Sustainability: A Comprehensive Foundation

Collection Editor: Tom Theis and Jonathan Tomkin, Editors

Sustainability: A Comprehensive FoundationCollection Editor: Tom Theis and Jonathan Tomkin, Editors Authors: Said Al-Hallaj Steve Altaner Amy Ando Jeffrey Brawn Julie Cidell George Crabtree John Cuttica Serap Erdal David Grimley Martin Jaffe Angela Kent Amid Khodadoust Riza Kizilel Cindy Klein-Banai Andrew Leakey Sohail Murad Krishna Reddy John Regalbuto Dennis Ruez Eric Snodgrass Tom Theis Jonathan Tomkin Michael Ward Gillen Wood

Online: < http://cnx.org/content/col11325/1.36/ >

CONNEXIONSRice University, Houston, Texas

This selection and arrangement of content as a collection is copyrighted by U of I Open Source Textbook Initiative. It is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/). Collection structure revised: February 29, 2012 PDF generated: March 24, 2012 For copyright and attribution information for the modules contained in this collection, see p. 578.

Table of ContentsPreface 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7

FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF I en sntrodution to ustinilityX rumnity nd the invironment F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Q ht is ustinilityc F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Q he se iqution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F T rumn gonsumption tterns nd the eound i'et F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F U ghllenges for ustinility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F W ghpter eview uestions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F F IP he ivolution of invironmentl oliy in the nited ttes ! ghpter sntroduE tion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQ he emerin gonservtion wovement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IR invironmentl isk wngement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PS ustinility nd uli oliy F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QQ uli relth nd ustinility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QU glimte nd qlol ghnge ! ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RU glimte roessesY ixternl nd snternl gontrols F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RV wilnkovith gyles nd the glimte of the uternry F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F TI wodern glimte ghnge F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F F UR glimte rojetions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F WT fiosphere ! ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IIS fiogeohemil gyles nd the plow of inergy in the irth ystem F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IIU fiodiversityD peies vossD nd iosystem puntion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPR oil nd ustinility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F IQQ hysil esouresX terD ollutionD nd winerls E ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IRU ter gyle nd presh ter upply F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F IRW gse tudyX he erl e E qoingD qoingD qone F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IUU ter ollution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IVP gse tudyX he vove gnl hisster F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PHU winerl esouresX pormtionD winingD invironmentl smpt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PIH gse tudyX qoldX orth its eightc F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PPS

1 Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment

2 The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States

3 Climate and Global Change

4 Biosphere

5 Physical Resources: Water, Pollution, and Minerals

6 Environmental and Resource Economics 6.1 invironmentl nd esoure ionomis E ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F PQI 6.2 rgedy of the gommons F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PQP 6.3 gse tudyX wrine pisheries F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F PRI 6.4 invironmentl lution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PRR 6.5 ivluting rojets nd oliies F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PSP 6.6 olutionsX roperty ightsD egultionsD nd snentive oliies F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PSW 7 Modern Environmental Management 7.1 7.2 7.3

wodern invironmentl wngement ! ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F PTS ystems of ste wngement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PTT gse tudyX iletroni ste nd ixtended roduer esponsiility F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PUU

iv7.4 7.5

qovernment nd vws on the invironment F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PUW isk essessment wethodology for gonventionl nd elterntive ustinility yptions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F PVV ustinle inergy ystems E ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F QHI invironmentl ghllenges in inergyD gron hioxideD eirD ter nd vnd se F F F F F F F F F F F F QHT gse tudyX qreenhouse qses nd glimte ghnge F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QQH inergy oures nd grriers F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F QQS inergy ses F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F QWU epplitions of hse ghnge wterils for ustinle inergy F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F RIH rolemEolvingD wetrisD nd ools for ustinility E ghpter sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F RPI vife gyle essessment F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RPP herivtive vife gyle gonepts F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RQT ustinility nd fusiness F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RVP

8 Sustainable Energy Systems 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 10.1 10.2

9 Problem-Solving, Metrics, and Tools for Sustainability

10 Sustainability: Ethics, Culture, and History

he rumn himensions of ustinilityX ristoryD gultureD ithis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RVV st9s xot isy feing qreenX entiEinvironmentl hisourseD fehviorD nd sdeE ology F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RWH 10.3 he sndustriliztion of xtureX e wodern ristory @ISHH to the presentA F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RWR 10.4 ustinility tudiesX e ystems vitery epproh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F SHI 10.5 he ulnerility of sndustrilized esoure ystemsX wo gse tudies F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F SHS 10.6 gse tudyX egriulture nd the qlol fee golony gollpse F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F SHV 10.7 gse tudyX inergy nd the f yil hisster F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SII 10.8 ustinility ithis F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SIQ11 Sustainable Infrastructure 11.1 ustinle rnsporttionX eessiilityD woilityD nd herived hemnd F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SPI 11.2 ustinle tormwter wngement F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FF F F F F F F F F F F F SQI Glossary F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SRR Index F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F SUI Attributions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F FSUV

Preface

1

his text is designed to introdue the reder to the essentil onepts of sustinilityF his sujet is of vitl importne ! seeking s it does to unover the priniples of the longEterm welfre of ll the peoples of the plnet ! ut is only peripherlly served y existing ollege textooksF he ontent is intended to e useful for oth rodEsed introdutory lss on sustinility nd s useful supplement to speilist ourses whih wish to review the sustinility dimensions of their res of studyF fy overing wide rnge of topis with uniformity of styleD nd y inluding glossriesD review questionsD se studiesD nd links to further resouresD the text hs su0ient rnge to perform s the ore resoure for semester ourseF tudents who over the mteril in the ook will e onversnt in the lnguge nd onepts of sustinilityD nd will e equipped for further study in sustinle plnningD poliyD eonomisD limteD eologyD infrstrutureD nd moreF purthermoreD the modulr design llows individul hpters nd setions to e esily pproprited ! without the purhse of whole new textF his llows edutors to esily ring sustinility oneptsD referenesD nd se studies into their re of studyF his pproprition works prtiulrly well s the text is free ! downlodle to nyone who wishes to use itF purthermoreD reders re enourged to work with the textF rovided there is ttriution to the soureD users n dptD dd toD revise nd repulish the text to meet their own needsF feuse sustinility is rossEdisiplinry (eld of studyD produing this text hs required the ringing together over twenty experts from vriety of (eldsF his enles us to over ll of the foundtionl ompoE nents of sustinilityX understnding our motivtions requires the humnitiesD mesuring the hllenges of sustinility requires knowledge of the sienes @oth nturl nd soilAD nd uilding solutions requires tehnil insight into systems @suh s provided y engineeringD plnningD nd mngementAF eders ustomed to textooks tht present mteril in unitry voie might e surprised to (nd in this one sttements tht do not lwys greeF rereD for exmpleD utious lims out limte hnge stnd eside sweeping pronounements prediting future soil uphevl engendered y wrming worldF end hpter tht inludes mrketEsed solutions to environmentl prolems oexists with others tht ll for inresed government ontrolF uh diversity of thought hrterizes mny of the (elds of inquiry represented in the ookY y inluding itD we invite users to engge in the sort of ritil thinking serious study of sustinility requiresF st is our sinerest hope tht this work is shred freely nd widelyD s we ll struggle to understnd nd solve the enormous environmentl hllenges of our timeF

1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRITTQGIFQGbF

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P

Chapter 1Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment

1.1

An

Introduction1

to

Sustainability:

Humanity

and

the

Environment

1.1.1 Learning Objectives

efter reding this hpterD students should e le to

lern the mening of sustinility in its modern ontext quire si fility for using the se eqution lern out ptterns of humn onsumption understnd the mjor ftors tht ontriute to unsustinle impts2

1.2 What is Sustainability?

sn IWVQ the nited xtions qenerl essemly pssed resolution QVGITI entitled roess of reprtion of the invironmentl erspetive to the er PHHH nd feyond3 D estlishing speil ommission whose hrge wsX @A o propose longEterm environmentl strtegies for hieving sustinle development to the yer PHHH nd eyondY @A o reommend wys in whih onern for the environment my e trnslted into greter oEopertion mong developing ountries nd etween ountries t di'erent stges of eonomi nd soil developE ment nd led to the hievement of ommon nd mutully supportive ojetives whih tke ount of the interreltionships etween peopleD resouresD environment nd developmentY @A o onsider wys nd mens y whih the interntionl ommunity n del more e'etively with environmentl onernsD in the light of the other reommendtions in its reportY @dA o help to de(ne shred pereptions of longEterm environmentl issues nd of the pproprite e'orts needed to del suessfully with the prolems of proteting nd enhning the environmentD longEterm gend for tion during the oming dedesD nd spirtionl gols for the world ommunityD tking into ount the relevnt resolutions of the session of speil hrter of the qoverning gounil in IWVPF1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIVUGIFSGbF 2 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIVVGIFTGbF 3 httpXGGwwwFunForgGdoumentsGgGresGQVGQVrITIFhtm

Q

R

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

he ommission lter dopted the forml nme orld gommission on invironment nd hevelopment @gihA ut eme widely known y the nme of its hir qro rrlem frundtlnd4 D medil dotor nd puli helth dvote who hd served s xorwy9s winister for invironmentl e'irs nd susequently held the post of rime winister during three periodsF he ommission hd twentyEone memers5 drwn from ross the gloeD hlf representing developing ntionsF sn ddition to its ftE(nding tivities on the stte of the glol environmentD the ommission held (fteen meetings in vrious ities round the world seeking (rsthnd experienes on the how humns intert with the environmentF he frundtlnd gommission issued its (nl report yur gommon puture6 in IWVUF elthough the frundtlnd eport did not tehnilly invent the term sustinilityD it ws the (rst redile nd widelyEdisseminted study tht proed its mening in the ontext of the glol impts of humns on the environmentF sts min nd often quoted de(nition refers to sustainable development s . . .development tht meets the needs of the present without ompromising the ility of future genertions to meet their own needsF he report uses the terms sustinle developmentD sustinleD nd susE tinility interhngelyD emphsizing the onnetions mong soil equityD eonomi produtivityD nd environmentl qulityF he pthwys for integrtion of these my di'er ntion y ntionY still these pthE wys must shre ertin ommon tritsX the essentil needs of the world9s poorD to whih overriding priority should e givenD nd the ide of limittions imposed y the stte of tehnology nd soil orgniztion on the environment9s ility to meet present nd future needsF hus there re three dimensions tht sustinility seeks to integrteX eonomiD environmentlD nd soil @inluding soiopolitilAF ionomi interests de(ne the frmework for mking deisionsD the )ow of (nnil pitlD nd the filittion of ommereD inluding the knowledgeD skillsD ompetenes nd other ttriutes emodied in individuls tht re relevnt to eonomi tivityF invironmentl spets reognize the diversity nd interdependene within living systemsD the goods nd servies produed y the world9s eosystemsD nd the impts of humn wstesF oioEpolitil refers to intertions etween institutionsG(rms nd peopleD funtions expressive of humn vluesD spirtions nd wellEeingD ethil issuesD nd deisionE mking tht depends upon olletive tionF he report sees these three elements s prt of highly integrted nd ohesively intertingD if perhps poorly understoodD systemF he frundtlnd eport mkes it ler tht while sustinle development is enled y tehnologil dvnes nd eonomi viilityD it is (rst nd foremost soil onstrut tht seeks to improve the qulity of life for the world9s peoplesX physillyD through the equitle supply of humn nd eologil goods nd serviesY spirtionllyD through mking ville the widespred mens for dvnement through ess to edutionD systems of justieD nd helthreY nd strtegillyD through sfegurding the interests of genertions to omeF sn this sense sustinility sits mong series of humn soil movements tht hve ourred throughout historyX humn rightsD ril equlityD gender equityD lor reltionsD nd onservtionD to nme fewF4 httpXGGwwwFunForgGxewsGdhGhlpnelGrundtlndEioFhtm 5 httpXGGenFwikisoureForgGwikiGfrundtlndeport 6 httpXGGwwwFunEdoumentsFnetGwedEofFhtm

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Figure 1.1: Overlapping Themes of the Sustainability Paradigm A depiction of the sustainabilityparadigm in terms of its three main components, showing various intersections among them. International Union for the Conservation of Nature

7

Source:

he intersetion of soil nd eonomi elements n form the sis of soil equityF sn the sense of enlightened mngementD 4viility4 is formed through onsidertion of eonomi nd environmentl interestsF fetween environment nd soil elements lies erilityD the reognition tht the funtioning of soieties is dependent on environmentl resoures nd serviesF et the intersetion of ll three of these lies sustinilityF he invironmentl rotetion egeny8 @ ieA tkes the extr step of drwing distintion etween sustinility nd sustinle developmentD the former enompssing idesD spirtions nd vlues tht inspire puli nd privte orgniztions to eome etter stewrds of the environment nd tht promote positive eonomi growth nd soil ojetivesD the ltter implying tht environmentl protetion does not prelude eonomi development nd tht eonomi development must e eologilly vile now nd in the long runF he ghpter The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States @etion PFIA presents informtion on how the three omponents tht omprise sustinility hve in)uened the evolution of environmentl puli poliyF he ghpter Sustainability: Ethics, Culture, and History @etion IHFIA7 httpXGGmsdtFiunForgGdownlodsGiunfutureofsustnilityFpdf 8 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGsustinilityGsiinfoFhtm5sustinility

T

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

explores in greter detil the ethil sis for sustinility nd its ulturl nd historil signi(neF

1.3 The IPAT Equation

9

es ttrtive s the onept of sustinility my e s mens of frming our thoughts nd golsD its de(nition is rther rod nd di0ult to work with when onfronted with hoies mong spei( ourses of tionF he ghpter Problem-Solving, Metrics, and Tools for Sustainability @etion WFIA is devoted to vrious wys of mesuring progress towrd hieving sustinle golsD ut here we introdue one generl wy to egin to pply sustinility oneptsX the se equtionF es is the se for ny equtionD se expresses lne mong interting ftorsF st n e stted s

I =P AT

@IFIA

where I represents the impts of given ourse of tion on the environmentD P is the relevnt humn popultion for the prolem t hndD A is the level of onsumption per personD nd T is impt per unit of onsumptionF smpt per unit of onsumption is generl term for tehnologyD interpreted in its rodest sense s ny humnEreted inventionD systemD or orgniztion tht serves to either worsen or unouple onsumption from imptF he eqution is not ment to e mthemtilly rigorousY rther it provides wy of orgnizing informtion for (rstEorder nlysisF uppose we wish to projet future needs for mintining glol environmentl qulity t present dy levels for the midEtwentyE(rst enturyF por this we need to hve some projetion of humn popultion @P A nd n ide of rtes of growth in onsumption @AAF

Figure 1.2: World Population GrowthDecember 2010 Update

10

Source:

U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base,

pigure World Population Growth @pigure IFPA suggests tht glol popultion in PHSH will grow from the urrent TFV illion to out WFP illionD n inrese of QS7F qlol qh @qross homesti rodutD one mesure of onsumptionA vries from yer to yer utD using pigure Worldwide Growth of Gross Domestic Product @pigure IFQA s guideD n nnul growth rte of out QFS7 seems historilly urte @growth t QFS7D when ompounded for forty yersD mens tht the glol eonomy will e four times s lrge t midEentury s todyAF9 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWHGIFSGbF 10 httpXGGwwwFensusFgovGpopultionGinterntionlGdtGidGworldpopgrphFphp

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Figure 1.3: Worldwide Growth of Gross Domestic Product Source:from IndexMundi

11

CIA World Factbook, Graph

hus if we wish to mintin environmentl impts @sA t their urrent levels @iFeF s2050 a s2010 AD then

P2010 A2010 T2010 = P2050 A2050 T2050or

@IFPA

T2050 1 1 P2010 A2010 1 = = = T2010 P2050 A2050 1FQS 4 5F4

@IFQA

his mens tht just to mintin urrent environmentl qulity in the fe of growing popultion nd levels of 1ueneD our tehnologil deoupling will need to redue impts y out ftor of (veF oD for instneD mny reently dopted limte tion plns for lol regions nd muniiplitiesD suh s the ghigo glimte etion ln12 D typilly ll for redution in greenhouse gs emissions @dmittedly just one impt mesureA of eighty perent y midEenturyF he mens to hieve suh redutionsD or even whether or not they re neessryD re mtters of intense deteY where one group sees expensive remedies with little demonstrle returnD nother sees opportunities for investment in new tehnologiesD usinessesD nd employment setorsD with ollterl improvements in glol nd ntionl wellEeingF

1.4 Human Consumption Patterns and the Rebound Eect

13

sn IVTS illim tevons14 @IVQSEIVVPAD fritish eonomistD wrote ook entitled he gol uestion15 D in whih he presented dt on the depletion of ol reserves yetD seemingly prdoxillyD n inrese in the onsumption of ol in inglnd throughout most of the IWth enturyF re theorized tht signi(nt improvements in the e0ieny of the stem engine hd inresed the utility of energy from ol ndD in e'etD lowered the prie of energyD therey inresing onsumptionF his is known s the Jevons paradoxD11 httpXGGwwwFindexmundiFomGgGgFspxcaxx8vaTT 12 httpXGGwwwFhigolimtetionForgGpgesGintrodutionGIHFphp 13 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWIGIFTGbF 14 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGillimtnleytevons 15 httpXGGwwwFeonliForgGlirryGhfooksGtevonsGjvngFhtml

V

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

the priniple tht s tehnologil progress inreses the e0ieny of resoure utiliztionD onsumption of tht resoure will inreseF snresed onsumption tht negtes prt of the e0ieny gins is referred to s reoundD while overconsumption is lled k(reF uh ounterEintuitive theory hs not een met with universl eptneD even mong eonomists @seeD for exmpleD he i0ieny hilemm16 AF wny environmentlistsD who see improvements in e0ieny s ornerstone of sustinilityD openly question the vlidity of this theoryF efter llD is it sensile to suggest tht we not improve tehnologil e0ienyc hether or not the prdox is orretD the ft tht it hs een postulted gives us puse to exmine in somewht greter depth onsumption ptterns of soietyF sf we let Q e the quntity of goods nd servies delivered @within given time periodA to peopleD nd R e the quntity of resoures onsumed in order to deliver those goods nd serviesD then the se eqution n e rewritten in slightly di'erent wy sX

I=P

Q R I qh P qh Q RI R

@IFRA

R where Q represents the resoure intensityD nd errnging this version of the eqution givesX

is the impt reted per unit of resoures onsumedF

R=Q

R Q

@IFSA

whih sys simply tht resoures onsumed re equl to the quntity of goods nd servies delivered times the resoure intensityF he inverse of resoure intensity Q is lled the resoure use e0ienyD lso known R s resoure produtivity or eco-eciencyD n pproh tht seeks to minimize environmentl impts y mximizing mteril nd energy e0ienies of produtionF hus we n syX

R=Q

1 io e0ieny

@IFTA

tht isD resoures onsumed re equl to goods nd servies delivered divided y eoEe0ienyF hether or not gins in eoEe0ieny yield genuine svings in resoures nd lower environmentl impts depends on how muhD over timeD soiety onsumes of given produt or servie @iFeF the reltive e0ieny ginD e A e must outpe the quntity of goods nd servies delivered Q F sn the terms of tevons prdoxD if Q e Q Q e then the system is experiening k(reF rt of the prolem in nlyzing dt pertining to whether or not suh overonsumption is hppening depends on the spei( good or servie in questionD the degree to whih the dt truly represent tht good or servieD nd the level of detil tht the dt mesureF le Historical Eciency and Consumption Trends in the United States @le IFIA summrizes some reent (ndings from the literture on the omprtive e0ieny nd onsumption for severl tivities over extended periods of oservtionF ken olletively these tivities pture severl si enling spets of modern soietyX mjor mterilsD trnsE porttionD energy genertionD nd food produtionF sn ll ses the dt show tht over the long termD onsumption outpes gins in e0ieny y wide mrginsD @iFeFD Q e AF st should lso e noted tht Q e in ll sesD the inreses in onsumption re signi(ntly greter thn inreses in popultionF he dt of le Historical Eciency and Consumption Trends in the United States @le IFIA do not verify tevons prdoxY we would need to know something out the pries of these goods nd servies over timeD nd exmine the degree to whih sustitution might hve ourred @for instne luminum for ironD ir trvel for utomoile trvelAF o see if suh lrge inreses in onsumption hve trnslted into omprle dereses in environmentl qulityD or delines in soil equityD other informtion must e exminedF hespite thisD the informtion presented does show series of ptterns tht rodly re)et humn onsumption of goods nd servies tht we onsider essentil for modern living nd for whih e0ieny gins hve not kept peY in world of (nite resoures suh onsumption ptterns nnot ontinue inde(nitelyF16 httpXGGwwwFnewyorkerFomGreportingGPHIHGIPGPHGIHIPPHfftowen

WActivity Time Period Avg Annual Eciency Improvement (%) Avg Annual Increase in Consumption (%) Ratio: Consumption/Eciency

ig sron eluminum pertilizer iletriityEgol iletriityEyil iletriityExt qs preight il rvel eir rvel wotor rvel ssenger ehile

IVHHEIWWH IWHHEPHHS IWPHEPHHH IWPHEPHHU IWPHEPHHU IWPHEPHHU IWTHEPHHT IWTHEPHHU IWRHEPHHT

IFR IFP IFH IFQ IFS IFV PFH IFQ HFQ

RFI WFV VFV SFU TFP WFT PFS TFQ QFV

QFH UFW VFW RFS RFP SFS IFP RFW IIFH

Table 1.1X

Historical Eciency and Consumption Trends in the United States Source: Dahmusand Gutowski, 2011 (p. 9)

yur onsumption of goods nd servies retes vile eonomyD nd lso re)ets our soil needsF por exmpleD most of us onsider it soil good tht we n trvel lrge distnes rther quiklyD sfelyD nd more or less whenever we feel the needF imilrlyD we relize soil vlue in hving luminum @lightweightD strongD nd dutileA villeD in spite of its energy ostsD euse it mkes so mny onvenienesD from ir trvel to everge nsD possileF his is t the enter of the sustinility prdigmX humn ehvior is soil nd ethil phenomenonD not tehnologil oneF hether or not we must overonsume to relize soil ene(ts is t the ore of sustinle solutions to prolemsF1.4.1 Resources

por more informtion out eoEe0ienyD see the orld fusiness gounil for ustinle hevelopment report titled 4ioEi0ienyX greting more vlue with less impt17 41.4.2 References

hhmusD tF fFD nd F qF qutowski @PHIIA gn i0ieny smprovements edue esoure gonsumptionc e ristoril enlysis of en etivities tournl of sndustril iology @epted for pulitionAF

1.5 Challenges for Sustainability

18

he onept of sustinility hs engendered rod support from lmost ll qurtersF sn reltively suint wy it expresses the sis upon whih humn existene nd the qulity of humn life dependX responsile ehvior direted towrd the wise nd e0ient use of nturl nd humn resouresF uh rod onept invites omplex set of menings tht n e used to support divergent ourses of tionF iven within the frundtlnd eport dihotomy existsX lrm over environmentl degrdtion tht typilly results from eonomi growthD yet seeing eonomi growth s the min pthwy for lleviting welth dispritiesF

17 httpXGGwwwFwsdForgGpluginsGdoserhGdetilsFspctxthoitleae0ieny8hoypesdaPS8ghrlvistaPSY8yjetsdawjS8vfka 18 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWPGIFSGbF

IH

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

he three min elements of the sustinility prdigm re usully thought of s eqully importntD nd within whih trdeo's re possile s ourses of tion re hrtedF por exmpleD in some instnes it my e deemed neessry to degrde prtiulr eosystem in order to filitte ommereD or food produtionD or housingF sn relityD howeverD the extent to whih trdeo's n e mde efore irreversile dmge results is not lwys knownD nd in ny se there re de(nite limits on how muh sustitution mong the three elements is wise @to dteD humns hve treted eonomi development s the dominnt one of the threeAF his hs led to the notion of strong sustainabilityD where trdeo's mong nturlD humnD nd soil pitl re not llowed or re very restritedD nd weak sustainabilityD where trdeo's re unrestrited or hve few limitsF hether or not one follows the strong or wek form of sustinilityD it is importnt to understnd tht while eonomi nd soil systems re humn retionsD the environment is notF therD funtioning environment underpins oth soiety nd the eonomyF his inevitly leds to the prolem of metrisX wht should e mesured nd how should the vlues otined e interpretedD in light of the rod gols of the sustinility prdigmc he ghpter ProblemSolving, Metrics, and Tools for Sustainability @etion WFIA ddresses this in detilD ut presented here is rief summry of the (ndings of the willennium iosystem essessment19 @wieAD projet undertken y over thousnd interntionlly reognized expertsD from PHHIEPHHSD who ssessed the stte of the world9s mjor eosystems nd the onsequenes for humns s result of humnEindued hngesF sn its simplest formD system20 is olletion of prts tht funtion togetherF he wie presents (ndings s ssessments of ecosystems nd ecosystem servicesX provisioning servies suh s food nd wterY regulting servies suh s )ood ontrolD droughtD nd diseseY supporting servies suh s soil formtion nd nutrient ylingY nd ulturl servies suh s reretionlD spiritulD religious nd other nonmteril ene(tsF wie presents three overrhing onlusionsXApproximately 60% (15 out of 24) of the ecosystem services examined are being degraded or used unsustainably, including fresh water, capture sheries, air and water purication, and the regulation of regional and local climate, natural hazards, and pests. The full costs of the loss and degradation of these ecosystem services are dicult to measure, but the available evidence demonstrates that they are substantial and growing. Many ecosystem services have been degraded as a consequence of actions taken to increase the supply of other services, such as food. These trade-os often shift the costs of degradation from one group of people to another or defer costs to future generations.

There is established but incomplete evidence that changes being made are increasing the likelihood of nonlinear changes in ecosystems (including accelerating, abrupt, and potentially irreversible changes) that have important consequences for human well-being. Examples of such changes include disease emergence, abrupt alterations in water quality, the creation of dead zones in coastal waters, the collapse of sheries, and shifts in regional climate.

The harmful eects of the degradation of ecosystem services are being borne disproportionately by the poor, are contributing to growing inequities and disparities across groups of people, and are sometimes the principal factor causing poverty and social conict. This is not to say that ecosystem changes such as increased food production have not also helped to lift many people out of poverty or hunger, but these changes have harmed other individuals and communities, and their plight has been largely overlooked. In all regions, and particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, the condition and management of ecosystem services is a dominant factor inuencing prospects for reducing poverty.

19 httpXGGwwwFmweForgGenGindexFspx 20 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGystem

II yrgniztions suh s the orld gommission on invironment nd hevelopmentD the willennium iosysE tem essessmentD nd severl others inluding the sntergovernmentl nel on glimte ghnge21 D the yrE gniztion for ionomi goopertion nd hevelopmentD22 nd the xtionl edemy eport to gongress23 hve ll issued reports on vrious spets of the stte of soiety nd the environmentF he memers of these groups re mong the est experts ville to ssess the omplex prolems fing humn soiety in the PIst enturyD nd ll hve rehed similr onlusionX sent the entment of new poliies nd prties tht onfront the glol issues of eonomi dispritiesD environmentl degrdtionD nd soil inequlityD the future needs of humnity nd the ttinment of our spirtions nd gols re not ssuredF

21 httpXGGwwwFipFhG 22 httpXGGwwwFoedForgGhomeG 23 httpXGGwwwFntionldemiesForgGnnulreportG

IP

CHAPTER 1.

INTRODUCTION TO SUSTAINABILITY: HUMANITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1.6 Chapter Review QuestionsQuestion 1.6.1 Question 1.6.2 Question 1.6.3 Question 1.6.4

24

ht re the essentil spets of sustinility s de(ned in the frundtlnd eportc he(ne strong nd wek sustinility nd give exmples of ehF tteD in your own wordsD the mening of the se equtionc ht is the reound e'et nd how is it relted to humn ptterns of onsumptionc

24 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRIIWQGIFSGbF

Chapter 2The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States

2.1 The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the United States Chapter Introduction2.1.1 Introduction1

st is not unommon to think of the sustinility prdigm s eing reent interprettion of environmentl poliyD one tht ws given redene y the nited xtions report 4yur gommon puture4 @the frundtlnd eport2 A when it ws (rst presented in IWVUF gertinly the period during the (nl dede of the twentieth entury ws witness to signi(nt growth in our understnding of the omplexity nd glol reh of mny environmentl prolems nd issuesD nd s disussed in ghpter An Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment @etion IFIAD the frundtlnd report gve ler voie to these onerns through its nlysis of humn dependeny nd qulity of life on eologil systemsD soil networksD nd eonomi viility"systems tht re losely intertwined nd tht require more integrted pprohes to solving the mny prolems tht onfront humnity t this timeF st is lso true tht it ws mong the (rst widely disseminted writings to de(ne nd use the modern mening of the term 4sustinle4 through the oftenEquoted onept of 4sustinle developmentF4 roweverD it would e mistke to onlude tht sustinility s mentl onstrut nd poliy frmework for envisioning the reltionship of humns nd nture me into eing suddenly nd t single moment in timeF wost environmentl historins who hve studied FF poliy hve diserned t lest three distint periods during whih new onepts nd idesD sienti( understndingsD tehnologil dvnesD politil institutionsD nd lws nd regultions me or were rought into eing in order to understnd nd mnge humn impts on the environmentF hese were @IA the emerin onservtion movementD @PA the rise of environmentl risk mngement s sis for poliyD nd @QA the integrtion of soil nd eonomi ftors to rete wht we now refer to s the sustinility prdigmF sn this hpter we will explore the roots of modern sustinility @wodule The American Conservation Movement @etion PFPAAD see how our thinking out the environment hs shifted @wodule Environmental Risk Management @etion PFQAAD nd exmine the wys tht our environmentl puli poliies hve hnged through time @wodule Sustainability and Public Policy @etion PFRAAF elong the wy it is importnt to understnd tht this hs een n evolutionry proess nd tht these environmentl 4ersD4 while re)eting the normsD ttitudesD nd needs of the dyD re still very muh emodied within the modern onept of sustinilityF1 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIIVGIFRGbF 2 httpXGGwwwFunEdoumentsFnetGwedEofFhtm

IQ

IR

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

2.2 The American Conservation Movement2.2.1 Learning Objectives

3

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the history of environmentl poliy in the nited ttes nd the role of di'erent groups in shping environmentl poliy2.2.2 Introduction

o most erly olonists who immigrted to xorth emeriD for whom the onept of wstge hd no spei( meningD the ontinent ws lnd of unimginly vst resoures in whih little e'ort ws mde to tretD minimizeD or otherwise mngeF his is not surprisingD when one stnd of trees ws onsumed for housing or fuelD nother ws neryY when one (eld ws eroded to the point of limited fertilityD expnsion further inlnd ws reltively simpleY when rivers eme silted so tht (sheries were impiredD one moved further upstremY nd when onfronted with endless herds of wild nimlsD it ws inoneivle tht one might overEonsume to the point of extintionF iuropenEsettled emeri ws lrgely grrin soiety ndD prt from the need to keep spes produtive nd ler of derisD there ws little inentive to spend time nd energy mnging dishrges to the ommons4 @see wodule The Tragedy of the Commons @etion TFPAAF hese ttitudes persisted well into the IWth entury nd spets of them re still tive in the present dyF hile suh prties ould hrdly e sid to onstitute n environmentl poliyD they did serve the purpose of onstellting numer of groups into rethinking the wy we went out mnging vrious spets of our livesD in prtiulr our reltionship to the lnd nd the resoures it ontined or providedF es erly s the midEIVth enturyD tred iliot5 @ITVSEIUTQA of gonnetiutD ministerD dotorD nd frmerD wrote series of tretises on the need for etter frming methodsF re summrizedXWhen our fore-Fathers settled here, they entered a Land which probably never had been Ploughed since the Creation, the Land being new they depended upon the natural Fertility of the Ground, which served their purpose very well, and when they had worn out one piece they cleared another, without any concern to amend their Land. . .(Carman, Tugwell, & True, 1934, p. 29 (p. 24)).

elthough iliot vidly instruted his fellow frmers on etter methods of (eld husndryD there is little evidene tht his writings hd lsting e'et @he is most known for dvnes in the design of the drill ploughD n erly plnter tht produed even rows of ropsD inresing yieldsAF fy IVSHD the popultion of the nited ttes ws pprohing PS million nd inresing t the rte of three to four perent per yer @for omprison the popultion of inglnd ws out PT millionD of prne QT millionD nd qermny out RH millionAF elthough the westwrd migrtion ross xorth emeri ws well underwyD most people still lived within reltively nrrow strip of lnd long the est ostF fy modern mesures the nited ttes ws not densely popultedD nd yet the pereption of the ountry s ig nd on the interntionl stge ws in ontrst to the mentlity just few dedes efore of new world tht hd roken with the oldD one of endless open spes nd inexhustile resouresF he ountry ws lso eoming more urnized @out IS perent of the popultion lived in itiesD three times the proportion of just (fty yers eforeAD nd inresingly literteF hus y the midEIWth entury the emerin puli ws prepred to listen to the messges of vrious groups who hd eome onerned out the impts of growth on soietyF hree groups in prtiulrD of onsiderly di'erent sympthies nd hrterD me to hve profound in)uenes on the wy we thought of ourselves in reltion to the environmentD on our lnd use poliiesD nd on providing environmentl goods nd servies to the growing popultionX the resoure e0ieny groupD the trnsendentlist movementD nd orgnized industril interestsF3 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIIUGIFQGbF 4 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGheommons 5 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGtrediliot

IS2.2.3 Resource Eciency

es typi(ed y the onerns of tred iliot nerly entury eforeD there were lwys some who were lrmed t widespred griulturl prties tht were wstefulD ine0ient ndD using the modern terminologyD unE sustinleF fy the erly IVHHs the umultive impts of soil erosion nd infertilityD deresing rop yieldsD nd nturl rriers to expnsion suh s terrin nd poor trnsporttion to mrkets led to n orgnized e'ort to understnd the uses of these prolemsD invent nd experiment with newD more soilEonserving nd less wsteful prtiesD ommunite wht ws eing lerned to the puliD nd egin to uild government institutions to promote etter stewrdship of the lnd nd its resouresF elthough initil onservtion onE erns were ssoited with frmingD the sme pproh soon found its wy into the mngement of forests nd timeringD wstes from mining nd smeltingD nd y the end of the entury the ontrol of humn disese outreks @most ommonly ssoited with holer nd typhoidA nd the impt of hemil exposure on workersF here were mny individuls who ontriuted to understnding the sienti( underpinnings of the environment nd eduting prtitionersX iugene rilgrd6 @griulturl sieneAD tohn esley owell7 @wE ter rightsAD qeorge erkins wrsh8 @eologil sieneAD prnklin rough9 nd qi'ord inhot10 @sustinle forestryAD tF terling worton11 @forestry nd environmentl edutionY oEfounder of eror hy12 AD prederik vw ylmsted13 @lndspe rhitetureAD nd elie rmilton14 @industril hygieneAD to nme fewF hese resoure onservtionists were instrumentl in pplying sienti( methods to solving the prolems of the dyD prolems tht were rooted in our ehvior towrd the environmentD nd tht hd serious onsequenes for the wellEeing of peopleF st ws s result of these e'orts tht the sis for the (elds of environmentl siene nd engineeringD gronomy nd griulturl engineeringD nd puli helth ws estlishedF yver time these (elds hve grown in depth nd redthD nd hve led to the estlishment of new res of inquiryF tust s importntlyD severl federl institutions were reted to oversee the implementtion of reforms nd mnge the government9s lrge lnd holdingsF vegisltion forming the heprtments of the snterior15 @IVRWAD nd egriulture16 @IVTPAD the FF porest ervie17 @IVVIAD the qeologil urvey18 @IVUWAD nd the xtionl rk ervie19 @IWITA were ll ented during this periodF st ws lso the time when severl mjor onservtion soietiesD still tive todyD me into eingX the euduon oiety20 @IVVTAD the ierr glu21 @IVWPAD nd the xtionl ildlife pedertion22 @IWQSAF eror hy ws (rst elerted in IVUPD nd fird hy23 in IVWRF2.2.4 The Transcendental Movement

st is eyond the sope of this text to nlyze in gret depth the sis of the trnsendentl movement24 in emeriF st rose in the IVQHs in retion to the generl stte of ulture nd soietyD inresing urnismD nd the rigidity of orgnized religions of the timeF st professed wy of thinking in whih the individul9s unique reltionship to their surroundings ws vlued over onformity nd unre)etive hits of livingF fut however6 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGiugeneFrilgrd 7 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGtohnesleyowell 8 httpXGGwwwFlrkuFeduGdeprtmentsGmrshGoutGindexFfm 9 httpXGGwwwFfsFfedFusGoutusGhistoryGhiefsGhoughFshtml 10 httpXGGwwwFforesthistoryForgGexiGpeopleGinhotGinhotFspx 11 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGtuliusterlingworton 12 httpXGGwwwFrordyForgGrordyGhistoryFfm 13 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGprederikvwylmsted 14 httpXGGwwwFnlmFnihFgovGhngingthefeofmediineGphysiinsGiogrphyIQUFhtml 15 httpXGGwwwFdoiFgovGrhiveGhistoryFhtml 16 httpXGGwwwFusrellnewsFomGPHHVGHTGhistoryEofEtheEuEsEdeprtmentEofEgriultureEusdFhtml 17 httpXGGwwwFfsFfedFusGoutusGhistoryG 18 httpXGGpusFusgsFgovGirGIHSHG 19 httpXGGwwwFnpsFgovGhistoryGhistoryGhisnpsG 20 httpXGGwwwFuduonForgG 21 httpXGGwwwFsierrluForgGhistoryG 22 httpXGGwwwFnwfForgGeoutGristoryEndEreritgeFspx 23 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGfirdhy 24 httpXGGpltoFstnfordFeduGentriesGtrnsendentlismG

IT

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

philosophil its ims nd etherel its golsD trnsendentlism hd profound onnetion to the nturl environmentY indeedD it is di0ult to understnd without referene to humnEenvironmentl intertions nd reEenvisioning of the soil ontrt of humnity with ntureF uh were onditions t the time tht trnsendentlism resonted with n inresingly literte soietyD nd eme mjor fore in the further development of onservtion s n epted prt of the emerin experieneF he knowledged leder of the trnsendentl movement ws lph ldo imerson25 @IVHQEIVVPAF sn his seminl essy Nature 26 @IVQTAD imerson sets the tone for new wy of envisioning our reltion to the nturl worldX o spek trulyD few dult persons n see ntureF wost persons do not see the sunF et lest they hve very super(il seeingF he sun illumintes only the eye of the mnD ut shines into the eye nd the hert of the hildF he lover of nture is he whose inwrd nd outwrd senses re still truly djusted to eh otherY who hs retined the spirit of infny even into the er of mnhoodF ris interourse with heven nd erthD eomes prt of his dily foodF sn the presene of ntureD wild delight runs through the mnD in spite of rel sorrowsF xture sysD ! he is my retureD nd mugre ll his impertinent griefsD he shll e gld with meF xot the sun or the summer loneD ut every hour nd seson yields its triute of delightY for every hour nd hnge orresponds to nd uthorizes di'erent stte of the mindD from rethless noon to grimmest midnightF xture is setting tht (ts eqully well omi or mourning pieeF sn good helthD the ir is ordil of inredile virtueF grossing re ommonD in snow puddlesD t twilightD under louded skyD without hving in my thoughts ny ourrene of speil good fortuneD s hve enjoyed perfet exhilrtionF s m gld to the rink of ferF sn the woods tooD mn sts o' his yersD s the snke his sloughD nd t wht period so ever of lifeD is lwys hildF sn the woodsD is perpetul youthF ithin these plnttions of qodD deorum nd sntity reignD perennil festivl is dressedD nd the guest sees not how he should tire of them in thousnd yersF sn the woodsD we return to reson nd fithF here s feel tht nothing n efll me in lifeD ! no disgreD no lmityD @leving me my eyesDA whih nture nnot repirF tnding on the re groundD ! my hed thed y the lithe irD nd uplifted into in(nite speD ! ll men egotism vnishesF s eome trnsprent eyeEllY s m nothingY s see llY the urrents of the niversl feing irulte through meY s m prt or prtile of qodF he nme of the nerest friend sounds then foreign nd identlX to e rothersD to e quintnesD ! mster or servntD is then tri)e nd disturneF s m the lover of unontined nd immortl eutyF sn the wildernessD s (nd something more der nd onnte thn in streets or villgesF sn the trnquil lndspeD nd espeilly in the distnt line of the horizonD mn eholds somewht s eutiful s his own ntureF @imersonD IVQT @pF PRAAF rere imerson mkes ler tht his onnetion to the niversl feing is mde possile through ommuE nion with xtureD retion so muh greter thn he tht he sees his physil relity s nothingD ut his true nture @iFeF his soulA eomes visile in the trnquil lndspeD nd the distnt line of the horizonF uh metphoril lnguge ws nd remins powerful reminder tht our existene is dependent on the nturl worldD nd tht we mismnge the environment t our perilF25 httpXGGpltoFstnfordFeduGentriesGemersonG 26 httpXGGoregonstteFeduGinstrutGphlQHPGtextsGemersonGntureEemersonEFhtml

IU

Figure 2.1: Kindred Spirits.

The painting, dated 1849, depicts the artist, Thomas Cole, and poet,

William Cullen Bryant. Source: Asher Brown Durand via Wikimedia Commons

27

etD it is di0ult to fully ppreite imerson9s vision of humns nd nture through lnguge loneF es27 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXesherhurnduindredpiritsFjpg

IV

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

might e expetedD the ounterEretion to the stte of soiety nd its ttitudes towrd the environment found expression in other medi s wellD in prtiulr the rise of dre of emerin lndspe rtistsF he mer hd not yet een perfetedD nd of ourse there ws no eletroni medi to ompete for people9s ttentionD thus rtists9 renditions of vrious senesD espeilly lndspesD were quite populrF pigure Kindred Spirits @pigure PFIAD rendering y eFfF hurnd @IUWTEIVVTA of n rtist nd poet out for hike mid lush forest sene ptures muh of the essene of trnsendentl thoughtD whih hd strongly in)uened hurnd9s styleF he o'set of the humn sujetsD to leftEofEenterD is purposefulX the min sujet is ntureD with humns merely omponentF his theme rried through mny of the lndspes of the periodD nd helped to de(ne wht eme knownD mong othersD s the rudson iver hool28 D whose rtists depited nture s n otherwise inexpressile mnifesttion of qodF his is further expressed in the pintingD In the Heart of the AndesD y prederi ghurh @pigure In the Heart of the Andes @pigure PFPAAF rereD the seemingly sole theme is the lndspe itselfD ut loser inspetion @see detil in red squreA revels smll prty of peopleD perhps engged in worshipD gin o'set nd virtully invisile mid the mjesty of the mountinsF28 httpXGGwwwFmetmuseumForgGtohGhdGhursGhdhursFhtm

IW

Figure 2.2: In the Heart of the Andes.via Wikimedia Commons

The painting, dated 1859, depicts a majestic landscape and

closer inspection reveals a small party of people near the bottom left. Source: Frederic Edwin Church

29

.

yther notle ontriutors to the trnsendentl movement were renry hvid horeu30 @IVIUEIVTPAD olitionist nd uthor of lden nd givil hisoedieneD wrgret puller31 @IVIHEIVSHAD who edited the trnsendentl journl he hil nd wrote omn in the xineteenth genturyD widely onsidered the (rst emerin feminist workD nd lt hitmn32 @IVIWEIVWPA whose volume of poetry veves of qrss elertes oth the humn form nd the humn mind s worthy of priseF st is importnt to reognize tht the trnsendentl rede(nition of our soil ontrt with the environE ment ws holistiF ithin it n e found not only new ppreition of ntureD ut lso the liertion of the humn mind from onvention nd formlismD ttks on slveryD the need for ril equlityD onern29 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXghurhrertoftheendesFjpg 30 httpXGGpltoFstnfordFeduGentriesGthoreuG 31 httpXGGwwwFdistinguishedwomenFomGiogrphiesGfullerEmFhtml 32 httpXGGwwwFwhitmnrhiveForgG

PH

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

for universl su'rge nd women9s rightsD nd gender equityF sn mny wys it ws repositioning of the idels of the enlightenment33 tht hd (gured so prominently in the founding douments of the repuliF hese soil onerns re represented tody within the sustinility prdigm in the form of suh issues s environmentl justie34 D onsumer ehviorD nd lor reltionsF rnsendentlism s forml movement diminished during the ltter hlf of the IWth enturyD ut it hd frErehing in)uene on the wy soiety pereived itself reltive to the environmentF erhps no one is more responsile for trnslting its spirtions into environmentl puli poliy thn tohn wuir35 @IVQVEIWIRAD ottishEorn immigrnt who ws hevily in)uened y imerson9s writings @it is sid tht the young wuir rried with him opy of Nature from otlndAF he two (rst met in IVUI during mping trip to the ierr wountins of gliforniF pon lerning of imerson9s plnned deprtureD wuir wrote to him on wy VD IVUI hoping to onvine him to sty longerD s invite you join me in months worship with xture in the high temples of the gret ierr grown eyond our holy osemiteF st will ost you nothing sve the time 8 very little of tht for you will e mostly in iternity @ghouD PHHQ @pF PRAAF wuir ws nturlistD uthorD orgnizer @founder of the ierr gluAD nd s it turns out remrkly e'etive politil tivist nd loyistF ris ssoition with heodore oosevelt36 @IVSVEIWIWD PTth president of the nited ttesAD egn with IWHQ mpign visit y oosevelt to gliforniD where he spei(lly sought out wuirD whose reputtion ws y then well knownD s guide to the osemite re @see pigure Roosevelt and Muir @pigure PFQAAF33 httpXGGwwwFnewworldenylopediForgGentryGegeofinlightenment 34 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGenvironmentljustieG 35 httpXGGwwwFsierrluForgGjohnmuirexhiitGlifeGmuiriogrphyFspx 36 httpXGGwwwFtheodorerooseveltForgGlifeGonservtionFhtm

PI

Figure 2.3: Roosevelt and Muir1903.

Theodore Roosevelt and John Muir at Yosemite National Park in

st ws one of wuir9s speil tlents tht he ould ridge ross their rther di'erent views on the enviE ronment @he strit preservtionistD oosevelt prtil outdoorsmnAF fy ll ounts they hd frnk

PP

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

ut ordil exhngesY for exmpleD upon viewing the gint equoisD wuir remrked37 to ooseveltD qod hs red for these trees. . .ut he nnot sve them from fools ! only nle m n do thtF oosevelt ws so tken with his ompnion tht he insisted they void politil rowds nd mp together overnight in the mountinsF he susequent legy of the oosevelt dministrtion in the nme of onservtionD even y tody9s stndrdsD ws signi(ntF unown s the onservtion presidentD oosevelt ws responsile for PPS million res of lnd dded to the FF porest ervieD nd the retion of SH wildlife refuges nd ISH ntionl forests representingD in totlD II perent of the totl lnd re of the RV ontiguous sttesF2.2.5 The Role of Industry

ody the ehvior of industry towrd the environment is often portryed s either indi'erent or hostileD whether true or notD nd it ws no di'erent during the formtive period of emerin onservtionF he industries of the dy ! griultureD timerD nd mining ! enled y the mjor trnsporttion setor ! rilrods nd stemots ! hd little inentive to mnge their emissions to the environment responsilyD or to use nturl resoures wiselyF egultions were fewD the siene underpinning environmentl impts ws nsentD the ommons itself ws viewed s essentilly in(niteD nd however misguidedD exploittion of resoures nd the genertion of ertin mount of wste ws seen s neessry yprodut of expnsionD jo retionD nd soil wellEeingF end yetD s humnEreted orgniztions goD industries re extrordinrily sensitive to eonomi onditionsF sf the sustinility prdigm is to e elievedD then eonomi viility is of prmount onern nd the enggement of industril fores must of neessity e prt of its entmentF hese re the engines tht provide employmentD nd tht ontrol lrge quntities of pitl for investmentF purtherD viewed from the life yle perspetive of the )ow of mterils @refer to wodule Life Cycle Assessment @etion WFPAAD produts tht turn rw mterils into mostly wste @de(ned here s quntity of mteril tht no one vluesD s opposed to slle produtsA re simply ine0ient nd redue pro(tilityF37 httpXGGwwwFsierrluForgGjohnmuirexhiitGwritingsGfvoritequottionsFspx

PQ

Figure 2.4: The Oregon Trail.

The painting, dated 1869, depicts the westward migration of settlers

via wagon trains, on horseback, and by foot. Source: Albert Bierstadt via Wikimedia Commons

38

.

es noted in esoure i0ieny @etion PFPFQX esoure i0ienyA oveD industril tivities during this time were responsile for signi(nt environmentl degrdtionF oliy reformers of the dyD suh s grl hurz39 @s seretry of the snteriorA turned their ttention in prtiulr to lnd reformsD whih impted the expnsion of rilrodsD nd forest preservtionF end yetD industry plyed n unquestionle role s enlers of soietl shifts ourring in emeri y mking goods nd servies villeD inresing the welth of the emerging middle lssD nd in prtiulr providing reltively rpid ess to previously inessile lotions ! in mny ses the sme lotions tht preservtionists were trying to set sideF edingD hering stories outD nd looking t pitures of lndspes of remote euty nd open spes ws lluring nd stirred the imgintionD ut eing le to tully visit these ples (rsthnd ws n edutionl experiene tht hd trnsformtive powersF elfred fierstdt9s The Oregon Trail @pigure The Oregon Trail @pigure PFRAAD pinted in IVTVD depits the westwrd migrtion of settlers vi wgon trinsD on horsekD nd simply wlking ! journeyD not without perilD tht took out six monthsF he next yer sw the ompletion of the trnsontinentl rilrod40 D nd within few yers it eme possile to omplete the sme journey in s little s six dys in omprtive omfort nd sfetyF he movement to designte ertin res s ntionl prks is n illustrtive exmple of the role of inE dustry in promoting lnd onservtionD therey setting in motion susequent lrge onservtion setEsides tht rehed their zenith during the oosevelt dministrtionF st egnD in IVTRD with the e'orts of severl gliforni itizens to hve the FF gongress ept most of osemite41 D whih hd een under the proE tetion of the tte of gliforni s ntionl preserveF he petition ited its vlue for puli useD resortD

38 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXelertfierstdtyregonrilFjpg 39 httpXGGooksFgoogleFomGookscidahVVsnPWwg8pgaePRI8lpgaePRI8dqagrlChurzCtimerCreform8soureal8otsayqqUim 40 httpXGGwwwFsfmuseumForgGhistIGrilFhtml 41 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGristoryoftheosemitere

PR

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

nd reretionD resoning tht lredy re)eted the omined interests of the resoure e0ieny groupD preservtionistsD nd usiness opportunistsF prederik vw ylmsted @IVPPEIWHQAD the lndspe rhitet most well known for the design of xew ork9s gentrl rkD nd n rdent eliever in the ility of open spes to improve humn produtivityD oversw the initil e'orts to mnge the osemite reF elthough the e'ort ws infused with renewed vigor fter tohn wuir9s rrivl in the lte IVTHsD it wsn9t until IWHT tht the prk ws o0illy designtedF sn the mentimeD similr interests hd grown to nme ellowstone42 s ntionl prkD with the sme si justi(tion s for osemiteF ine there were no sttes s yet formed in the region the pthwy ws more strightforwrdD nd ws mde onsiderly esier y the lk of interest y timer nd mining ompnies to exploit @the re ws thought to hve limited resoure vlueAD nd the rilrods whoD seeing potentil for signi(nt pssenger tr0D loied on its ehlfF hus the (rst ntionl prk ws o0illy designted in IVUPD only three yers fter the ompletion of the trnsontinentl rilrodF sndeedD in reltively rpid suession the nion i( ilrod got ehind the osemite e'ortsD nd the xorthern i( ilrod loied hevily for the retion of prks t wount inier43 @IVWWA nd qlier44 @IWIHAF fy IWITD when the xtionl rk ervie ws formedD sixteen ntionl prks hd een retedF ttes too egn to see vlue in reting ndD to degreeD preserving open spesD s evidened y xew ork9s edirondk rk45 @IVWRAD still the lrgest single setion of lnd in the fortyEeight ontiguous sttes dedited to e forever wildF2.2.6 Results of the American Conservation Movement

ith the dvent of the pirst orld rD nd susequent politilD soilD nd eonomi unrest tht lsted for nother thirty yersD tions motivted y the onservtion movement delinedF he olition etween the resoure e0ieny group nd those wishing to preserve ntureD lwys unomfortleD ws further eroded when it eme ler tht the min reson gongress ws setting side vrious res ws minly to etter mnge ommeril exploittionF end yetD the period from IVSH to IWPH left remrkle legy of enviE ronmentl reformD nd lid the foundtion for future dvnes in environmentl poliyF sn summryD the onservtion movement omplished the followingX

ede(ned the soil ontrt etween humns nd the environmentD estlishing legy of onservE tion s prt of the emerin hrterD nd ntionl model for the preservtion of nturl eutyF snvented the onept of ntionl prks nd forestsD wildlife refugesD nd other sites for ommeril nd reretionl uses y soietyF heveloped the (rst sienti( understnding of how the environment funtionedD integrting the sienti( pproh to resoure mngement into government poliyF ioneered tehnologil prties to improve resoure mngementF istlished the mjor federl institutions with responsiility for lnd nd resoure onservtionF gommunited the impt of pollution on humn helth nd welfreF hrough pulitions nd trvelD exposed mny to the euty of the nturl environment nd the onsequenes of humn tivitiesF pinllyD lthough sustinility s wy of envisioning ourselves in reltion to the environment ws still mny yers wyD lredy its three prinipl elementsD imperfetly integrted t the timeD re seen lerly to e t workF

2.2.7 References

grmnD rFtFD ugwellD FqFD 8 rueD FrF @idsFAF @IWQRAF Essays upon eld husbandry and other papers, 1748-1762, by Jared EliotF xew orkX golumi niversity ressF42 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGellowstonextionlrk 43 httpXGGwwwFnpsFgovGhistoryGhistoryGonlineooksGmorGdhiGdhiPFhtm 44 httpXGGwwwFnpsFgovGrhiveGglGhistoryGoverviewFhtm 45 httpXGGwwwFpFstteFnyFusGoutprkGhistoryFhtm

in New England,

PS ghouD FF @idFAF @PHHQAF imerson 8 tohn wuirF WisdomPortalF etrieved heemer IID PHII from httpXGGwwwFwisdomportlFomGimersonGimersonEtohnwuirFhtml46 F

2.3 Environmental Risk Management2.3.1 Learning Objectives

47

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

tre the si elements of the sustinility prdigm through the evolution of FF environmentl poliyD inluding the xtionl invironmentl oliy et of IWUH understnd the role of risk mngement s modern environmentl poliy hs een implemented

2.3.2 General Denitions

por most peopleD the onept of risk is intuitive ndD oftenD experientilY for instne most people re wre of the onsiderly greter likelihood of su'ering n injury in n utomoile ident @IITGIHH million vehile milesA versus su'ering n injury in ommeril irplne ident @HFQHRGIHH million irplne milesAF invironmentl risk n e de(ned s the hne of hrmful e'ets to humn helth or to eologil systems resulting from exposure to ny physilD hemilD or iologil entity in the environment tht n indue n dverse response @see wodule Risk Assessment Methodology for Conventional and Alternative Sustainability Options @etion UFSA for more detil on the siene of risk ssessmentAF invironmentl risk ssessment48 is quntittive wy of rriving t sttistil proility of n dverse tion ourringF st hs four min stepsX IF sdenti(tion of the nture nd end point of the risk @eFgF deth or disility from hzrdous hemilsD loss of eologil diversity from hitt enrohmentD impirment of eosystem serviesD etFA PF hevelopment of quntittive methods of nlysis @perturtionEe'etD doseEresponseA QF hetermintion of the extent of exposure @iFeF fteD trnsportD nd trnsformtion of ontminnts to n exposed popultionAD nd RF glultion of the riskD usully expressed s sttistil likelihoodF isk mngement49 is distint from risk ssessmentD nd involves the integrtion of risk ssessment with other onsidertionsD suh s eonomiD soilD or legl onernsD to reh deisions regrding the need for nd prtiility of implementing vrious risk redution tivitiesF pinllyD risk ommunition50 onsists of the forml nd informl proesses of ommunition mong vrious prties who re potentilly t risk from or re otherwise interested in the thretening gentGtionF st mtters gret del how given risk is ommunited nd pereivedX do we hve mesure of ontrolD or re we sujet to powerful unengged or ritrry foresc2.3.3 The Beginnings of Modern Risk Management

he eginnings of environmentl risk mngement n e tred to the (elds of puli helth51 D industril hygiene52 D nd snitry engineering53 D whih me into prominene in the ltter dedes of the IWth46 httpXGGwwwFwisdomportlFomGimersonGimersonEtohnwuirFhtml 47 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIISGIFRGbF 48 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGetpgesGenviriskssessmentFhtml 49 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGnrmrlGsiinfoFhtml 50 httpXGGodphpFosophsFdhhsFgovGpusGprevrptGrhivesGWSfmIFhtm 51 httpXGGwwwFwhtispulihelthForgGwhtGindexFhtml 52 httpXGGwwwFihForgGoutihGgesGhtssnsrFspx 53 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGnitryengineering

PT

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

entury nd eginning of the PHth F he spred of disese ws prtiulrly troulesome prolem s the ountry ontinued to urnizeF por instne if you lived your life inD syD ghigo during the period IVSHE IWHH54 @ typil lifespn of the dyAD you hd out I in IHH hne of dying of holer55 @nd I in PHHH hne of dying of typhoidAD of whih there were periodi epidemis spred y ontminted drinking wterF ghigo9s solution ws to ese polluting its drinking wter soure @vke wihignA y reversing the )ow of its wterourses so tht they drined into the djent sin @the wississippiAF he widespred hlorintion56 of muniipl wter fter IWHV essentilly eliminted wterorne outreks of disese in ll mjor ities @with some notle exeptions"the outrek of hlorineEresistnt gryptosporidium prvum in wilwukee9s drinking wter57 in IWWQ resulted in the infetion of RHQDHHH people with IHR dethsAF rllel work on the e'ets of hemil exposure on workers @nd poor working onditions in generlA were pioneered y elie rmilton @IVTWEIWUHAD who pulished the (rst tretise on toxi hemil exposure 4sndustril oisons in the nited ttes4 in IWPSF rmilton is onsidered the founder of the (eld of oE uptionl helth58 F sn IVWU she ws ppointed professor of pthology t the omen9s wedil hool of xorthwestern niversityD nd in IWHP she epted the position of teriologist t the wemoril snstitute for snfetious hiseses in ghigoF hrF rmilton joined tne eddms9s rull rouse59 D in ghigoD where she interted with progressive thinkers who often grvitted thereD nd to the needs of the poor for whom rull rouse provided serviesF2.3.4 Environmental Contamination and Risk

ivents during the period IWPHEIWSH took n unfortunte turnF qlol on)its nd eonomi unertinty diverted ttention from environmentl issuesD nd muh of wht hd een lerned during the previous hundred yersD for exmple out soil onservtion nd sustinle forestryD esed to in)uene poliyD with resultnt mismngement on wide sle @see pigures Texas Dust Storm @pigure PFSA nd Clear Cutting, Louisiana, 1930 @pigure PFTAAF

Figure 2.5: Texas Dust Storm.

Photograph shows a dust storm approaching Stratford, TX in 1935.

Source: NOAA via Wikimedia Commons

60

54 httpXGGwwwFenylopediFhigohistoryForgGpgesGRQPFhtml 55 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGgholer 56 httpXGGwwwFdohFwFgovGehpGdwGpulitionsGQQIEPSQFpdf 57 httpXGGwwwFdFgovGnidodGeidGvolWnoRGHPEHRIUFhtm 58 httpXGGwwwFniehsFnihFgovGhelthGtopisGpopultionGouptionlGindexFfm 59 httpXGGwwwFhullhouseForgGoutusGhistoryFhtml 60 httpXGGommonsFwikimediForgGwikiGpileXhustEstormEexsEIWQSFpng

PU

Figure 2.6: Clear Cutting, Louisiana, 1930.National Forest. Durham, N.C.

Typical cut-over longleaf pine area, on Kisatchie Circa 1930s. Source:

Areas of this type were the rst to be planted on this forest.

Wait, J.M. for U.S. Forest Service. U.S. Forest Service photo courtesy of the Forest History Society

61

,

sn the ftermth of the orld r ssD eonomi nd industril tivity in the nited ttes elertedD nd onsumerEstrved popule sought nd demnded lrge quntities of diverse goods nd serviesF wjor industril setorsD primry metlsD utomotiveD hemilD timerD nd energy expnded onsiderlyY however there were still few lws or regultions on wste mngementD nd the ones tht ould nd often were invoked @eFgF the ivers nd rrors et of IVWW62 A were devised in erlier times for prolems of di'erent ntureF he wodule Systems of Waste Management @etion UFPA provides more detiled ounting of the urrent frmework for mnging wsteF rere we reount the irumstnes tht eventully resulted in the promulgtion of environmentl risk s sis for puli poliyD with susequent pssge of mjor environmentl legisltionF

61 httpXGGforesthistoryForgGdtwEwpdGexeGdtwpuFdllcegaqiigyh8gaGdtwEwpdGexeGdtwpuFdll8fahttp7Qe7Pp7Ppfores wpd7Pptextse7PpeueryFhtm8xaprphoto8xaeyIRIWI8iaQHV8xaT8waIH8aH8aIHHH8iaH8gaI8a8p VVSWEI8yirasyEVVSWEI 62 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGiversndrrorsetofIVWW

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

Figure 2.7: Zinc Smelter.

Photograph shows a local smelter in a small valley town in Pennsylvania

with, essentially, uncontrolled emissions. Source: The Wire Mill, Donora, PA, taken by Bruce Dresbach in 1910. Retrieved from the Library of Congress

63

sf there were ny douts mong emerin soiety tht the pity of the nturl environment to sor humnEused ontmintion with eptly low risk ws indeed in(niteD these were dispelled y series of wellEpuliized inidents tht ourred during the period IWRVEIWUVF pigure Zinc Smelter @pigure PFUA shows lol smelter in smll vlley town in ennsylvni withD essentillyD unontrolled emissionsF huring periods of tmospheri stility @n inversionAD ontminnts eme trppedD umultedD nd used respirtory distress so extrordinry tht (fty deths were reordedF pigure Noon in Donora @pigure PFVA illustrtes the drmtilly poor ir qulityD in the form of redued visiilityD during this episodeF uh inidents were not unommonD nor were they limited to smll emerin townsF e wellEdoumented similr episode ourred in vondonD inglnd in IWSP64 with t lest RHHH dethsD nd IHHDHHH illnesses resultingF63 httpXGGwwwFloFgovGpituresGitemGPHHPUIQHUSG 64 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGqretmog

PW

Figure 2.8: Noon in Donora.

Photograph, dated October 29, 1948, illustrates the extremely poor

air quality in the Pennsylvania town at the time. Source: NOAA

65

he generlly poor stte of ir qulity in the nited ttes ws initilly tolerted s neessry ondition of n industrilized soietyF elthough the risks of ouptionl exposure to hemils ws eoming more well knownD the siene of risk ssessment s pplied to the nturl environment ws in its infnyD nd the notion tht polluted environment ould tully use hrm ws slow to e reognizedD nd even if true it ws not ler wht might e done out itF xeverthelessD people in the most ontminted res ould sense the e'ets of poor ir qulityX inresed inidene of respirtory diseseD wtery eyesD odorsD inility to enjoy eing outside for more thn few minutesD nd diminished visiilityF65 httpXGGoenservieFnoFgovGedutionGkitsGpollutionGmediGsupppolHPFhtml

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

Figure 2.9: Cuyahoga River Fire, 1969.

Photograph illustrates a 1969 re on the Cuyahoga River,

one of many res during the time period. Source: NOAA

66

.

invironmentl degrdtion of the er ws not limited to ir qulityF imissions of ontminnts to wterwys nd uril underground were simple nd ommon wys to dispose of wstesF emong the most infmous episodes in pollution history were the periodi (res tht )oted through downtown glevelndD yhio on the guyhog iver67 D using onsiderle dmge @pigure Cuyahoga River Fire 1969 @pigure PFWAAD nd the disovery of uried hzrdous solvent drums in neighorhood of xigr pllsD x in IWUVD former wste disposl lotion for hemil ompny @pigure Love Canal @pigure PFIHAAF66 httpXGGoenservieFnoFgovGedutionGkitsGpollutionGmediGsupppolHPdFhtml 67 httpXGGwwwFohiohistoryentrlForgGentryFphpcreaITRP

QI

Figure 2.10: Love Canal.

The Love Canal region of Niagara Falls, NY, 1978 showing the local grade Source: New York State Department of Health (1981, April). Love

school and neighboring houses.

Canal: A special report to the Governor and Legislature, p. 5.

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

2.3.5 Risk Management as a Basis for Environmental Policy

invironmentl sientists of the dy were lso lrmed y the extent nd degree of dmge tht they were doumentingF he pulition of Silent Spring 68 in IWTP y hel grson69 @IWHUEIWTRAD out the impt of the widespred nd indisriminte use of pestiidesD ws wtershed momentD ringing environmentl onerns efore lrge portion of the emerinD nd glolD puliF grsonD mrine iologist nd onE servtionist who initilly worked for the FF fureu of pisheriesD eme full time nture writer in the IWSHsF he olleted sienti(lly doumented evidene on the e'ets of pestiidesD prtiulrly hh70 D hepE thlor71 D nd dieldrin72 D on humns nd mmmlsD nd the systemi disruption they used to eosystemsF 73 in the nited ttesD nd setting in Silent Spring is redited with ringing out n on the use of hh motion hin of events tht would ultimtely result in the trnsformtion of environmentl puli poliy from one sed on the prolems nd ttitudes tht rought out nineteenth entury onservtionD to one sed on the mngement of risks from hemil toxinsF he FF invironmentl rotetion egeny74 ws estlished in IWUHD just eight yers fter the pulition of Silent SpringF he sme yer irth hy75 ws retedF es notedD the modules in the ghpter Modern Environmental Management @etion UFIA ontin omprehensive tretment of the mjor lws nd regultions tht underpin the risk mngement pproh to environmentl poliyF rowever it is worth onsidering one lw in prtiulr t this pointD the xtionl invironmentl oliy et76 of IWUH @xieAD euse it provides legl sis for FF environmentl poliyD nd lys out its terms lerly nd unmiguouslyF xie estlished ntionl gol to rete nd mintin 4onditions under whih humns nd nture n exist in produtive hrmonyD and fulll the social, economic and other requirements of present and future generations of Americans emphsis dded4 @xieD IWUH @pF QQAAF purtherD xie sw the need for long term plnningD to 4ful(ll the responsiilities of eh genertion s trustee of the environment for sueeding genertionsD4 for equity 4to ssure for ll emerins sfeD helthfulD produtiveD nd esthetilly nd ulturlly plesing surroundingsD4 nd for eonomi prosperity s we 4hieve lne etween popultion nd resoure use tht will permit high stndrds of living nd wide shring of life9s menities4 @xieD IWUH @pF QQAAF elthough the ext word 4sustinle4 does not pperD xie is in ll mjor respets ongruent with the gols of the frundtlnd eport @written IU yers lterD see ghpter Introduction to Sustainability: Humanity and the Environment @etion IFIAAD retins the hrter of emerin onservtionD nd ntiiptes the need to integrte environmentl qulity with soil nd eonomi needsF ivery four to six yers the FF ie releses its eport on the invironment77 D olletion of dt nd nlysis of trends on environmentl qulityF st is quite omprehensiveY reporting on n rry of mesures tht hrt progressD or lk thereofD on humn impts on the environment ndD in turnD the e'ets of our tions on humn helthF st is di0ult to summrize ll the informtion ville in onise wyD however most mesures of humn exposure to toxi hemilsD dting in mny ses k to the lte IWVHsD show ler downwrd trendsD in some ses drmtilly so @for exmple hh in humn tissuesD led in lood serumD exposure to hzrdous wstes from improper disposlD exposure to toxi ompounds emitted to the irAF sn dditionD mny of other inditors of environmentl qulity suh s visiilityD drinking wter qulityD nd the iodiversity of stremsD show improvementF hese re suess stories of the risk mngement pproh to environmentl qulityF yn the other hndD other mesuresD suh s hypoxi in ostl wtersD quntities of hzrdous wstes genertedD nd greenhouse gses relesed re either not improving or re getting worseF68 httpXGGwwwFnrdForgGhelthGpestiidesGhrsonFsp 69 httpXGGwwwFrhelrsonForgG 70 httpXGGwwwFpnEukForgGpestnewsGetivesGddtFhtm 71 httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovGtoxfqsGtfFspcidaURR8tidaIQS 72 httpXGGwwwFtsdrFdFgovGtoxfqsGtfFspcidaQIT8tidaST 73 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoutepGhistoryGtopisGddtG 74 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoutepGhistoryG 75 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGerthdyGhistoryFhtm 76 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGomplineGsisGnepFhtml 77 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGroeG

QQ2.3.6 References

xtionl invironmentl oliy et of IWUHD httpXGGwwwFepFgovGomplineGsisGnepFhtml78

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FFgFD

RQPID

et

seqF

@IWUHAF

2.4 Sustainability and Public Policy2.4.1 Learning Objectives

79

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd the prolemEdriven nture of poliy developmentD from reltively lol griulturl proE lems to regionl prolems often driven y industril development to glol prolems ssoited with popultionEdriven humn onsumption

2.4.2 Complex Environmental Problems

xieD oth in tone nd purposeD ws in shrp ontrst to the mny environmentl lws tht followed in the IWUHs nd IWVHs tht de(ned inresingly prosriptive methods for ontrolling risks from hemil exposure @this is sometimes termed the 4ommndEndEontrol80 4 pproh to environmentl mngementAF sn mny wys these lws nd regultions re illEsuited to the types of environmentl prolems tht hve emerged in the pst twenty yersF heres the fous of our environmentl poliy hs een on mitigting risk from lol prolems tht re hemil ! nd medi ! @lndD wterD or irA spei(D the need hs risen to ddress prolems tht re fr more omplexD multiEmediD nd re of lrge geogrphiD sometimes glolD extentF en erly exmple of this type of shift in the omplexity of environmentl prolems is illustrted y the phenomenon of idi rinfll81 D regionl prolem tht ours in mny res ross the gloeF elthough the hemil use of id rin is idi gses @suh s sulfur dioxide82 nd nitrogen oxides83 A relesed into the tmosphere from omustion proesses @suh s ol urningAD the prolem ws mde onsiderly worse euse of the pproh to prolem solving typil of the dy for episodes suh s the honor disster @see pigures Zinc Smelter @pigure PFUA nd Noon in Donora @pigure PFVAAF78 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGomplineGsisGnepFhtml 79 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRPIITGIFRGbF 80 httpXGGwwwFenviroliteryForgGrtileFphpGIQPWFhtml 81 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGneGeoGidrinGhistoryFhtml 82 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoqpsHHIGsulfurdioxideG 83 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGoqpsHHIGnitrogenoxidesG

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

Figure 2.11: Hydrogen Ion Concentrations as pH for 1996.rainfall pH in the United States for the year 1996. Source: gram/National Trends Network via National Park Service

Figure shows the distribution in

84

National Atmospheric Deposition Pro-

.

sn order to prevent the lol umultion of ontminntsD emission stks were mde muh tllerD e'etively relying on the diluting power of the tmosphere to disperse o'ending pollutntsF he result ws signi(nt inrese in the idity of rinfll downwind of mjor souresD with ssoited impts on quti nd forest resouresF pigure Hydrogen Ion Concentrations as pH for 1996 @pigure PFIIA shows this pttern for the estern nited ttes in IWWTF e more omprehensive solution to this prolem @short of repling ol s fuel soureAD hs involved integrted tivity on mny frontsX siene to understnd the impts of id rinD tehnology to ontrol the relese of idi gsesD politis in the form of mendments to the glen eir et85 D soil equity tht de(ned the role of regionl responsiilities in the fe of suh lrge geogrphi dispritiesD nd eonomis to understnd the totl osts of id rin nd design mrkets86 to spred the osts of ontrolF elthough idi rinfll is still n issue of onernD its impts hve een mitigted to signi(nt degreeF84 httpXGGwwwFntureFnpsFgovGirGeduGlessonsG(gureQFfm 85 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGirGG 86 httpXGGwwwFedfForgGpgeFfmctgshaIHVS

QS2.4.3 Sustainability as a Driver of Environmental Policy

he level of omplexity illustrted y the id rin prolem n e found in gret mny other environmentl prolems todyD mong themX

rypoxi87 onditions in ostl regions of the world used y exessive relese of nutrientsD priniplly dissolved nitrogen nd phosphorous from rti(il fertilizer pplied to rops @in ddition to the qulf of wexio88 nd ghespeke fy89 in the nited ttesD there re over RHH suh res worldwide90 AD trtospheri ozone depletion91 used y the relese of ertin lsses of hloro)uororon92 omE pounds used s propellnts nd refrigernts @with inreses in the inident of skin ners nd trtsAD rniztion93 nd sprwl94 D wherey the popultion density in urn resD with its ttendnt prolems @degrdtion of ir nd wter qulityD stormwter mngement95 D hitt destrutionD inE frstruture renewlD helth re needsD tr0 ongestionD loss of leisure timeD issues of soil equlityAD ontinues to grow @for exmple eighty perent of the popultion of the nited ttesD out (fty perent of glolD now lives in urn regionsAD qlol limte hnge96 D nd its resultnt impts @inreses in temperture nd storm nd )ooding frequenyD oen idi(tion97 D displement of humn popultionsD loss of iodiversityD seElevel riseAD used y the humnEindued emission of greenhouse gses98 Frolems suh s theseD whih require highly integrted solutions tht inlude input from mny disiplines nd stkeholdersD hve een termed 4wiked4 @ftieD PHHV @pF QTAY ureuterD heosD rowzeD 8 fldwinD PHHR @pF QTAAF iked prolems hve ertin key hrteristisX here is not universl greement on wht the prolem is ! di'erent stkeholders de(ne it di'erentlyF here is no de(ned end solutionD the end will e ssessed s 4etter4 or 4worseF4 he prolem my hnge over timeF here is no ler stopping rule ! stkeholdersD politil fores nd resoure vilility will mke tht determintion on the sis of 4judgmentsF4 he prolem is ssoited with high unertinty of oth omponents nd outomesF lues nd soietl gols re not neessrily shred y those de(ning the prolem or those ttempting to mke the prolem etterF

iked prolems re not on(ned to environmentl issuesD for exmple the sme hrteristis rise for prolems suh s food sfetyD helth re dispritiesD nd terrorismD ut in the ontext of environmentl poliy they rete the need to ressess poliy pprohes nd golsD lws nd regultionsD s well s methods nd models for integrted reserhF le The Evolution of U.S. Environmental Policy @le PFIA summrizes the mjor ttriutes of FF environmentl poliy s it hs evolved over the pst two enturiesF o most oservers it would seem to e true tht dvnes in puli poliyD in ny relmD re driven y prolemsD rel nd pereivedD tht require systemi solutionsF invironmentl poliy is no exeptionF irly onservtionists were lrmed t the ine0ienies of humn resoure mngement nd the enrohment of humns on unspoiled lndsF huring the PHth entury mny groupsX sientistsD eonomistsD politiinsD nd ordinry itizensD eme87 httpXGGoenservieFnoFgovGoutrehGpdfsGostlhypoxiFpdf 88 httpXGGtoxisFusgsFgovGhypoxiGhypoxizoneFhtml 89 httpXGGwwwFpewlimteForgGdoplodsGegionlEsmptsEghespekeFpdf 90 httpXGGwwwFwriForgGmpGworldEhypoxiEndEeutrophiEostlEres 91 httpXGGwwwFnsFnsFgovGeoutGidutionGyzoneG 92 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGozoneGsieneGodsGlssoneFhtml 93 httpXGGwwwFwriForgGpulitionGontentGVVRH 94 httpXGGenFwikipediForgGwikiGrnsprwl 95 httpXGGextensionFusuFeduGwterqulityGhtmGurnstormwterG 96 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGindexFhtml 97 httpXGGwwwFnrdForgGoensGidi(tionG 98 httpXGGwwwFepFgovGlimtehngeGemissionsGindexFhtml

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CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

lrmed nd ferful of the onsequenes of toxi pollutnt lods to the environment tht inluded lolized e'ets on humn helth nd wellEeingF end nowD s we proeed into the PIst enturyD n rry of omplex prolems tht hve the potentil to lter sustntilly the struture nd wellEeing of lrge segments of humn soietiesD lls for renewl nd ressessment of our pproh to environmentl poliyF his hsD thus frD proven to e di0ult trnsitionF wny of these omplex prolems hve multiple uses nd imptsD 'et some groups of people more thn othersD re eonomilly demndingD nd re often not s visily pprent to sul oservers s previous imptsD nor re the ene(ts pereived to e ommensurte with ostsF hevising regultory strtegy for suh prolems requires n dptive nd )exile pproh tht urrent lws do not fosterF1850-1920 Focus Outcome 1960-1990 1990-present

gonservtionGsnittion vnd preservE tionGe0ienyGontrol of disese esoure mngement reformGsimple ontmiE nnt ontrols ro(t mximizE tionGpuli helth vow ixpnsion vsF preservE tion hisiplinry nd insulr

wediGsiteGprolem spei( wnge nthropoentriE nd eologil risk gomplineG remeE ditionGtehnologil emphsis on prolem solving gost minimiztion

gomplex regionlG glol prolems qlol sustinle deE velopment sntegrtion of soilD eonomiD nd tehnoE logil informtion for holisti prolem solving trtegi investmentsGlongEterm soietl wellEeing edptive nd plexile ystemsGlife yle pE proh snterdisiplinryGsntegrtive

Principal Activity

Economic Focus

Regulatory Activity Conceptual Model Disciplinary proach Ap-

revy gommndEndEontrol wultidisiplinry

Table 2.1X

The Evolution of U.S. Environmental Policy le summrizes the mjor ttriutes of FF environmentl poliy s it hs evolved over the pst two enturiesF Source: T. Theis adapted fromFiksel, Graedel, Hecht, Rejeski, Saylor, Senge, et al. (2009) (p. 36).

2.4.4 References

ftieD F F @PHHVD heemerAF iked prolems nd pplied eonomisF American Journal of Agricultural EconomicsD 90D IIUTEIIWI doiX IHFIIIIGjFIRTUEVPUTFPHHVFHIPHPFx pikselD tFD qredelD FD rehtD eF hFD ejeskiD hFD ylorD qF FD engeD F wFD wkhmerD hF vFD 8 heisD F vF @PHHWAF ie t RHX fringing environmentl protetion into the PIst enturyF Environmental Science and Technology, 43D VUITEVUPHF doiX IHFIHPIGesWHITSQf ureuterD wF FD heosD gFD rowzeD iF rFD 8 fldwinD qF F @PHHRD eugustAF nderstnding wiked prolemsX e key to dvning environmentl helth promotionF Health, Education and BehaviorD 31D RRIESRF doiX IHFIIUUGIHWHIWVIHRPTSSWU

QU

2.5 Public Health and Sustainability2.5.1 Learning Objectives

99

efter reding this moduleD students should e le to

understnd wht puli helth is reognize puli helth impts of nonEsustinle development identify key puli helth impts of limte hnge

2.5.2 Introduction

wuh disussion out sustinility trets the eonomyD livelihoodsD environmentl onditionsD our ities nd infrstrutureD nd soil reltions s if they were ends in themselvesY s if they re the reson we seek sustinilityF et their prime vlue is s the foundtions upon whih our longerEterm helth nd survivl dependF @wwihelD PHHT @pF RSAA iologil sustinility is more thn just ontinuing the resoure )ows of the nturl world to sustin the eonomi mhineD while mintining diversity of speies nd eosystemsF st is lso out sustining the vst support systems for helth nd life whih ould e onsidered the rel ottom line of sustinilityF fefore exmining the puli helth e'ets of nonEsustinle developmentD we should de(ne puli helthF

he wesite for sg9s hool of uli relth100 sys we re pssionte out improving the helth nd wellEeing of the people of ghigoD the stte of sllinoisD the ntion nd the worldF he sllinois heprtment of uli relth101 is responsile for proteting the stte9s IPFR million resiE dentsD s well s ountless visitorsD through the prevention nd ontrol of disese nd injuryF he xew elnd winistry of relth102 de(nes it s the siene nd rt of promoting helthD preventing disese nd prolonging life through orgnized e'orts of soietyF he xtionl esoures hefense gounil103 n xqy devoted to environmentl tionD sttes tht puli helth is the helth or physil wellEeing of whole ommunityF

2.5.3 Impacts of Non-Sustainable Development

e hve uilt our ommunities in wys tht re unsustinle from mny spetsF xot only does development rete urn sprwlD impt lnd useD nd fuel onsumptionD we n identify negtive helth onsequenes relted to these development trendsF2.5.3.1 Obesity

sf our ommunities re not wlkle or ikeleD we need to drive to shoolsD shopsD prksD entertinmentD ply dtesD etF hus we eome more sedentryF e sedentry lifestyle inreses the risk of overll mortlity @P to QEfoldAD rdiovsulr disese @Q to SEfoldAD nd some types of nerD inluding olon nd rest nerF he e'et of low physil (tness is omprle to tht of hypertensionD high holesterolD dietesD nd even smoking @ei et lFD IWWW @pF RTAY flir et lFD IWWT @pF RSAAF99 his ontent is ville online t `httpXGGnxForgGontentGmRQQPIGIFPGbF 100 httpXGGwwwFuiFeduGsphG 101 httpXGGwwwFidphFstteFilFusGoutGouthomeFhtm 102 httpXGGwwwFhelthFgovtFnzG 103 httpXGGwwwFnrdForgGrefereneGglossryGpFsp8usgaeprqizfgszeeeymfqermihpTtew

QV

CHAPTER 2.

THE EVOLUTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY IN THE UNITED STATES

2.5.3.2 Economic Segregation

lkle nd sfe ommunities provide sidewlksD ike pthsD proximityD nd onnetions to omm