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Prok
aryo
tes
1.G
ener
alCh
arac
teris
tics
and
stru
ctur
es–
The
prok
aryo
ticCe
llco
ntai
nsa
singl
eci
rcul
arch
rom
osom
e,rib
osom
es(7
0S),
and
ace
llw
all
mad
eup
ofpe
ptid
ogly
can.
They
have
nom
embr
ane
boun
dor
gane
lles.
2.N
atur
alHi
stor
y–
Prok
aryo
tes
appe
arin
the
foss
ilre
cord
3.5
billi
onye
ars
ago
asfo
ssili
zed
Stro
mat
olite
s(a
thin
laye
rofr
ocks
that
form
whe
nce
rtai
npr
okar
yote
sbi
ndth
infil
ms
ofse
dim
ent
toge
ther
).Th
eyw
ere
the
sole
inha
bita
nts
until
abou
t2.
1bi
llion
year
sag
o(fo
r1.
4bi
llion
year
s).
3.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy –
They
are
pre
sent
in
mos
t hab
itats
on
the
plan
et,
grow
ing
in so
il, w
ater
, aci
dic
hot
sprin
gs, r
adio
activ
e w
aste
, and
dee
p in
the
Eart
h's
crus
t, as
wel
l as i
n or
gani
c m
atte
r and
the
live
bodi
es o
f pl
ants
and
ani
mal
s. T
hey
have
bee
n
foun
d liv
ing
in th
e co
ld a
nd d
ark
in a
la
ke b
urie
d a
half-
mile
dee
p un
der
the
ice
in A
ntar
ctic
a an
d in
the
uppe
r atm
osph
ere.
Prok
aryo
tes –
Gen
eral
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Mor
phol
ogy
Mos
t pro
kary
otes
are
uni
cellu
lar b
ut h
ave
a va
riety
of s
hape
s.
1.Co
cci
-Rou
nd o
r Sph
eric
al in
shap
e.2.
Baci
lli -
Rod-
shap
ed.
3.He
lical
–Sp
iral-s
hape
d.4.
Fila
men
tous
–Ce
lls th
at c
ontin
ue to
el
onga
te in
stea
d of
div
idin
g.
Prok
aryo
tes –
Gen
eral
Cha
ract
eris
tics
Cell-
Surf
ace
Stru
ctur
eA
key
feat
ure
of n
early
all
prok
aryo
tes i
s the
cel
l wal
l. T
he c
ell w
all c
onta
ins
pept
idog
lyca
n(a
pol
ymer
of
suga
rs c
ross
-link
ed b
y sh
ort p
olyp
eptid
es).
Usin
g a
tech
niqu
e ca
lled
the
Gram
stai
n, b
acte
rial
spec
ies c
an b
e se
para
ted
into
two
grou
ps b
ased
on
the
diffe
renc
es in
cel
l wal
l com
posit
ion.
Gra
m
stai
ning
is a
tech
niqu
e us
ed to
iden
tify
bact
eria
.
The
proc
edur
e is
as fo
llow
s:
1. A
pplic
atio
n of
crys
tal v
iole
t2.
App
licat
ion
of io
dine
3. A
lcoh
ol w
ash
4. A
pplic
atio
n of
safr
anin
1.G
ram
-pos
itive
–Vi
olet
in C
olor
A si
mpl
e st
ruct
ure
with
a la
rge
amou
nt o
f pe
ptid
ogly
can
that
reta
ins t
he v
iole
t col
or in
th
e cy
topl
asm
.
2.G
ram
-neg
ativ
e –
Red
in C
olor
A sm
all a
mou
nt o
f pep
tidog
lyca
n sa
ndw
iche
d in
be
twee
n tw
o m
embr
anes
. Th
e vi
olet
dye
eas
ily
was
hes a
way
to e
xpos
e th
e re
d dy
e.
Prok
aryo
tes –
Gene
ral C
hara
cter
istic
sBa
cter
ial C
olon
ies
Aba
cter
ial
colo
nygr
ows
from
asin
gle
bact
eriu
man
dis
com
pose
dof
mill
ions
ofce
lls.
Each
colo
nyha
sa
char
acte
ristic
size,
shap
e,co
nsist
ency
,te
xtur
e,an
dco
lor,
all
ofw
hich
may
beus
eful
inpr
elim
inar
ysp
ecie
sid
entif
icat
ion.
Atth
isst
atio
nyo
uha
veex
ampl
esof
diffe
rent
bact
eria
lcol
onie
s.
Beab
leto
iden
tify
the
Petr
idi
shes
only
asba
cter
ial
colo
nies
and
real
izeth
atth
eir
shap
es,m
argi
ns,a
ndsu
rface
char
acte
ristic
s(a
sill
ustr
ated
onth
ele
ft)
are
used
asa
tool
.
Prok
aryo
tes –
Gene
ral C
hara
cter
istic
s
Bact
eria
and
Ant
ibio
tics
Itis
com
para
tivel
yea
syto
find
orde
velo
pdr
ugs
that
are
effe
ctiv
eag
ains
tpro
kary
otic
cells
and
that
dono
taffe
cteu
kary
otic
cells
.Th
ese
two
type
sof
cells
diffe
rin
the
pres
ence
orab
senc
eof
cell
wal
ls,th
eir
ribos
ome
stru
ctur
e,an
dde
tails
ofth
eir
met
abol
ism.
Diffe
renc
esbe
twee
ndi
ffere
ntba
cter
ial
cells
allo
wce
rtai
nan
tibio
tics
tow
ork
once
rtai
nba
cter
iaan
dno
ton
othe
rs.
Ther
efor
eit
isim
poss
ible
toha
veon
ean
tibio
ticfig
htal
lbac
teria
ldise
ases
.
Spec
trum
of M
icro
bial
Act
ivity
(Ran
ge)
Nar
row
Spe
ctru
m –
wor
ks o
n ei
ther
gra
m
nega
tive
or g
ram
-pos
itive
bac
teria
(e
x. P
enic
illin
–gr
am p
ositi
ve)
Broa
d Sp
ectr
um –
wor
ks o
n bo
thgr
am
nega
tive
and
gram
pos
itive
bac
teria
(e
x. Te
trac
yclin
e)
Prok
aryo
tes –
Gene
ral C
hara
cter
istic
sBa
cter
ia P
igm
ents
Som
e ba
cter
ia ca
n be
iden
tifie
d by
thei
r col
orfu
l pi
gmen
ts.
Pigm
ents
are
use
d fo
r sev
eral
reas
ons:
Phot
osyn
thes
is: ce
rtai
n pi
gmen
ts a
re u
sed
to
colle
ct li
ght e
nerg
y an
d co
nver
t it i
nto
suga
rs fo
r th
e ba
cter
ia
Prot
ectio
n: ce
rtai
n pi
gmen
ts a
re u
sed
to p
rote
ct
the
bact
eria
from
the
dam
age
of U
ltrav
iole
t lig
ht
Be a
ble
to re
cogn
ize th
e pi
gmen
ted
bact
eria
at
this
stat
ion.
Prok
aryo
tes –
Gene
ral C
hara
cter
istic
sLu
min
esce
nt B
acte
ria
Mic
robi
allu
min
esce
nce
(or
light
emiss
ion)
isfo
und
inde
epse
aen
viro
nmen
tsan
din
soils
.Th
ese
orga
nism
sha
vean
enzy
me
calle
dlu
cife
rase
that
rele
ases
light
durin
gce
llula
rre
spira
tion
(the
mak
ing
ofAT
P).
Thes
ety
peof
bact
eria
are
bein
gus
edin
indu
stry
to:
dete
ctth
epr
ogre
ssio
nof
plan
tin
fect
ions
,an
tibio
tics
inm
ilk,
toxi
cpo
lluta
nts,
and
bact
eria
info
od.
Prok
aryo
tes –
Clas
sific
atio
nTh
eki
ngdo
mM
oner
a(in
the
five
king
dom
syst
em)c
onta
ined
all
the
prok
aryo
tes.
This
taxo
nom
icgr
oupi
ngw
aspo
lyph
ylet
ican
dw
asba
sed
only
once
llula
rst
ruct
ure
and
not
onan
ym
olec
ular
evid
ence
.U
sing
mol
ecul
arbi
olog
y(s
mal
lsub
unit
ribos
omal
RNA)
,Car
lWoe
sesu
gges
ted
that
som
epr
okar
yote
sar
em
ore
clos
ely
rela
ted
toeu
kary
otes
.He
sugg
este
dth
atev
enth
ough
they
are
all
mad
eup
ofpr
okar
yotic
cells
,one
grou
pof
bact
eria
repl
icat
edth
eirD
NA
and
mad
epr
otei
nsm
ore
like
Euka
ryot
esan
dsh
ould
bese
para
ted
into
ase
para
teDo
mai
n.
The
Dom
ain
Bact
eria
incl
udes
the
vast
maj
ority
ofpr
okar
yotic
spec
ies
whi
chin
clud
efiv
em
ajor
grou
ps:1
)the
Prot
eoba
cter
ia,2
)the
Chla
myd
ias,
3)th
eSp
iroch
etes
,4)t
heCy
anob
acte
ria,a
nd5)
the
Gram
-pos
itive
Bact
eria
.
The
Dom
ain
Arch
aea
can
isbe
ing
wor
ked
out
but
the
first
Arch
aea
wer
eca
lled
extr
emop
hile
sdu
eto
the
extr
eme
cond
ition
sth
eyw
ere
foun
din
.Th
ese
incl
ude
two
type
s:1)
the
halo
phile
s,an
d2)
the
ther
mop
hile
s.A
third
grou
pha
sbe
enid
entif
ied
and
they
are
foun
din
mor
em
oder
ate
envi
ronm
ent
rele
ase
met
hane
and
are
calle
d3)
met
hano
gens
.
Euka
ryot
es
Hal
ophi
les
Arc
haea
The
rmop
hile
s
Met
hano
gens
Uni
vera
l Anc
esto
rPr
oteo
bact
eria
Chl
amyd
ia
Bact
eria
Spi
roch
etes
Cya
noba
cter
ia
Gra
m +
Bac
teria
Dom
ain
Bact
eria
–Cl
assi
ficat
ion
Clas
sific
atio
n Sy
stem
sTh
e Sc
ient
ists
inte
rest
ed in
the
evol
utio
n of
mic
roor
gani
sms
are
mor
e in
tere
sted
in ta
xono
mic
tech
niqu
es th
at a
llow
for t
he
com
paris
on o
f hig
hly
cons
erve
d ge
nes
amon
g di
ffere
nt sp
ecie
s.
In th
e 19
80’s.
rese
arch
ers b
egan
usin
g PC
R (p
olym
eras
e ch
ain
reac
tion)
to a
naly
ze b
acte
rial g
enes
. As
a re
sult
of th
ese
com
paris
ons,
a p
hylo
gene
tic tr
ee c
an b
e de
velo
ped
that
disp
lays
th
e de
gree
of r
elat
edne
ss o
f diff
eren
t org
anism
s. M
akin
g re
latio
nshi
ps d
iffic
ult i
s the
abi
lity
of p
roka
ryot
es to
do
horiz
onta
l gen
e tr
ansf
ers
that
mak
e up
an
aver
age
of 7
5%of
a
bact
eria
’s ge
nom
e.
The
clas
sific
atio
n of
bac
teria
serv
es a
var
iety
of d
iffer
ent
func
tions
. Bec
ause
of t
his v
arie
ty, b
acte
ria m
ay b
e gr
oupe
d us
ing
man
y di
ffere
nt ty
ping
sche
mes
. The
crit
ical
feat
ure
for a
ll th
ese
clas
sific
atio
n sy
stem
s is
an o
rgan
ism id
entif
ied
by o
ne in
divi
dual
(s
cien
tist,
clin
icia
n, e
pide
mio
logi
st),
is re
cogn
ized
as th
e sa
me
orga
nism
by
anot
her i
ndiv
idua
l. At
pre
sent
the
typi
ng s
chem
es
used
by
clin
icia
ns a
nd c
linic
al m
icro
biol
ogist
s re
ly o
n ph
enot
ypic
ty
ping
sche
mes
. The
se s
chem
es u
tilize
the
bact
eria
l mor
phol
ogy
and
stai
ning
pro
pert
ies
of th
e or
gani
sm, a
s wel
l as O
2gr
owth
re
quire
men
ts o
f the
spe
cies
and
nut
ritio
nre
quire
men
ts
com
bine
d w
ith a
var
iety
of b
ioch
emic
al te
sts.
For
clin
icia
ns, t
he
envi
ronm
enta
l res
ervo
ir of
the
orga
nism
, the
vec
tors
and
mea
ns
of tr
ansm
issio
n of
the
path
ogen
are
also
of g
reat
impo
rtan
ce.
Dom
ain:
Bac
teria
Grou
p: P
rote
obac
teria
The
grou
p pr
oteo
bact
eria
is th
e m
ost d
iver
se g
roup
of b
acte
ria.
It is
brok
en d
own
into
thre
e m
ain
subg
roup
s dep
endi
ng o
n th
eir
maj
or n
utrit
iona
l mod
es a
nd th
e so
urce
of t
heir
ener
gy.
The
grou
ps a
re:
1. P
hoto
auto
trop
hic
(use
ligh
t and
CO
2)2.
Pho
tohe
tero
trop
hic
(use
ligh
t and
org
anic
mol
ecul
es)
3. C
hem
oaut
otro
phic
(use
inor
gani
c m
olec
ules
and
CO
2)4.
Che
moh
eter
otro
phic
(use
org
anic
mol
ecul
es fo
r bot
h)
The
exam
ple
for t
his g
roup
is E
sche
richi
a co
li(E
. col
i). E
. col
iis a
ro
d-sh
aped
, gra
m n
egat
ive,
facu
ltativ
e an
aero
be.
Thi
s is o
ne o
f th
e m
ost p
rolif
ic m
icro
orga
nism
s in
the
hum
an in
test
inal
trac
t. E.
co
liis
norm
ally
har
mle
ss b
ut c
erta
in st
rain
s are
pat
hoge
nic.
So
me
of th
ese
have
spec
ializ
ed fi
mbr
ae(fi
nger
s) th
at a
llow
them
to
bin
d to
the
inte
stin
al w
all.
The
se p
rodu
ce to
xins
that
caus
e di
arrh
ea a
nd, i
n a
few
cas
es, d
eath
. Se
vera
l out
brea
ks in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es h
ave
been
link
ed to
raw
milk
or u
nder
cook
ed
ham
burg
er.
Dom
ain:
Bac
teria
Grou
p: C
hlam
ydia
This
grou
pof
cocc
iba
cter
iaar
eob
ligat
ein
trac
ellu
lar
para
sites
ofan
imal
sth
atob
tain
all
thei
rAT
Pfr
omho
stce
lls.
They
are
tran
smitt
edto
hum
ans
byin
terp
erso
nal
cont
act
orby
airb
orne
resp
irato
ryro
utes
.W
hen
usin
ggr
amst
ain
onth
isor
gani
sm,y
ouw
illge
tagr
amne
gativ
ere
sult.
This
isdu
eto
thei
run
usua
lce
llw
all
whi
chla
cks
pept
idog
lyca
n.
Ther
eis
nola
bex
ampl
efo
rth
isgr
oup
beca
use
ofth
eir
smal
lsiz
e(c
an’t
bese
enw
ithou
rm
icro
scop
es)
but
you
shou
ldkn
owab
out
the
follo
win
gsp
ecie
s.
Chla
myd
iatr
acho
mat
isis
the
mos
tco
mm
onca
use
ofbl
indn
ess
inth
ew
orld
and
isth
em
ost
com
mon
sexu
ally
tran
smitt
edin
fect
ion.
Dom
ain:
Bac
teria
Grou
p: S
piro
chet
esTh
esp
iroch
etes
are
helic
alch
emoh
eter
otro
phs.
They
have
aun
ique
mor
phol
ogy
and
mec
hani
smof
mot
ility
.Th
eyar
ety
pica
llysle
nder
,lo
ngan
dhe
lical
insh
ape.
They
cont
ain
fibril
s(a
xial
filam
ents
)tha
tare
atta
ched
toth
ece
llpo
les
and
wra
pped
thro
ugho
utth
ebo
dy.
(Ina
sens
e,th
eyar
eba
cter
ialf
lage
llain
apr
otop
lasm
icsh
eath
).Th
eyar
efo
und
inaq
uatic
envi
ronm
ents
and
inth
ebo
dies
ofan
imal
s.So
me
ofth
emm
ayca
use
dise
ase.
The
exam
ple
for
this
grou
pis
Trep
onem
apa
llidu
m.
This
isth
eor
gani
smth
atca
uses
syph
ilis.
This
orga
nism
isfra
ilan
dca
nnot
surv
ive
dryi
ngor
chill
ing.
Sinc
eit
dies
with
ina
few
seco
nds
onbe
ing
expo
sed
toai
r(e
ssen
tially
anae
robi
c),
itm
ust
betr
ansm
itted
byse
xual
inte
rcou
rse,
kiss
ing,
orot
her
intim
ate
body
cont
act.
Itre
quire
sw
arm
,m
oist
skin
orm
ucou
smem
bran
esu
rfac
esto
pene
trat
eth
ebo
dy.
Syph
ilis o
ccur
s in
four
stag
es•
Prim
ary
stag
e(to
pph
oto)
isa
pink
tore
d,ra
ised
pain
less
sore
calle
da
chan
cre
whi
chdi
sapp
ears
in3-
6w
eeks
.•
Seco
ndar
yst
age
(bot
tom
phot
o)oc
curs
1-6
mon
ths
afte
rthe
chan
cre
disa
ppea
rs.
Itis
ara
shth
atdo
esn’
titc
h.•
Late
ntst
age
last
sfo
ra
few
mon
ths
toa
lifet
ime.
Ther
ear
eno
exte
rnal
sym
ptom
s.•
Tert
iary
stag
eis
char
acte
rized
bype
rman
ent
dam
age
tovi
talo
rgan
sand
deat
h.
Dom
ain:
Bac
teria
Grou
p: C
yano
bact
eria
The
cyan
obac
teria
are
aero
bic,
phot
oaut
otro
phic
bact
eria
.Th
eyw
ere
once
calle
dbl
ue-g
reen
alga
ebu
tthe
yar
em
ade
upof
prok
aryo
ticce
llsan
dar
eno
tatr
ueal
gae.
They
have
unic
ellu
lar,
colo
nial
and
filam
ento
usfo
rms.
They
cont
ain
the
pigm
ent
phyc
ocya
nin
whi
chgi
veth
emth
eirb
lue-
gree
nco
lor.
They
are
uniq
ueon
this
plan
etbe
caus
eth
eyar
eth
eon
lyor
gani
sms
know
nto
both
rele
ase
oxyg
enan
dfix
nitr
ogen
.Th
eym
ostly
inha
bit
fres
hw
ater
,but
they
are
also
foun
din
mar
ine
envi
ronm
ents
and
som
esy
mbi
otic
rela
tions
hips
.
The
exam
ple
for
cyan
obac
teria
isO
scill
ator
ia.
Osc
illat
oria
isa
filam
ento
usfo
rmth
atis
foun
din
larg
enu
mbe
rsin
fres
hw
ater
.Th
eyca
nbe
apr
oble
min
area
sw
here
ther
eis
chem
ical
pollu
tion
inth
efo
rmof
synt
hetic
dete
rgen
ts.
The
dete
rgen
tsco
ntai
nph
osph
ates
that
allo
wth
ecy
anob
acte
riato
mul
tiply
rapi
dly
and
whe
yth
eydi
e,it
caus
esde
com
posin
gba
cter
iato
bloo
m,
whi
chin
turn
rem
oves
all
the
oxyg
enfr
omth
ew
ater
and
resu
ltsin
the
deat
hof
othe
ror
gani
sms(
fish,
inse
cts,
etc.
).
Dom
ain:
Bac
teria
Grou
p: G
ram
Pos
itive
Bac
teria
Mos
toft
heba
cter
iain
this
grou
par
egr
ampo
sitiv
e.Th
ere
are
afe
wgr
amne
gativ
em
embe
rsbu
tare
grou
ped
inth
ista
xadu
eto
mol
ecul
arsy
stem
atic
s.So
me
are
phot
osyn
thet
ic,b
utm
osts
peci
esar
ech
emoh
eter
otro
phs.
The
exam
ple
fort
his
grou
pis
Clos
trid
ium
teta
ni.
This
isan
oblig
ate
anae
robe
,end
ospo
re-fo
rmin
ggr
am–p
ositi
vero
d.Th
een
dosp
ores
mak
eth
eba
cter
iare
sista
ntto
hars
hco
nditi
ons.
(Not
ice
the
roun
den
dson
som
eof
the
rod-
shap
edin
divi
dual
s).
Itis
com
mon
inso
ilco
ntam
inat
edw
ithan
imal
feca
lwas
tes.
The
spec
ies
rele
ases
anex
otox
in(n
euro
toxi
n)th
atbl
ocks
the
rela
xatio
npa
thw
ayof
the
mus
cles
and
caus
esth
emto
cont
ract
.Th
em
uscl
esin
the
jaw
are
affe
cted
early
and
the
cond
ition
isof
ten
know
nas
lock
jaw
.An
amou
ntof
the
neur
otox
inw
eigh
ing
asm
uch
asth
ein
kin
ape
riod
ofth
ispa
geca
nki
ll30
peop
le.
Dom
ain:
Arc
haea
Grou
p: M
etha
noge
ns (m
etha
ne re
leas
ing)
Grou
p: H
alop
hile
s (liv
es in
hig
h sa
lt ar
eas)
Grou
p: T
herm
ophi
les (
lives
in e
xtre
me
tem
pera
ture
s)
This
dom
ain
is m
ade
up o
f pro
kary
otic
cel
ls bu
t ar
e qu
ite d
iffer
ent t
han
the
true
bac
teria
. Th
ey
do sh
are
som
e ch
arac
teris
tics w
ith th
e eu
kary
otes
and
are
thou
ght t
o be
mor
e cl
osel
y re
late
d to
the
euka
ryot
es th
an th
e ba
cter
ia o
f to
day.
The
shar
ed c
hara
cter
istic
s with
eu
kary
otes
incl
ude:
DNA
intr
ons p
rese
nt
RNA
poly
mer
ase
Star
t Am
ino
Acid
for p
rote
in sy
nthe
sisRe
spon
se to
ant
ibio
tics
Viru
ses
Viru
ses
Viru
ses a
re m
ade
up o
f ge
nom
es (D
NA
or R
NA)
en
clos
ed in
a p
rote
ctiv
e co
at c
alle
d a
caps
id
(pro
tein
).Th
e tin
iest
vi
ruse
s are
onl
y 20
nm
in
diam
eter
(sm
alle
r tha
n a
ribos
ome)
.
Prot
ista
Clas
sific
atio
nTh
eki
ngdo
mPr
otist
a(in
the
five
king
dom
syst
em)
cont
ains
mos
tlyun
icel
lula
reu
kary
otes
.Th
ista
xono
mic
grou
ping
ispo
lyph
ylet
ican
dba
sed
only
once
llula
rst
ruct
ure
and
life
styl
esno
ton
any
mol
ecul
arev
iden
ce.
Usin
gm
olec
ular
biol
ogy
and
deta
iled
com
paris
onof
cell
stru
ctur
e,sc
ient
ists
are
now
begi
nnin
gto
see
evol
utio
nary
hist
ory
inth
epr
otist
s.Th
eon
goin
gch
ange
sin
the
prot
est
phyl
ogen
yar
era
pidl
ych
angi
ngw
ithea
chne
wpi
ece
ofev
iden
ce.
The
follo
win
gcl
assif
icat
ion
sugg
ests
4“s
uper
grou
ps”
with
inth
eor
igin
alPr
otist
aki
ngdo
man
dth
eta
xono
my
isst
illbe
ing
wor
ked
out.
This
lab
islo
okin
gat
one
curr
ent
hypo
thes
issh
own
onth
erig
ht.
Som
eof
the
orga
nism
sar
egr
oupe
dto
geth
erbe
caus
eof
very
stro
ngsu
ppor
tan
dot
hers
are
cont
rove
rsia
l.It
isim
port
antt
ofo
cus
onth
ech
arac
teris
tics
ofea
chcl
ade
whi
chex
plai
nsw
hyth
eyar
egr
oupe
dto
geth
er.
This
lab
will
only
look
atth
egr
oups
that
wer
eon
cein
clud
edin
the
Prot
ista
king
dom
and
the
othe
rgr
oups
(hig
her
plan
ts,
fung
i,an
dan
imal
s)w
illbe
exam
ined
infu
ture
labs
.
Exca
vata
SAR
Arch
aepl
astid
a
Uni
kont
a
Alve
olat
es
Stra
men
opila
Rhiza
ria
Amoe
bozo
ans
Opi
stho
kont
s
Prot
ista
Clas
sific
atio
nSt
artin
gw
ithth
efo
ur“S
uper
grou
ps”,
we
will
divi
deth
ere
stin
todi
ffere
ntle
vels
calle
dcl
ades
.A
Clad
eis
defin
edas
agr
oup
ofbi
olog
ical
taxa
(as
spec
ies)
that
incl
udes
all
desc
enda
nts
ofon
eco
mm
onan
cest
or.
Too
simpl
ifyth
ispr
oces
s,w
eha
vein
clud
eda
clad
ogra
mw
ew
illbe
usin
gth
roug
hout
the
cour
se.
We
will
divi
deor
expa
ndpa
rts
ofth
ecl
adog
ram
toem
phas
izeev
olut
iona
ryre
latio
nshi
ps.
For
the
prot
ists,
we
will
divi
deth
esu
perg
roup
sin
tosm
alle
rcl
ades
assig
ning
them
artif
icia
lnu
mbe
rs(c
lade
1,cl
ade2
,cl
ade3
)to
esta
blish
agr
oupi
ngat
asp
ecifi
cle
vel.
Exca
vata
SAR
Arch
aepl
astid
a
Uni
kont
a
Alve
olat
es
Stra
men
opila
Rhiza
ria
Amoe
bozo
ans
Opi
stho
kont
s
CLA
SSIF
ICA
TIO
N:
Dom
ain:
Euk
arya
Su
perg
roup
: Exc
avat
a
Su
perg
roup
: Arc
haep
last
ida
C
lade
2: D
iplo
mon
ads
Cla
de2:
Rho
doph
yta
Cla
de2:
Para
basa
lids
Cla
de2:
Chl
orop
hyta
C
lade
2: Eu
glen
ozoa
ns
Cla
de2:
Cha
roph
yta
Cla
de3:
Eugl
enid
s
Supe
rgro
up: U
niko
nta
Cla
de3:
Kin
etop
last
ids
Cla
de1:
Am
oebo
zoan
s
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
C
lade
2: Sl
ime
Mol
ds
Cla
de1:
Alv
eola
tes
Cla
de3:
Plas
mod
ial
Cla
de2:
Din
ofla
gella
tes
C
lade
3: C
ellu
lar
Cla
de2:
Api
com
plex
ans
Cla
de2:
Gym
nam
oeba
s
Cla
de2:
Cili
ates
Cla
de2:
Enta
moe
bas
C
lade
1: S
tram
enop
ila
Cla
de1:
Opi
stho
kont
s
Cla
de2:
Bac
illar
ioph
yta
Cla
de2:
Nuc
lear
iids
Cla
de2:
Chr
ysop
hyta
C
lade
2: C
hoan
ofla
gella
tes
C
lade
2: Ph
aeop
hyta
Cla
de2:
Oom
ycet
es
C
lade
1: R
hiza
ria
Cla
de2:
Cer
cozo
ans
Cla
de2:
Fora
ms
Cla
de2:
Rad
iola
rians
Prot
ista
Clas
sific
atio
n1.
Gen
eral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
ese
orga
nism
son
cew
ere
plac
edin
asin
gle
king
dom
but
with
new
gene
ticin
form
atio
n,it
now
appe
ars
this
king
dom
ispo
lyph
ylet
ic.
The
indi
vidu
als
incl
uded
inth
isne
wcl
ade
are
all
euka
ryot
es(w
itha
nucl
eus
and
mem
bran
e-bo
und
orga
nelle
s)an
dm
osta
resin
gle-
celle
d.2.
Nat
ural
Hist
ory
–Th
efir
stpr
otist
(euk
aryo
tic)
orga
nism
appe
ars
inth
efo
ssil
reco
rdab
out
2.1
billi
onye
ars
ago
durin
gth
ePr
ecam
bria
n.It
isbe
lieve
dth
efir
stpr
otist
was
prob
ably
ano
n-pi
gmen
ted
hete
rotr
ophi
cfo
rm.
Itis
belie
ved
that
mito
chon
dria
and
plas
tids
wer
esm
all
prok
aryo
tes
that
lived
with
inot
her
prok
aryo
tes
givi
ngris
eto
new
orga
nelle
s.Th
ese
rial
endo
sym
bios
ishy
poth
esis
sugg
ests
that
mito
chon
dria
evol
ved
befo
repl
astid
sth
roug
ha
serie
sof
endo
sym
biot
icev
ents
.3.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
edi
strib
utio
nof
prot
ists
isw
orld
wid
e;as
agr
oup,
thes
eor
gani
sms
are
both
cosm
opol
itan
and
ubiq
uito
us.
Ever
yin
divi
dual
spec
ies,
how
ever
,ha
spr
efer
red
nich
esan
dm
icro
habi
tats
,and
all
prot
ists
are
toso
me
degr
eese
nsiti
veto
chan
ges
inth
eir
surr
ound
ings
.Th
eav
aila
bilit
yof
suffi
cien
tnu
trie
nts
and
wat
er,
asw
ell
assu
nlig
htfo
rph
otos
ynth
etic
form
s,is,
how
ever
,the
only
maj
orfa
ctor
sre
stra
inin
gsu
cces
sful
and
heav
ypr
otist
colo
niza
tion
ofpr
actic
ally
any
habi
tato
nEa
rth.
Supe
rgro
up:
Exca
vata
1.Ge
nera
lCh
arac
teris
tics
and
stru
ctur
es–
The
mem
bers
ofth
issu
perg
roup
have
simila
rcy
tosk
elet
alfe
atur
esan
dso
me
mem
bers
have
an“e
xcav
ated
”gr
oove
onon
esid
eof
thei
rbod
y.2.
Nat
ural
Hist
ory
–Ea
chof
the
clad
esw
ithin
the
supe
rgro
upar
em
onop
hyle
tic,
but
itis
diffi
cult
tode
term
ine
ifth
issu
perg
roup
ism
onop
hyle
ticbe
caus
eth
ech
arac
teris
tics
they
have
may
have
been
foun
din
the
com
mon
ance
stor
ofal
leuk
aryo
tes.
3.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
Exca
vata
incl
udes
taxa
that
are
phot
osyn
thet
ic,
para
sitic
,sy
mbi
otic
and
hete
rotr
ophi
c.Th
eth
ree
clad
esar
eth
eDi
plom
anad
s,th
ePa
raba
salid
sand
the
Eugl
enoz
oans
.
Diag
ram
mat
ic re
pres
enta
tions
of
the
prox
imal
cyt
oske
leto
ns
of E
xcav
ata
Dip
lom
onad
s
Exca
vata
Para
basa
lids
Eugl
enoz
oans
Supe
rgro
up: E
xcav
ata
Clad
e 2: Di
plom
onad
s1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
em
embe
rsof
this
clad
eha
vem
odifi
edm
itoch
ondr
iaca
lled
mito
som
es.
They
lack
func
tiona
lel
ectr
ontr
ansp
ort
chai
nsan
dca
nnot
use
oxyg
ento
mak
eAT
P.Th
eyar
ean
aero
bic.
They
also
have
two
equa
llysiz
edha
ploi
dnu
clei
.2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–M
any
Dipl
omon
ads
are
para
sitic
.O
urEx
ampl
eis
Giar
dia
lam
blia
whi
chpa
rasit
izeth
ein
test
ines
ofm
amm
als.
InCa
lifor
nia,
Itca
nbe
foun
din
the
high
est
stre
ams
inth
eSi
erra
s.3.
Uni
que
Char
acte
ristic
s-
Itca
nin
fect
peop
lew
hen
they
drin
kco
ntam
inat
edw
ater
.It
can
caus
ecr
amps
and
seve
redi
arrh
ea.
Dip
lom
onad
s
Exca
vata
Para
basa
lids
Eugl
enoz
oans
Supe
rgro
up: E
xcav
ata
Clad
e 2: Pa
raba
salid
s1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
em
embe
rsof
this
clad
eha
vere
duce
dm
itoch
ondr
iaca
lled
hygr
ogen
osom
es.
They
are
anae
robi
can
dre
leas
ehy
drog
enpe
roxi
deas
aby
-pro
duct
.Th
eyal
soha
vea
mod
ified
flage
llaw
ithan
undu
latin
gm
embr
ane.
2.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy –
Man
y pa
raba
salid
sare
pa
rasit
ic.
Our
Exa
mpl
e is
Tric
hom
onas
vagi
nalis
. 3.
Uni
que
Char
acte
ristic
s: It
caus
es V
agin
itis
by in
fect
ing
the
vagi
na a
nd u
reth
ral
muc
us m
embr
anes
and
can
be
tran
smitt
ed b
y se
xual
inte
rcou
rse.
Mal
es
ofte
n ha
ve n
o sy
mpt
oms w
hen
infe
cted
.
Dip
lom
onad
s
Exca
vata
Para
basa
lids
Eugl
enoz
oans
Supe
rgro
up: E
xcav
ata
Clad
e 2: Eu
glen
ozoa
ns1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
em
embe
rsof
this
clad
eal
lhav
ea
rod
with
eith
era
spira
lor
acr
ysta
lline
stru
ctur
ein
side
each
ofth
eir
flage
lla.
They
also
have
adi
sc-s
hape
dcr
istae
.2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
em
embe
rsof
this
clad
ear
eve
rydi
vers
ein
clud
ing
pred
ator
s,he
tero
trop
hs,
phot
osyn
thet
icau
totr
ophs
and
para
sites
.Th
etw
obe
stkn
own
grou
psar
ein
the
clad
es:
Kine
topl
astid
sand
Eugl
enid
s.
Kine
topl
astids
Eugl
enoz
oans
Eugl
enid
sDin
ofla
gella
tes
Dip
lom
onad
s
Exca
vata
Para
basa
lids
Eugl
enoz
oans
Supe
rgro
up: E
xcav
ata
Clad
e 2: Eu
glen
ozoa
nsCl
ade 3:
Kine
topl
astid
s1.
Gene
ralC
hara
cter
istic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
em
embe
rsof
this
clad
eha
vea
singl
e,la
rge
mito
chon
drio
nth
atco
ntai
nsa
larg
em
asso
fDN
Aca
lled
aki
neto
plas
t.2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
e m
embe
rs o
f thi
s cla
de in
clud
e sp
ecie
s th
at fe
ed o
n pr
okar
yote
s in
fres
hwat
er, m
arin
e an
d m
ost
terr
estr
ial h
abita
ts.
Ther
e ar
e al
so sp
ecie
s tha
t par
asiti
ze
anim
als,
pla
nts,
and
oth
er p
rotis
ts.
3.U
niqu
e Ch
arac
teris
tics:
Our
exa
mpl
e is
a Tr
ypan
osom
aw
hich
is a
hum
an p
atho
gen
that
cau
ses
Afric
an S
leep
ing
Sick
ness
in A
fric
a sp
read
by
the
TseT
seFl
y an
d C
haga
sDi
seas
e in
Sou
th A
mer
ica
spre
ad b
y th
e Ki
ssin
g Bu
g.
Dip
lom
onad
s
Exca
vata
Para
basl
ids
Eugl
enoz
oans
Kin
eto
pla
stid
sEugle
nozo
ans
Eugle
nid
sDin
oflagella
tes
Supe
rgro
up: E
xcav
ata
Clad
e 2: Eu
glen
ozoa
nsCl
ade 3:
Eugl
enid
s1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
em
embe
rsof
this
clad
eha
vean
ante
rior
pock
etw
ithon
eor
two
flage
llaem
ergi
ngfr
omth
epo
cket
.2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
eyar
eco
mm
only
foun
din
fres
hwat
eres
peci
ally
whe
nit
isric
hin
orga
nic
mat
eria
ls,w
itha
few
mar
ine
and
endo
sym
biot
icm
embe
rs.
3.U
niqu
eCh
arac
teris
tics
-M
any
mem
bers
ofth
iscl
ade
are
calle
dm
ixot
roph
sbe
caus
eth
eyar
eau
totr
ophi
cin
sunl
ight
but
whe
nun
avai
labl
e,th
eyca
nbe
com
ehe
tero
trop
hic.
Dip
lom
onad
s
Exca
vata
Para
basl
ids
Eugl
enoz
oans
Kin
eto
pla
stid
sEugle
nozo
ans
Eugle
nid
sDin
oflagella
tes
Supe
rgro
up:
SAR
1.Ge
nera
lCh
arac
teris
tics
and
stru
ctur
es–
The
mem
bers
ofth
issu
perg
roup
are
grou
ped
toge
ther
base
don
two
piec
esof
evid
ence
:1)D
NA
Sequ
ence
Data
and
2)th
ese
cond
ary
endo
sym
biot
icre
latio
nshi
pw
itha
red
alga
e2.
Nat
ural
Hist
ory
–Ev
iden
cesu
gges
tsth
issu
perg
roup
evol
ved
over
abi
llion
year
sag
ow
ithth
ein
corp
orat
ion
ofpl
astid
sfr
oma
red
alga
eal
thou
ghso
me
lack
plas
tids
and
itis
belie
ved
thes
ew
ere
lost
late
rin
thei
revo
lutio
nary
hist
ory.
3.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
SAR
incl
ude
taxa
that
are
very
dive
rse
incl
udin
gso
me
ofth
em
ost
impo
rtan
tph
otos
ynth
etic
orga
nism
son
Eart
h.It
also
incl
udes
orga
nism
sth
atm
ake
upou
rla
rge
kelp
fore
sts
and
som
eim
port
ant
path
ogen
s.Th
issu
perg
roup
can
bedi
vide
din
toth
ree
clad
es:
the
Alve
olat
es,
the
Stra
men
opile
s,an
dth
eRh
izaria
.
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: Al
veol
ates
1.Ge
nera
lCh
arac
teris
tics
and
stru
ctur
es–
The
mon
ophy
letic
grou
ping
for
this
clad
eis
wel
lsu
ppor
ted
byDN
Asim
ilarit
ies.
The
mem
bers
ofth
iscl
ade
also
incl
ude
spec
ies
with
mem
bran
e-bo
und
sacs
(alv
eoli)
just
unde
rth
epl
asm
am
embr
ane.
2.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
Alve
olat
esin
clud
eth
ree
diffe
rent
clad
es:
1)th
eDi
nofla
gella
tes,
2)th
eAp
icom
plex
ans,
and
3)th
eCi
liate
s.
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: Al
veol
ates
Clad
e 2: Di
nofla
gella
tes
1.Ge
nera
lCh
arac
teris
tics
and
stru
ctur
es–
This
clad
eis
iden
tifie
dby
the
rein
forc
edce
llula
rpl
ates
with
two
flage
lla,o
neap
ical
and
one
ina
groo
vew
ithin
the
plat
es.
2.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
dino
flage
llate
sar
eab
unda
ntin
both
mar
ine
and
fres
hwat
erpl
ankt
on.
3.U
niqu
eCh
arac
teris
tics–
InCa
lifor
nia,
thes
eor
gani
smsa
rere
spon
sible
forR
edTi
des.
Thes
eor
gani
sms
rele
ase
ane
urot
oxin
that
can
bem
agni
fied
infil
ter
feed
ing
shel
lfish
and
can
caus
ere
spira
tory
dist
ress
orev
ende
ath.
Man
yof
the
spec
iesa
rem
ixot
roph
s. Din
ofla
gella
tes
Alv
eola
tes
Api
com
plex
ans
Ciliat
es
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e1: A
lveo
late
sCl
ade 2:
Apic
ompl
exan
s1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
iscl
ade
isid
entif
ied
byth
eap
ical
stru
ctur
eof
the
spor
ozoi
te.
This
apic
alco
mpl
exis
used
tope
netr
ate
thei
rhos
t.2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
eAp
icom
plex
ansa
real
lint
erna
lpa
rasit
esof
anim
als.
The
path
ogen
icsp
ecie
sar
eno
wm
ainl
yco
nfin
edto
Afric
a,As
iaan
dLa
tinAm
eric
ain
trop
ical
and
subt
ropi
cal
area
sw
here
the
Anop
hele
smos
quito
can
bree
d.3.
Uni
que
Char
acte
ristic
s–
One
ofth
ebe
stkn
owsp
ecie
sis
Plas
mod
ium
sp.w
hich
caus
esM
alar
ia.
The
host
spec
ies
ofth
isdi
seas
eis
the
Anop
hele
sm
osqu
ito.
Itat
tack
sahu
man
’sre
dbl
ood
cells
.
Din
ofla
gella
tes
Alv
eola
tes
Api
com
plex
ans
Ciliat
es
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e1: A
lveo
late
sCl
ade 2:
Cilia
tes
1.G
ener
alCh
arac
teris
tics
and
stru
ctur
es–
This
clad
eis
iden
tifie
dby
cilia
whi
chis
used
form
ovem
ento
rfee
ding
.Th
eyal
soha
vetw
odi
stin
ctnu
clei
,a
mac
roan
da
mic
ronu
clei
.2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
eCi
liate
sar
ea
dive
rse
grou
pth
atis
com
mon
alm
ost
ever
ywhe
reth
ere
isw
ater
—in
lake
s,po
nds,
ocea
ns,
river
s,an
dso
ils.
Cilia
tes
have
man
yec
tosy
mbi
otic
and
endo
sym
biot
icm
embe
rs,
asw
ell
asso
me
oblig
ate
and
oppo
rtun
istic
para
sites
.3.
Uni
que
Char
acte
ristic
s–
The
mac
ronu
clei
cont
rol
the
func
tions
ofth
ece
llan
dth
em
icro
nucl
eiar
eex
chan
ged
durin
gco
njug
atio
n(s
exua
lre
prod
uctio
n)w
here
the
orga
nism
sar
esid
eby
side.
They
repr
oduc
eas
exua
llyth
roug
htr
ansv
erse
bina
ryfis
sion
(end
toen
d).
Din
ofla
gella
tes
Alv
eola
tes
Api
com
plex
ans
Ciliat
es
Asex
ual
Sexu
al
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: St
ram
enop
iles
1.Ge
nera
lCha
ract
erist
ics
and
stru
ctur
es-
mem
bers
ofth
isgr
oup
incl
ude
mem
bers
that
have
flage
llum
with
num
erou
sfin
e,ha
irlik
epr
ojec
tions
.2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
isis
the
clad
eth
atin
clud
esso
me
ofth
em
ost
impo
rtan
tph
otos
ynth
etic
orga
nism
son
the
plan
et.
Ital
soin
clud
esse
vera
lcla
deso
fhe
tero
trop
hs.
The
Stra
men
opile
sin
clud
efo
urdi
ffere
ntcl
ades
:1)
the
Diat
oms,
2)th
eGo
lden
Alga
e,3)
the
Brow
nAl
gae
and
4)th
eO
omyc
etes
(Wat
erM
olds
).
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: St
ram
enop
iles
Clad
e 2: Di
atom
s 1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
iscl
ade
isid
entif
ied
byce
llw
alls
mad
eup
ofov
erla
ppin
gsil
ica
test
sca
lled
afr
ustu
le.
2.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
diat
oms
are
unic
ellu
lara
lgae
that
are
ala
rge
com
pone
ntof
phyt
opla
nkto
nin
ocea
nsan
dla
kes.
3.U
niqu
eCh
arac
teris
tics–
Foss
ilize
ddi
atom
sac
cum
ulat
ein
sedi
men
tskn
own
asdi
atom
aceo
usea
rth.
Thes
ese
dim
ents
are
min
edto
use
asa
filte
ring
med
ium
and
can
befo
und
inpr
oduc
tslik
epa
ints
and
toot
hpas
tes.
Afte
ra
bloo
m,m
any
diat
oms
die
and
are
left
un-d
ecom
pose
don
the
ocea
nflo
orw
hich
rem
oves
thei
rca
rbon
from
the
carb
oncy
cle.
This
acts
asa
carb
onsin
k,a
natu
ral
way
ofre
duci
ngca
rbon
diox
ide
omiss
ions
that
cont
ribut
eto
glob
alcl
imat
ech
ange
.
Chr
omal
veo
Dia
tom
s Gol
den
Alg
ae
Str
amen
opile
sBr
own
Alg
ae O
omyc
etes
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: St
ram
enop
iles
Clad
e 2: G
olde
n Al
gae
1.Ge
nera
lCh
arac
teris
tics
and
stru
ctur
es–
This
clad
eis
iden
tifie
dby
thei
rco
lor
due
toye
llow
and
brow
nca
rote
noid
s(x
anth
ophy
ll).
The
cells
ofth
ese
orga
nism
sar
ety
pica
llybi
-flag
ella
ted,
with
both
flage
llane
aron
een
dof
the
cell.
2.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
Gold
enAl
gae
are
com
pone
nts
offr
esh
wat
eran
dm
arin
epl
ankt
on.
3.U
niqu
eCh
arac
teris
tics
–W
hile
mos
tsp
ecie
sar
eph
otos
ynth
etic
,so
me
spec
ies
are
mix
otro
phic
.M
ost
spec
ies
are
unic
ellu
lar
but
the
one
inla
bis
colo
nial
.Th
eyca
nfo
rmpr
otec
tive
cyst
sund
erex
trem
eco
nditi
onsa
ndca
nsu
rviv
efo
rdec
ades
.
Chr
omal
veo
Dia
tom
s Gol
den
Alg
ae
Str
amen
opile
sBr
own
Alg
ae O
omyc
etes
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: St
ram
enop
iles
Clad
e 2: Br
own
Alga
e 1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
iscl
ade
isth
ela
rges
tand
mos
tcom
plex
mul
ticel
lula
ralg
ae.
They
gett
heir
colo
rfro
mth
ebr
own
orol
ive
colo
r(p
igm
ents
:ca
rote
ne,
fuco
xant
hin)
inth
eir
plas
tids.
The
inte
rtid
alsp
ecie
sar
esu
bjec
tto
desic
catio
nan
dw
ave
actio
nan
dha
veev
olve
da
cell-
wal
lwith
cellu
lose
and
age
l-lik
esu
bsta
nce
calle
dal
gin
(apo
lysa
ccar
hide
)to
redu
cedr
ying
and
help
cush
ion
them
from
wav
es.
2.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
Brow
nAl
gae
are
mos
tlym
arin
efo
und
alon
gte
mpe
rate
coas
tsw
here
the
wat
eris
cool
.3.
Uni
que
Char
acte
ristic
s–
The
algi
nis
used
toth
icke
npr
oces
sed
food
ssu
chas
ice
crea
m,p
uddi
ng,s
alad
dres
sing
and
othe
rpro
duct
slik
epa
int.
Chr
omal
veo
Dia
tom
s Gol
den
Alg
ae
Str
amen
opile
sBr
own
Alg
ae O
omyc
etes
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: St
ram
enop
iles
Clad
e 2: Br
own
Alga
e Ex
tern
alSt
ruct
ures
–A
repr
esen
tativ
eof
the
brow
nal
gae
isth
eco
mm
onse
awee
d,Fu
cus,
ofte
nca
lled
kelp
orro
ckw
eed.
Itoc
curs
inth
ero
cks
alon
gse
asho
res.
Seaw
eeds
are
mul
ticel
lula
ran
dm
ade
upof
diffe
rent
ial
tissu
esan
dor
gans
that
rese
mbl
eth
ose
we
find
inpl
ants
.Th
eyla
cktr
uero
ots,
stem
san
dle
aves
and
are
calle
da
thal
lus.
Ath
allu
sco
nsist
sof
aho
ldfa
st(u
sed
for
atta
chm
ent)
,ast
em-li
kest
ipe,
and
leaf
-like
blad
es.
On
the
blad
esar
eai
rbl
adde
rsth
atar
eus
edto
help
the
blad
esflo
atan
don
the
ends
are
rece
ptac
les
that
are
swol
len
area
sat
the
ends
ofth
ebl
ades
that
cont
ain
the
repr
oduc
tive
com
pone
nts
for
the
alga
e.Th
esm
all
pore
sth
aten
tert
here
cept
acle
sar
eca
lled
ostio
les.
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: St
ram
enop
iles
Clad
e 2: Br
own
Alga
e In
tern
alSt
ruct
ures
–Th
eos
tiole
sin
the
Fucu
sre
cept
acle
sle
adin
toch
ambe
rsca
lled
conc
epta
cles
.O
bser
vebo
thth
em
ale
and
fem
ale
conc
epta
cles
,whi
char
eav
aila
ble
onpr
epar
edsli
des.
Inth
em
ale,
find
the
bran
ched
anth
erid
iaan
dth
esp
erm
.Su
rrou
ndin
gth
ean
ther
idia
,th
ere
are
ster
ileha
irsca
lled
para
phys
es,
whi
char
eus
edfo
rpr
otec
tion
(top
pict
ure)
.In
the
fem
ale,
obse
rve
the
oogo
nia
and
itseg
gsal
ong
with
the
para
phys
es(b
otto
mpi
ctur
e).
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: St
ram
enop
iles
Clad
e 2: Br
own
Alga
e Al
tern
atio
nof
Gen
erat
ion
–Th
ebr
own
alga
elif
ecy
cle
cons
ists
ofa
cycl
ew
ithm
ultic
ellu
lar
hapl
oid
and
dipl
oid
form
s.Th
iste
rmre
fers
toth
efa
ctth
atbo
thfo
rms
are
mul
ticel
lula
r.Th
ispa
tter
nw
illal
sobe
seen
inhi
gher
plan
ts.
The
stru
ctur
em
ost
peop
leid
entif
yas
“alg
ae”
isa
spor
ophy
test
ruct
ure
that
isdi
ploi
d.
Supe
rgro
up: S
AR
Clad
e 1: St
ram
enop
iles
Clad
e 2: O
omyc
etes
1.Ge
nera
lCh
arac
teris
tics
and
stru
ctur
es–T
hey
have
hyph
aelik
ea
fung
us(a
ndat
one
poin
tth
eyw
ere
thou
ght
tobe
afu
ngus
)but
thei
rce
llw
alls
are
mad
eof
cellu
lose
(fung
usce
llw
alls
are
mad
eof
chiti
n).T
hisc
lade
incl
udes
the
wat
erm
olds
,th
ew
hite
rust
s,an
dth
edo
wny
mild
ews.
2.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
Oom
ycet
esha
velo
stth
eir
plas
tids
and
are
ther
efor
eei
ther
deco
mpo
sers
orpa
rasit
es.
Wat
erm
olds
are
usua
llypa
rasit
eson
dead
alga
ean
dan
imal
sin
fres
hw
ater
and
the
whi
teru
sts
and
dow
nym
ildew
sar
eus
ually
plan
tpa
rasit
es.
3.U
niqu
eCh
arac
teris
tics–
The
Oom
ycet
esar
ere
spon
sible
inth
e19
thce
ntur
yfo
rthe
Fren
chW
ine
Crisi
san
dfo
rthe
Pota
toFa
min
ein
Irela
ndca
usin
gth
eIri
shto
mig
rate
toN
orth
Amer
ica
and
Russ
ia.
Chr
omal
veo
Dia
tom
s Gol
den
Alg
ae
Str
amen
opile
sBr
own
Alg
ae O
omyc
etes
Supe
rgro
up: S
ARCl
ade 1:
Rhiza
ria1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
em
embe
rsof
this
clad
eha
vesim
ilar
DNA
sequ
ence
sev
enth
ough
they
vary
grea
tlyin
mor
phol
ogy.
Man
yof
the
form
eram
oeba
sw
ere
incl
uded
with
this
clad
ebu
tw
eno
wkn
owth
eyar
edi
stin
ctly
diffe
ren
and
belo
ngin
this
clad
ean
dar
ech
arac
teriz
edby
thin
like
pseu
dopo
dia.
2.N
atur
alHi
stor
y–
Each
ofth
ecl
ades
with
inth
ela
rger
clad
ear
em
onop
hyle
tic.
The
thre
ecl
ades
are
the
Cerc
ozoa
ns,
the
Fora
ms
and
the
Radi
olar
ians
.3.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
eRh
izaria
are
foun
din
mar
ine,
fres
hwat
eror
soil
ecos
yste
ms.
Cer
cozo
ans
Fora
ms
Rhiz
aria
Radi
olar
ians
Supe
rgro
up: S
ARCl
ade 1:
Rhiza
riaCl
ade 2:
Cerc
ozoa
ns1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
iscl
ade
incl
udes
mos
tof
the
amoe
boid
-sha
ped
Prot
ista
with
thin
pseu
dopo
dia.
2.Bi
ogeo
grap
hy–
The
Cerc
ozoa
nsar
epr
edat
ors,
and
para
sites
foun
din
fres
hwat
er,m
arin
e,an
dso
ilec
osys
tem
s.3.
Uni
que
Char
acte
ristic
s–
They
have
evol
ved
asa
usag
e-sh
aped
inte
rnal
stru
ctur
eth
roug
hen
dosy
mbi
osis
ofa
cyan
obac
teria
for
phot
osyn
thes
is(a
chro
moa
toph
ore)
whi
chis
diffe
rent
from
the
cyan
obac
teria
that
prod
uced
plas
tidsi
not
hero
rgan
isms.
Supe
rgro
up: S
ARCl
ade1
: Rhi
zaria
Clad
e2: F
oram
s1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
iscl
ade
incl
udes
the
amoe
bas
with
thin
pseu
dopo
dia
and
aca
lciu
mca
rbon
ate
test
.(F
oram
enis
Latin
forl
ittle
hole
).2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
eFo
ram
sar
efo
und
inbo
thoc
ean
and
fres
hwat
erha
bita
tsat
tach
edto
sand
,ro
ckso
ralg
ae.
Oth
ersa
refo
und
inpl
ankt
on.
3.U
niqu
eCh
arac
teris
tics
–M
ost
Fora
ms
are
know
nfro
mfo
ssils
and
mak
eup
sedi
men
tary
rock
.Th
eyal
soar
esy
mbi
otic
with
phot
osyn
thet
ical
gae
that
can
live
inth
eir
calc
ium
carb
onat
ete
stan
dpr
ovid
eth
emw
ithno
urish
men
t.
Supe
rgro
up: S
ARCl
ade1
: Rhi
zaria
Clad
e2: R
adia
olar
ians
1.
Gene
ral
Char
acte
ristic
san
dst
ruct
ures
–Th
iscl
ade
incl
udes
the
amoe
bas
with
thin
pseu
dopo
dia
and
ade
licat
esil
ica
skel
eton
.2.
Biog
eogr
aphy
–Th
eRa
diol
aria
nsar
eco
mm
onas
mar
ine
plan
kton
.3.
Uni
que
Char
acte
ristic
s–
Mos
tRa
diol
aria
nsar
epl
ankt
onic
and
whe
nth
eydi
e,th
eir
skel
eton
ssin
kto
the
bott
oman
dfo
rma
radi
olar
ian
ooze
cove
ring
muc
hof
the
sea
floor
.