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I n stru c to r’s G u I d e

Essentials of International RelationsF I F th e d I t I o n

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I n stru c to r’s G u I d e

Essentials of International RelationsF I F th e d I t I o n

I va n a rre g u í n -To f TBoston unIversIty

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0


5

ContEnts

chapter 1 approaches to International relations 7

chapter 2 The Historical Context of 14Contemporary International relations

chapter 3 Contending Perspectives: 30How to Think about International relations Theoretically

chapter 4 The International System 44

chapter 5 The State 53

chapter 6 The Individual 69

chapter 7 Intergovernmental organizations, 77nongovernmental organizations, and International Law

chapter 8 War and Strife 94

chapter 9 International Political economy 108

chapter 10 Transnational Issues 127

video Library 143


7

chapter 1

Approaches to International Relations

CHAPtER oUtLInE

I. InternationalRelationsinDailyLife • Seemingly remote international events can quickly become both

highlyrelevantandpersonallysalienttoanyofus. • International activities have historically resulted from decisions

takenbycentralgovernmentsandheadsofstate.Increasingly,theseactivities involve different actors, some of whom you influencedirectly.

• The variety of actors in international relations today includes notonly states, their leaders, and government bureaucracies, but for-profitandnonprofitorganizations,andyou.

• Internationalrelationsisthestudyoftheinteractionsamongthevariousactorsthatparticipateininternationalpolitics.Itisthestudyofthebehaviorsoftheseactorsastheyparticipateindividuallyandtogetherininternationalpoliticalprocesses.

II. ThinkingTheoretically • prominentinternationalrelationstheoriesdevelopedindeptharelib-

eralismandneoliberalinstitutionalism,realismandneorealism,radi-calperspectiveswhoseoriginslieinmarxism,andconstructivism.

• Liberalism:humannatureisbasicallygood.Statesgenerallycooper-ateandfollowinternationalnormsandproceduresthathavebeenmutuallyagreedupon.

• realism:statesexistinananarchicinternationalsystem.eachstatebasesitspoliciesonaninterpretationofnationalinterestdefinedintermsofpower.


8 ◆ chapter 1 approaches to International relations

• radicalism: actions of individuals are largely determined by eco-nomicclass;thestateisanagentofinternationalcapitalism;andtheinternationalsystemisdominatedbythecapitalistsystem.

• Constructivism:thekeystructuresinthestatesystemarenotmate-rialbutinsteadareintersubjectiveandsocial.Theinterestofstatesisnotfixedbutismalleableandeverchanging.

• differenttheoreticalapproacheshelpusseeinternationalrelationsfromdifferentviewpoints,andcompetitionbetweentheorieshelpsrevealtheirstrengthsandweaknessesandspurssubsequentrefine-ments.

III. DevelopingtheAnswers • History:history invites itsstudents toacquiredetailedknowledge

ofspecificevents,butitcanalsobeusedtotestgeneralizationsandexplaintherelationshipsamongvariousevents.

° Thucydidesdescribedthepatternsleadinguptowar;hefoundthat what made war inevitable was the growth of athenianpower.

° Historymaybeabadguide;the“lessons”ofmunichandalliedappeasement of Germany before World War II or the “les-sons”ofthewarinVietnamareneitherclear-cutnoragreedupon.

° StephenBiddlearguesthatcomparingVietnamtothecurrentwarinIraqisanoversimplificationthatmisappliesahistoricalcontext.Suchinaccurateapplicationofthe“lessons”ofhistori-calcomparisonoccasionallyleadstopoorpolicyprescriptions,yethistorycannotbeignored.

• philosophy:throughouthistory,scholarsinterestedininternationalrelations became grounded in diplomatic history as a substantivefocus and also became thoroughly versed in philosophy, posingfoundationalquestions.

° much classical philosophizing focuses on the state and itsleaders.

1. plato,inThe Republic,concludedthatinthe“perfectstate,”the people who should govern are those who are supe-riorinthewaysofphilosophy.Heintroducedtwosemi-nal ideas to the discipline: class analysis and dialecticalreasoning, both of which were bases for later marxistanalysis.


chapter 1 approaches to International relations ◆ 9

2. aristotle, plato’s student, looked at the similarities anddifferencesamongstates,becomingthefirstwritertousethecomparativemethodofanalysis.Hecametothecon-clusion that states riseand fall largely becauseof internalfactors.

° philosophersaftertheclassicalerafocusedonthebasiccharac-teristicsofmanandhowthosecharacteristicsmightinfluencethecharacterofinternationalsociety.

1. ThomasHobbes,inLeviathan,imaginedastateofnaturewhere men ruled by passions, living with the constantuncertaintyoftheirownsociety.Intheabsenceofinter-national authority, society is in a “state of nature,” oranarchy.

2. Jean-Jacquesrousseaudescribedthestateofnatureasanegocentric world, with man’s primary concern being self-preservation.rousseau’spreferencewasforthecreationofsmallercommunitiesinwhichthe“generalwill”couldbeattained.onlythegeneralwillcandirecttheforcesofthestate.

3. Immanuelkant,inbothIdea for a Universal HistoryandPer-petual Peace,envisionedafederationofstatesasameanstoachievepeace.Sovereigntieswouldremainintact,butthenew federalorderwouldbemoreeffectiveandreal-istic than rousseau’s small communities. kant believedthat man can learn new ways of cosmopolitanism anduniversalism.

° The tradition laid by these philosophers has contributed tothe development of international relations by calling atten-tion to fundamental relationships: thosebetweenthe individ-ual and society, between individuals in society, and betweensocieties.

° Historyandphilosophypermitustodelveintothefoundationalquestions—thenatureofmanandthebroadcharacteristicsofthestateandofinternationalsociety.Theyallowustospeculateonthenormative(ormoral)elementinpoliticallife:

1. Whatshouldbetheroleofthestate? 2. Whatoughttobethenormsininternationalsociety? 3. How might international society be structured to achieve

order?



• Behavioralism: behavioralism proposes that individuals, bothaloneand ingroups,act inpatternedways.Thetaskof thebehav-ioral scientist is to suggest plausible hypotheses regarding thosepatternedactionsandtotestthem.Thesescholarshopetopredictfuturebehavior.

° TheCorrelatesofWarprojectwasdevelopedtocollectdataoninternationalwarsbetween1865and1965inwhichonethou-sandormoredeathshadbeenreported.

° TheultimategoaloftheCorrelatesofWarprojectistoconnectalltherelationshipsthatarefoundintoacoherenttheoryofwhywarsoccur:

1. Whichgroupsoffactorsaremostcorrelatedwiththeout-breakofwarovertime?

2. Howarethesefactorsrelatedtooneanother?

° Iftheprojectfindsconsistentlyhighcorrelationsbetweenalli-ancesandwar,thenitcanexplainwhywarsbreakout,andper-hapspolicymakersmaybeabletopredictthecharacteristicsoftheactorsandthelocationoffuturewars.

° duringthe1980sand1990s,scholarsseriouslyquestionedthebehavioral approach. The foundational questions—the natureofmanandsociety—areneglectedbybehavioristsbecausetheyarenoteasilytestablebyempiricalmethods.

• alternativeapproaches

° postmodernists seek to deconstruct the basic concepts of thefield by searching texts for hidden meanings in the subtext.once these hidden meanings are revealed, postmodernistsseektoreplaceaonce-orderlypicturewithdisorder,toreplacedichotomieswithmultipleportraits.

° postmodern deconstruction of sovereignty has resulted inresearch that finds that conceptualizations of sovereignty areconstantlyshiftingandareconditionedbytime,place,andhis-toricalcircumstances.

° postmodernists also seek to find voices of “the others,” thoseindividualswhohavebeendisenfranchisedandmarginalizedininternationalrelations.

° Constructiviststracetheimpactofideasonshapingidentities;analyze culture, norms, procedures, and social practices; andshow how social and cultural factors shape national securitypolicy.Theyprobehowidentitiesareshapedandchangeovertime.



IV. InSum:MakingSenseofInternationalRelations • Themajortheoriesofinternationalrelations,includingliberal,real-

ist, radical, and constructivist, provide frameworks for asking andansweringcorefoundationalquestions.

• toanswer thesequestions, international relationsscholars turntodisciplinessuchashistory,philosophy,behavioralpsychology,andalternativeapproaches.

KEY tERMs

anarchy(p.7):theabsenceofgovernmentalauthority.

behavioralism(p.9):anapproachtothestudyofsocialscienceandinterna-tionalrelationsthatpositsthatindividualsandunitslikestatesactinregularizedways;leadstoabeliefthatbehaviorscanbedescribed,explained,andpredicted.

international relations (p. 3): the study of the interactions among variousactors (states, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations,andsubnationalentitieslikebureaucracies, localgovernments,andindividu-als)thatparticipateininternationalpolitics.

normative(p.9):relatingtoethicalrules;inforeignpolicyandinternationalaffairs,standardssuggestingwhatapolicyshouldbe.

DIsCUssIon QUEstIons

1. yourfatherpickedupthisbookandsawthewordtheory inthefirstchap-ter.Heisskepticalaboutthevalueoftheory.explaintohimtheutilityofdevelopingatheoreticalperspective.

2. philosophy isyourpassion,butyoufind international relationsmoder-atelyinteresting.Howcanyouintegrateyourpassionwiththispragmaticinterest?Whatquestionscanyouexplore?

3. you are a history major skilled in researching the historical archives.Suggesttworesearchprojectsthatyoumightundertaketofurtheryourunderstandingofinternationalrelations.

4. How can the study of international relations be made more scientific?Whataretheproblemswithdoingso?



tEACHInG sUGGEstIons

1. tryengagingyourstudentsinadiscussiononwhatatheory isbygivingthemanexampleofabadbutentertainingtheoryandencouragingthemtopointout itsweaknesses.Forexample, itseemsthatduringtheearlyyearsoftheColdWar,anamericantextilemanufacturerapproachedtheU.S.CongresswithaplantoexportlingerietotheSovietUniononthetheorythatSoviet“aggression”wastheresultofSovietmales’sexualfrus-tration.(Sovietstate-controlledclothingdesignwasfamousforitsugli-ness.)This“frustratedsexualitytheoryofSovietaggression”isatheory:itattemptstoestablishageneralizationthatmalesexualfrustrationleadstoaggressionandwar.It’sjustnotaverygoodtheory,becauseitfailstotakeintoaccounttheotherfactorsthatmightleadtomaleaggression,ortheideathatmaleaggressionmightnotbeasoundgeneral explanationforaggressivestatepoliciesorforwar.

2. emphasizetheimportanceofarguments asfoundationsforunderstand-ingnot just internationalrelations,butanything.Useanargumentout-sideinternationalrelationstoshowtheimportanceofthefitbetweenanargument’slogicandthesoundnessandappropriatenessoftheevidenceadducedtosupportthatlogic.Forexample,youmightuseacontroversialsocialissuesuchasguncontrolorabortiontoshowthatoftenopposingsidesmayhavesoundlogic,butbehobbledbyalackofsufficientorunbi-ased evidence. explore the kinds of evidence that might be brought tobear(e.g.,statistical,models,historical)andthekindsofbiasthatmightbeintroducedbypassionateadvocatesofonepositionoranother.

ContEMPoRARY APPLICAtons

1. ask students to think creatively about the secondary and tertiary eco-nomicimpactoftheapril2010deepwaterHorizonoilspill.areitsenvi-ronmentaleffectslimitedtotheUnitedStates?Howaboutitseconomicimpact?

2. InJuneof2010,U.S.generalStanleymcChrystalwasfiredforcontrover-sialcommentsheandaidesmadeinaninterviewinRolling Stone maga-zine.Waspresidentobamarighttofirehim?Howwouldweknow?Whatsortsofargumentsmightwemakefororagainstthepresident’sdecisiontofiremcChrystal?WhatmighttheimpactofmcChrystal’sfiringhaveontheU.S.wareffortinafghanistanandonrelationswithU.S.allies?



PHoto BAnK AnD PoWERPoInts

Find lecture powerpoints, all images from the text, and six supplementaryphotopowerpointsforthischapterontheInstructor’sresourcediscandtheinstructorwebsite(wwnorton.com/nrl).

tEst BAnK

Find60multiplechoice,true/false,andessayquestionsforthischapteronthecomputerizedtestbankaswellastheinstructorwebsite.

VIDEo LIBRARY

Seepage143foralistofavailablevideosarrangedbytopic.

READER sELECtIons

For this chapter, the following readings are included in Essential Readings in World Politics,Fourthedition:

• JackSnyder,“oneWorld,rivalTheories” • Thucydides,“meliandialogue” • Immanuelkant,“toperpetualpeace:aphilosophicalSketch”


14

chapter 2

The Historical Contextof Contemporary International Relations

CHAPtER oUtLInE

I. Introduction • Thepurposeofthishistoricaloverviewistotraceimportanttrends

overtime—theemergenceofthestateandthenotionofsovereignty,thedevelopmentoftheinternationalstatesystem,andthechangesinthedistributionofpoweramongstates.

• Contemporaryinternationalrelations,inboththeoryandpractice,isrootedintheeuropeanexperience,forbetterorworse.

II. ThePre-WestphalianWorld • manyinternationalrelationstheoristsdatethecontemporarysystem

from1648, theyearof thetreatyofWestphaliaendingtheThirtyyearsWar.Thistreatymarkstheendofrulebyreligiousauthorityineurope.TheGreekcity-statesystem,theromanempire,andthemiddleageswereeachkeydevelopmentsleadingtotheWestpha-lianorder

• Themiddleages:Centralizationanddecentralization

° Whentheromanempiredisintegratedinthefifthcenturyce,powerandauthoritybecamedecentralizedineurope.

° By1000ce,threecivilizationshademergedfromtherubbleofrome:

1. UnderthereligiousandpoliticaldominationoftheIslamiccaliphate, advanced mathematical and technical accom-plishmentsmadearabiccivilizationapotentforce.


chapter 2 The Historical Context ◆ 15

2. theByzantineempirewaslocatednearthecoreoftheold roman empire in Constantinople and united byChristianity.

3. Intherestofeurope, languagesandculturesproliferated,and the networks of communication developed by theromanswerebeginningtodisintegrate.

° muchofwesterneuroperevertedtofeudalprincipalities,con-trolledby lordsandtiedtofiefdomsthathadtheauthoritytoraisetaxesandexertlegalauthority.Feudalismwastheresponsetotheprevailingdisorder.

° The preeminent institution in the medieval period was thechurch;virtuallyallotherinstitutionswerelocal inoriginandpractice.

° Carolusmagnus,orCharlemagne,theleaderoftheFranks(inwhat is today France), challenged the church’s monopoly onpowerinthelateeighthcentury.

° Similar trends of centralization and decentralization, politicalintegration and disintegration, were also occurring in Ghana,mali,Latinamerica,andJapan.

• The Late middle ages: developing transnational Networks ineuropeandBeyond

° after 1000 ce, secular trends began to undermine both thedecentralizationoffeudalismandtheuniversalizationofChris-tianity in europe. Commercial activity expanded into largergeographic areas. all forms of communication improved andnewtechnologiesmadedailylifeeasier.

° economic and technological changes led to fundamentalchangesinsocialrelations.

1. a transnational business community, whose interestsand livelihoods extended beyond its immediate locale,emerged.

2. Writersandothersrediscoveredclassicalliteratureandhis-tory,finding intellectual sustenance inGreekandromanthought.

■ Niccolò machiavelli, in The Prince, elucidated thequalitiesthataleaderneedstomaintainthestrengthandsecurityofthestate.realizingthatthedreamofunity in Christianity was unattainable, machiavellicalledonleaderstoarticulatetheirownpoliticalinter-ests. Leaders must act in the state’s interest, answer-abletonomoralrules.


16 ◆ chapter 2 The Historical Context

3. Inthe1500sand1600s,aseuropeanexplorersandevenset-tlersmovedintothenewworld,theoldeuroperemainedin flux. Feudalism was being replaced by an increasinglycentralizedmonarchy.

4. Themasses,angeredbytaxesimposedbythenewlyemerg-ingstates,rebelledandrioted.

III. TheEmergenceoftheWestphalianSystem • The formulation of sovereignty was one of the most important

intellectualdevelopmentsleadingtotheWestphalianrevolution. • much of the development of sovereignty is found in the writings

of French philosopher Jean Bodin. to Bodin, sovereignty was the“absolute and perpetual power vested in a commonwealth.” abso-lutesovereignty,accordingtoBodin,isnotwithoutlimits.Leadersarelimitedbynaturallaw,thelawsofGod,thetypeofregime,andcovenantsandtreaties.

• the thirty years War (1618–48) devastated europe. But thetreaty that ended the conflict, the Treaty of Westphalia, hada profound impact on the practice of international relations inthreeways:

° It embraced the notion of sovereignty—that the sovereignenjoyedexclusive rightswithinagiven territory. Italsoestab-lishedthatstatescoulddeterminetheirowndomesticpoliciesintheirowngeographicspaces.

° Leaders sought to establish their own permanent nationalmilitaries. The state thus became more powerful since it hadtocollecttaxestopayforthesemilitariesandleadersassumedabsolutecontroloverthetroops.

° Itestablishedacoregroupofstatesthatdominatedtheworlduntilthebeginningofthenineteenthcentury:austria,russia,england,France,andtheUnitedprovincesoftheNetherlandsandBelgium.

• The most important theorist of the time was Scottish economistadamSmith.InAn Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,Smitharguedthatthenotionofamarketshouldapplytoallsocialorders.

° Individuals shouldbepermittedtopursue theirown interestsandwillactrationallytomaximizethem.

° With groups of individuals pursuing their self-interests, eco-nomicefficiencyisenhancedaswellasthewealthofthestate



and the international system. This theory has had a profoundeffectonstates’economicpolicies.

IV. EuropeintheNineteenthCentury • The american revolution (1776) and the French revolution

(1789) were the products of enlightenment thinking as well associalcontracttheory.

• Theaftermathofrevolution:Coreprinciples

° Legitimacy:absolutistruleissubjecttolimitsandimposedbyman.InTwo Treatises on Government,JohnLockeattackedabso-lutepowerandthedivinerightofkings.Locke’smainargumentis that political power ultimately rests with the people ratherthanwiththeleaderormonarch.

° Nationalism:themassesidentifywiththeircommonpast,lan-guage,customs,andpractices.Individualswhosharesuchchar-acteristicsaremotivated toparticipateactively in thepoliticalprocessasagroup.

• peaceattheCoreoftheeuropeanSystem

° FollowingthedefeatofNapoleonin1815andtheestablishmentofpeacebytheCongressofVienna,theConcertofeurope—austria, Britain, France, prussia, and russia—ushered in aperiodofrelativepeace.

° Thefactthatgeneralpeaceprevailedduringthistimeissurpris-ing,sincemajoreconomic,technological,andpoliticalchangeswereradicallyalteringthelandscape.

° atleastthreefactorsexplainthepeace: 1. european states enjoyed solidarity among themselves,

based on being european, Christian, “civilized,” andwhite.

2. europeaneliteswereunitedintheirfearofrevolutionfromthe masses. elites envisioned grand alliances that wouldbring european leaders together to fight revolution frombelow.Leadersensuredthatmassrevolutionsdidnotmovefromstatetostate.

3. two of the major issues confronting the core europeanstates were internal: the unifications of Germany andItaly. although both unifications were finally solidifiedthroughsmalllocalwars,ageneralwarwasavertedsinceGermanyandItalywerepreoccupiedwithterritorialuni-fication.



° Industrialization was a double-edged sword. It provided theeuropean states with the military and economic capacity toengageinterritorialexpansion,eithertospreadtheChristianfaithandculturalbeliefstoothercivilizationsorforpoliticalreasons.

• ImperialismandColonialismintheeuropeanSystembefore1870

° Themajorpowersdivviedupafricaduringthe1885Congressof Berlin. In asia, only Japan and Siam (Thailand) were notunderdirecteuropeanorU.S.influence.

° Thestruggleforeconomicprowessledtoheedlessexploitationofthecolonialareas,particularlyinafricaandasia.

• Balanceofpower

° Theperiodofpeaceineuropewasmanagedandpreservedforsolongbecauseoftheconceptofbalanceofpower.

° Thebalanceofpoweremergedbecausetheindependenteuro-pean states feared the emergence of any predominant state(hegemon)amongthem.Thus,theyformedalliancestocoun-teractanypotentiallymorepowerfulfaction

• TheBreakdown:Solidificationofalliances

° The balance-of-power system weakened during the waningyearsofthenineteenthcentury.Whereaspreviousallianceshadbeenfluidandflexible,nowallianceshadsolidified.

° twocampsemerged:thetriplealliance(Germany,austria,andItaly)in1882andthedualalliance(Franceandrussia)in1893.

° In 1902, Britain broke from the “balancer” role by joining ina naval alliance with Japan to prevent a russo-Japanese rap-prochementinChina.Forthefirsttime,aeuropeanstateturnedtoanasianoneinordertothwartaeuropeanally.

° The end of the balance-of-power system came with WorldWarI.

° GermanyhadnotbeensatisfiedwiththesolutionsmetedoutattheCongressofBerlin.Beinga“latecomer”tothecoreofeuro-peanpower,Germanydidnotreceivethediplomaticrecogni-tionandstatusitsleadersdesired.

° With the assassination of archduke Ferdinand, Germanyencouraged austria to crush Serbia. Under the system of alli-ances,stateshonoredtheircommitmentstotheirallies,sinkingthewholecontinentintowarfare.



° Between1914and1918,morethan8.5millionsoldiersand1.5millioncivilianslosttheirlives.

V. TheInterwarYearsandWorldWarII • TheendofWorldWarIsawcriticalchangesininternationalrelations:

° First, three european empires (russian, austro-Hungarian,and ottoman) were strained and finally broke up during thewar.Withthoseempireswenttheconservativesocialorderofeurope;initsplaceemergedaproliferationofnationalisms.

° Second, Germany emerged out of World War I an even moredissatisfied power. The treaty of Versailles, which formallyendedthewar,madeGermanypaythecostofthewarthroughreparations. This dissatisfaction provided the climate for theemergenceofadolfHitler,whowasdedicatedtorighting the“wrongs”imposedbythetreaty.

° Third,enforcementoftheVersaillestreatywasgiventotheulti-matelyunsuccessfulLeagueofNations,theintergovernmentalorganizationdesignedtopreventallfuturewars.TheLeaguedidnot have the political weight to carry out its task because theUnitedStatesrefusedtojoin.

° Fourth,avisionofthepost–WorldWarIorderhadclearlybeenexpounded, but it was a vision stillborn from the start. Theworld economy was in collapse and German fascism wreakedhavocontheplanforpostwarpeace.

• WorldWarII

° The power of fascism—German, Italian, and Japanese ver-sions—led to the uneasy alliance between the communistSovietUnionandtheliberalUnitedStates,Britain,andFrance.WhenWorldWarIIbrokeout,thisalliance(theallies)foughtagainsttheaxispowersinunison.

° Thealliesattheendofthewarweresuccessful.BoththeGer-manreichandimperialJapanlayinruins.

° TheendofWorldWarII resulted inamajorredistributionofpowerandchangedpoliticalborders.

VI. TheColdWar • originsoftheColdWar

° The most important outcome of World War II was the emer-genceoftwosuperpowers—theUnitedStatesandtheSoviet



Union—as the primary actors in the international systemand the decline of europe as the epicenter of internationalpolitics.

° Thesecondoutcomeofthewarwastherecognitionoffunda-mental incompatibilities between these two superpowers inbothnationalinterestsandideology.

■ russia used its newfound power to solidify its sphere ofinfluenceinthebufferstatesofeasterneurope.

■ The United States’s interests lay in containing the SovietUnion.TheU.S.putthenotionofcontainmentintoactioninthetrumandoctrineof1947.aftertheSovietsblockedWestern transportation corridors to Berlin, containmentbecame the fundamental doctrine of U.S. foreign policyduringtheColdWar.

■ TheU.S.economicsystemwasbasedoncapitalism,whichprovided opportunities to individuals to pursue whatwas economically rational with little or no governmentinterference.

■ theSovietstateembracedmarxistideology,whichholdsthat under capitalism one class (the bourgeoisie) con-trolsthemeansofproduction.thesolutiontotheprob-lem of class rule is revolution, wherein the exploitedproletariat takes control by using the state to seize themeans of production. thus, capitalism is replaced bysocialism.

■ differences between the two superpowers were exacer-batedbymutualmisperceptions.Themarshallplanandestablishment of Nato were taken as a campaign todeprive the Soviet Union of its influence in Germany.Likewise,theBerlinblockadewasinterpretedbytheWestasahostileoffensiveaction.

° ThethirdoutcomeofWorldWarIIwastheendofthecolonialsystem,beginningwithBritain’sgrantingIndiaindependencein1947.Indochinaandafricanstatesbecameindependentinthe1950sand1960s

° The fourth outcome was the realization that the differencesbetweenthetwosuperpowerswouldbeplayedout indirectly,onthird-partystages,ratherthanthroughdirectconfrontationbetweenthetwoprotagonists.Thesuperpowersviedforinflu-enceinnewlyindependentstatesasawaytoprojectpower.



• TheColdWarasaSeriesofConfrontations

° The Cold War itself (1945–89) can be characterized as forty-five years of high-level tension and competition between thesuperpowersbutwithnodirectmilitaryconflict.

° more often than not, the allies of each superpower becameinvolved,sotheconfrontationscomprisedtwoblocsofstates:thoseintheNorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)inWesterneuropeandtheUnitedStates,andtheWarsawPactineasterneurope.

° one of these high-level, direct confrontations between thesuperpowerstookplaceinGermany.

■ GermanyhadbeendividedafterWorldWarIIintozonesofoccupation.Inthe1949Berlinblockade,theSovietUnionblockedlandaccesstoBerlin,promptingtheUnitedStatestoairliftsuppliesforayear.

■ In1949,theseparatestatesofWestandeastGermanyweredeclared.

■ eastGermanyerectedtheBerlinWallin1961inordertostemthetideofeastGermanstryingtoleavethetroubledstate.

° korea, too, was divided geographically—between the northand south—and ideologically—between a communist and anoncommuniststate.

° The1962Cubanmissilecrisiswasanotherdirectconfrontationinyetanotherpartoftheworld.TheSovietUnion’sinstallationofmissilesinCubawasviewedbytheUnitedStatesasadirectthreattoitsterritory.

° InVietnam,theColdWarplayedoutinanextendedcivilwar,inwhichcommunistNorthVietnamwaspittedagainstSouthVietnam.

° U.S. policymakers argued that communist influence mustbe stopped before it spread like a chain of falling dominoesthroughouttherestofSoutheastasia(hencethetermdom-inoeffect).

° Itwasnotalwaysthecasethatwhenonceofthesuperpowersactedtheothersideresponded.

1. When the Soviet Union invaded Hungary in 1956 andCzechoslovakia in 1968, the United States verbally con-demned such actions, but the actions themselves wentunchecked.



2. The Soviets kept quiet when the United States invadedGranadain1983andpanamain1989.

° ThemiddleeastwasaregionofvitalimportancetoboththeUnited States and the Soviet Union, and thus the regionservedasaproxybattlegroundformanyoftheeventsof theColdWar.

1. FollowingtheestablishmentofIsraelin1948,theregionwasthesceneofasuperpowerconfrontationbyproxy:betweenaU.S.-supportedIsraeland theSoviet-backedarabstatesofSyria,Iraq,andegypt.proxy“hot”wars,such as the Six-day War in 1967 and the yom kippurWarin1973,werefought.

2. Confrontation through proxy also occurred in parts oftheworldoflessstrategicimportance,suchastheCongo,angola,andtheHornofafrica.

° TheColdWarwasalsofoughtandmoderatedinwords,atsum-mits(meetingsbetweenleaders)andintreaties.

1. Someofthesesummitsweresuccessful,suchasthe1967Glassboro Summit that began the loosening of tensionsknownasdétente.

2. treatiesplacedself-imposedlimitationsonnucleararms. • TheColdWarasaLongpeace

° John Lewis Gaddis has referred to the Cold War as a “longpeace”todramatizetheabsenceofwarbetweenthegreatpow-ers.Severalfactorspreventedamajorinterstatewar:

1. Nucleardeterrence:onceboththeUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionhadacquirednuclearweapons,nei-therwaswillingtousethem.

2. Divisionofpower:theparityofpowerledtostabilityintheinternationalsystem.

3. the stability imposed by the hegemonic economicpower of the United States; being in a superior eco-nomicpositionformuchoftheColdWar,theUnitedStateswillinglypaidthepriceofmaintainingstabilitythroughouttheworld.

4. economicliberalism:theliberaleconomicordersolidi-fied and became a dominant factor in internationalrelations. politics became transnational under liber-alism—based on interests and coalitions across stateboundaries—andthusgreatpowersbecameobsolete.



5. the long peace was predetermined: it was just onephaseinalonghistoricalcycleofpeaceandwar.

VII. ThePost–ColdWarEra • ThefalloftheBerlinWallsymbolizedtheendoftheColdWar,but

actuallyitsendwasgradual.SovietpremiermikhailGorbachevhadset in motion two domestic processes—glasnost (political open-ness) and perestroika (economic restructuring)—as early as themid-1980s.

• Gorbachev’s domestic reforms also led to changes in the orienta-tionofSovietforeignpolicy.HesuggestedthatmembersoftheUNSecurityCouncilbecome“guarantorsofregionalsecurity.”

• Thefirstpost–ColdWartestofthenewso-callednewworldordercame in response to Iraq’s invasion and annexation of kuwait in1990.

• afewhavelabeledthepost–ColdWareratheageofglobalization.ThiseraappearstobemarkedbyU.S.primacyininternationalaffairstoadegreenotevenmatchedbytheromans.

• However, U.S. primacy is still not able to prevent ethnic conflict,civilwars,andhumanrightsabusesfromoccurring.

• The1990swereadecademarkedbydualrealities(whichsometimesconvergedanddiverged),thefirstbeingU.S.primacyandthesec-ondbeingcivilandethnicstrife.

° yugoslavia’s violent disintegration played itself out over theentiredecadedespiteWesternattemptstoresolvetheconflictpeacefully.

° atthesametime,theworldwitnessedethnictensionandvio-lenceasgenocide inrwandaandBurundiwentunchallengedbytheinternationalcommunity.

• onSeptember11,2001,theworldwitnesseddeadly,andeconomi-callydestructiveterroristattacksagainsttwoimportantcitiesintheUnitedStates.TheseattackssetintomotionaU.S.-ledglobalwaronterror.

° TheUnitedStatesfoughtawarinafghanistantooustthetal-iban regime, which was providing safe haven to osama binLaden’salQaedaorganizationandabasefromwhichitfreelyplannedandcarriedoutaglobalterrorcampaignagainsttheUnitedStates.

° Followingthesuccessfulwarinafghanistan,theUnitedStates,convinced that Iraq maintained weapons of mass destruction



andsupportedterroristorganizations,attemptedtobuildsup-port in the UN for authorization to remove Saddam Husseinfrompower.WhentheUNfailedtobacktheU.S.request,theUnited States built its own coalition and overthrew the Iraqigovernment.Thefightcontinuestoday.

° despiteitsprimacy,theUnitedStatesdoesnotfeelitissecurefromattack.TheissueofwhetherU.S.powerwillbebalancedbyanemergingpowerisalsofarfromresolved.

VIII. InSum:LearningfromHistory • ourexaminationofthedevelopmentofcontemporaryinternational

relations has focused on how core concepts of international rela-tionshaveemergedandevolvedovertime,mostnotablythestate,sovereignty,thenation,andtheinternationalsystem.Thesecon-cepts provide the building blocks for contemporary internationalrelations.

• Whethertheworlddevelopsintoamultipolar,unipolar,orbipo-larsystemdependsinpartonthetrendsofthepastandhowtheyinfluencecontemporarythinking.

KEY tERMs

balanceofpower(p.33):anysysteminwhichactors(e.g.,states)enjoyrel-atively equal power, such that no single state or coalition of states is able todominateotheractorsinthesystem.

bipolarity(p.63):aninternationalsysteminwhichtherearetwogreatpow-ersorblocsofroughlyequalstrengthorweight.

capitalism (p. 45): the economic system in which the ownership of themeans of production is in private hands; the system operates according tomarket forces whereby capital and labor move freely; according to radi-cals,anexploitativerelationshipbetweentheownersofproductionandtheworkers.

ColdWar(p.43):theeraininternationalrelationsbetweentheendofWorldWarIIand1990,distinguishedbyideological,economic,andpoliticaldiffer-encesbetweentheSovietUnionandtheUnitedStates.

colonialism (p. 30): the fifteenth- through twentieth-century practice offounding, maintaining, and expanding colonies abroad. Colonialism, now



universallydelegitimized,wasmarkedbytwomainmotivations:(1)showingindigenouspeopleshowbesttolive(a“civilizingmission”)and(2)exploitingindigenouspeopleandtheirterritoryforlaborandmaterialresourcesinordertoincreasethepowerofthecolonialauthority.

containment(p.44):aforeignpolicydesignedtopreventtheexpansionofan adversary by blocking its opportunities to expand, by supporting weakerstatesthroughforeignaidprograms,andbyusingcoerciveforceonlytoopposeanactiveattemptbyanadversarytophysicallyexpand;themajorU.S.policytowardtheSovietUnionduringtheColdWarera.

détente(p.55):theeasingoftenserelations; inthecontextofthisvolume,détentereferstotherelaxationandreappraisalofthreatassessmentsbypoliti-cal rivals, for example, the United States and Soviet Union during the lateryearsoftheColdWar.

deterrence(p.56):thepolicyofmaintainingalargemilitaryforceandarsenaltodiscourageanypotentialaggressorfromtakingaction;statescommitthem-selvestopunishanaggressorstate.

domino effect (p. 53): a metaphor that posits that the loss of influenceoveronestatetoanadversarywillleadtoasubsequentlossofcontroloverneighboringstates,justasdominosfalloneafteranother;usedbytheUnitedStatesasajustificationtosupportSouthVietnam,fearingthatifthatcountrybecamecommunist,neighboringcountrieswouldalsofallundercommunistinfluence.

hegemon(p.33):adominantstatethathasapreponderanceofpower;oftenestablishesandenforcestherulesandnormsintheinternationalsystem.

imperialism(p.30):thepolicyandpracticeofextendingthedominationofonestateoveranotherthroughterritorialconquestoreconomicdomination;inradicalism,thefinalstageofexpansionofthecapitalistsystem.

LeagueofNations(p.38):theinternationalorganizationformedatthecon-clusionofWorldWarIforthepurposeofpreventinganotherwar;basedoncollectivesecurity.

legitimacy(p.24):themoralandlegalrighttorule,whichisbasedonlaw,custom,heredity,ortheconsentofthegoverned.

multipolar(p.63):aninternationalsysteminwhichthereareseveralstatesorgreatpowersofroughlyequalstrengthorweight.



nation (p. 25): a group of people sharing a common language, history, orculture.

nationalism (p. 24): devotion and allegiance to the nation and the sharedcharacteristicsofitspeoples;usedtomotivatepeopletopatrioticacts,some-timesleadingagrouptoseekdominanceoveranothergroup.

NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization(NATO)(p.49):militaryandpoliticalalliancebetweenWesterneuropeanstatesand theUnitedStatesestablishedin 1948 for the purpose of defending europe from aggression by the SovietUnionanditsallies;expandedintoeasterneuropeaftertheColdWar.

socialism(p.45):aneconomicandsocialsystemthatreliesonintensivegov-ernmentinterventionorpublicownershipofthemeansofproductioninordertodistributewealthamongthepopulationmoreequitably;inradicaltheory,thestagebetweencapitalismandcommunism.

sovereignty(p.21):theauthorityofthestate,basedonrecognitionbyotherstates and by nonstate actors, to govern matters within its own borders thataffectitspeople,economy,security,andformofgovernment.

summits(p.55):talksandmeetingsamongthehighest-levelgovernmentoffi-cialsfromdifferentcountries;designedtopromotegoodrelationsandprovideaforumtodiscussissuesandconcludeformalnegotiations.

superpowers (44): highest-power states as distinguished from other greatpowers;termcoinedduringtheColdWartorefertotheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.

transnational (p. 56): across national or traditional state boundaries; canrefertoactionsofvariousnonstateactors,suchasprivateindividualsandnon-governmentalorganizations.

TreatiesofWestphalia(p.22):treatyendingtheThirtyyearsWarineuropein1648;ininternationalrelationsrepresentsthebeginningofstatesovereigntywithinaterritorialspace.

waronterrorism(p.62):apowerfulrhetoricalcall toexploitagivensoci-ety’s total available resources (both material and nonmaterial) in order todefeat a political tactic. a key implication of declaring “war on terrorism” isthatfewifanylimitsontheuseofasociety’sresourceseithershouldorwillbeobserved.

WarsawPact(p.49):themilitaryallianceformedbythestatesoftheSovietblocin1955inresponsetotherearmamentofWestGermanyanditsinclusioninNato;permittedthestationingofSoviettroopsineasterneurope.



weapons of mass destruction (WMD) (p. 62): chemical, biological, andradiologicalweaponsdistinguishedbyaninabilitytorestricttheirdestructiveeffectstoasingletimeandplace;theythereforeshareaqualityofirrational-ityintheircontemplatedusebecauseattackerscanneverbeentirelyprotectedfromtheharmofanyattackstheyinitiatewithsuchweapons.

DIsCUssIon QUEstIons

1. ThetreatiesofWestphaliaareoftenviewedasthebeginningofmoderninternationalrelations.Whyaretheyausefulbenchmark?Whatfactorsdoesthisbenchmarkignore?

2. Colonization by the great powersofeuropehasofficially ended.How-ever,theeffectsofthecolonialeralinger.explainwithspecificexamples.

3. The Cold War has ended. discuss two current events where Cold Warpoliticspersist.

4. ThedevelopmentofinternationalrelationsasadisciplinehasbeencloselyidentifiedwiththehistoryofwesterneuropeandtheUnitedStates.Withthiscivilizationalbias,whatmightwebemissing?

tEACHInG sUGGEstIons

1. Thekeyemphasisinthischapterislesson“whathappened,”andmore onhow it affected the sorts of questions asked by international relationstheoriststhenandnow.Challengestudentstomaketheseconnectionsbetweenthepastandtheoriesofinternationalrelationsbyaskinghowthe past glory of Islamic civilization, and its eventual decline, mightmotivate contemporary political and religious actors? ask how theThirty years War and english Civil War might have affected the writ-ings of Thomas Hobbes and, by extension, realist political thought ingeneral?

2. Challengestudents tothinkaboutwhywerememberhistoryaswedo,and what sorts of events get remembered. Is war the most significantcauseofhumansufferinganddeathovertime,ormightplaguesorpov-



ertywinthiscontest?askstudentswhatitisaboutwarthatmightattracthistorians.askwhetherfemaleandmalehistoriansmightemphasizethesamethings.Ifso,why;andifnot,whynot?

ContEMPoRARY APPLICAtIon

ask students to think of a current event in international affairs and offer anexplanationforthateventasaclass ofsimilarevents.dotheyhaveanytheoriesthatmightexplaintheevent,andifnot,cantheycomeupwithsomelogicalexplanationthatmightapplybeyondtheparticulareventitself?

VIDEo EXERCIsEs

• Videoexercise2.1:revisitingtheendofHistoryStudentswillwatchanexcerptfromaninterviewinwhichFrancisFukuyamalooksbackonhisoriginalideaofthe“endofhistory.”TheyarethenaskedtoconsiderhowFukuyama’sargumentabouttheprocessofhistoryfitsintotheideaofthinkingtheoreticallypresentedinthetextbook.

• Videoexercise2.2:amythicalClash?Students will watch a news report on the September 2009 change in U.S.antiballistic missile policy. They are then asked to evaluate the impact oftheColdWaronthewaronterrorandcurrentthinkingaboutinternationalrelations.

PHoto BAnK AnD PoWERPoInts

Findlecturepowerpoints,allimagesfromthetext,andsevensupplementaryphotopowerpointsforthischapterontheInstructor’sresourcediscandtheinstructorwebsite(wwnorton.com/nrl).

tEst BAnK

Find70multiplechoice,true/false,andessayquestionsforthischapteronthecomputerizedtestbankaswellastheinstructorwebsite.



VIDEo LIBRARY

Seepage143foralistofavailablevideosarrangedbytopic.

READER sELECtIons

For this chapter, the following readings are included in Essential Readings in World Politics,Fourthedition:

• WoodrowWilson,“TheFourteenpoints”

• GeorgeF.kennan,“TheSourcesofSovietConduct”


essentials of international relationstestbankcollege.eu/sample/solution-manual-essentials-of...7...

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