essentials of biology sylvia s. mader chapter 14 lecture outline prepared by: dr. stephen ebbs...
TRANSCRIPT
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Essentials of BiologySylvia S. Mader
Chapter 14Lecture Outline
Prepared by: Dr. Stephen EbbsSouthern Illinois University Carbondale
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
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14.1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
• Charles Darwin’s derived his theory of evolution in part from observations he made while serving as the naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle.
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14.1 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (cont.)
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Before Darwin
• Prior to Darwin’s theories, there were different views of the world and living organisms.
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Before Darwin (cont.)
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Before Darwin (cont.)
• The research of several scientists helped change the world’s perception of the world and living organisms.
• Zoologist Georges Cuvier, who founded the field of paleontology, suggested that catastrophes were responsible for the drastic changes in living organisms over time.
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Before Darwin (cont.)
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Before Darwin (cont.)
• Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck offered explanations for the changes in organisms between strata.– Evolution occurred as the environment forced
organisms to adapt. – These adaptations caused less complex
organisms to evolve into more complex organisms.
– Adaptation occurs because of the use or disuse of a structure, an element of the theory of acquired characteristics.
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Before Darwin (cont.)
• Darwin’s ideas were similar to those of Lamarck, but with important differences.– Darwin believed that living things share
common characteristics because they have a common ancestor.
– Darwin also believed that the organisms adapt to the environment, but through a process called natural selection.
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Darwin’s Conclusions
• Darwin’s conclusions were based upon his study of geology, fossils, and biogeography.
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Darwin’s Study of Geology and Fossils
• Geological theories contributed to Darwin’s efforts.
• James Hutton proposed that the Earth undergoes slow, continuous cycles of erosion and uplifting.
• Erosion deposits thick layers of sediment, which eventually form sedimentary rocks.
• The uplifting of sedimentary rock forms new land and can expose fossils.
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Darwin’s Study of Geology and Fossils (cont.)
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Darwin’s Study of Geology and Fossils (cont.)
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Darwin’s Study of Geology and Fossils (cont.)
• Lyell proposed the theory of uniformitarianism, which maintained that extreme geological changes could be caused by slow, natural processes.
• This theory also suggested that the Earth must be very old, much older than most believed.
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Darwin’s Study of Geology and Fossils (cont.)
• Darwin observed similar geological changes and collected fossils during his time on the Beagle.
• These activities caused Darwin to accept the fact that the Earth was very old.
• From this, Darwin proposed that modern organisms may have descended from now extinct organisms.
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Darwin’s Study of Geology and Fossils (cont.)
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Darwin’s Study of Biogeography
• Darwin made extensive comparisons between similar animals from around the world to understand evolution.
• He postulated that similar environments may have caused convergent evolution, or the development of similar adaptations.
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Darwin’s Study of Biogeography (cont.)
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Darwin’s Study of Biogeography (cont.)
• When Darwin’s ship reached the Galapagos Islands, he noticed that the finches had greatly diversified.
• The finches had different beak structures as well as different feeding habits.
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Darwin’s Study of Biogeography (cont.)
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Darwin’s Study of Biogeography (cont.)
• From his observation of the Galapagos finches, Darwin postulated that speciation had occurred.
• Speciation is the process by which different groups of an organism evolve independently from one another, ultimately becoming a different species.
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Natural Selection and Adaptation
• Darwin suggested that natural selection was the process that caused adaptation.
• The process of natural selection has several preconditions that must be met.– The members of a population show variation.– More individuals are born in a population than die.– Some individuals inherit adaptive characteristics that
favor their survival and reproduction.
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Natural Selection and Adaptation (cont.)
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Natural Selection and Adaptation (cont.)
• If the preconditions are met, natural selection has consequences.– In each generation, an increasing number of
individuals have the adaptive characteristics.– Natural selection adapts a population to its
local environment.
• Natural selection relies on the variations produced by genetic changes.
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Organisms Have Variations
• Prior to Darwin, variation within a population was ignored.
• Darwin argued that the random occurrence of these variations was essential to natural selection.
• These variations that allow for adaptation to the environment must also be heritable.
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Organisms Struggle to Exist
• Thomas Malthus believed that death and famine were inevitable because human population increases faster than food supplies.
• Darwin used this concept to argue that available resources were insufficient to allow all members of a population to survive.
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Organisms Struggle to Exist (cont.)
• Thus there is a constant struggle to obtain the resources needed to survive and reproduce.
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Organisms Differ in Fitness
• Those organisms best capable of obtaining the resources necessary to survive and reproduce are those with the greatest fitness.
• The character that determines whether an organism is fit varies from population to population.
• When humans carry out artificial selection, breeders select specific traits that are favorable.
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Organisms Differ in Fitness (cont.)
• The concepts of natural selection and fitness argue that interaction with the environment and random variation are responsible for evolution.
• This differs from the theory of acquired characteristics proposed by Lamarck.
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Organisms Differ in Fitness (cont.)
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Organisms Become Adapted
• The consequence of natural selection and fitness is that organisms adapt to their environment.
• The adaptations that make organisms more suited to the environment can occur simultaneously in different species.
• Convergent evolution occurs when different organisms acquire similar adaptations.
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Organisms Become Adapted (cont.)
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Evidence for Evolution
• According to the theory of evolution, organisms descend from a common ancestor but adapt to particular environments.
• There are several lines of evidence that support the theory of evolution.
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Fossil Evidence
• The fossil record contains rich information about the life on Earth >10,000 years ago.
• One piece of evidence provided by the fossil record is that the pattern of evolution is typically from simple to more complex.
• The fossil record also reveals transitional links between different organismal groups.
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Fossil Evidence (cont.)
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Biogeographical Evidence
• Biogeography is the study of the distribution of plants and animals throughout the world.
• While there are many similar environments around the world, the plants and animals that live there are often unique.
• The different organisms must have arisen from different evolutionary events.
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Biogeographical Evidence (cont.)
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Anatomical Evidence
• Darwin and others have also showed that different species share vestigial structures that reveal their common descent.– Whales and snakes all show vestigial bones related to
four-legged animals.– Humans have a tailbone but not tail.
• Organisms may also have homologous structures, which are anatomically similar structures that reveal common ancestry.
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Anatomical Evidence (cont.)
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Anatomical Evidence (cont.)
• In contrast, organisms may have analogous structures, which have a similar function but are derived differently evolutionarily.
• The homology of all vertebrates can be seen in the similarities in embryonic development.
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Anatomical Evidence (cont.)
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Biochemical Evidence
• The study of biochemistry and genetics has shown that many organisms use similar chemicals and genes.
• The diversity in living organisms is due to slight differences in this set of genes.
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Biochemical Evidence (cont.)