"# sam# natr# "a$#

alr#ad( %##n condct#d %#!or#0 t"# proc#dr#s ma( as +#ll ma( t"# gid#s

o! t"# r#s#arc"#r in condcting "is r#s#arc".

T"# S#cond prpos# is to nd ot i! t"# sam# ndings +ill r#slt0 and it so0

g#n#rali*ation %as#d on a +id#r %asis can %# !ormlat#d. T"# t"ird prpos# o! li%rar( r#s#arc" is to a$oid dplication o! ot"#r

stdi#s. T"#r# is dplication i! a std( "as %##n mad# in t"# sam# plac#

and sing t"# sam# mat#rials. In ord#r to a$oid t"s0 li%rar( s#arc" is $#r(

important and n#c#ssar(.

Desi+)i)+ the st'(,T"is is d#t#rmining t"# di;#r#nt proc#dr#s to %#

!ollo+#d in t"# std(. T"# instrm#nts !or coll#cting data mst %#

d#t#rmin#d. I! t"#r# is a larg# $olm# o! docm#ntar( mat#rials to %#

#4amin#d0 t"#n sampling mst %# appli#d in t"# s#l#ction o! composition to

%# incld#d in t"# std(. T"# statistical tr#atm#nt mst %# appli#d and mst

%# d#cid#d pon. T"# m#t"od o! data pr#s#ntation mst also %# d#sign#d0

n# it t#4tal0 ta%lar0 grap"ical0 or all o! t"# t"r##.

6 Deve%opi)+ the st'(,T"is is !or coll#cting data. In cont#nt anal(sis0 a

tall( or c"#c6list ma( %# pr#par#d. T"# instrm#nt mst contain all t"# it#ms

or asp#cts to %# stdi#d.


26/56

2 Co%%eti)+ the (ata. To r#it#rat#0 cont#nt anal(sis is )antitati$# and so

talli#s "a$# to %# mad# !or #ac" t(p# o! #rror committ#d. I! s#$#ral

composition to %# stdi#d0 t"s ar# to %# #4amin#d on# %( on# and t"#

t(p#s o! #rrors committ#d ar# talli#d on# %( on# in t"# tall( s"##t or

c"#c6list.

1. B"#n t"# composition "as %##n #4amin#d and all t(p#s o! #rrors "a$#

%##n talli#d0 t"#n t"# talli#s !or #ac" t(p# o! #rrors ar# cont#d to

d#t#rmin# t"# !r#)#nc( o! #ac" t(p# o! #rror.

0 A)a%,5i)+ the (ata. In anal(*ing t"# data0 t"# t(p#s o! #rrors ma( %#

ran6#d to d#t#rmin# +"at t(p#s o! #rrors +#r# committ#d !or#most or

!r#)#nc( p#rc#nts ma( %# compt#d to d#t#rmin# t"# gr#at#st portions o!

#rrors committ#d. T"#n %ot" s"old appli#d to t"# dat# coll#ct#d.

3. Ma9i)+ o)%'sio). 7#n#rall( conclsions ar# ans+#r to t"# )#stions

rais#d to t"# %#ginning o! t"# in$#stigation. D#cid#s t"#( ar# %as#d pon t"#

ndings o! t"# std(. On# conclsion t"at can %# dra+n !rom t"# a%o$#

cont#nt anal(sis3

&. T"# %igg#st t(p#s o! #rrors committ#d +#r# rais#d on t"# in$#stigation

d#scri%#d or disco$#r#d as committ#d on t"# nding o! t"# std(.

/. Ma9i)+ reo&&e)(atio)s. R#comm#ndations ar# mad# to sol$# or "#lp

to sol$# t"# pro%l#ms disco$#r#d in t"# std(. -#sid#s0 t"s ar# also mad#

!or !rt"#r r#s#arc" on t"# sam# std( 'st nis"#d.

App%iatio)s of CONTENT ANALYSIS of Do'&e)tar, Materia%s


27/56

/mong t"# important s#s ar# t"# !ollo+ing3

1. /nal(*ing to d#t#rmin# t"# #dcational0 political0 sociological0 p"ilosop"ical0

ps(c"ological0 and ot"#r id#as or gr#at at"ors and t"in6#rsG0 %as#d pon

t"#ir %oo6s0 #ssa(0 po#ms0 diari#s0 no$#ls0 pla(s0 sp##c"#s and ot"#r

+ritings.

&. /nal(*ing t"# cont#nts o! t#4t%oo6s and ot"#r instrctional mat#rial as %asis

!or crriclm constrction and d#$#lopm#nt and as a %asis s#l#ction o!

t#4t%oo6s and ot"#r instrctional mat#rial !or t"# di;#r#nt crriclm (#ars

o! t"# #dcational ladd#r.

,. /nal(*ing t"# ac"i#$#m#nts o! std#nts in di;#r#nt s%'#cts to d#t#rmin#

t"# t(p#s o! #rrors t"# committ#d as a %asis !or ma6ing r#m#dial t#ac"ing

programs and !or t"# crriclm d#$#lopm#nt.

>. /nal(*ing t"# di;#r#nt +riting o! std#nt sc" as #ssa(s0 compositions0

po#ms0 stori#s0 l#tt#rs #tc. to d#t#rmin# t"#ir +riting aptitd#s0 l#$#l o! t"#ir

$oca%lar( and sp#lling s6ills0 as a %asis !or d#signing programs !or !rt"#r

d#$#lopm#nt.

. /nal(*ing sc"ool r#cords sc" as class r#cords0 r#port cards0 #nrolm#nt lists0

grading s"##ts0 cmlati$# r#cords0 #tc. o! di;#r#nt sc"ools and sc"ool

s(st#ms +it" t"# #nd in $i#+ o! adopting t"# common0 practical0 #conomical0

and s#!l sc"ool r#cords.


28/56

. /nal(*ing t"# o%'#cti$# and practic#s o! di;#r#nt sc"ools and sc"ool s(st#ms

+it" t"# #nd in $i#+ o! adopting mor# $alid and practical o%'#cti$#s and

practic#s to attain t"# sam# #nds.

SE=ERAL AREAS MAY IN>!IRED INTO THRO!GH CONTENT ANALYSIS

S!CH AS8

RADIO AND TELE=ISION #ROGRAMS4 EITHER CROSS SECTIONAL OR

LONGIT!DINAL

NE?S#A#ER RE#ORTS CONCERNING CERTAIN ISS!ES4 AS FOR

INSTANCE #OLITICAL ISS!ES AND

READA*ILITY OF *OO@S4 NE?S#A#ER4 MAGAINES4 ETC

THE #RESENCE OF CERTAIN ITEMS IN NE?S#A#ER AND MAGAONE

S!CH AS CROSS?ORD #!LES4 MAES4 COMICS STRI#S MO=IE FILMS

FOR CERTAIN ISS!E ART ?OR@S AND MANY OTHERS


29/56

Chapter - S'rve, Researh

S!R=EYS

S'rve,s Researh /n att#mpt to o%tain data !rom m#m%#rs o! a poplation or

a sampl#2 to d#t#rmin# t"# crr#nt stats o! t"at poplation +it" r#sp#ct

to on# or mor# $aria%l#s. Its in$ol$#s r#s#arc"#rs as6ing a larg# grop o! p#opl#

)#stions a%ot a particlar topic or iss#. .Creswe%%4 ";;:

T,pes of S'rve,s

Cross-Setio)a% S'rve, / sr$#( in +"ic" data ar# coll#ct#d at on# point in

tim# !rom a pr#d#t#rmin#d poplation. Frt"#rmor#0 t"# in!ormation is coll#ct#d

at 'st on# point in tim#0 alt"og" t"# tim# it ta6#s to coll#ct all o! t"# data

d#sir#d ma( ta6# an(+"#r# !rom a da( to !#+ +##6s or mor#.

Ce)s's It is +"#n an #ntir# poplation is sr$#(#d. /n att#mpt to

ac)ir# data !rom #ac" and #$#r( m#m%#r o! a poplation.

Lo)+it'(i)a% S'rve, Std( in +"ic" data ar# o%tain#d on t"# sam#

indi$idals t+o or mor# tim#s dring a p#riod o! tim# sall( o! consid#ra%l#

l#ngt"0 sc" as s#$#ral mont"s or (#ars2. Coll#cts in!ormation at di;#r#nt points

in tim# in ord#r to std( c"ang#s o$#r tim#.


30/56

Tre)( St'(ies In +"ic" t"# sam# poplation is stdi#d o$#r tim#

%( ta6ing di;#r#nt random sampl#s at $arios points in tim#.

Cohort St'(ies in +"ic" a particlar poplation is stdi#d o$#r

tim# %( ta6ing di;#r#nt random sampl#s at $arios points in tim#.

T"# poplation r#mains conc#ptall( t"# sam#0 %t indi$idals

c"ang#.

#a)e% St'(ies in +"ic" t"# sam# random sampl# is m#asr#d at

di;#r#nt points in tim#. T"# r#s#arc"#r s#l#cts a sampl# rig"t at t"#

%#ginning o! t"# std(. T"# r#s#arc"#r sr$#(s t"# sam# indi$idals

at di;#r#nt tim#s dring t"# cors# o! t"# sr$#(.

Steps i) S'rve, Researh .De =ar's4 ";;1

#ro$%e& DeB)itio)T"# pro%l#m to %# in$#stigat#d %( m#ans o! a sr$#( s"old %#

sci#ntl( int#r#sting and important #nog" to moti$at# t"# indi$idal

sr$#(#d to r#spond. R#s#arc"#rs n##d to d#n# cl#arl( t"#ir

o%'#cti$#s in condcting a sr$#(. Eac" )#stion to %# as6#d s"old

r#lat# to on# or mor# o! t"# sr$#(Gs o%'#cti$#s. On# strat#g( !or

d#ning sr$#( )#stions is to s# a "i#rarc"ical approac"0 %#ginning

+it" t"# %road#st0 most g#n#ral )#stions can "#lp r#s#arc" )#stions

ca "#lp r#s#arc"#s id#nti!( larg# cat#gori#s o! iss#s0 sgg#st mor#

sp#cic iss#s +it"in #ac" cat#gor( and conc#i$# o! possi%l#

)#stions.

I(e)tiBatio) of the Tar+et #op'%atio)

T"# grop o! p#rsons0 o%'#cts0 instittion and so on t"at is !ocs

o! t"# std(.


31/56

To ma6# trst+ort"( stat#m#nts a%ot t"# targ#t poplation0 it

mst %# $#r( +#ll d#n#d. In !act0 it mst %# +#ll d#n#d t"at is

possi%l# to stat# +it" c#rtainl( +"#t"#r or not a poplar nit o!

anal(sis is a m#m%#r o! t"# poplation. nl#ss t"# targ#t poplation is

d#n#d in sci#nt d#tail an( stat#m#nt mad# a%ot t"is poplation0

%as#d on a sr$#( o! a sampl# o! it0 ma( %# misl#ading or incorr#ct.

Mo(e of Data Co%%etio)

T"#r# ar# !or %asic +a(s to coll#ct data in a sr$#(3

Diret A(&i)isteri)+ to a Gro'p t"is m#t"od is s#d +"#n#$#r a

r#s#arc"#r "as acc#ss to all or most2 o! t"# m#m%#rs o! a particlar

grop in on# plac#. T"# instrm#nt is administ#r#d to all m#m%#rs o! t"#

grop at t"# sam# tim# and sall( in t"# sam# plac#.

#ros8

T"# "ig" rat# o! r#spons#

7#n#rall( lo+ cost !actor

T"# r#s#arc"#r "as an opportnit( to #4plain#d t"# std( and

ans+#r an( )#stions t"at t"# r#spond#nts ma( "a$# %#!or# t"#(

compl#t# t"# )#stionnair#

Co)s8

T"#r# ar# not too man( t(p#s o! sr$#( t"at can s# sampl#s o!

indi$idals t"at ar# coll#ct#d tog#t"#r as a grop


32/56

Mai% S'rve, B"#n t"# data in a sr$#( ar# coll#ct#d %( mail0 t"#

)#stionnair# is s#nt to #ac" indi$idal in t"# sampl# %( mail0 +it" a

r#)#st t"at is %# compl#t#d and t"#n r#trn#d %( a gi$#n dat#.

#ros8

It is r#lati$#l( in#4p#nsi$# and it can %# accomplis"#d %( t"#

r#s#arc"#r alon# or +it" onl( a !#+ assistants2 /llo+s t"# r#s#arc"#rs to "a$# acc#ss to sampl#s t"at mig"t %#

"ard to r#ac" in p#rson or %( t#l#p"on#. It p#rmits t"# r#spond#nts to ta6# sci#nt tim# to gi$# t"og"t!l

ans+#r to t"# )#stions as6#d.

Co)s8

T"#r# is l#ss opportnit( to #ncorag# t"# coop#ration o! t"#

r#spond#nt or to pro$id# assistanc# Prodc# lo+ r#spons# rat#

Do not l#nd t"#ms#l$#s +#ll to o%tain#d in!ormation !rom c#rtain

t(p# o! sampl#s.

Te%epho)e S'rve, t"# r#s#arc"#r or "is or "#r assistanc# as6s

)#stions o! t"# r#spond#nt o$#r t"# t#l#p"on#2

#ros8 C"#ap#r t"an p#rsonal int#r$i#+s

Can %# condct#d !airl( )ic6l(

L#d t"#ms#l$#s #asil( to standardi*#d )#stioning proc#dr#s

/llo+s t"# r#s#arc"#r to assist t"# r#spond#nt

P#rmit a gr#at#r amont o! !ollo+5p

Pro$id# %#tt#r co$#rag# in c#rtain ar#as +"#r# p#rsonal int#r$i#+s

o!t#n ar# r#lctant to go .Co)s8 /cc#ss to som# Sampl#s is not possi%l#

Pr#$#nt $isal o%s#r$ation o! r#spond#nts


33/56

L#ss #;#cti$# in o%taining in!ormation a%ot s#nsiti$# iss#s or

p#rsonal )#stions Lo+#r r#spons# rat# t"at o%tain#d %( p#rsona int#r$i#+

#erso)a% I)terview t"# r#s#arc"#r or train#d assistants2 condcts a

!ac#5to5!ac# int#r$i#+ +it" t"# r#spond#nts.#ros8 Enlist t"# coop#ration o! t"# r#spond#nts

Rapport can %# #sta%lis"#d

#stions can %# clari#d

ncl#ar or incompl#t# ans+#r can %# !ollo+5p

L#ss o! a %rd#n on t"# +riting and r#ading s6ill o! t"# r#spond#nt.

Co)s8 Mor# Costl(

R#)ir# a train#d sta; o! int#r$i#+s0 +it" all t"at impli#s in t#rms o!

training cost and tim#. Total data coll#ction tim# r#)ir#d is to %# )it# a %it long#r

It is possi%l# too0 t"at t"# lac6 o! anon(mit( t"# r#spond#nt is

o%$iosl( 6no+n to t"# int#r$i#+#r20 ma( r#slt in l#ss $alid

r#spons# to p#rsonall( s#nsiti$# )#stions Som# t(p#s o! sampl#s Indi$idals in "ig" crim# ar#as0 +or6#rs in

larg# corporation0 std#nts and so on2 ar# o!t#n diclt to contact

in sci#nt nm%#rs. Se%etio) of the Sa&p%e

T"# s%'#ct to %# sr$#(#d s"old %# s#l#ct#d randoml(0 i! possi%l#2

!rom t"# poplation o! int#r#st. T"# s%'#cts t"#( int#nt to )#stion poss#ss

t"# in!ormation t"# r#s#arc"#r +ants to o%tain a good id#a !or r#s#arc"#rs to

condct a pr#liminar( in)ir( among pot#ntial r#spond#nts to ass#ss t"#ir

r#c#pti$it(. #reparatio) of the I)str'&e)t .Mo)ette4 ";;6

T"# most common t(p# o! instrm#nts s#d in sr$#( r#s#arc" is t"#

)#stionnair#s and t"# int#r$i#+ sc"#dl#. T"#( ar# $irtall( id#ntical0

#4c#pt t"at t"#


34/56

T,pes of >'estio))aire

C%ose(-E)( >'estio))aire a )#stion and a list o! alt#rnati$#

r#spons#s !rom +"ic" t"# r#spond#r s#l#cts@ r#l( on mltipl#5c"oic#@

mltipl#5c"oic# )#stions allo+ a r#spond#nt to s#l#ct "is ans+#r !rom an

nm%#r o! options. /lso r#!#rr#d to as a clos#d5!orm it#m.

#ros. En"anc#s consist#ntl( o! r#spons# across r#spond#nts

Easi#r consist#nc( o! r#spons# across r#spond#nts

Easi#r and !ast#r to ta%lat#

Mor# poplar +it" r#spond#nts

Co)s

Ma( limit %r#adt" o! r#spons#s

Ta6#s mor# tim# to constrct

R#)ir# mor# )#stion to co$#r t"# r#s#arc" topic

So&e S'++estio) for I&provi)+ C%ose-E)(e( >'estio)s3

-# sr# t"# )#stion in nam%igos

##p t"# !ocs as simpl# as possi%l#

##p t"# )#stions s"ort

s# common langag#

/$oid t"# s# o! t#rms t"at mig"t 9%asis: r#spons#s

/$oid l#ading )#stions

/$oid do%l# n#gati$#


35/56

Ope)-E)(e( >'estio))aire a )#stion gi$ing t"# r#spond#r compl#t#

!r##dom o! r#spons#. It allo+s !or mor# indi$idali*#d r#spons#s0 nt t"#(

ar# som#tim#s diclt to int#rpr#t.

#ros.

/llo+s mor# !r##dom o! r#spons#

Easi#r to constrct

P#rmits !ollo+5p %( int#r$i#+#r

Co)s.

R#spons#s t#n to %# inconsist#nt in l#ngt" and cont#nt across

r#spond#nts -ot" )#stions and r#spons#s s%'#ct to misint#rpr#tation

Hard#r to ta%lat# and s(nt"#si*#

#re-testi)+ the >'estio))aire

Onc# t"# )#stions to %# incld#d in t"# )#stionnair# or t"# int#r$i#+

sc"#dl# "a$# %##n +ritt#n0 t"# r#s#arc"#r is +#ll5ad$is#d to tr( t"#m ot +it" a

small sampl# similar to t"# pot#ntial r#spond#nts0 a 9pr#5t#st: o! t"# )#stionnair#

can r#$#l am%igiti#s0 poorl( +ord#d )#stions0 )#stions t"at ar# not nd#rstood

and ncl#ar c"oic#s and can also indicat# +"#t"#r t"# instrction to t"#

r#spond#nts ar# cl#ar. Som#tim#s0 c#rtain )#stions +ill appl( to onl( a portion o!

t"# s%'#cts in t"# sampl#. B"#n t"is is t"# cas#0 !ollo+5p )#stions can %#

incld#d in t"# sampl# in t"# )#stionnair#. T"# !ollo+5p )#stion is call#d

o)ti)+e),


36/56

/ co$#r l#tt#r #4plains t"# prpos# o! t"# )#stionnair#@ it also moti$at#s t"#

m#m%#rs o! t"# sampl# to r#spond. It s"old %# %ri#! and addr#ss#d sp#cicall( to

t"# indi$idal as6#d to r#spond.

It s"old #4plain t"# prpos# o! t"# sr$#(0 #mp"asi*# t"# importanc# o! t"#

topic o! t"# r#s#arc"0 and #ngag# t"# r#spond#ntGs coop#ration. Cond#ntialit(

and anon(mit( o! t"# r#spond#nts s"old %# assr#d. T"# sp#cic d#adlin# dat#

%( +"ic" t"# compl#t#d )#stionnair# is to %# r#trn#d s"old %# indicat#d and

t"# l#tt#r s"old %# indi$idall( sign#d %( t"# r#s#arc"#r.

Finall(0 t"# r#trn s"old %# mad# as #as( as possi%l#@ "#nc# #nclosing a

stamp#d0 s#l!5addr#ss#d #n$#lop#d is al+a(s a good id#a.

TRAINING OF INTER=IE?S .Yi)4 ";;:

Te%epho)e I)terview

Int#r$i#+#r s"old

S"o+ "o+ to #ngag# t"#ir int#r$i#+#rs so t"at t"#( do not "ang5p on

t"#m %#!or# t"# int#r$i#+ "as #$#n %#gn

no+ "o+ to #4plain )ic6l( t"# prpos# o! t"#ir call and +"( it is

important to o%tain in!ormation !rom t"# r#spond#nt

L#arn "o+ to as6 in a +a( so as to #ncorag# t"os# t"#( call to

r#spond "on#stl(. Fae-to-Fae I)terview

Int#r$i#+#r s"old

L#arn "o+ to #sta%lis" rapport +it" t"#ir int#r$i#+##s and to pt t"#m

at #as#


37/56

no+ "o+ to mo$# on it a n#+ s#t o! )#stions and r#trn to t"#

pr#$ios )#stions lat#r0 i! t"# r#spond#nt s##ms to %# t"r#at#n#d.

N##d training in g#str#s0 mann#r0 !acial #4pr#ssion and dr#ss

Ge)era% Topis to $e Covere( i) Trai)i)+ I)terviewers

Proc#dr#s !or contacting r#spond#nts and introdcing t"# std(. /ll

int#r$i#+#rs s"old "a$# a common nd#rstanding o! t"# prpos#s o!

t"# std(.

T"# con$#ntions t"at ar# s#d in t"# d#sign o! t"# )#stionnair# +it"

r#sp#ct to +ording and instrctions !or s6ipping )#stions i!

n#c#ssar(2 so t"at int#r$i#+#rs can as6 t"# )#stions in a consist#nt

and standardi*#d +a(.

Proc#dr#s !or pro%ing inad#)at# ans+#r in a nondir#cti$# +a(0

#ro$i)+r#!#rs to !ollo+ing5p incompl#t# ans+#r in +a(s t"at do not

!a$or on# particlar ans+#r o$#r anot"#r.

Proc#dr#s !or r#coding ans+#r to op#n5#nd#d and clos#d5#nd#d

)#stions. T"is is #sp#ciall( important +it" r#gard to ans+#r to op#n5

#nd#d )#stions0 +"ic" int#r$i#+s ar# #4p#ct#d to r#cord $#r%atim.

Rl#s and gid#lin#s !or "andling t"# int#r5p#rsonal asp#cts o! t"#

int#r$i#+ to !ocs on t"# tas6 at "and and to a$oid #4pr#ssing t"#ir

$i#+s or opinion $#r%all( or +it" %od( langag#2 on an( o! t"#

)#stions %#ing as6#d.

NON-RES#ONSE .Roth4 1//3

In almost all sr$#(s0 som# m#m%#rs o! t"# sampl# +ill not r#spond. T"is is

r#!#rr#d to as )o)-respo)se. It ma( %# d# to a nm%#r o! r#asons3 Lac6 o!

int#r#st in t"# topic %#ing sr$#(#d0 !org#t!ln#ss0 and n+illingn#ss to %#

sr$#(#d.

?h, is No)-Respo)se a #ro$%e&


38/56

T"# c"i#! r#ason is t"at t"os# +"o do not r#spond +ill $#r( li6#l( di;#r !rom

t"# r#spond#nts +it" r#gard to ans+#r to t"# sr$#( )#stions. S"old t"is %#

misl#ading and not a tr# indication o! t"# $i#+ o! t"# poplation !rom +"ic" t"#

sampl# +as dra+n.

Cate+ories of a No)-Respo)se

Tota% No)-Respo)se +"#n no in!ormation at all is coll#ct#d !rom

on# or mor# indi$idals.

Ite& No)-Respo)se +"#n som#0 %t not all in!ormation is

coll#ct#d !rom on# or mor# indi$idals.

COMMON S!GGESTIONS TO INCREASE THE RE#ONSE RATE IN S!R=EYS3

A(&i)istratio) of the


39/56

s# clos#d5#nd#d rat"#r t"an or in addition op#n5#nd#d )#stions

alon#

Ensr# t"at non ps(c"ological t"r#at#ning )#stions ar# incld#d

Eliminat# an( l#ading )#stions

C"#c6 !or am%igit( o! it#ms +it" a pan#l o! 'dg#s. R#$is# as n##d#d.

Chapter 6 - >'a%itative Researh

>!ALITATI=E RESEARCH

INTROD!CTION

/ c"oic# o! r#s#arc" d#sign )alitati$# or )alitati$#2 ma( %# s"ap#d %(

on#Gs aptitd# !or on# mod# o$#r t"# ot"#r. Ho+#$#r0 com%ining t"# t+o

p#rsp#cti$# cold #nric" t"# r#s#arc"#rGs nd#rstanding o! a gi$#n pro%l#m.

/ )alitati$# std( is appropriat# o! t"# r#s#arc" !ocs is strat#gi#s s#d in

t"# impl#m#ntation o! a program or pro'#ct. Inst#ad o! )anti!(ing t"# otpt or

t"# impact o! t"# program0 t"# !ocs is on +"at it "as accomplis"#d in appl(ing

t"# strat#gi#s.


40/56

>!ALITATI=E ST!DIES .G'$a4 1//

alitati$# r#s#arc" stdi#s as a p#rsp#cti$#0 is c"aract#ri*#d %( t"#

!ollo+ing assmptions mad# %( t"# r#s#arc"#r.

alitati$# r#s#arc"#rs ar# conc#rn#d primaril( +it" proc#ss0 rat"#r t"an

otcom#s or prodcts. alitati$# r#s#arc"#rs ar# int#r#st#d in m#aning "o+ p#opl# ma6#

s#ns# o! t"#ir li$#s0 t"#ir #4p#ri#nc#s0 and t"#ir strctr# o! t"# +orld. T"# )alitati$# r#s#arc"#r is t"# primar( instrm#nt !or data coll#ction

and anal(sis. Data ar# m#diat#d t"rog" t"is "man instrm#nt0 rat"#r

t"an t"rog" in$#ntori#s0 )#stionnair#s0 or mac"in#s. alitati$# r#s#arc" in$ol$#s is feldwork. T"# r#s#arc"#r p"(sicall( go#s

to t"# p#opl#0 s#tting0 sit#0 or instittion to o%s#r$# %#"a$ior in its

natral s#tting. alitati$# r#s#arc" is descriptive in t"at r#s#arc"#r is int#r#st#d in

proc#ss0 m#aning and nd#rstanding gain#d t"rog" +ord or pictr#s. T"# proc#ss o! )alitati$# proc#ss is inductivein t"at t"# r#s#arc" %ilds

a%stractions0 conc#pts0 "(pot"#s#s0 and t"#ori#s !rom d#tails.

alitati$# stdi#s di;#r mar6#dl( !rom )antitati$# r#s#arc" in t"at t"#(

!ocs on detailing t"# proc#ss#s o! #$#nts0 +"il# )antitati$# stdi#s !ocs on

otcom#s or prodcts0 +"ic" can normall( %# cont#d.

alitati$# stdi#s #mp"asi*#d t"# importanc# i! individual+"o s"ar# t"#ir

#4p#ri#nc#s0 rat"#r t"an com%in# t"#ir #4p#ri#nc#s in aggr#gat# !orm +"#r# t"#

p#rson los#s "is?"#r id#ntit(. T"# sp#cic #4p#ri#nc# o! t"# p#rson or instittion is

mor# important t"at t"# gr#s or scor#s o%tain#d to m#asr# t"#ir p#r!ormanc#0

as in )antitati$# stdi#s.


41/56

alitati$# r#s#arc" is similar to sr$#( r#s#arc" sinc# t"# #$#nts %#ing

o%s#r$#d occrr#d in natral s#tting. No int#r$#ntion is mad# %( t"# r#s#arc"#r. It

sci#nt nm%#r o! cas#s to r#pr#s#nt t"# poplation. Rat"#r0 )alitati$# stdi#s

ar# mor# conc#rn#d +it" o%taining #l#m#nts t"at can sp#a6 o! t"# topic o! t"#

in$#stigation +"ic" in$ol$#s #ld+or60 sinc# t"# r#s#arc"#r "as to +itn#ss t"#

$#nt#d %( going to t"# sit#0 t"# s#tting0 or t"# p#opl#0 to o%s#r$# t"# %#"a$ior as it

"app#n or to captr# it t"rog" ot"#r docm#nts or r#cords.

Cresswe%% .";;:#mp"asi*#s t"# t#nd#nc( o! )alitati$# r#s#arc" to %#

indcti$#. Ho+#$#r0 t"#r# ar# instanc#s +"#n )alitati$# stdi#s ma( spring !rom

t"#or( and att#mpt to s"o+ casal or r#lational patt#rns. - t"# %rd#n o! proo!

!or its capacit( to g#n#rali*# to t"# %igg#r poplation is sti;#r !or )alitati$#

stdi#s.

In g#n#ral0 t"# d#sign and m#t"od o! )alitati$# stdi#s ar# mor# A#4i%l#

and t"#( ar# sp#ll#d ot in mor# g#n#ral t#rms prior to t"# actal std(.

COM#ARISON OF >!ALITATI=E AND >!ANTITATI=E A##ROACHES

>'a)titative >'a%itativePrpos# o! t"# Std( To d#scri%# and #4plain

#$#nts sing nm#rical

data to ltimat#l( %# a%l#

to control and pr#dict

To d#tail t"# proc#ss#s

appli#d and dra+

patt#rns?insig"ts@ t

#4plor#?d#t#rmin# data

!actors inA#ncing an

#$#nt sing +ords and

$isalsRol# o! t"# participants /s s%'#cts or

r#spond#nts +"os# $i#+s

/s p#rsons?indi$idal

grops +"os# id#as and


42/56

ar# aggr#gat#d into

statistical data

!##lings ar# important@

id#ntit( is important.Rol# o! t"# r#s#arc"#r Maniplat#s conditions !or

#4p#rim#nts?)asi5

#4p#rim#nts

O%s#r$#s #$#nts in t"#

natral s#tting0 as in

sr$#(s alt"og" it is not

a conc#rn to )anti!(2

R!LES IN FORM!LATING >!ALITATI=E RESEARCH .Creswe%%4 ";;:

I)for&atio) A(e


43/56

T"# rl#s cit#d indicat#d t"at t"# m#t"odolog( !or coll#cting in!ormation to

ma6# sr# t"at t"# r#sponding to #ci#nc( and ad#)ac( iss#s +ill not trampl#

on t"# rig"ts o! t"# p#rson %#ing o%s#r$#d. D#nit#l(0 iss#s a%ot maintaining

t"# %alanc# %#t+##n an ad#)at# r#s#arc" d#sign and t"# rig"t o! t"# s%'#cts

ma( %# a;#ct#d %( particlar approac"#s s#l#ct#d.

E4ampl#3 T"# std( o! n#gati$# %r#acratic %#"a$ior in appl(ing !or a lic#ns#

to op#rat# a !ranc"is# !or a ta4ica% %sin#ss. On# o! t"# alt#rnati$# strat#gi#s t"#

t#am s#l#ct#d +as d#plo(ing participant o%s#r$#rs +"o +ill poss#ss an applicant

!or a ta4ica% %sin#ss. On# id#ntit( o! t"# %r#acrats +as not di$lg#d %#cas#

t"is +old m#an s%'#cting t"# p#rsons in$ol$#d to l#gal action. T"# o%'#cti$# in

pr#s#nting t"# #4p#ri#nc#s o! $iolation o! r#glar %r#acratic norms +as not to

id#nti!( p#rsons %t positions +"ic" mani!#st#d common t(p#s o! corrpti$#

%#"a$ior.

CASE ST!DIES .?iers&a4 1//6

Fo's On# o! t"# most poplar )alitati$# m#t"ods in p%lic

administration is t"# condct o! cas# std(. T"# cas# std( approac"

normall( #ntails s#l#ction o! particlar l#$#l o! anal(tic int#r#st sc" as

p#rson0 grop0 program0 organi*ation0 or int#r5organi*ation.

In p%lic administration0 a cas# std( normall( !ocs#s on a particlar

organi*ation. T"is can %# a grop in dl( organi*#d p%lic instittion sc" as on#

nit in an oc# or d#partm#nt. It ma( also %# a social in t"at in$ol$#s +it"ot t"#

%#n#t o! a normal proc#ss o! l#gitimi*ation0 sc" as in!ormational n#t+or6 o!


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indi$idals !rom t"# pri$at# s#ctor +"o ma( %# int#r#st#d in lo%%(ing !or

r#ass#ssing programs or pro'#cts.

T"# sal o%'#cti$# o! a cas# std( is to captr# "o+ an organi*ation "as

in$ol$#d0 "o+ it is constitt#d0 and "o+ it normall( p#r!orms its r#glar acti$iti#s.

T"# ma'or t"rst is to c"aract#ri*# "o+ it op#rat#s in r#alit(. -t o! cors#0 t"#

asp#cts o! t"# organi*ation on# +ill !ocs on s"old %# sp#ll#d ot. In ot"#r +ords0

t"# id#ntication o! t"# l#$#l o! anal(sis d#p#nds pon t"# $aria%l#s o! t"# std(

and t"# t"#or#tical %asis !or !ocsing on t"is #t o! $aria%l#s.

/ cas# std( ma( also !ocs on sp#cic indi$idals in t"# social nit0 sc" as

t"# l#ad#r or a s#r$ic# d#li$#r( p#rson. T"# o%'#cti$#s cold %# to disclos# "o+

t"# p#rson in p#r!orming0 t"# sp#cic approac"#s or t#c"ni)#s adopt#d in t"#

p#r!ormanc# rol#0 and t"# pro%l#ms or diclti#s t"at ma( "a$# %##n #ncont#r#d

in p#r!orming t"is rol#.

T"# !ocs ma( also %# a particlar program5Its organi*ational strctr#0

p#opl#0 r#sorc#s0 and approac"#s5and "o+ its op#rat#s in a particlar cont#4t or

s#tting.

Ti&i)+ it is important to d#t#rmin# +"#t"#r t"# cas# std( +ill !ocs on

+"at transpir#d in t"# past r#trosp#cti$#2 or +ill %# docm#nt#d as it

occrs at pr#s#nt. T"is is a c"oic# t"at t"# r#s#arc"#r ma( "a$# to ma6#.

T#c"ni)#s o! data coll#cting can %# s"ap#d %( t"# tim# !ram# !or t"#

std(.R#constrcting a past #$#nt s"old0 "o+#$#r0 #nsr# t"at t"# #$#nt can

%# s%'#ct#d to r#call. T"# di;#r#nt t#c"ni)#s o! data coll#ction t"at +ill

%# adopt#d s"old s## to it t"at t"is can %# don#.


45/56

N'&$er of Gro'psJ#erso)s /not"#r conc#rn is d#t#rmining "o+ man(

p#rsons or grops +ill %# stdi#s %( t"# r#s#arc"#r. T"is can $ar( !rom on#

to man( d#p#nding on t"# nm%#r a$aila%l# and t"# prpos# or int#ntion o!

t"# r#s#arc"#r.

On# grop ma( %# "ig" lig"t#n#d %#cas# it is priorit( grop impl#m#nting

programs and pro'#cts. In cas# t"#r# ar# man( grops0 t"# !ocs ma( %# on som#

grops +it" t"# sam# c"aract#ristics in ord#r t"at common patt#rns ar# id#nti#d.

On t"# ot"#r "and0 constrating cas#s can %# "#lp!l in d#monstrating a casal

or r#lational argm#nt0 #sp#ciall( i! t"# grop or #l#m#nts %#ing compar#d "a$#

$ar(ing #4p#ri#nc#s.

It is s#!l to d#n# t"# r#asons !or s#l#cting c#rtain grops or indi$idal. T"#

r#s#arc"#r mst %# a%l# to #4plain#d t"# rational# !or t"# !ocs on t"#m. Som#

)#stions t"at ma( %# as6#d incld#3

B"at is ni)#

B"at c"aract#ristics o! t"is s#tting ar# comp#lling and nsal

Mars"all and Rossman consid#r t"# sit# or s#tting as important. T"#(

stiplat# t"at t"# sit# o! on# +"#r#3

Entr( is possi%l#@

T"#r# is "ig" pro%a%ilit( t"at a ric" mi4 o! t"# proc#ss#s0 p#opl#0

programs0 int#ractions0 and strctr# o! int#r#st ar# pr#s#nt@

T"# r#s#arc"#r is li6#l( to %# a%l# to %ild trsting r#lations +it" t"#

participants o! t"# std(@ and

Data )alit( and cr#di%ilit( o! t"# std( ar# r#asona%l# assr#d

HISTORICAL RESEARCH .G'&&e)sso)4 1//1


46/56

Fo's Historical r#s#arc" is t"# s(st#matic coll#ction and #$alation o!

data r#lat#d to past occrr#nc#s in ord#r to d#scri%# cas#s0 #;#cts0 or

tr#nds t"at ma( "#lp to #4plain#d pr#s#nt #$#nts and anticipat# t"# !tr#.

nli6# cas# stdi#s0 "istorical acconts do not !ocs on on# particlar

mom#nt in tim#. It !ollo+s t"rog" an #$#nt o$#r a gi$#n p#riod0

comm#ncing al+a(s +it" t"# past. It is a c"ronolog( o! #$#nts ta6ing not# o!

t"# important mil#ston#s or landmar6s in t"# span o! a social nit or

indi$idal. It is important !or t"# r#s#arc"#r to d#t#rmin# t"# particlar s#t o!

$aria%l# or !actors t"at s"old %# incld#d in t"# "istorical accont. /

conc#ptal or t"#or#tical !ram#+or6 s"old %# a%l# to #4plain +"( t"is !ocs

is n#c#ssar(0 to pro$id# t"# rational# o! t"# std(. Ro%e of the Researher Li6# t"# cas# stdi#s0 "istorical r#s#arc" is not

s%'#ct to control proc#dr#s o%s#r$#d in #4p#rim#nts and )asi5

#4p#rim#nt. Rat"#r is %as#d on t"# std( o! #$#nts in t"# natral s#tting.In t"# "istorical approac"0 t"# r#s#arc"#r go#s t"rog" t"# normal st#ps

in$ol$#d in t"# condct o! r#s#arc"0 i.#.0 d#nition o! a pro%l#m0 !ormlation

o! )#stions to %# ans+#r#d or "(pot"#s#s to %# t#st#d0 s(st#matic

coll#ction o! data0 #$alation o! data0 and prodction o! $#r%al s(nt"#sis or

conrmation?disconrmation o! "(pot"#s#s.T"# r#s#arc"#r mst ma6# sr# t"at t"#r# is som#t"ing n#+ to %# disco$#r#d

in appl(ing t"# approac" or t"at it +ill clari!(0 corr#ct0 or #4pand #4isting

6no+l#dg#. It s"old not %# nd#rta6#n to r#t#ll +"at is alr#ad( 6no+n.


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Chapter 2 - >'a)titative Researh

*ASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF >!ANTITATI=E RESARCH .Mo))ette a)(

S'%%iva)4 ";;6

T#st H(pot"#sis t"at t"# r#s#arc"#r %#gins +it"

Conc#pts ar# in t"# !orm !or distinct $aria%l#s M#asr#s ar# s(st#maticall( cr#at#d %#!or# data coll#ction and ar#

standardi*#d Data ar# in t"# !orm o! nm%#rs !rom pr#cis# m#asr#m#nt

T"#or( is larg#l( casal and d#dcti$#

Proc#dr#s ar# standard and r#plication is assm#d


48/56

/nal(sis proc##ds %( sing statistics0 ta%l#s or c"ars and discssing "o+0

+"at0 t"#( s"o+ r#lat#s to "(pot"#sis

ELEMENTS OF >!ANTITATI=E RESEARCH

Reo)str'te( Lo+i

Logic o! "o+ to do r#s#arc" is "ig"l( organi*#d and r#stat#d in an id#ali*#d0

!ormal and s(st#mati*#s !orm

Teh)orati #erspetive

R#s#arc"#r is t"# #4p#rt0 and t"# r#s#arc" )#stions o!t#n originat# +it" t"#

sponsors o! t"# r#s#arc". T"# goal o! r#s#arc" is to docm#nt g#n#rali*ations

ori#nt#d to+ards incr#asing #ci#nc(.

Li)ear #ath

/ r#s#arc" pat" t"at !ollo+s a 4#d and +#ll5d#n#d s#)#nc# o! st#ps.

T"in6ing and +a( o! loo6ing at iss#s is dir#ct0 narro+0 and straig"t to t"# point.

Tria)+'%atio)

O%s#r$ing !rom di;#r#nt $i#+points

1. Trianglation o! M#asr#s&. Trianglation o! O%s#r$#rs,. Trianglation o! T"#or(>. Trianglation o! M#t"od

O$etivit, a)( I)te+rit,

antitati$# r#s#arc"#rs str#ss o%'#cti$#l( and int#grit( %( m#ans o!

1. Mor# 9m#c"anical: t#c"ni)#


49/56

&. Principl#s o! R#plication,. /d"#r# to standardi*#d m#t"odological proc#dr#s>. M#asr# +it" nm%#rs. /nal(*# data +it" statistics

>!ANTITATI=E DESIGN ISS!ED .Cresswe%%4 ";;:

=ariatio) a)( varia$%es

antitati$# r#s#arc"#rs r#d#n# t"# conc#pts o! int#r#sts into t"# langag# o!

$aria%l#s

8/RI/-LES ar# !actors t"at can ta6# on mor# t"an on# $al# in a gi$#n std(

T(p#s o! 8aria%l#s

1. Ind#p#nd#nt 8aria%l#&. D#p#nd#nt 8aria%l#,. Int#r$#ning 8aria%l# ? M#diating 8aria%l#

Independent Variable is a $aria%l# pr#sm#d to #;#ct or inA#nc#

ot"#r $aria%l#s.

Dependent (or outcome)8aria%l# is a $aria%l# pr#sm#d to %# #;#ct#d

%( on# or mor# ind#p#nd#nt $aria%l#s.

Mediating Variable is t"# int#r$#ning $aria%l# t"at controls or a;#cts

%( on# or mor# ind#p#nd#nt $aria%l#.

E4ampl#3

/n #$alation on t"# s# o! Pilipino as m#dim o! instrction in t"#

Social Sci#nc#3 Impact to Std#ntGs p#r!ormanc#.

Ind#p#nd#nt m#dim in instrction Pilipino2


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D#p#nd#nt std#ntGs p#r!ormanc#

M#diating #;#cti$#n#ss o! t"# t#ac"#r I o! std#nt

Std#ntGs int#r#st and pr#paration

CA!SAL RELATIONSHI#S AND HY#OTHESIS .MG'i+a)4 1/0/

antitati$# r#s#arc"#rs t#st "(pot"#sis and #sta%lis" r#lations o! #$#nts %(

strong r#lianc# to statistical proc#dr#s

Five Charateristis of Ca'sa% H,pothesis

1. It "as at l#ast t+o $aria%l#s&. It #4pr#ss#s a casal or cas#5#;#ct r#lations"ip %#t+##n t"# $aria%l#s,. It can %# #4pr#ss#d as a pr#diction or an #4p#ct#d !tr# otcom#>. It is logicall( lin6#d to r#s#arc" )#stion and a t"#or(. It is !alsia%l#

H,pothesis

T"# t#rm o! 9"(pot"#sis0: as s#d in r#s#arc"0 r#!#rs to a pr#diction o!

r#slts mad# %#!or# a std( comm#nc#s.

T(p#s o! H(pot"#sis

Nll H(pot"#sis

/lt#rnati$# "(pot"#sis

Nll is a d#nial o! t"# pr#s#nc# o! a r#lations"ip among $aria%l#s. It is

al+a(s stat#d in t"# n#gati$# !rom %#cas# it is #asi#r to dispro$#.

Nll T"#r# is no signicant di;#r#nc# on t"# #;#cti$#n#ss o! dir#cti$#

and non5dir#cti$# t#ac"#rs as p#rc#i$#d %( r#spond#nts.


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/lt#rnati$# p is t"# opposit# o! t"# nll "(pot"#sis and it is al+a(s

stat#d in t"# positi$# !orm to arm t"# #4ist#nc# o! an o%s#r$#d

p"#nom#non.

E4ampl#3

/lt#rnati$# T"#r# is a signicant di;#r#nc# on t"# #;#cti$#n#ss o!

dir#cti$# and no5dir#cti$# t#ac"#r as p#rc#i$#d %( t"# r#spond#nts.

Charateristis of H,pothesis

1. It s"old %# r#asona%l#&. It s"old %# consist#nt +it" 6no+n !acts or t"#ori#s,. It s"old %# stat#d in sc" a +a( t"at it can %# t#st#d and !ond to

%# pro%a%l( tr# or pro%a%l( !als#>. It s"old %# stat#d in t"# simpl#st possi%l# t#rm. It s"old %# stat#d cl#arl( in t"# !orm o! a d#clarati$# s#nt#nc#

/SPECTS OF EQPL/NTION IN /NTIT/TI8E RESE/RCH

Leve% of A)a%,sis T"# l#$#l o! social r#alit( to +"ic" t"#or#tical

#4planation r#!#r. T"# l#$#l o! social r#alit( $ari#s on a continm !rom micro

l#$#l small grop or indi$idal proc#ss#s2 to macro l#$#l ci$ili*ation or

strctral asp#cts o! soci#t(2 !)it of A)a%,sis T"# t(p# o! nit a r#s#arc"#r s#s +"#n m#asring

Common nits ar#31. Indi$idal >. Social Instittion

&. 7rop . Social cat#gor(,. Organi*ation . Soci#t(

?AYS TO SELECT TO#ICS IN >!ANTITATI=E RESEARCH

P#rsonal #4p#ri#nc#

Criosit(

Stat# o! no+l#dg# in t"# #ld


52/56

Sol$ing pr#mims

P#rsonal 8al#s

E$#r( li!#

Teh)i. /nticipat# diclti#s


53/56

. Do not !org#t (or nit o! anal(sis

How to I)rease Re%ia$i%it,

1. Cl#arl( conc#ptali*# constrcts

&. s# pr#cis# l#$#l o! m#asr#m#nt

,. s# mltipl# indicators

>. s# pilots

=a%i(it, .Meas're&e)t =a%i(it,

Ho+ +#ll t"# conc#ptal and op#rational d#nitions m#s" +it" #ac" ot"#r.

T"# %#tt#r t t"# gr#at#r t"# m#asr#m#nt $alidit(.

Attri$'tes of =a%i(it,

REALI*ILITY Consist#nc( or sta%ilit( o! r#spons#

T,pes

1. Sta%ilit( R#lia%ilit( T#st5r#t#st m#t"od2

&. R#pr#s#ntati$# R#lia%ilit( r#lia%ilit( across grops2

,. E)i$al#nc# R#lia%ilit( R#lia%ilit( sing mltipl# indicators2

T(p#s

1. Cont#nt 8alidit( D#gr## o! r#pr#s#ntati$#n#ss o! t"# cont#nt?domain o!

d#nition in a m#asr#.


54/56

&. Crit#rion 8alidit( s#s som# standard or crit#rion to indicat# a constrct

accrat#l(.

T(p#s Concrr#nt and Pr#dicti$#

,. Constrct 8alidit( T"# #4t#nt to +"ic" t"# m#asr# d#n#s t"# constrct

T(p#s Con$#rg#nt and discriminant

TY#ES OF SAM#LING METHOD

1. Pro%a%ilit( Sampling is %#st i! t"# prpos# i!3

D#scription #stimat# o! grop c"aract#ristics

In!#r#nc# t#sting o! #mpirical "(pot"#sis&. Non5Pro%a%ilit( Sampling is %#st i! t"# prpos# is3

E4ploration and t"#or( d#$#lopm#nt

D#$#loping and t#sting sr$#( r#s#arc" instrm#nts

S#l#ction o! a small nm%#r o! rst5stag# nits

ANALYSIS OF DATA .Roth4 1//3

D#aling +it" data1. Coding s(st#maticall( r#organi*ing ra+ data into a !ormat t"at is #asil(

r#ada%l#&. Ent#ring Data,. Cl#aning Data C"#c6ing accrac( o! coding and #ncoding data.

Statistical /nal(sis

1. ni$#rsal Statistics on# $aria%l# is anal(*#s

5 Fr#)#nc( Distri%tion

5 M#asr# o! C#ntral T#nd#nc(

5M#asr#s o! 8ariations

&. -i$ariat# Statistics t+o $aria%l#s anal(*#d


55/56

5 Simpl# Corr#lation

5 T5t#st anal(sis

5On# Ba( /NO8a

5C"i5S)ar# ,. Mlti$ariat# Statistics t"r## or mor# $aria%l#s ar#

anal(*#d

5 Factorial /NO8/

5Factor /nal(sis

5Mltipl# R#gr#ssions

5Strctral E)ation Mod#ling Pat" /nal(sis

=ALIDITY .Davi(4 ";;1

It is important !or r#s#arc"#rs to s# $alid instrm#nts0 !or t"# conclsions

t"#( dra+ ar# %as#d on t"# in!ormation t"#( o%tain sing t"#s# instrm#nts. T"# t#rm 9$alidit(0: as s#d in r#s#arc"0 r#!#rs to t"# appropriat#n#ss0

m#aning!ln#ss0 corr#ctn#ss0 and s#!ln#ss o! an( in!#r#nc#s a r#s#arc"#r

dra+s %as#d on data o%tain#d t"rog" t"# s# o! an instrm#nt.

Cont#nt r#lat#d #$id#nc# o! $alidit( r#!#rs to 'dgm#nts on t"# cont#nt and

logical strctr# o! an instrm#nt as it is to %# s#d in a particlar std(.

Crit#rion r#lat#d #$id#nc# o! $alidit( r#!#rs to t"# d#gr## to +"ic"

in!ormation pro$id#d %( an instrm#nt agr##s +it" in!ormation o%tain#d on

ot"#r0 ind#p#nd#nt instrm#nts.

/ crit#rion is a standard !or 'dging@ +it" r#!#r#nc# to $alidit(0 it is a s#cond

instrm#nt against +"ic" scor# on an instrm#nt can %# c"#c6#d.

Constrct r#lat#d #$id#nc# o! $alidit( r#!#rs to t"# d#gr## to +"ic" t"#

totall( o! #$id#nc# o%tain#d is consist#nt +it" t"#or#tical #4p#ctations.


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8alidit( co#ci#nt is a nm#rical ind#4 r#pr#s#nting t"# d#gr## o!

corr#spond#nc# %#t+##n scor# on an instrm#nt and a crit#rion m#asr#.

/n #4p#ctanc( ta%l# is a t+o +a( c"art s#d to #$alat# crit#rion5r#lat#d

#$id#nc# o! $alidit(

RELIA*ITY .De =a's4 ";;1

T"# t#rm 9r#lia%ilit(0: as s#d in r#s#arc"0 r#!#rs to t"# consist#nc( o!

scor#s or ans+#rs pro$id#d %( an instrm#nt.

Errors o! m#asr#m#nt r#!#rs to $ariation is scor# o%tain#d %( t"# sam#

indi$idals on t"# sam# instrm#nt.

T"# t#st r#t#st m#t"ods o! #stimating r#lia%ilit( in$ol$#s administ#ring t"#

sam# instrm#nt t+ic# to t"# sam# grop o! indi$idals a!t#r a c#rtain tim#

int#r$al "as #laps#d.

T"# #)i$al#nt0 !orm m#t"od o! #stimating r#lia%ilit( in$ol$#s administ#ring

t+o di;#r#nt0 %t #)i$al#nt0 !orms o! an instrm#nt to t"# sam# grop o!

indi$idals at t"# tim#.

T"# int#rnal consist#nc( m#t"od o! #stimating r#lia%ilit( in$ol$#s

comparing r#spons# to di;#r#nt s#ts o! it#ms t"at ar# part o! an instrm#nt.

Scoring agr##m#nt r#)ir#s a d#monstration t"at ind#p#nd#nt scor#s an

ac"i#$# satis!actor( agr##m#nt in t"#ir scoring.

essentials of research methodology

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