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Essential ElementsOf Tree HealthEssential ElementsOf Tree Health
by Dr. Kim D. Coder, Professor of Tree Biology & Health CareWarnell School of Forestry & Natural Resources
University of Georgia June 2013
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Li Be BBBBB CCCCC NNNNN OOOOO F3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Na MgMgMgMgMg Al SiSiSiSiSi PPPPP SSSSS ClClClClCl11 12 13 14 15 16 17
KKKKK CaCaCaCaCa Cr MnMnMnMnMn FFFFFeeeee CoCoCoCoCo NiNiNiNiNi CuCuCuCuCu ZnZnZnZnZn Ga Ge As Se Br19 20 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Rb Sr MoMoMoMoMo Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I37 38 42 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53
Periodic Table of Elements For Trees
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 2
This publication is an educational product designed for helping tree healthcare professionals appreciate and understand essential element require-ments in trees. This product is a synthesis and integration of current researchand educational concepts regarding how trees utilize different essentialelements and how diagnosis of essential element problems can be difficult.This educational product is for awareness building and professionaldevelopment. This product does not present tree essential elementfertilization processes or product formulations. This is not a tree healthcare fertilization standard.
At the time it was finished, this publication contained educational modelsconcerning tree essential elements thought by the author to provide the bestmeans for considering fundamental tree health care issues surroundingessential element deficiencies and toxicities. The University of Georgia, theWarnell School of Forestry & Natural Resources, and the author are notresponsible for any errors, omissions, misinterpretations, or misapplicationsfrom this educational product. The author assumed professional userswould have some basic tree and soil background. This product was notdesigned, nor is suited, for homeowner use. Always seek advice andassistance of professional tree health care providers.
This publication is copyrighted by the author. This educational product is onlyfor noncommercial, nonprofit use and may not be copied or reproduced byany means, in any format, or in any media including electronic forms, withoutexplicit written permission of the author. This publication is a major revisionand correction of previous publications of the same name and by the sameauthor published in May of 2011 and July of 2012.
Scientific Citation:Coder, Kim D. 2013. Essential Elements of Tree Health.
University of Georgia Warnell School of Forestry & NaturalResources Monograph WSFNR13-6. Pp.167.
C copyright 2013 by Kim D. CoderAll rights reserved.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 3
Essential Elementsof Tree Health
Table of Contents:
Introduction
Launching Tree Life
Star Ash & Debris
Element Attributes
Essential Descriptions
Water: The 20th Element
Conservation & Appearancein Trees
Selected Literature
Appendix 1:Special Tracking of Nitrogen
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 4
Essential ElementsOf Tree Health
by Dr. Kim D. Coder, Professor of Tree Biology & Health Care
IntroductionLife on Earth is a function of water, geology, atmosphere, and genetics. Life extracts materials in
many forms from the Earth system and generates more complex materials using energy derived from chemi-cal transformations and sunlight. Past and current success in material accumulation and concentration, plusfailure of any life-generated materials to be instantly decomposed, provide the basis for many trophic levelsof life to exist. The foundation of Earth’s ecology rests primarily with sunlight-capturing and material-extracting green plants.
Green plants use fabricated organic materials, with associated inorganic elements, to capture lightwithin narrow wavelength windows. This light energy is momentarily held within specialized compoundswhich allow time for chemical reactions to transfer energy away into other materials. These energy densematerials help generate a series of mass and energy exchanges, and build and maintain concentration gradi-ents within biological membranes. Energy extracted from light is used to perform work in a cell and istransported on organic compounds to other cells within an organism. Trees do all of this energycapture and organic building, plus transport materials long distances and live many years.
ComponentsEighty percent (80%) of all materials in a living tree is water taken from soil, with minute amounts
taken directly from the atmosphere and precipitation. Of the remaining materials seen as a tree, roughly19% are three elements derived from water and carbon-dioxide gas. These elements (i.e. carbon (C),hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)), are chemically combined and boosted to a higher energy level (i.e.reduced) and visible as all tree parts. The remaining ~1% of tree material is composed of essentialelements removed from soil, although small amounts of some essential elements (i.e. sulfur (S) andchlorine (Cl)) can be extracted from the atmosphere. Figure 1.
The sunlight powered synthesis process of a tree leads to other organisms consuming treematerials in some form, whether herbivores, parasites, scavengers, or symbionts. All organismsderiving life energy from this process generate waste, shed parts, and die. Synthesized materialsoutside living membranes decompose into simpler components, finally releasing all essential elementsto the environment. These essential elements are usually reprocessed by other local organisms,chemically held within the soil, or eroded / leached away from the site.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 5
Figure 1: General sources of tree life materials.
H2O
80%
19%
CO2
ESSENTIALELEMENTS
1%
atmosphere
soil
root
stem
crown
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 6
Launching Tree LifeTrees utilize 19 elements for life processes. Many more elements can be found inside a tree,
but their concentrations are related to their concentrations in the environment. Figure 2. A tree mir-rors site resource qulity, and element quantity, of the site upon which it grows. All elements essentialfor tree life are varied in chemistry and provide varied biochemical services within a tree. Some are used inonly one or two processes (i.e. molybdenum (Mo)), while others are used to swaddle everything else (i.e.potassium (K)) within a water bath. Figure 3 shows the generic structural and biological roles essentialelements play in a tree. Understanding tree essential elements help tree health care providers better managetrees and sites. Defining what is meant by an “element” and an “essential element” is a key first step tobetter tree health care.
Not Nutrient!It is critical in discussing tree essential elements to place clear definitions around traditional
terms sometimes mistakenly used. Failure to maintain definitional discipline generates useless jargonand can lead to mistakes. The first definitional error can occur around the term “nutrient.” A treenutrient is a compound with potential chemical energy associated within its chemical bonds, and canbe used by a tree for transferring energy and / or building structural materials. For example, sugarsare nutrients while nitrogen atoms are essential elements and not nutrients. The word “nutrient” hasbecome jargon because of its highly variable and broadly defined applications under many differentcontexts, leading to continually imprecise and inaccurate usage.
ElementalA tree “element” is any natural element found within a tree and its rhizosphere, or found on tree
surfaces. An element is a basic unit of matter with a carefully defined number of nucleus protons, associatedwith various nucleus neutrons, both encased within various quantum shells of electrons. Each element isrepresented by a name, symbol, atomic number (number of protons), and atomic weight (number of protonsplus neutrons). Figure 4 provides a simple traditional view of a carbon atom.
Various elements in trees represent the concentration of an element within the environment, or maybe accumulated out of equilibrium with the general environment and soil, within both tree apoplast andsymplast. As many as 90 elements have been found in trees. Most serve no identifiable role in supportingtree life. Elements in trees are the result of absorption, deposition, accumulation, pollution, poisoning, orchance. Some elements are included in critical parts of biological and structural components, and aspart of living processes, within a tree. Many elements are simply present in a tree as a result of wherea tree grows.
Essential!A tree “essential element” is required for normal tree growth and reproduction over many years, and
cannot be completely substituted for by another element. An element is essential if when the elementis unavailable or not present, a tree:
1) dies;2) shows severe deficiency symptoms restricting growth, survival, and defense; or,3) exhibits a stunted or abnormal appearance.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 7
Figure 2: Elements essential for sustaining tree lifeprocesses in alphabetical order. All theseelements are transported and utilized in a treewithin a water bath.
element element symbol name
B boron C carbon Ca calcium Cl clorine Co cobalt
Cu copper Fe iron H hydrogen K potassium Mg magnesium
Mn manganese Mo molybdinum N nitrogen Ni nickel O oxygen
P phosphorus S sulfur Si silicon Zn zinc
19tree
essentialelements
(+ water)
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 8
Structural supportB, Ca, Fe, Si
Bound in small moleculesB, Cu, Co, Fe, Si
Bound in large molecules /compounds / enzymes
Co, Cu, Fe, Mn,Mo, Ni, Zn
Concentrated incell organelles &enzyme systems
Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, ZnFigure 3: Tree essential element general roles.
(from Kabata-Pendias 2011)
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 9
Figure 4: Diagrammatic view of a carbon (12C) atom.
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++++
+nn
nnn
n
nucleus
e
e
e
e e
e
+ = protonn = neutrone = electronx = electron
space
carbon 12(6no, 6p+, 6e-)
4 potential electronbinding sites (x)
x
x
x
x
2electron shell
8 electron shell
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 10
Some essential elements can be partially or temporarily substituted for in different metabolic orstructural roles. For example, manganese (Mn) can partially substitute for both iron (Fe) and magnesium(Mg) in some enzymes and process steps over the short run, but not in all process steps all the time. An-other example of partial substitution of elements is the use of nonessential sodium ions (Na+) for essentialpotassium ions (K+).
Proving EssentialThere is great scientific debate and continued testing to identify essential elements in trees. There
are more tree essential elements to discover. Tree essentiality is determined by carefully withholding anelement (and all environmental contamination of the element) from a tree and assessing its growth. Figure 5provides how essential elements and nonessential elements are tracked. One curve suggests essentiality byconstraining tree growth when not present and one curve shows normal accumulation reaching toxicity as inany nonessential element.
Discovery of tree essential elements can be difficult. Some tree essential elements required insignificant amounts were not discovered as essential until the mid 1900’s (i.e. 1954, chlorine (Cl)).Others are needed in such small amounts, like nickel (Ni), its essentiality was not determined in treesuntil relatively recently (i.e. 1987). A few elements are essential in some other plant forms (i.e.sodium (Na) in C4 photosynthetic plants and selenium (Se) in desert plants). Plant nutritionists con-sider some elements as beneficial if plant growth and reproducton are enhanced. These elements havenot passed all the tests of essentiallity yet. For example, silicon (Si) is considered by some plantnutritionists as beneficial in trees but not essential.
Near EssentialFigure 6 lists additional elements suspected (but not proven) to be beneficial or essential in trees.
All elements listed are beneficial or essential in some type of plant in some form. Research continues tounderstand which elements are nonessential, essential, beneficial, or detrimental specifically to trees. Someresearchers examine elements essential in animals as being candidates for plant essentiality, (Figure 7)suggesting all life has a similar element palatte. There remains a strong divergence between animal and plantelement essentiallity. For example, boron (B) and silicon (Si) are essential in plants but not in animals.Some elements may be essential in minute amounts, but any more than bare minimum may be toxic, likealuminum (Al), arsenic (As), fluorine (F), iodine (I), or platinum (Pt).
Some elements may be needed in such small concentrations, environmental concentrations maskessentiality. For example, vanadium (V) is suspected of being an essential element in trees. Vanadium isused in the photosynthetic process, phospholipid maintenance and nitrogen processing (especially in legumetree nitrogen fixation). The difficulty in determining essentiality of vanadium is its requirement in a tree wouldbe about 2 parts per billion, while its presence in the environment and its passive uptake into a tree, is about1 part per million (i.e. 500 times more is available than is potentially required). Because vanadium canpartially substitute for molybdenum (Mo), it is difficult to conclusively state vanadium is essential, beneficial,or non-essential in trees.
LaunchTree essential elements provide the structure, catalyst, and control framework for growing a
tree. The smallest, most primative algae survives through photosythesis, but still requires all essentialelements be present in its single cell in order to survive. The essential elements of trees are needed inroughly the same proportions as other plant forms. Knowing the essential elements help define health,clearify deficiency and toxicity, and help prescribe tree health care treatments to assure tree sustainability.To begin, a little bit of element formation and chemestry is needed.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 11
100
75
50
25
0
normal treegrowth & health
(percent)
element concentrationin tree
Figure 5: Tree response to increasing essentialand nonessential element concentration.
nonessentialelement
essentialelement
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 12
Figure 6: Beneficial elements cited to stimulate growth & reproduction forsome plants, and in some situations, but are not considered or proven tobe essential. (1 = essential in some algae)
Ag silver blocks ethylene production, modifies flower production
Al aluminium improves growth, minimizes P, Cu, Zn, Fe toxicity, tracesin DNA / RNA, increases antioxident exzymes,enzyme activation
As arsenic1 phospholipids, CHO metabolism
Br bromine1 bromophenols
Ce cerium rare earth -- improves growth
F fluorine citrate conversion, fluoroacetate, carbon chaintransposing
I iodine1 stimulates cellulose and lignin generation, ascobic acidformation, tyrosine synthesis in some angiosperms
La lanthanium rare earth -- improves growth
Li lithium improves sugar transport in phloem, increasesphotosynthesis, required in halophytes
Na sodium substitutes for K, minimizes starch storage, keepscarbohydrates generated in sugar forms, osmoticumin association with K
Pt platinum stimulated growth at extremely low concentrations,toxic at any larger concentration
Rb rubidium partial substitute for K when P & ammoniumconcentrations are large, increases sugar production
Se selenium mimics sulphur and can replace in some amino acids,protective functions, increases growth and reproduction,some amino acid functions, phosphate & nitrateprocessing, essential in some dryland range plants
Sr strontium partial substitution for Ca when Ca requirementsare large
Ti titanium increases enzyme activities, photosynthesis, chlorophyllcontent, growth, nitrogen fixation (difficult to exclude in tests)
V vanadium1 compliments / enhances Mo functions, nitrogen fixation& seed germination, porphyrins, hemoproteins, lipidmetabolism, photosynthesis (difficult to exclude in tests)
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 13
element element symbol name
As arsenicCr chromiumCo cobalt (vitamin B12)
F fluorine I iodineLi lithiumSe selenium
Figure 7: Potentially beneficial elements based onlyupon animal essentialallity, not plant.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 14
Star Ash & DebrisWhere do elements come from? Elements of the universe are derived from intense fusion fires
of stars and constraints of massive gravity pits. Light elements hydrogen (H) and helium (He) remainthe most abundant materials in the universe. Hydrogen (H) comprises 90% of all matter in the uni-verse and helium comprises 10%. All the other elements are barely noticeable, miniscule traces ofheavier elements. Hydrogen (H) and helium (He) are the primordial elements generated by coolingfrom the Big Bang, and are fuel for stars.
FusionAs stars move through their life-cycles, fusion of light elements create new heavier elements. Helium
(He) nuclei (made from two hydrogen nuclei) are the fusion building blocks. Figure 8. Some heavierelements are then used as fuel for more fusion. At the end of energy production phases in stars, dependingupon initial mass, stars lose all remnants of fused elements (i.e. fusion ash), and all other elemnets capturedor synthesized, to the universe either by quietly burning out or through a massive explosion.
Element remains from old stars can be gathered into new stars, recycling light elements to fuse intoheavier elements. For example, carbon (C), oxygen (O), neon (Ne), and iron (Fe) are relatively abundantin the universe due to element fusion processes in second and later star generations. The core of stars fuseheavier elements up to iron (Fe). Heavier elements than iron require more energy to fuse than is releasedfrom the fusion process, and so can not sustain the structure of a star.
Elements TransformedThe neutron caldren and fusion furnace of the star also generates other elements. Elements from
cobalt (Co) to bismuth (Bi) are generated in the core of stars where free neutrons bathe heavier elementsgenerating radioactive isotopes which decay into the next heavier element (beta minus decay). Figure 9.This is a slow process.
For example, free neutrons interacting with iron (Fe) atoms generate heavier radioactive ironisotopes which undergo decay (i.e. beta-minus decay where a neutron decays into a proton and emitsparticles) to produce a stable cobalt (Co) atom. The cobalt (Co) atom interacts with free neutrons tobecome a heavier radioactive isotope and decays into a stable nickel (Ni) atom. This stepwise processcontinues across and down the periodic table of elements until bismuth (Bi) is reached. Figure 10 providesthe steps in element transformation in a star.
Star EndsWhen stars reach the end of their fusion lives and the lightest fuel elements are used up, stars meet
two fates, depending upon their orginal mass. Smaller stars (like our sun) are nearly extinguished andcollapse distributing all fused, transmuted, and captured elements into space. The outer layers of the starerode into space and can be captured in new star / planet systems.
Massive stars catastrophically explode as a supernova at the end of there fusion fuels. Figure 11shows the fusion layers inside a massive star at the end of its life. The tremendous explosive pressures andmassive neutron flux of the supernova can generate nine new elements between polonium (Po) and uranium(U) (i.e. heavier than bismuth (Bi)). All the elements generated by a massive star, and all elements gatheredfrom space in its lifetime are flung out into large gas clouds. These clouds can eventually begin to coalleseinto new stars.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 15
H 1 (fused into helium)
He 4 (2 proton + 2 neutron unit)
C 12 (3He)
O 16 (4He)
Ne 20 (5He)
Mg 24 (6He)
Si 28 (7He)
S 32 (8He)
Fe 56 (14He)
Figure 8: Star fusion using helium (He) nuclei as buildingblocks to generate energy and create elements.
element atomic symbol mass #
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 16
star coreneutron cauldron
(neutron dense environmentover millions of years)
59Co -- 209Bi
star collapseexplosion
-- supernova --
209Po -- 238UFigure 9: Element transmuation process inside stars (top),
and explosion generated elements (bottom) upto uranium (U).
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 17
ELEMENT GENERATION IN STARS
1. Helium (He) [2 protons / 2 neutrons] nucleiused to build & add onto elements.
2. Even number elements morecommon than odd numbered.
3. Heavier elements generated fallto center of star.
4. Iron (Fe) heaviest element formedfor energy generating fusionmaintaining star structure.
5. Beyond iron (Fe) elements aretransmutted into heavier / lighterelements up to bismuth (Bi).
6. Elements heavier than bismuth (Bi)generated in star explosion.
7. When light element fuels used up,star collapses (small star) orexplodes (large star), spewingvarious elements into space.
Figure 10: Process for generating different elements instars.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 18
H, HeHe, N
He, C, NeO, C
O, Ne, MgS, Si
Fe, Ni
Figure 11: Cross-section through massive star showingelement generation layers leading up to supernova.
star surface
star core
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 19
TransformersThe bathing of tightly held elements with free neutrons in star cores, and associated transmutation
(decay) process, generate many new elements, as does explosive energies / pressures and free neutronsaturation occurring during massive star destruction. Figure 12 shows how one element can be transmutted/ transformed / decay into another element. Figure 13 provides details on the primary means of transmuta-tion (changing) one element or isotope into another. The term decay is sometimes used to show somethingis lost in an element even though the element might have gained a proton or neutron.
Elements up to uranium (U) -- a rare neptunium (Np) atom can be found in uranium ores -- aregenerated by stars and considered native to the universe. The heavier the element, the rarer it is on average.Figure 14 shows the six primary pathways / sources to native or natural elements in the universe. Theheaviest elements are radioactive and can spontaniously split to form lighter elements.
NamingIdentifying elements is based upon their mass and chemical reactivity. Each unique form is given an
official name and symbol. For reference, element name, symbol, and number are listed in three followingtables all sorted in different ways to help in locating each specific element name, number, or symbol.
-- Figure 15 lists elements sorted in numeric order by their atomic number.-- Figure 16 lists elements in alphabetical order by official name.-- Figure 17 lists elements in alphabetical order by official symbol.
Usually symbols are used to represent elements as a shorthand or simple version of the name. The heaviestelements beyond uranium (U) (i.e. trans-uranium elements) have been only generated by nuclear researchlaboratories.
The lists of element names and symbols can be organized into a graphic table of elements. Thisperiodic table of elements is one way to show elemental relationships based upon atomic number andelectron configurations. A period (i.e. the reason the table is called a periodic table) is a horizontal row inthe periodic table. A group or family of elements are found within the same column in the periodic table.
TabledFigure 18 shows a traditional periodic table of elements – both native and artificially produced
elements are listed by their symbol. Elements with an asterick (*) beside their atomic number are radioac-tive. Note there are two places where a line of elements (i.e. a series) must be inserted into the main table.This is a standard way of showing these heavier elements to prevent the full table from being too wide for apage. Figure 19.
Artificial ElementsNew ultra-heavy elements are still being crafted in nuclear research laboratories and named by
international chemical research associations. These elements are all unstable and have short halflives. Thenine newest elemens are given in Figure 20 with year of creation. All are radioactive and decay to two orthree smaller atoms within less than a millisecond. Names of these new elements must be agreed uponinternationally, and so, some unnamed elements have generic Latin names of their atomic number untilofficially named.
Family MattersIn the standard periodic table of elements several family groups (columns) and closely associated
elements groups have specific names. The first family group (column 1) are the alkali metals, or the lithium(Li) family. These soft metals are extremely reactive with their one available electron, and burn or explode
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 20
Figure 12: Element transmutation processes changingelements, or changing isotopes of the same element.
Z Y X W2 3 4 5
-2 PROTONS-2 NEUTRONS
+1 PROTON
-1 PROTON -1 NEUTRON
(alpha)(beta minus)
(beta plus,EC, or p) (n, gamma)
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 21
alpha decay = loss of 4 mass units & 2 atomic numbers(2 protons & 2 neutrons lost)
beta minus decay = same mass but increase 1 atomic number(neutron decays into 1 proton which staysin nucleous, and emits 1 electron &1 electron anti-neutrino)
beta plus decay = same mass but decrease 1 atomic number(proton converted into 1 neutron whichstays in nucleous, and emits 1 positron &1 electron neutrino)
EC = same mass but decrease 1 atomic number(electron capture) (proton converted into 1 neutron which
stays in nucleus)
p = loss of 1 mass unit and decrease in(proton emission) 1 atomic number
n = loss of 1 mass unit with no change (neutron emission) in atomic number
gamma decay = same mass & same atomic number butemits gamma ray (high energy photon)
spontaneous = large heavy unstable element splits intofission 2 (or 3) smaller nuclei, and emits
gamma rays and neutrons
Figure 13: Definitions of element and isotopetransmutation / synthesis / decay forms.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 22
Big Bang = H, He-- trace Li, Be, B
Star Fusion = He - Fe / Ni
Star Core = Co - Bi-- transmutation / decay
Low Mass Stars = He - Bi-- ejected into space
Cosmic Rays = Li, Be, B-- large elements split
Supernovae = < U-- heavy natural elements blown into space
Figure 14: Source process (nucleosynthesis)for all native elements.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 23
# name symbol1 hydrogen H2 helium He3 lithium Li4 beryllium Be5 boron B
6 carbon C7 nitrogen N8 oxygen O9 fluorine F10 neon Ne
11 sodium Na12 magnesium Mg13 aluminum Al14 silicon Si15 phosphorus P
16 sulfur S17 chlorine Cl18 argon Ar19 potassium K20 calcium Ca
21 scandium Sc22 titanium Ti23 vanadium V24 chromium Cr25 manganese Mn
26 iron Fe27 cobalt Co28 nickel Ni29 copper Cu30 zinc Zn
31 gallium Ga32 germanium Ge33 arsenic As34 selenium Se35 bromine Br
36 krypton Kr37 rubidium Rb38 strontium Sr39 yttrium Y40 zirconium Zr
# name symbol41 niobium Nb42 molybdenum Mo43 technetium Tc44 ruthenium Ru45 rhodium Rh
46 palladium Pd47 silver Ag48 cadmium Cd49 indium In50 tin Sn
51 antimony Sb52 tellurium Te53 iodine I54 xenon Xe55 cesium Cs
56 barium Ba57 lanthanum La58 cerium Ce59 praseodymium Pr60 neodymium Nd
61 promethium Pm62 samarium Sm63 europium Eu64 gadolinium Gd65 terbium Tb
66 dysprosium Dy67 holmium Ho68 erbium Er69 thulium Tm70 ytterbium Yb
71 lutetium Lu72 hafnium Hf73 tantalum Ta74 tungsten W75 rhenium Re
76 osmium Os77 iridium Ir78 platinum Pt79 gold Au80 mercury Hg
# name symbol81 thallium Tl82 lead Pb83 bismuth Bi84 polonium Po85 astatine At
86 radon Rn87 francium FR88 radium Ra89 actinium Ac90 thorium Th
91 protactinium Pa92 uranium U93 neptunium Np94 plutonium Pu95 americium Am
96 curium Cm97 berkelium Bk98 californium Cf99 einsteinium Es100 fermium Fm
101 mendelevium Md102 nobelium No103 lawrencium Lr104 rutherfordium Rf105 dubnium Db
106 seaborgium Sg107 bhorium Bh108 hassium Hs109 meitnerium Mt110 darmstadtium Ds
111 roentgenium Rg112 copernicium Cn113 ununtrium Uut114 Flerovium Fl115 ununpentium Uup
116 livermorium Lv117 ununseptium Uus118 ununoctium Uuo
Figure 15: List of elements sorted in numerical order (first column).Provided are atomic number, name, and symbol for each element.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 24
# name symbol89 actinium Ac13 aluminum Al95 americium Am51 antimony Sb18 argon Ar33 arsenic As85 astatine At
56 barium Ba97 berkelium Bk4 beryllium Be107 bhorium Bh83 bismuth Bi5 boron B35 bromine Br
48 cadmium Cd20 calcium Ca98 californium Cf6 carbon C58 cerium Ce55 cesium Cs17 chlorine Cl24 chromium Cr27 cobalt Co112 copernicium Cn29 copper Cu96 curium Cm
110 darmstadtium Ds105 dubnium Db66 dysprosium Dy
99 einsteinium Es68 erbium Er63 europium Eu
100 fermium Fm114 flerovium Fl9 fluorine F87 francium FR
64 gadolinium Gd31 gallium Ga32 germanium Ge79 gold Au
Figure 16: Elements sorted in alphabetical order by name (second column).Provided are atomic number, name, and symbol for each element.
# name symbol72 hafnium Hf108 hassium Hs2 helium He67 holmium Ho1 hydrogen H
49 indium In53 iodine I77 iridium Ir26 iron Fe
36 krypton Kr
57 lanthanum La103 lawrencium Lr82 lead Pb3 lithium Li116 livermorium Lv71 lutetium Lu
12 magnesium Mg25 manganese Mn109 meitnerium Mt101 mendelevium Md80 mercury Hg42 molybdenum Mo
60 neodymium Nd10 neon Ne93 neptunium Np28 nickel Ni41 niobium Nb7 nitrogen N102 nobelium No
76 osmium Os8 oxygen O
46 palladium Pd15 phosphorus P78 platinum Pt94 plutonium Pu84 polonium Po19 potassium K59 praseodymium Pr61 promethium Pm91 protactinium Pa
# name symbol88 radium Ra86 radon Rn75 rhenium Re45 rhodium Rh111 roentgenium Rg37 rubidium Rb44 ruthenium Ru104 rutherfordium Rf
62 samarium Sm21 scandium Sc106 seaborgium Sg34 selenium Se14 silicon Si47 silver Ag11 sodium Na38 strontium Sr16 sulfur S
73 tantalum Ta43 technetium Tc52 tellurium Te65 terbium Tb81 thallium Tl90 thorium Th69 thulium Tm50 tin Sn22 titanium Ti74 tungsten W
118 ununoctium Uuo115 ununpentium Uup117 ununseptium Uus113 ununtrium Uut92 uranium U
23 vanadium V
54 xenon Xe
70 ytterbium Yb39 yttrium Y
30 zinc Zn40 zirconium Zr
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 25
# name symbol89 actinium Ac47 silver Ag13 aluminum Al95 americium Am18 argon Ar33 arsenic As85 astatine At79 gold Au
5 boron B56 barium Ba4 beryllium Be107 bhorium Bh83 bismuth Bi97 berkelium Bk35 bromine Br
20 calcium Ca48 cadmium Cd98 californium Cf17 chlorine Cl6 carbon C58 cerium Ce96 curium Cm112 copernicium Cn27 cobalt Co24 chromium Cr55 cesium Cs29 copper Cu
105 dubnium Db110 darmstadtium Ds66 dysprosium Dy
68 erbium Er99 einsteinium Es63 europium Eu
9 fluorine F26 iron Fe114 flerovium Fl100 fermium Fm87 francium Fr
31 gallium Ga64 gadolinium Gd32 germanium Ge
Figure 17: Elements sorted in alphabetical order by symbol (third column).Provided are atomic number, name, and symbol for each element.
# name symbol1 hydrogen H2 helium He72 hafnium Hf80 mercury Hg67 holmium Ho108 hassium Hs
53 iodine I49 indium In77 iridium Ir
19 potassium K36 krypton Kr
57 lanthanum La3 lithium Li103 lawrencium Lr71 lutetium Lu116 livermorium Lv
101 mendelevium Md12 magnesium Mg25 manganese Mn42 molybdenum Mo109 meitnerium Mt
7 nitrogen N11 sodium Na41 niobium Nb60 neodymium Nd10 neon Ne28 nickel Ni102 nobelium No93 neptunium Np
8 oxygen O76 osmium Os
15 phosphorus P91 protactinium Pa82 lead Pb46 palladium Pd61 promethium Pm84 polonium Po59 praseodymium Pr78 platinum Pt94 plutonium Pu
# name symbol88 radium Ra37 rubidium Rb75 rhenium Re104 rutherfordium Rf111 roentgenium Rg45 rhodium Rh86 radon Rn44 ruthenium Ru
16 sulfur S51 antimony Sb21 scandium Sc34 selenium Se106 seaborgium Sg14 silicon Si62 samarium Sm50 tin Sn38 strontium Sr
73 tantalum Ta65 terbium Tb43 technetium Tc52 tellurium Te90 thorium Th22 titanium Ti81 thallium Tl69 thulium Tm
118 ununoctium Uuo115 ununpentium Uup117 ununseptium Uus113 ununtrium Uut92 uranium U
23 vanadium V
74 tungsten W
54 xenon Xe
39 yttrium Y70 ytterbium Yb
30 zinc Zn40 zirconium Zr
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 26
FrR
aA
cR
fD
bS
gB
hH
sM
tD
sR
gC
nU
utF
lU
upLv
Uus
Uuo
87*
88*
89*
104*
105*
106*
107*
108*
109*
110*
111
*11
2*11
3*11
4*11
5*11
6*11
7*11
8*
Rb
Sr
YZ
rN
bM
oTc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
InS
nS
bTe
IX
e3
73
83
94
04
14
243
*4
44
54
64
74
84
95
05
15
25
35
4C
sB
aLa
Hf
TaW
Re
Os
IrP
tA
uH
gT
lP
bB
iPo
At
Rn
55
56
57
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84*
85*
86*
1
18
213
1415
1617
34
56
78
9
10
11
12
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
TmY
bLu
58
59
60
61*
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Th
Pa
UN
pP
uA
mC
mB
kC
fE
sF
mM
dN
oLr
90*
91*
92*
93*
94*
95*
96*
97*
98*
99*
100*
101*
102*
103*
LiB
e B
C N
O F
Ne
34
56
78
91
0
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P S
Cl
Ar
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
KC
aS
cT
i V
Cr
Mn
FeC
oN
iC
uZ
nG
aG
eA
sS
eB
rK
r1
92
02
12
22
32
42
52
62
72
82
93
03
13
23
33
43
53
6
PE
RIO
DIC
TA
BLE
OF
ELE
ME
NT
S(n
atur
al e
lem
ents
/ hu
man
cre
ated
ele
men
ts)
Lant
hani
des
Act
inid
es
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
He
2
H 1
* =
radi
oact
ive
Fig
ure
18:
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 27
L L
L L
L L
L L
L L
L L
L L
L
lant
hani
des
= L
acti
nide
s =
A
A A
A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A A
A
A
Fig
ure
19:
Ful
l wid
th p
erio
dic
tabl
e of
ele
men
ts w
ith g
roup
num
bers
sho
wn
and
posi
tion
of la
ntha
nide
s an
d ac
tinid
es s
erie
s sh
own.
1
18
2
13
14 1
5 16
17
3
4
5
6 7
8
9 10
11
12
3 3
3
3 3
3
3
3 3
3
3
3 3
3
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 28
atomic officialnumber name symbol year
110 Darmstadtium Ds 1994111 Roentgenium Rg 1994112 Copernicium Cn 1996
113 Ununtrium (Uut) 2003114 Flerovium Fl 1999115 Ununpentium (Uup) 2003
116 Livermorium Lv 2000117 Ununseptium (Uus) 2010118 Ununoctium (Uuo) 2005
Figure 20: Latest nine elements generated from nuclearresearch labs and placed on the periodic table ofelements. Note unnamed elements are referred toby the Latin atomic number name.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 29
when pure metal contacts water. Hydrogen (H) usually placed at the head of the column due to its electronconfiguration, is not considered an alkali metal. Figure 21.
The second family group (column 2 from left) are called the alkaline earths, or the beryllium (Be)family. These elements have two electrons available for interactions and are highly reactive in pure form.On Earth, these metals are never found in pure form. The preceeding figure also delineates the specialmetals which have only one oxidation state possible and electron interactions only in their outermost shell.These elements are: aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (Tl) in family group 13; tin (Sn),and lead (Pb) in family group 14; and bismuth (Bi) in family group 15.
Family group 3 are the rare earth (RE) elements and include the lanthanide series of elements, andusually the native actinide series of elements. Figure 22.
Metal ThingsFamily group 3-12 are transition metals (i..e. transitions between either end of the periodic table).
Figure 23. These metals have multiple electron shells, conformations easily interacting with other materials,and usually generate variable oxidation states. The transition metals are usually lumped together but belongto many family groups with significantly different reactivities.
The metalloids (sometimes called semi-conductors) cut across several family groups and include:boron (B) in family group 13; silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge) in family group 14; arsenic (As) and anti-mony (Sb) in family group 15; and, tellurium (Te) and polonium (Po) in family group 16.
To The RightWithin the transition metals are several sub-units of elements. Figure 24. One is group 11, the
coinage metals, copper (Cu), silver (Ag), and gold (Au). In group 12 are chemically unique votatile metals,zinc (Zn), cadnium (Cd), and mercury (Hg). The 17th family group (fluorine (F) family) are called thehalogens and are very reactive. The 18th family group are composed of noble gases, a highly stablegroup of nearly inert elements.
The RestTucked in-between the halogens and metalloids are non-metal elements carbon (C), nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P), oxygen (O), sulfur (S), and selenium (Se). Hydrogen (H), although it has a differentelectron configuration, is also placed with non-metals. Figure 25.
Two more sub-divisions within the transition metals are groups 8, 9, and 10. These metals aredivided between the magnetic top row called the iron (Fe) group -- elements iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), andnickel (Ni), and the heavier six metals of the platinum (Pt) group -- iridium (Ir), osmium (Os), palla-dium (Pd), platinum (Pt), rhodium (Rh), and ruthenium (Ru). The synthetic (human created) elementsbeyond (heavier than) uranium are collectively called trans-uranium elements.
NativesFigure 26 shows a modified / simplified periodic table of elements which includes just native ele-
ments of the universe. Human generated elements are not shown. Two elements technetium (Te) andpromethium (Pm) are not found on Earth. Remember the periodic table has each native element placed intovertical columns of similar electron reactivity groups or families, and horizontal rows of progressively moremassive elements (i.e. periods). In this type of table, the lower and farther to the right an element is placed,the larger its atomic number (number of protons), and usually the greater its atomic mass (number of protonsplus neutrons). An element is placed in the table and its idenity determined by its proton number, but canhave various numbers of neutrons, yielding different isotopes of the same element.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 30
FrR
aA
cR
fD
bS
gB
hH
sM
tD
sR
gC
nU
utF
lU
upLv
Uus
Uuo
87*
88*
89*
104*
105*
106*
107*
108*
109*
110*
111
*11
2*11
3*11
4*11
5*11
6*11
7*11
8*
Rb
Sr
YZ
rN
bM
oTc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
InS
nS
bTe
IX
e3
73
83
94
04
14
243
*4
44
54
64
74
84
95
05
15
25
35
4
Cs
Ba
LaH
fTa
WR
eO
sIr
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
PoA
tR
n5
55
65
77
27
37
47
57
67
77
87
98
08
18
28
384
*85
*86
*
1
18
213
1415
1617
34
56
78
9
10
11
12
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
TmY
bLu
58
59
60
61*
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Th
Pa
UN
pP
uA
mC
mB
kC
fE
sF
mM
dN
oLr
90*
91*
92*
93*
94*
95*
96*
97*
98*
99*
100*
101*
102*
103*
LiB
e B
C N
O F
Ne
34
56
78
91
0
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P S
Cl
Ar
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
KC
aS
cT
i V
Cr
Mn
FeC
oN
iC
uZ
nG
aG
eA
sS
eB
rK
r1
92
02
12
22
32
42
52
62
72
82
93
03
13
23
33
43
53
6
Lant
hani
des
Act
inid
es
He
2
H 1
Fig
ure
21:
Ele
men
t f
amily
&
gr
oup
com
mon
na
mes
(
Par
t I)
1 A
LKA
LI M
ETA
LS (
not
H)
2 A
LKA
LIN
E E
AR
TH
S 3
RA
RE
EA
RT
HS
RARE
EAR
THS
SP
EC
IAL
ME
TALS
Grou
p 3
Grou
p 3
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 31
Rare Earth (RE) Elements
1. light rare earthslanthanides
La - Gd (abundant except for Pm)
2. heavy rare earthslanthanides
Tb - Lu (abundant)
3. group three additions Sc / Y (rare)
4. actinides -- sometinesincluded in RE as theyare in family group 3(rare & radioactive / human generatedunstable & highly radioactive.)
Figure 22: Definition of Rare Earth elements (RE).
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 32
FrR
aA
cR
fD
bS
gB
hH
sM
tD
sR
gC
nU
utF
lU
upLv
Uus
Uuo
87*
88*
89*
104*
105*
106*
107*
108*
109*
110*
111
*11
2*11
3*11
4*11
5*11
6*11
7*11
8*
Rb
Sr
YZ
rN
bM
oTc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
InS
nS
bTe
IX
e3
73
83
94
04
14
243
*4
44
54
64
74
84
95
05
15
25
35
4
Cs
Ba
LaH
fTa
WR
eO
sIr
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
PoA
tR
n5
55
65
77
27
37
47
57
67
77
87
98
08
18
28
384
*85
*86
*
1
18
213
14
1516
17
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
TmY
bLu
58
59
60
61*
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Th
Pa
UN
pP
uA
mC
mB
kC
fE
sF
mM
dN
oLr
90*
91*
92*
93*
94*
95*
96*
97*
98*
99*
100*
101*
102*
103*
LiB
e B
C N
O F
Ne
34
56
78
91
0
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P S
Cl
Ar
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
KC
aS
cT
i V
Cr
Mn
FeC
oN
iC
uZ
nG
aG
eA
sS
eB
rK
r1
92
02
12
22
32
42
52
62
72
82
93
03
13
23
33
43
53
6He
2
H 1
Fig
ure
23:
Ele
men
t f
amily
&
gr
oup
com
mon
na
mes
(
Par
t II)
34
56
78
9
10
11
12
3 -1
2 T
RA
NS
ITIO
N M
ETA
LS
ME
TALL
OID
S
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 33
LiB
e B
C N
O F
Ne
34
56
78
91
0
FrR
aA
cR
fD
bS
gB
hH
sM
tD
sR
gC
nU
utF
lU
upLv
Uus
Uuo
87*
88*
89*
104*
105*
106*
107*
108*
109*
110*
111
*11
2*11
3*11
4*11
5*11
6*11
7*11
8*
Rb
Sr
YZ
rN
bM
oTc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
InS
nS
bTe
IX
e3
73
83
94
04
14
243
*4
44
54
64
74
84
95
05
15
25
35
4C
sB
aLa
Hf
TaW
Re
Os
IrP
tA
uH
gT
lP
bB
iPo
At
Rn
55
56
57
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84*
85*
86*
1
18
213
1415
1617
34
56
78
9
10
11
12
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
TmY
bLu
58
59
60
61*
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Th
Pa
UN
pP
uA
mC
mB
kC
fE
sF
mM
dN
oLr
90*
91*
92*
93*
94*
95*
96*
97*
98*
99*
100*
101*
102*
103*
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P S
Cl
Ar
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
KC
aS
cT
i V
Cr
Mn
FeC
oN
iC
uZ
nG
aG
eA
sS
eB
rK
r1
92
02
12
22
32
42
52
62
72
82
93
03
13
23
33
43
53
6
Lant
hani
des
Act
inid
es
He
2
H 1
Fig
ure
24:
Ele
men
t f
amily
&
gr
oup
com
mon
na
mes
(
Par
t III
)
VO
LAT
ILE
ME
TALS
12
NO
BLE
GA
SE
S
18
CO
INA
GE
ME
TALS
11
HA
LOG
EN
S
17
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 34
LiB
e B
C N
O F
Ne
34
56
78
91
0
Cs
Ba
LaH
fTa
WR
eO
sIr
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
PoA
tR
n5
55
65
77
27
37
47
57
67
77
87
98
08
18
28
384
*85
*86
*
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P S
Cl
Ar
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
FrR
aA
cR
fD
bS
gB
hH
sM
tD
sR
gC
nU
utF
lU
upLv
Uus
Uuo
87*
88*
89*
104*
105*
106*
107*
108*
109*
110*
111
*11
2*11
3*11
4*11
5*11
6*11
7*11
8*
Rb
Sr
YZ
rN
bM
oTc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
InS
nS
bTe
IX
e3
73
83
94
04
14
243
*4
44
54
64
74
84
95
05
15
25
35
4
1
18
2
1314
1516
17
34
56
78
9
10
11
12
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
TmY
bLu
58
59
60
61*
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
Th
Pa
UN
pP
uA
mC
mB
kC
fE
sF
mM
dN
oLr
90*
91*
92*
93*
94*
95*
96*
97*
98*
99*
100*
101*
102*
103*
KC
aS
cT
i V
Cr
Mn
FeC
oN
iC
uZ
nG
aG
eA
sS
eB
rK
r1
92
02
12
22
32
42
52
62
72
82
93
03
13
23
33
43
53
6
Lant
hani
des
Act
inid
es
He
2
H 1
Fig
ure
25:
Ele
men
t f
amily
&
gr
oup
com
mon
na
mes
(
Par
t IV
)
8-10
IR
ON
(to
p ro
w)
&P
LAT
INU
M G
RO
UP
NO
N-M
ETA
LS
tran
s-ur
aniu
m e
lem
ents
tran
s-ur
aniu
m e
lem
ents
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 35
HH
e1
2
LiB
eB
CN
OF
Ne
34
56
78
910
Na
Mg
Al
Si
PS
Cl
Ar
1112
1314
1516
1718
KC
aS
cTi
VC
rM
nF
eC
oN
iC
uZ
nG
aG
eA
sS
eB
rK
r19
2021
2223
2425
2627
2829
3031
3233
3435
36
Rb
Sr
YZ
rN
bM
oR
uR
hP
dA
gC
dIn
Sn
Sb
TeI
Xe
3738
3940
4142
4445
4647
4849
5051
5253
54
Cs
Ba
LaH
fTa
WR
eO
sIr
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
5556
5772
7374
7576
7778
7980
8182
8384
8586
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
5859
6062
6364
6566
6768
6970
71
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th
Pa
U87
8889
9091
92
insert
Fig
ure
26:
P
erio
dic
Tab
le
of
Nat
ive
/ N
atur
al
Ele
men
ts18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
elem
ent
fam
ily g
roup
num
ber
1 2 3 4 5 6 = element periods
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 36
An element’s placement in the periodic table does not nessecarily determine the state it exists in atroom temperature / biological temperature. The seven noble gases plus five non-metals, hydrogen (H),nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), fluorine (F), and chlorine (Cl) are clearly gases. Five elements which are eitherliquid or very close to melting at a warm room temperature include gallium (Ga), bromine (Br), cesium (Cs),mercury (Hg), and francium (Fr*). The rest of the elements are in a soild state at our temperature. Figure27.
IsotopesFor example, Figure 28 shows seven known isotopes of carbon. To be carbon an atom nucleus
must have six protons. The number of neutrons varies between 5 and 11. Carbon with 12 mass units of sixprotons and six neutrons (12C), and carbon with 13 mass units of six protons and seven neutrons (13C)represent all but trace amounts of the carbon atoms on Earth. The other carbon isotopes are unstable anddecay anywhere from a fraction of a second to less than 6,000 years.
Another isotope example is magnesium (Mg). Magnesium exists in three principle isotopes. Mag-nesium isotopes available in the environment include atomic mass 24 which represents 79% of all magne-sium found in nature, atomic mass 25 which represents 10% of all magnesium found in nature, and atomicmass 26 which represents 11% of all magnesium found in nature. Each magnesium atom contains the samenumber of protons (12) but varies in number of neutrons present (12-14). Magnesium is considered tohave an average atomic mass of 24.3 because of this mix of three isotopes and their abundanace in nature.
Odd ElementsThere is a noticeable difference in element abundance across the universe between similar mass
elements which have odd and even atomic numbers. Quantum effects provide more stable configurations inthe nucleus of atoms with even number of protons. Elements with even atomic numbers tend to be moredurable in star fusion caldrons and relatively more abundant compared with similar mass neighbors, but oddnumbered (odd number of protons) elements. There are also several elements unusually rare in the universe(i.e. boron (B) is one) because they provide easily fused fuel within star cores.
Down To EarthThe elements seeded across space by several generations of stars (some burning out and some
exploding) can be collected in gravity wells of new stars, or in smaller gravity eddies around these stars,forming conglomerates of elements not massive enough to sustain fusion. These fusion ash bodies areplanets, moons, asteroids, and meteorites, all with different element compositions. Earth is one such bodycircling a medium sized, third generation star. Earth contains all but two native elements of the universe.
Figure 29 compares the presence of tree essential elements with elements common across the solarsystem and universe, and with elements common in the Earth’s crust. Elements boron (B) and molybdenum(Mo) are needed by trees but are rare in the universe and on the Earth’s surface. Oxygen (O), magnesium(Mg), silicon (Si), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and iron (Fe) are all essential elements in trees and commonon Earth and in the solar system.
WeatheredAll native elements are found on Earth in a host of mineral compounds. The minerals of Earth’s
crust have been formed and reworked through igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary processes, and thenweathered. Almost all the soils of Earth are derived from these mineral parent materials, containing manyelements. The surface crust of Earth has been weathered and reorganized by many forces, all releasing,tying-up, and repositioning elements present.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 37
Physical State of Elements
gas =1H, 2He, 7N, 8O, 9F,10Ne, 17Cl, 18Ar, 36Kr,54Xe, 86Rn*, 118Uuo*
liquid =31Ga, 35Br, 55Cs,80Hg, 87Fr*
solid =(remaining elements)
Figure 27: State of elements at warm room temperature.(element symbol & atomic mass given -- * = radioactive)
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 38
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP PPPPP
PPPPPN
N
N N
NN
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP PPPPP
PPPPPN
N
NN
NN
N NN
NNPPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP PPPPP
PPPPPN
N
NN
N
NN
NNN
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP PPPPP
PPPPP
N
N
NN
NN
NNPPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP PPPPP
PPPPPN
N
NN
N
NN
N
N
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPPN
N
NN
NN
N
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP
PPPPP PPPPP
PPPPPN
N
N
NN
16C(1 sec)
14C(5,715 yrs)
12C
17C(1/5 sec)
15C(3 sec)
13C
11C(20 min)
Figure 28: Isotope nuclei of carbon (C), each with six protonsand various numbers of neutrons. Of carbon found innature, 12C = 99% & 13C = 1%. Time values are half-lives.
PPPPP
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 39
essential common elements elements common elements in trees in universe in Earth’s crust
H HHe
BC CN NO O O
FNeNa Na
Mg Mg MgAl Al
Si Si SiP PS SCl Cl
ArK K KCa Ca Ca
ScTiVCr
Mn MnFe Fe FeCo CoNi NiCu CuZn Zn
Mo
Figure 29: Comparision of element abundance across theuniverse and in the Earth’s crust compared with treeessential elements. Single lines connect elements common inall three locations and double lines represent universally rare elementswhich are essential in trees.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 40
Concentrations of some elements common in the Earth’s crust are quite different from concentra-tions present in the solar system. The Earth is a dynamic planet and elements have been consolidated intodifferent layers and locations, or lost to space over time. Iron (Fe) and associated metals comprise asignificant portion of Earth’s molten core. Deep within the mantle, lighter elements remain segregated sincethe early years of Earth. Most unreactive gasses (noble gases) and hydrogen have been lost to space.
CrustyFigure 30 compares the relative amounts of various tree essential elements in the solar system with
those elements only in the Earth’s crust. The Earth’s crust has a super abundance of silicon (Si) and oxygen(O), usually found in a silicon dioxide (SiO
2) form. Concentration of certain elements into trees demon-
strates the power of life over the amount of an element found in the Earth’s crust. Trees concentrate andconserve boron (B), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and sulfur (S). Other elements are essentialto trees but are not concentrated out of proportion from environmental concentrations, and can be toxic inexcess, like manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn).
TreemanFigure 31 shows the relative abundance of essential elements in a tree compared with these same
elements in a human. There are a number of elements clearly tree-centric. Magnesium (Mg) is concen-trated by trees because it is used in the photosynthetic process. Potassium (K), manganese (Mn), copper(Cu), and molybdenum (Mo) are all concentrated and conserved by trees over humans. Humans need all ofthe tree-essential elements, except boron (B), plus many more. Like trees, humans can contain all theelements in their environment, most nonessential.
Up To TreesThe building blocks of tree life are concentrated in lighter, more abundant elements of the
universe and Earth. Figure 32 provides placement of essential elements of tree life within a periodic table ofelements which only shows tree essential element family groups. Note the family (column) within which eachtree-essential element resides. Each family of elements share similar electron reactivities. The lighter andmore common elements tend to be essential to tree life while heavier elements in the same family can inter-fere with lighter essential elements listed above and poison tree life processes. Other elements not showncan still be toxic to trees.
Relative PoisonEvery family group has good, neutral, and bad elements when discussing their role in trees. Some
elements are essential to tree life, while other elements in the same family group (columns in the periodictable) are damaging and toxic to trees. Each family group member can potentially disrupt or poison pro-cesses involving other essential family members. Figure 33 through Figure 46 provides family group rela-tionships of toxicity and substitution.
For example, within the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) family of elements lie arsenic (As), amajor physiological poison, while under carbon (C) and silicon (Si) is lead (Pb), a notorious poison. Some-times element family interactions can be benign. For example, under potassium (K) is rubidium (Rb) whichcan partially substitute for potassium in some processes.
Another example of element family problems lies with zinc. The value of small concentrations ofzinc and how its chemical reactivity is used by biological processes is indisputable. Zinc, with propertiesdetermined by its atomic mass and electron configuration, is essential within any tree life processes where itparticipates. Unfortunately, zinc family members which partially share chemical attributes include cadmium(Cd) and mercury (Hg), both serious biological poisons.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 41
relative relative relativeelement concentration concentration concentration symbol in solar system in Earth’s crust in a tree
H 1,000,000 2,800 133,000B 75 17 65C 31,000 590 1,000,000
N 12,500 38 38,000O 32,000 1,000,000 1,000,000Mg 12,500 50,500 5,500
Si 12,500 550,000 1.5P 625 1,800 5,000S 5,000 1,040 3,300
Cl 625 375 550K 500 28,000 28,000Ca 2,000 110,000 22,000
Mn 625 2,100 100Fe 10,000 145,000 170Co 500 50 0.4
Ni 2,000 175 0.9Cu 150 150 45Zn 325 150 85
Mo 25 1.7 1.1
Figure 30: Comparison of tree essential elements asdistributed in the solar system, in the Earth’s crust,and in a tree. Essential elements listed in order ofatomic mass. The largest element concentration ineach column is set at one-million (1,000,000).
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 42
relative relativeelement concentration concentration symbol in a person in a tree
H 164,000 133,000B 1.2 65C 380,000 1,000,000
N 43,000 38,000O 1,000,000 1,000,000Mg 440 5,500
Si 420 1.5P 18,000 5,000S 3,300 3,300
Cl 2,000 550K 3,300 28,000Ca 23,000 22,000
Mn 0.3 100Fe 100 170Co 0.03 0.4
Ni 0.2 0.9Cu 1.6 45Zn 54 85
Mo 0.2 1.1
Figure 31: Comparison of essential elements in treescompared with a human body. Largest elementconcentrations in each column given a 1 million value.Remember this is a comparision of average essential elementproportions in trees with matching average element proportionsfound in a human body, both essential and non-essential, and mayrepresent an excess of any requirement.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 43
FrR
a87
*88
*
Rb
Sr
Mo
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
InS
nS
bTe
I37
3842
4445
4647
4849
5051
5253
Cs
Ba
WR
eO
sIr
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
5556
7475
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7879
8081
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7
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ure
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roup
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Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 44
LiNaKRbCsFr
Figure 33: Element family group #1 and interactions.E = essential; S = substitution; T = toxic
lithiumcompetes with Kanatgonistic with Znsynergistic with Fe & Mn
sodiumpartial substitute for K
potassiumESSENTIAL
rubidiumtoxic at high concentrationspartial subtitute for K
cesiumrare & toxiccompetes with Kradioactive isotopes pollute
franciumradioactive -- extremely raresecond rarest element on Earth
T
S
E
S
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 45
BeMgCaSrBaRa
Figure 34: Element family group #2 and interactions.E = essential; T = toxic
berylliumcompetes with Mg & Capartial substitute for Mgsign of pollution
magnesiumESSENTIAL
calciumESSENTIAL
strontiumcompetes with Ca / some Mgradioactive isotope pollution
bariuminterferes with Kantagonistic with Mg, Ca, & S
radiumwidespread but rareradioactive
T
E
E
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 46
CrMo WSg
Figure 35: Element family group #6 and interactions.E = essential; S = substitution; T = toxic
chromiumslightly availablepoor tree transport
molybdenumESSENTIAL
tungstensimilar in soil with Mopartial substitute for Mo
seaborgiumartificialhighly radioactive
T
E
S
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 47
MnTcReBh
Figure 36: Element family group #7 and interactions.E = essential
manganeseESSENTIALsimilar to Fe in soil
technectiumradioactive -- not native
rheniumeasily available to treesno interactions
bhoriumartificialhighly radioactive
E
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 48
FeRuOsHs
Figure 37: Element family group #8 and interactions.E = essential; T = toxic
ironESSENTIALvery reactive like Co & Ni
rutheniumplatinum metals groupextremely rareradioactive isotopes pollute
osmiumplatimun metals grouphighly toxic
hassiumartificialhighly radioactive
E
T
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 49
CoRhIrMt
Figure 38: Element family group #9 and interactions.E = essential
cobaltESSENTIALiron metal group
rhodiumplatimum metal grouplittle reactivity
iridiumplatimum metals groupreactivity similar to Co & Ni
meitneriumartificialhighly radioactive
E
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 50
NiPdPtDsFigure 39: Element family group #10 and interactions.
E = essential; T = toxic
nickelESSENTIALiron metal group
palladiumplatinum metals group
platinumplatinum metals group
darmstadiumartificialhighly radioactive
E
T
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 51
CuAgAuRgFigure 40: Element family group #11 and interactions.
E = essential; T = toxic
copperESSENTIALcan become esily toxic
silverreactivity similar to Cu1,000 times rarer than Cu
goldtoxic at higher concentrationsinhibits membrane functions
roentgeniumartificialhighly radioactive
E
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 52
ZnCdHgCnFigure 41: Element family group #12 and interactions.
E = essential; T = toxic
zincESSENTIAL
cadniumbad eco-toxic elementsimilar to Zn
mercuryhighly toxiceasily volatile
coperniciumartificialhighly radioactive
E
T
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 53
BAlGaInTlFigure 42: Element family group #13 and interactions.
E = essential; T = toxic
boronESSENTIALonly metalloid in group
alluminum / alluminium3rd most abundant elementtoxic at high concentrations
galliumwidely distributed but raresimilar but less reactive than Al
indiumwidely distributed but raretree root toxicity
thalliumhighly toxicsimilar soil ractivity to K
E
T
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 54
CSiGeSnPbFigure 43: Element family group #14 and interactions.
E = essential; T = toxic
carbonESSENTIALnon-metal
siliconESSENTIALmetalloidsecond most abundant element
germaniummetalcompetes with Si
tintoxic metalsoil reactivity similar to Fe & Al
leadhighly toxic metal -- pollutantantagonistic with Zn & Ca
E
E
T
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 55
N PAsSbBiFigure 44: Element family group #15 and interactions.
E = essential; T = toxic
nitrogenESSENTIALnon-metal
phosphorusESSENTIALnon-metal
arsenicmetalloidsimilar reactivity to P
antimonymetalloidpollutant -- mildly toxic
bismuthrarebenign -- non-toxic heavy metal
E
E
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 56
O SSeTePoFigure 45: Element family group #16 and interactions.
E = essential; S = substitution; T = toxic
oxygenESSENTIALnon-metal
sulfurESSENTIALnon-metal
seleniumnon-metalsimilar to S
telluriummetalloidsimilar to S & Se
poloniumradioactive metalloidsimilar reactivity to Te,Bi, & Se
E
E
S
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 57
FClBr IAtFigure 46: Element family group #17 and interactions.
E = essential; T = toxic
fluorinehalogen non-metalhighly reactive -- toxic pollutant
chlorineESSENTIALhalogen non-metalsoil & atmospheric sourcebrominehalogen non-metalhighly reactivecompetes with Cl
iodinehalogen non-metaltoxic at high concentrations
astatinerarest native element on Earthhighly radioactive
T
E
T
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 58
Killing DoseIt must be noted it is not the presence or absence of an element, but its concentration (i.e. dose)
which can be most beneficial or damaging in a tree. The value or damage from a particular concentration(availability or dose) of any element depends upon minimum requirements (if any) and maximum tolerance ofa tree. Figure 47 lists native elements which can have a toxic impact on trees, some in small amounts. Afew of these elements are essential (or listed as potentially beneficial) at lower concentrations (i.e. aluminum(Al), arsenic (As), boron (B), copper (Cu), and selenium (Se)). Too much of anything is toxic!
Sometimes the presence or absence of one element impacts the beneficial or detrimental attributesof another essential element. For example, the combined total concentrations of the heavier essential metalscan impact tree health. If manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) concentrations areindividually at the upper end of their beneficial value (i.e. individually nontoxic), addition of less than toxicamounts of cobalt and nickel could still generate a combined metal toxicity problem in a tree.
HeavyFigure 48 presents the heavy metals (heavy metals = >50amu). These metals include tree damaging
elements when at high concentrations. Some of these heavy metals are damaging even at low concentra-tions. In this figure these metals can all be found as trace pollutants in organic materials and fertilizers usedin landscapes. Site accumulation over time can be significant.
Figure 49 demonstrates the type of damge trees sustain from select toxic elements. Most tree toxicelements impact cell membranes, nitrogen and phosphorus processing, sulfur metabolism, and / or interferwith tree essential elements. For life in general, and trees in particular, there are a number of severe poisonelements which have almost no safe concentration. These elements are notorious from detective novels,royal histories, and international spy thrillers. Figure 50 presents a list of the most toxic elemnet to trees andtree sites. Microorganisms which support soil health and tree life can be baly damaged by these elements.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 59
element element name symbol tree system disrupted
aluminum Al phosphate use & energyantimony Sb competitivearsenic As phosphate & nitrate use, competitiveberyllium Be phosphate use & energyboron B phosphate & nitrate usebromine Br phosphate & nitrate use, membranescadmium Cd membranescesium Cs replaces essential elementchromium Cr phosphate use & energy, competitivecopper Cu membranesfluorine F phosphate & nitrate use, membranes,
competitivegallium Ga phosphate & nitrate use, competitivegermanium Ge membranes, sulfur usegold Au membranesiodine I membraneslanthanum & heavier metals phosphate use & energy, membraneslead Pb membranes, sulfur uselithium Li replaces essential elementmercury Hg sulfur use, membranesrubidium Rb replaces essential elementscandium Sc phosphate use & energyselenium Se replaces essential element, phosphate
& nitrate use, competitivesilver Ag sulfur use, membranessodium Na osmoticumstrontium Sr replaces essential elementtellurium Te phosphate & nitrate use, competitivetin Sn membranes, sulfur usetitanium Ti phosphate use & energy, competitivetungsten W phosphate & nitrate use, competitiveuranium U membranesyttrium Y phosphate use & energyzirconium Zr phosphate use & energy
Figure 47: List of toxic impacts on treesby different selected native elements.
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 60
Bi bismuthCd cadniumCo* cobaltCr chromiumCu* copperFe* ironGa galliumHg mercuryIn indiumIr iridiumMn* manganeseMo* molybdenumNb niobium
Figure 48: Heavy metals (transition metals & metalsgreater than 50 atomic weight) present as an impurityor pollution legacy in sewage sludge, organic fertilizers,organic compost products, and inorganic fertilizerswhich accumulate in tree landscapes.(* = tree essential element)
Ni* nickleOs osmiumPb leadPd palladiumPt platinumRe rheniumRu rhodiumSn tinTa tantalumTl thalliumV vanadiumW tungstenZn* zinc
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 61
Figure 49: Primary toxic impacts of selectednative and pollution added elements in trees.
(from Kabata-Pendias 2011)
Cell membrane disruptionAg, Au, Br, Cd,F, Hg, I, Pb, U
Nitrate / phosphate disruptionAl, As, B, Be, Br, F, Sc,
Se, Te, W, Y, Zr,lanthanides
Sulfur compounds disruptionAg, Hg, Pb
Competition / replacementof essential elementsAs, Cs, Li, Rb, Sb,
Se, Sr, Te, W, F
Dr. Kim D. Coder, Warnell School, University of Georgia 62
Ag silverAs arsenicBe berylliumBr bromineCd cadniumCo cobaltCr chromiumCs cesiumCu copperF fuorineHg mercury
Figure 50: The most toxic elements for treesand soil microorganisms. Does not include
general radioactive elements / isotopes.(from Kabata-Pendias 2011)
TREE SITE KILLERSIn indiumLi lithiumOs osmiumPb leadPd palladiumPo* poloniumPt platinumRu rutheniumSn tinSr strontiumTl titanium