epa indoor air quality tools for schoolsaction kit reference guide
TRANSCRIPT
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ)
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools
REFERENCE GUIDEIndoor Air Quality Tools for Schools
REFERENCE GUIDE
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U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyIndoor Environments Division, 6609J1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20460(202) 564-9370www.epa.gov/iaq
American Federation of Teachers555 New Jersey Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20001(202) 879-4400www.aft.org
Association of School Business Officials11401 North Shore DriveReston, VA 22090(703) 478-0405www.asbointl.org
National Education Association1201 16th Steet, NWWashington, DC 20036-3290(202) 833-4000www.nea.org
National Parent Teachers Association330 North Wabash Avenue, Suite 2100Chicago, IL 60611-3690(312) 670-6782www.pta.org
American Lung Association1740 BroadwayNew York, NY 10019(212) 315-8700www.lungusa.org
EPA 402/K-07/008 I January 2009 I www.epa.gov/iaq/schools
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Understanding the importance of goodindoor air quality (IAQ) in schools is thebackbone of developing an effective IAQprogram. Poor IAQ can lead to a largevariety of health problems and potentiallyaffect comfort, concentration, and staff/student performance. In recognition oftight school budgets, this guidance isdesigned to present practical and oftenlow-cost actions you can take to identifyand address existing or potential airquality problems. You can accomplish thisusing current school staff to perform alimited and well-defined set of basicoperations and maintenance activities.However, some actions may requirespecialized expertise.
Sections 1 and 2 of this Guide helpschools understand how IAQ problemsdevelop, the importance of good IAQ, andits impact on students, staff, and buildingoccupants. Communicating this importantinformation with students, staff, parents,and the community is the next step, whichis outlined in Section 3. Schools dealingwith an IAQ crisis will find the section oncommunication particularly helpful.Sections 4 to 6 contain valuableinformation for schools that needassistance diagnosing and responding toIAQ problems withinexpensive, practical solutions.
Refer to the appendices of this Guide fordetailed information on IAQ-related topicsincluding mold, radon, secondhandsmoke, asthma, and portable classrooms.Schools may find the explanations ofintegrated pest management programs,typical indoor air pollutants, andpollutants from motor vehicles andequipment helpful while developingschool policies or pinpointing sources ofpoor IAQ. In addition, schools
Introduction
investigating or resolving IAQ problemsmay want to refer to appendices on basicmeasurement equipment, hiringprofessional assistance, and codes andregulations. There are numerous resourcesavailable to schools through EPA andother organizations, many of which arelisted in Appendix L. Use the informationin this Guide to create the best possiblelearning environment for students andmaintain a comfortable, healthy buildingfor school occupants. This common-
sense guidance isdesigned to helpyou prevent and
solve themajority of indoorair problems withminimal cost and
involvement.
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ContentsIntroduction i
Acknowledgments v
BASICSSection 1 Why IAQ Is Important to Your School 1
Why IAQ Is Important 1
Unique Aspects of Schools 2
Section 2 Understanding IAQ Problems 3
Sources of Indoor Air Pollutants 3
Interaction of Sources, HVAC Systems,
Pathways, and Occupants 3
HVAC System Design and Operation 4
Description of HVAC Systems 5
Thermal Comfort 5
Ventilation For Occupant Needs 6
Pollutant Pathways and Driving Forces 6
Building Occupants 7
Section 3 Effective Communication 9
Proactive Communication 9
Responsive Communication 10
Communication Principles 11
Section 4 Resolving IAQ Problems 13
Is This an Emergency? 13
Who Will Solve the Problem? 14
Section 5 Diagnosing IAQ Problems 15
How to Diagnose Problems 15
Spatial and Timing Patterns 15
Section 6 Solving IAQ Problems 17
Developing Solutions 17
Solutions for Other Complaints 18
Evaluating Solutions 18
Evaluating the Effectiveness of Your Solution 19
Persistent Problems 20
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Note: Separatepieces in this Kitinclude:
• IAQ Coordinator’sGuide;
• IAQ Road Map;
• IAQ Backgrounder;
• IAQ Checklists;
• Fact Sheet onDistrict-wideImplementation;
• Awards Program;
• Managing Asthmain the SchoolEnvironment;
• Two Videos; and
• IAQ ProblemSolving Wheel.
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APPENDICESAppendix A Hiring Professional Assistance 21
Appendix B Basic Measurement Equipment 25
Appendix C Codes and Regulations 27
Appendix D Asthma 29
Appendix E Typical Indoor Air Pollutants 33
Appendix F Secondhand Smoke 39
Appendix G Radon 43
Appendix H Mold and Moisture 45
Appendix I Emissions from Motor Vehicles and Equipment49
Appendix J Portable Classrooms 53
Appendix K Integrated Pest Management 57
Appendix L Resources 59
Appendix M Glossary and Acronyms 79
INDEX 85
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DISCLAIMERAny information gathered using this Kit isfor the benefit and use of schools andschool districts. EPA does not requireretention or submission of anyinformation gathered, and EPA has noregulatory or enforcement authorityregarding general indoor air quality inschools. This Kit has been reviewed inaccordance with EPA’s policies.Information provides the current scientificand technical understanding of the issuespresented. Following the advice given willnot necessarily provide completeprotection in all situations or against allhealth hazards that may be caused byindoor air pollution.
Mention of any trade names orcommercial products does not constituteendorsement or recommendation for use.
WARNINGPlease note the following as you prepareto use this Kit:
• This Kit is not intended as a substitutefor appropriate emergency action in ahazardous situation that may beimmediately threatening to life orsafety.
• Modification of building functions,equipment, or structure to remedy airquality complaints may create otherindoor air quality problems and mayimpact life-safety systems and energyuse. A thorough understanding of allthe factors that interact to create indoorair quality problems can help avoid thisundesirable outcome. Consult withprofessionals as necessary.
• In the event that medical records areused while evaluating an IAQ problem,maintain confidentiality.
REPRODUCTIONThis Kit contains public information thatmay be reproduced or modified in wholeor in part without permission. If it isreproduced or modified, EPA wouldappreciate knowing how it is used. Pleasewrite:
IAQ Tools for SchoolsIndoor Environments Division, #6609JU.S. Environmental Protection Agency1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20460
For more information, see EPA’s Web site:www.epa.gov/iaq.
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1Most people are aware that outdoor airpollution can impact their health, butindoor air pollution can also havesignificant and harmful health effects. TheU.S. Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) studies of human exposure to airpollutants indicate that indoor levels ofpollutants may be two to five times—andoccasionally more than 100 times—higherthan outdoor levels. These levels of indoorair pollutants are of particular concernbecause most people spend about 90percent of their time indoors. For thepurposes of this guidance, the definitionof good indoor air quality (IAQ)management includes:
• Control of airborne pollutants;
• Introduction and distribution ofadequate outdoor air; and
• Maintenance of acceptable temperatureand relative humidity.
Temperature and humidity cannot beoverlooked because thermal comfortconcerns underlie many complaints about“poor air quality.” Furthermore,temperature and humidity are among themany factors that affect indoorcontaminant levels.
Outdoor sources should also beconsidered since outdoor air enters schoolbuildings through windows, doors, andventilation systems. Thus, transportationand grounds maintenance activitiesbecome factors that affect indoorpollutant levels as well as outdoor airquality on school grounds.
WHY IS IAQ IMPORTANT?In recent years, comparative risk studiesperformed by EPA and its ScienceAdvisory Board (SAB) have consistentlyranked indoor air pollution among the topfive environmental risks to public health.Good IAQ is an important component of ahealthy indoor environment, and can helpschools reach their primary goal ofeducating children.
Section 1 – Why IAQ Is Importantto Your School
Failure to prevent or respond promptly toIAQ problems can:
• Increase long- and short-term healthproblems for students and staff (such ascough, eye irritation, headache, allergicreactions, and, in rarer cases, life-threatening conditions such asLegionnaire’s disease, or carbonmonoxide poisoning).
• Aggravate asthma and other respiratoryillnesses. Nearly 1 in 13 children ofschool-age has asthma, the leadingcause of school absenteeism due tochronic illness. There is substantialevidence that indoor environmentalexposure to allergens, such as dustmites, pests, and molds, plays a role intriggering asthma symptoms. Theseallergens are common in schools. Thereis also evidence that exposure to dieselexhaust from school buses and othervehicles exacerbates asthma andallergies. These problems can:
• Impact student attendance, comfort,and performance.
• Reduce teacher and staffperformance.
• Accelerate the deterioration andreduce the efficiency of the school’sphysical plant and equipment.
• Increase potential for school closingsor relocation of occupants.
• Strain relationships among schooladministration, parents, and staff.
• Create negative publicity.
• Impact community trust.
• Create liability problems.
Indoor air problems can be subtle and donot always produce easily recognizedimpacts on health, well-being, or thephysical plant. Symptoms, such asheadache, fatigue, shortness of breath,sinus congestion, coughing, sneezing,dizziness, nausea, and irritation of the eye,nose, throat and skin, are not necessarily
Good IAQcontributes to a
favorableenvironment for
students,performance of
teachers and staff,and a sense of
comfort, health, andwell-being. Theseelements combine
to assist a school inits core mission—
educating children.
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due to air quality deficiencies, but mayalso be caused by other factors—poorlighting, stress, noise, and more. Due tovarying sensitivities among schooloccupants, IAQ problems may affect agroup of people or just one individual. Inaddition, IAQ problems may affect peoplein different ways.
Individuals that may be particularlysusceptible to effects of indoor aircontaminants include, but are not limitedto, people with:
• Asthma, allergies, or chemicalsensitivities;
• Respiratory diseases;
• Suppressed immune systems (due toradiation, chemotherapy, or disease);and
• Contact lenses.
Certain groups of people may beparticularly vulnerable to exposures ofcertain pollutants or pollutant mixtures.For example:
• People with heart disease may bemore adversely affected by exposureto carbon monoxide than healthyindividuals.
• People exposed to significant levels ofnitrogen dioxide are at higher risk forrespiratory infections.
In addition, the developing bodies ofchildren might be more susceptible toenvironmental exposures than those ofadults. Children breathe more air, eatmore food, and drink more liquid inproportion to their body weight thanadults. Therefore, air quality in schools isof particular concern. Proper maintenanceof indoorair is more than a “quality” issue; itencompasses safety and stewardship ofyour investment in students, staff, andfacilities.
UNIQUE ASPECTS OF SCHOOLSUnlike other buildings, managing schoolsinvolves the combined responsibility forpublic funds and child safety issues. Thesecan instigate strong reactions fromconcerned parents and the generalcommunity. Many other aspects are uniqueto schools:
• Occupants are close together, with thetypical school having approximatelyfour times as many occupants as officebuildings for the same amount of floorspace.
• Budgets are tight, with maintenanceoften receiving the largest cut duringbudget reductions.
• The presence of a variety of pollutantsources, including art and sciencesupplies, industrial and vocational arts,home economic classes, and gyms.
• A large number of heating, ventilating,and air-conditioning equipment placean added strain on maintenance staff.
• Concentrated diesel exhaust exposuredue to school buses. (Students, staff,and vehicles congregate at the sameplaces at the same time of day,increasing exposure to vehicleemissions.) Long, daily school busrides may contribute to elevatedexposure to diesel exhaust for manystudents.
• As schools add space, the operation andmaintenance of each addition are oftendifferent.
• Schools sometimes use rooms, portableclassrooms, or buildings that were notoriginally designed to service theunique requirements of schools.
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2Over the past several decades, exposureto indoor air pollutants has increased dueto a variety of factors. These include theconstruction of more tightly sealedbuildings; reduced ventilation rates to saveenergy; the use of synthetic buildingmaterials and furnishings; the use ofpersonal care products, pesticides, andhousekeeping supplies; and the increaseduse of vehicles and power equipment. Inaddition, activities and decisions, such asdeferring maintenance to “save” money,can lead to problems from sources andventilation.
The indoor environment in any building isa result of the interactions among the site,climate, building structure, mechanicalsystems (as originally designed and latermodified), construction techniques,contaminant sources, building occupants,and outdoor mobile sources (cars, buses,trucks, and grounds maintenanceequipment). This section contains adiscussion on how these elements cancause IAQ problems, and Section 6:“Solving IAQ Problems” providessolutions. These elements are grouped intofour categories:
• Sources
• Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) Systems
• Pathways
• Occupants
SOURCES OF INDOOR AIRPOLLUTANTSIndoor air pollutants can originate withinthe building or be drawn in from outdoors.Air contaminants consist of numerousparticulates, fibers, mists, bioaerosols, andgases. It is important to control airpollutant sources, or IAQ problems canarise—even if the HVAC system isproperly operating. It may be helpful tothink of air pollutant sources as fitting intoone of the categories in the table on thefollowing page, “Typical Sources of IndoorAir Pollutants.” The examples given foreach category are not intended to be anexhaustive list. Appendix E: “Typical
Section 2 – Understanding IAQProblems
Indoor Air Pollutants” contains a list ofspecific air pollutants with descriptions,sources, and control measures.
In addition to the number of potentialpollutants, another complicating factor isthat indoor air pollutant concentrationlevels can vary by time and locationwithin the school building, or even asingle classroom. Pollutants can beemitted from a variety of sourcesincluding:
• Point sources (such as from sciencestorerooms);
• Area sources (such as newly paintedsurfaces); and
• Mobile sources (such as cars, buses,and power equipment).
Pollutants can also vary with time sincesome activities take place over a shortperiod of time (such as stripping floors) oroccur continuously (such as mold growingin the HVAC system).
Indoor air often contains a variety ofcontaminants at concentrations that arewell below the published occupationalstandards. Given our present knowledge, itis often difficult to relate specific healtheffects to exposures to specific pollutantconcentrations, especially since thesignificant exposures may be due to lowlevels of pollutant mixtures.
INTERACTION OF SOURCES,HVAC SYSTEMS, PATHWAYS, ANDOCCUPANTSIf independently evaluated, a minor roofleak and a dirty classroom carpet mightnot cause much concern. But if the waterfrom the roof leak reaches the carpet, thewater can wet the dirt in the carpet and themold that has been dormant in the carpet.The mold can grow and become apollutant source that releases spores intothe classroom air. The HVAC system mayact as a pathway that disperses the sporesto other parts of the school, whereoccupants may experience allergicreactions.
Interaction ofSources,HVAC Systems,Pathways, andOccupants
If independentlyevaluated, a minorroof leak and a dirtyclassroom carpetmight not causemuch concern. Butif the water fromthe roof leakreaches the carpet,the water can wetthe dirt in thecarpet and themold that has beendormant in thecarpet. The moldcan grow andbecome a pollutantsource that releasesspores into theclassroom air. TheHVAC system actsas a pathway thatdisperses thespores to otherparts of the school,where occupantsmay experienceallergic reactions.
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OUTDOOR SOURCES
PollutedOutdoor Air• Pollen, dust, mold
spores
• Industrial emissions
• Vehicle and nonroadengine emissions (cars,buses, trucks, lawn andgarden equipment)
Nearby Sources• Loading docks
• Odors from dumpsters
• Unsanitary debris orbuilding exhausts nearoutdoor air intakes
UndergroundSources• Radon
• Pesticides
• Leakage fromunderground storagetanks
BUILDINGEQUIPMENT
HVAC Equipment• Mold growth in drip
pans, ductwork, coils,and humidifiers
• Improper venting ofcombustion products
• Dust or debris in duct-work
Other Equipment• Emissions from office
equipment (volatileorganic compounds(VOCs), ozone)
• Emissions from shop,lab, and cleaningequipment
HVAC SYSTEM DESIGN ANDOPERATIONThe HVAC system includes all heating,cooling, and ventilating equipment servinga school: Boilers or furnaces, chillers,cooling towers, air-handling units, exhaustfans, ductwork, and filters. Properlydesigned HVAC equipment in a schoolhelps to:
• Control temperature and relativehumidity to provide thermal comfort;
• Distribute adequate amounts of outdoorair to meet ventilation needs of schooloccupants; and
• Isolate and remove odors and othercontaminants through pressure control,filtration, and exhaust fans.
Not all HVAC systems accomplish all ofthese functions. Some buildings rely onlyon natural ventilation. Others lackmechanical cooling equipment, and manyfunction with little or no humidity control.The features of the HVAC system in agiven building will depend on:
• Age of the design;
• Climate;
• Building codes in effect at the time ofthe design;
• Budget for the project;
• Designers’ and school districts’individual preferences;
• Subsequent modifications;
• Space type; and
• Expected occupancy.
TYPICAL SOURCES OF INDOOR AIR POLLUTANTS
OTHER POTENTIALINDOOR SOURCES• Science laboratory
supplies
• Vocational art supplies
• Copy/print areas
• Food prep areas
• Smoking lounges
• Cleaning materials
• Emissions from trash
• Pesticides
• Odors and VOCs frompaint, caulk, adhesives
• Occupants withcommunicable diseases
• Dry-erase markers andsimilar pens
• Insects and other pests
• Personal care products
• Stored gasoline andlawn and gardenequipment
COMPONENTS/FURNISHINGS
Components• Mold growth on or in
soiled or water-damaged materials
• Dry drain traps thatallow the passage ofsewer gas
• Materials containingVOCs, inorganiccompounds, ordamaged asbestos
• Materials that produceparticles (dust)
Furnishings• Emissions from new
furnishings andfloorings
• Mold growth on or insoiled or water-damaged furnishings
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DESCRIPTION OF HVAC SYSTEMSThe two most common HVAC designs inschools are unit ventilators and central air-handling systems. Both can perform thesame HVAC functions, but a unit ventilatorserves a single room while the central air-handling unit serves multiple rooms. Forbasic central air-handling units, it isimportant that all rooms served by thecentral unit have similar thermal andventilation requirements. If theserequirements differ significantly, somerooms may be too hot, too cold, orunderventilated, while others arecomfortable and adequately ventilated.
Most air-handling units distribute amixture of outdoor air and recirculatedindoor air. HVAC designs may also includeunits that introduce 100 percent outdoor airor that simply recirculate indoor air withinthe building. Uncontrolled quantities ofoutdoor air enter buildings by leakagethrough windows, doors, and gaps in thebuilding exterior. Thermal comfort andventilation needs are met by supplying“conditioned” air, which is a mixture ofoutdoor and recirculated air that has beenfiltered, heated or cooled, and sometimeshumidified or dehumidified. The basiccomponents for a central air handling unitand a unit ventilator are illustrated in theIAQ Backgrounder.
THERMAL COMFORTA number of variables interact todetermine whether people are comfortablewith the temperature and relative humidityof the indoor air. Factors such as clothing,activity level, age, and physiology ofpeople in schools vary widely, so thethermal comfort requirements vary foreach individual. The American Society ofHeating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)Standard 55-1992 describes thetemperature and humidity ranges that arecomfortable for 80 percent of peopleengaged in largely sedentary activities.That information is summarized in thechart to the right. The ASHRAE standardassumes “normal indoor clothing.” Addedlayers of clothing reduce the rate of heatloss.
Uniformity of temperature is important tocomfort. Rooms that share a commonheating and cooling system controlled by asingle thermostat may be at differenttemperatures. Temperature stratification isa common problem caused byconvection—the tendency of light, warmair to rise, and heavier, cooler air to sink.If air is not properly mixed by theventilation system, the temperature nearthe ceiling can be several degrees warmeror cooler than near the floor, where youngchildren spend much of their time. Even ifair is properly mixed, uninsulated floorsover unheated spaces can creatediscomfort in some climate zones. Largefluctuations of indoor temperature canalso occur when thermostats have a wide“dead band” (a temperature range inwhich neither heating or cooling takesplace).
Radiant heat transfer may cause peoplelocated near very hot or very cold surfacesto be uncomfortable even though thethermostat setting and the measured airtemperature are within the comfort range.Schools with large window areassometimes have acute problems ofdiscomfort due to radiant heat gains andlosses, with the locations of complaintsshifting during the day as the sun anglechanges. Poorly insulated walls can alsoproduce a flow of naturally-convecting air,leading to complaints of draftiness.
RECOMMENDED RANGES OF TEMPERATURE ANDRELATIVE HUMIDITY
Relative humidity Winter Temperature Summer Temperature
30% 68.5°F – 75.5°F 74.0°F – 80.0°F
40% 68.0°F – 75.0°F 73.5°F – 80.0°F
50% 68.0°F – 74.5°F 73.0°F – 79.0°F
60% 67.5°F – 74.0°F 73.0°F – 78.5°F
Recommendations apply for persons clothed in typical summer and winter clothing, at light,mainly sedentary, activity.
Source: Adopted from ASHRAE Standard 55-1992, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy
All schools needventilation, whichis the process of
supplyingoutdoor air tooccupied areas
within the school.
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Selected OutdoorAir VentilationRecommendations(Minimum)
Application Cubic Feet per Minute (cfm) per Person
Classroom 15
Music Rooms 15
Libraries 15
Auditoriums 15
Spectator Sport Areas 15
Playing Floors 20
Office Space 20
Conference Rooms 20
Smoking Lounges 60
Cafeteria 20
Kitchen (cooking) 15
Source: ASHRAE Standard 62-2001,Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor AirQuality
Closing curtains reduces heating fromdirect sunlight and reduces occupantexposure to hot or cold window surfaces.Large schools may have interior (“core”)spaces in which year-round cooling isrequired to compensate for heat generatedby occupants, office equipment, andlighting, while perimeter rooms mayrequire heating or cooling depending onoutdoor conditions.
Humidity is a factor in thermal comfort.Raising relative humidity reduces aperson’s ability to lose heat throughperspiration and evaporation, so that theeffect is similar to raising the temperature.Humidity extremes can also create otherIAQ problems. Excessively high or lowrelative humidities can producediscomfort, high relative humidities canpromote the growth of mold and mildew,and low relative humidities can acceleratethe release of spores into the air. (SeeAppendix H: “Mold and Moisture.”)
VENTILATION FOR OCCUPANTNEEDSVentilation is the process of supplyingoutdoor air to the occupied areas in theschool while indoor air is exhausted byfans or allowed to escape throughopenings, thus removing indoor airpollutants. Often, this exhaust air is takenfrom areas that produce air pollutantssuch as restrooms, kitchens, science-storage closets, and fume hoods.
Modern schools generally use mechanicalventilation systems to introduce outdoorair during occupied periods, but someschools use only natural ventilation orexhaust fans to remove odors andcontaminants. In naturally ventilatedbuildings, unacceptable indoor air qualityis particularly likely when occupants keepthe windows closed due to extreme hot orcold outdoor temperatures. Even whenwindows and doors are open, inadequateventilation is likely when air movementforces are weakest, such as when there islittle wind or when there is littletemperature difference between inside andoutside (stack effect).
Stack effect is the pressure-driven airflowproduced by convection, the tendency ofwarm air to rise. Stack effect existswhenever there is an indoor-outdoortemperature difference, and the effectbecomes stronger as the temperaturedifference increases. Multi-story schoolsare more affected than single-storyschools. As heated air escapes from upperlevels, indoor air moves from lower toupper levels, and outdoor air is drawn intothe lower levels to replace the air that hasescaped. Stack effect can transportcontaminants between floors by way ofstairwells, elevator shafts, utility chases,and other openings.
The amount of outdoor air consideredadequate for proper ventilation has variedsubstantially over time. Because updatingbuilding codes often takes several years,current building codes may require moreventilation then when the system wasdesigned. ASHRAE ventilation standardsare used as the basis for most buildingventilation codes. A table of outdoor airquantities in schools as recommended byASHRAE Standard 62-2001, “Ventilationfor Acceptable Indoor Air Quality,” isshown to the left. Please note that this is alimited portion of the Standard, and thatthe quantities listed are in units of cfm perperson, which are cubic feet per minute ofoutdoor air for each person in the areaserved by that ventilation system.
POLLUTANT PATHWAYS ANDDRIVING FORCESAirflow patterns in buildings result fromthe combined forces of mechanicalventilation systems, human activity, andnatural effects. Air pressure differencescreated by these forces move airbornepollutants from areas of higher pressure toareas of lower pressure through anyavailable openings in building walls,ceilings, floors, doors, windows, andHVAC systems. For example, as long asthe opening to an inflated balloon is keptshut, no air will flow. When opened,however, air will move from inside (areaof higher pressure) to the outside (area oflower pressure).
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Even if the opening is small, air willmove until the inside pressure is equal tothe outside pressure. If present, the HVACducts are generally the predominantpathway and driving force for airmovement in buildings. However, all of abuilding’s components (walls, ceilings,floors, doors, windows, HVACequipment, and occupants) interact toaffect how air movement distributespollutants within a building.
As air moves from supply outlets toreturn inlets, for example, it is diverted orobstructed by walls and furnishings, andredirected by openings that providepathways for air movement. On alocalized basis, the movements of peoplehave a major impact on pollutanttransport. Some of the pathways changeas doors and windows open and close. Itis useful to think of the entire building—the rooms with connecting corridors andutility passageways between them—aspart of the air-distribution system.
Air movement can transfer emissionsfrom the pollutant source:
• Into adjacent rooms or spaces that areunder lower pressure.
• Into other spaces through HVACsystem ducts.
• From lower to upper levels in multi-story schools.
• Into the building through eitherinfiltration of outdoor air or reentry ofexhaust air.
• To various points within the room.
Natural forces exert an importantinfluence on air movement between aschool’s interior and exterior. Both thestack effect and wind can overpower abuilding’s HVAC system and disrupt aircirculation and ventilation, especially ifthe school envelope (walls, ceiling,windows, etc.) is leaky.
Wind effects are transient, creating localareas of high pressure (on the windwardside) and low pressure (on the leewardside) of buildings. Depending on the sizeand location of leakage openings in the
building exterior, wind can affect thepressure relationships within and betweenrooms. Entry of outdoor air contaminantsmay be intermittent or variable, occurringonly when the wind blows from thedirection of the pollutant source.
Most public and commercial buildings aredesigned to be positively pressurized, sothat unconditioned air does not enterthrough openings in the building envelopecausing discomfort or air qualityproblems. The interaction betweenpollutant pathways and intermittent orvariable driving forces can lead to a singlesource causing IAQ complaints in an areaof the school that is distant from thepollutant source.
BUILDING OCCUPANTSOccupant activities can directly affectpollutant sources, the HVAC system(operation, maintenance, controls),pathways, and driving forces. Occupantscan also be carriers of communicabledisease and allergens, such as pet dander.Teachers may use dry-erase markers orlaboratory chemicals that emit pollutants.Similarly, many cleaning materials used inschools contain VOCs that can degradeIAQ.
Teachers and administrators often obstructproper air movement in their classroomsand offices by using ventilation units asbookshelves, unknowingly restricting thepathway for fresh air to enter the area.Similarly, covering air return ducts (withposters, for example) restricts proper aircirculation. Therefore, it is important foroccupants to understand how theiractivities directly affect ventilationpathways and sources of pollutants in theirschool.
Occupants can contribute to a healthyindoor environment by completing theIAQ checklists, monitoring their ownbehavior, and immediately alerting theIAQ Coordinator of any IAQ problems.
It is importantfor occupants tounderstand howtheir activitiesdirectly affect
ventilation path-ways and sources
of pollutants in theirschool.
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G ood communication can help toprevent IAQ problems and can allayunnecessary fears. In addition, schoolsshould respond promptly and effectivelyto any IAQ issues that may arise.Communication can assist schooloccupants in understanding how theiractivities affect IAQ, which will enable theoccupants to improve their indoorenvironment through proper choices andactions. EPA’s IAQ TfS CommunicationsGuide (EPA 402-K-02-008) provides moreinformation on communication strategiesfor addressing IAQ concerns. To obtaina copy of the Guide, call IAQ INFO at800-438-4318 or visit EPA’s Web site atwww.epa.gov/iaq/schools.
PROACTIVE COMMUNICATIONSchools and school districts can reap manybenefits from taking a proactive approachto addressing IAQ issues. The positivepublic relations that can result from thisapproach can lead to a betterunderstanding of IAQ by school occupantsand the community. Communicatingeffectively—both internally andexternally—is a key element.
Build rapport with the local media now.An informed media that is aware of yourefforts to prevent IAQ problems and thatunderstands the basics of IAQ in schoolscan be an asset instead of a liability duringan IAQ crisis.
Communicating the goals of the IAQManagement Plan to those within theschool—teachers, custodians,administrators, support staff, the schoolnurse, students—is key. The followingsteps can help develop goodcommunication between you and theschool occupants:
1. Provide accurate information aboutfactors that are affecting IAQ.
2. Clarify the responsibilities andactivities of the IAQ Coordinator.
3. Clarify the responsibilities andactivities of each occupant.
3Section 3 – Effective Communication
4. Notify occupants and parents ofplanned activities that may affect IAQ.
5. Employ good listening skills.
The checklists, forms, and informationcontained in this guide will assist you inaccomplishing the first three objectives.In addition, refer to the list of communi-cation principles on the next page.
The necessary level of communication isoften dependent on the severity of the IAQcomplaint. If the complaint can beresolved quickly (e.g., an annoying butharmless odor from an easily identifiedsource) and involves a small number ofpeople, communication can be handled ina straightforward manner without riskingconfusion and bad feeling among schooloccupants. Communication becomes amore critical issue when there are delaysin identifying and resolving the problemand when serious health concerns areinvolved.
The fourth objective deals with informingoccupants and parents before the start ofsignificant planned activities that produceodors or contaminants. If occupants andparents are uninformed, they may becomeconcerned about unknown aircontaminants, such as strange odors orexcessive levels of dust, and register anIAQ complaint. Examples of plannedactivities include pest control, painting,roofing, and installation of new flooring.Notification of planned activities can alsoprevent problems from arising withstudents and staff with special needs. Forexample, an asthmatic student may wish toavoid certain areas within a school, or usealternative classrooms, during times whena major renovation project will producehigher levels of dust. A samplenotification letter is provided in the modelpainting policy in Appendix B:“Developing Indoor Air Policies,” in theIAQ Coordinator’s Guide: A Guide toImplementing an IAQ Program.
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The fifth objective involves effectivelistening. School occupants can oftenprovide information that helps preventproblems, and being “heard” may helpdefuse negative reactions by occupants ifindoor air problems develop.
RESPONSIVE COMMUNICATIONWhen an IAQ problem occurs, you can beassured that the school community willlearn about it quickly. Without opencommunication, any IAQ problem canbecome complicated by anxiety,frustration, and distrust. Thesecomplications can increase both the timeand money needed to resolve the problem.
Immediate communication is vital, and iseasiest if a few strategic steps are takenbefore an IAQ problem arises. First,ensure that a spokesperson is ready byhaving a working understanding of thecommunication guidance found in thissection, and a background knowledge ofIAQ as outlined in Sections 1 and 2. Thisperson should also have complete accessto information as the investigationprogresses. Because of thesequalifications, the IAQ Coordinator maybe a good choice for spokesperson.Second, establish a plan for how you willcommunicate to the school community.The school community includes alloccupants of the school, parents, theschool district administration and schoolboard, the local union, and the local newsmedia.
Paying attention to communication whensolving a problem helps to ensure thesupport and cooperation of schooloccupants as the problem is investigatedand resolved. There are basic, yetimportant, messages to convey:
• School administrators are committed toproviding a healthy and safe school.
• Good IAQ is an essential component ofa healthy indoor environment.
• IAQ complaints are taken seriously.
When a problem arises, communicationshould begin immediately. You should notwait until an investigation is nearlycompleted or until final data are availablebefore providing some basic elements ofinformation. Communications, whether in
conversations or in writing, should includethe following elements in a factual andconcise manner:
• The general nature of the problem,the types of complaints that have beenreceived, and the locations that areaffected;
• The administration’s policy in regard toproviding a healthy and safeenvironment;
• What has been done to address theproblems or complaints, including thetypes of information that are beinggathered;
• What is currently being done, includingfactors that have been evaluated andfound not to be causing or contributingto the problem;
• How the school community can help;
• Attempts that are being made toimprove IAQ;
• Work that remains to be done and theexpected schedule for its completion;
• The name and telephone number of theIAQ Coordinator, who can be contactedfor further information or to registercomplaints; and
• When the school will provide the nextupdate.
Productive relations will be enhanced ifthe school community is given basicprogress reports during the process ofdiagnosing and solving problems. It isadvisable to explain the nature ofinvestigative activities, so that rumors andsuspicions can be countered with factualinformation. Notices or memoranda canbe posted in general use areas anddelivered directly to parents, the schoolboard, the local union, and other interestedconstituents of the school community.Newsletter articles, the school Web site, orother established communication channelscan also be used to keep the schoolcommunity up-to-date.
Problems can arise from saying either toolittle or too much. Premature release ofinformation when data-gathering is stillincomplete can cause confusion,frustration, and future mistrust. Similarproblems can result from incorrect
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representation of risk—improperlyassuming the worst case or the best.However, if even simple progress reportsare not given, people will think that eithernothing is being done or that somethingterrible is happening.
Even after the problem is correctlydiagnosed and a proper mitigation strategyis in place, it may take days or weeks forcontaminants to dissipate and symptomsto disappear. If building occupants areinformed that their symptoms may persist
COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES• Be honest, frank, and open. Once trust
and credibility are lost, they are almostimpossible to regain. If you don’t knowan answer or are uncertain, say so.Admit mistakes. Get back to peoplewith answers. Discuss datauncertainties, strengths, andweaknesses.
• Respect your audience. Keepexplanations simple, avoiding technicallanguage and jargon as much aspossible. Use concrete images thatcommunicate on a personal level.People in the community are oftenmore concerned about such issues ascredibility, competence, fairness, andcompassion than about statistics and
for some time after solving the problem,the inability to bring instant relief is lesslikely to be seen as a failure.
Remember to communicate as the finalstep in problem-solving—although youmay know that the problem has beenresolved, the school community may notknow, so be sure to provide a summarystatus report. The graphic belowsummarizes the main steps for responsivecommunications.
details. However, provide sufficientinformation to audiences that arecapable of understanding moretechnical explanations.
• Employ your best listening skills. Taketime to find out what people arethinking, rather than assuming that youalready know.
• Tailor communication strategies toyour audience. Use mass media forproviding information, andinterpersonal techniques for changingattitudes.
DevelopNotification
Strategy
CommunicateImmediately
ProvideProgressReport
ProvideSummary
Status Report
BEFORE PROBLEM DURING PROBLEM
Select & PrepareSpokesperson
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• Involve school employees. An informedstaff is likely to be a supportive staff.
• Involve parents. Inform parents aboutwhat is being done and why, as well aswhat will happen if problems aredetected.
• Involve the school board. Encourageboard members to observe the process(e.g., taking a walk-through of theschool with the IAQ Coordinator).
• Involve businesses that provideservices to the school (e.g.,exterminators, bus fleet administrators/operators) and businesses locatedaround the school, which may alsonegatively impact IAQ.
• Emphasize action. Always try toinclude a discussion of actions that areunderway or that can be taken.
• Encourage feedback. Accentuate thepositive and learn from your mistakes.
• Strive for an informed public. Thepublic should be involved, interested,reasonable, thoughtful, solution-oriented, and collaborative.
• Be prepared for questions. Providebackground material on complexissues. Avoid public conflicts ordisagreements among crediblesources.
• Be responsive. Acknowledge theemotions that people express andrespond in words and actions. When indoubt, lean toward sharing moreinformation, not less, or people maythink you are hiding something.
• Combat rumors with facts. Forexample, set up a chalkboard in theteachers’ lounge or in another generaluse area for recording what is heard.Record rumors as they arise and addresponses. Then pass out copies to thestaff.
• Do not over promise. Promise onlywhat you can do and follow throughwith each promise.
• Work with the media. Be accessible toreporters and respect deadlines. Try to
establish long-term relationships oftrust with specific editors and reporters.Remember that the media arefrequently more interested in politicsthan in science, more interested insimplicity than complexity, and moreinterested in danger than safety.
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R esolving IAQ problems involvesdiagnosing the cause, applying practicalactions that either reduce emissions frompollutant sources, remove pollutantsfrom the air (e.g., increasing ventilationor air cleaning), or both. Problemsrelated to sources can stem fromimproper material selection orapplication, allowing conditions that canincrease biological contamination anddust accumulation, or source location.Ventilation problems stem fromimproper design, installation, operation,or maintenance of the ventilationsystem.
This Guide provides information on mostIAQ problems found in schools, and doesnot require that pollutant measurements beperformed and analyzed. It is important totake reported IAQ problems seriously andrespond quickly:
• IAQ problems can be a serious healththreat and can cause acute discomfort(irritation) or asthma attacks.
• Addressing an IAQ problem promptly isgood policy. Parents are sensitive tounnecessary delays in resolvingproblems that affect their children. Staffhave enough burdens withoutexperiencing frustration over unresolvedproblems, and unaddressed problemsinvariably lead to greater complaints.
• Diagnosing a problem is often easierimmediately after the complaint(s) hasbeen received. The source of theproblem may be intermittent and thesymptoms may come and go. Also, thecomplainant’s memory of events is bestimmediately after the problem occurs.
In some cases, people may believe thatthey are being adversely affected by theindoor air, but the basis for theirperception may be some other form ofstressor not directly related to IAQ.Section 6: “Solving IAQ problems,”discusses some of these stressors such asglare, noise, and stress.
4Section 4 – Resolving IAQ Problems
IS THIS AN EMERGENCY?The first decision that must be made indealing with an IAQ problem is whetherthe problem requires an emergencyresponse, as shown in the diagram below.Some IAQ incidents require immediateresponse—for example, high carbonmonoxide levels or certain toxicchemical spills will require evacuationof all affected areas in the school, andbiological contaminants such asLegionella may require a similarresponse. In recent years, largeoutbreaks of influenza have causedentire schools and districts to ceaseoperation temporarily. Some schoolsand districts may already haveestablished policies on what constitutesa life and safety emergency. Local andstate health departments can also behelpful in defining life- and safety-threatening emergencies.
If this is an emergency situation, inaddition to immediate action to protect lifeand health, it is vital that the schooladministration, parents of students, and
IAQ Problem Identified
Notification and Communication (Section 3)
Does Problem Threaten Life or Safety?
Go to Section 5Evacuate Affected Areas
NO
YES
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appropriate authorities be notified ofthe situation in a carefully coordinatedmanner. You must also be prepared todeal quickly and properly with questionsfrom local media. Review the guidance inSection 3: “Effective Communication,”and in EPA’s IAQ TfS CommunicationsGuide (EPA 402-K-02-008) to assist inmanaging the issues of notification andcommunication. The Guide is availablefrom NSCEP (800-490-9198) and EPA’sWeb site.
WHO WILL SOLVE THEPROBLEM?For most IAQ issues, schools can pulltogether a team of in-house staff with anappropriate range of skills to resolve andprevent problems. The IAQ Backgrounderand checklists provide information ontypical IAQ problems found in schools.On the other hand, unique or complexIAQ problems may best be handled byprofessionals who have specializedknowledge, experience, and equipment.Knowledge of your staff’s capabilities willhelp you decide whether to use in-housepersonnel or hire outside professionals torespond to a specific IAQ problem.
Regardless of whether it is in-house staffor outside assistance that diagnoses andresolves the problem, the IAQCoordinator remains responsible formanaging the problem-solving processand for communicating with allappropriate parties during the process. Ifan IAQ Coordinator has not beenappointed already, please refer to Section2: “Role and Functions of the IAQCoordinator,” in the IAQ Coordinator’sGuide.
For most IAQ issues,schools can pull
together a team ofin-house staff to
solve and preventproblems.
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T he goal of diagnosing an IAQ problemis to identify the cause of the problem andimplement an appropriate solution. Often,more than one problem can exist,requiring more than one solution. For thisreason, EPA created the Problem SolvingChecklist (Appendix A: “IAQCoordinator’s Forms” in the IAQCoordinator’s Guide) and the IAQProblem Solving Wheel (a separate tab ofthis Kit). For best results, it is alsoimportant to have good backgroundknowledge of the basics of IAQ asoutlined in Sections 1 and 2.
The IAQ diagnostic process begins when acomplaint is registered or an IAQ problemis discovered. Many problems can besimple to diagnose, requiring a basicknowledge of IAQ and some commonsense. If the cause (or causes) of the IAQproblem has already been identified,proceed to the solution phase outlined inSection 6: “Solving IAQ problems.”
Not all occupant complaints about IAQare caused by poor indoor air. Otherfactors such as noise, lighting, and job-,family-, or peer-related stress can—individually and in combination—contribute to a perception that IAQ ispoor.
HOW TO DIAGNOSE PROBLEMSThe Problem Solving Checklist and theIAQ Problem Solving Wheel are yourprimary tools for finding solutions toproblems. They will help simplify theprocess and lead the investigation in theright direction.
Start with the Problem Solving Checklistand encourage school staff to answerquestions or perform activities posed bythe checklist and the wheel. Pollutantsources and the ventilation system mayact in combination to create an IAQproblem. Resolve as many problems aspossible and note any problems that youintend to fix later.
5Once you identify the likely cause of theIAQ problem, or the solution is readilyapparent, refer to Section 6: “SolvingIAQ Problems,” for potential courses ofaction.
SPATIAL AND TIMING PATTERNSAs a first step, use the spatial pattern(locations) of complaints to define thecomplaint area. Focus on areas in theschool where symptoms or discomforthave been reported. The complaint areamay need to be revised as the investigationprogresses. Pollutant pathways can causecomplaints in parts of the school that arelocated far away from the source of theproblems. See the “Spatial Patterns ofComplaints” table on the next page.
After defining a location (or group oflocations), look for patterns in the timingof complaints. The timing of symptomsand complaints can indicate potentialcauses and provide directions for furtherinvestigation. Review the data for cyclicpatterns of symptoms (e.g., worst duringperiods of minimum ventilation or whenspecific sources are most active) thatmay be related to the HVAC system orto other activities affecting IAQ in ornear the school. See the “Timing Patternsof Complaints” table on the next page.
Section 5 – Diagnosing IAQ Problems
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Localized (e.g., affecting individualrooms, zones, or air handling systems)
• Consider explanations other than air contaminants.
• Check ventilation and temperature control within the complaint area.
• Check outdoor air quality.
• Review pollutant sources affecting the complaint area.
• Check local HVAC system components that may be acting as sourcesor distributors of pollutants.
Individual(s) • Check for drafts, radiant heat (gain or loss), and other localizedtemperature control or ventilation problems near the affectedindividual(s).
• Consider that common background sources may affect onlysusceptible individuals.
• Consider the possibility that individual complaints may have differentcauses that are not necessarily related to the building (particularly ifthe symptoms differ among the individuals).
Single event of symptoms
• Consider spills, other unrepeated events as sources.
Symptoms disappear when the individual(s)leaves the school, either immediately, over-night, or (in some cases) after extendedperiods away from the building
• Consider that the problem may be building-associated, though notnecessarily due to air quality. Other stressors (e.g., lighting, noise) maybe involved.
Symptoms never disappear, even afterextended absence from school (e.g.,vacations)
• Consider that the problem may not be building-related.
Intermittent symptoms
• Look for daily, weekly, or seasonal cycles or weather-related patterns,and check linkage to other events in and around the school.
Symptoms worsen over course ofoccupied period
• Consider that ventilation may not be adequate to handle routineactivities or equipment operation within the building, or that tem-perature is not properly controlled.
TIMING PATTERNS OF COMPLAINTS SUGGESTIONS
Symptoms begin and/or are worst at thestart of the occupied period
• Review HVAC operating cycles. Pollutants from building materials,or from the HVAC system itself, may build up during unoccupiedperiods.
SPATIAL PATTERNS OF COMPLAINTS SUGGESTIONS
Widespread, no apparent spatial pattern • Check ventilation and temperature control for entire building.
• Check outdoor air quality.
• Review sources that are spread throughout the building (e.g., cleaningmaterials or microbiological growth inside the ventilation system).
• Check for distribution of a source to multiple locations through theventilation system.
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The purpose of this section is to providean understanding of basic principles insolving IAQ problems. This guidance canbe helpful in selecting a mitigationstrategy and in evaluating the practicalityand effectiveness of proposals fromoutside professionals or in-house staff.
DEVELOPING SOLUTIONSThe selection of a solution is based on thedata gathered during diagnostics (Section5: “Diagnosing IAQ Problems”). Thediagnostics may have determined that theproblem was either a real or a perceivedIAQ problem, or a combination ofmultiple problems. For each problem thatis identified, develop a solution using thebasic control strategies described below.
There are six basic control methods thatcan lower concentrations of indoor airpollutants. Often, only a slight shift inemphasis or action using these controlmethods is needed to control IAQ moreeffectively. Specific applications of thesebasic control strategies can be found ineach team member’s checklist.
1. Source Management – Managingpollutant sources, the most effectivecontrol strategy, includes:
• Source removal – Eliminating or notallowing pollutant sources to enter theschool. Examples include not allowingbuses to idle, especially not nearoutdoor air intakes, not placing garbagein rooms with HVAC equipment, andreplacing moldy materials.
• Source reduction – Improvingtechnology and/or materials to reduceemissions. Examples include replacing2-stroke lawn and garden equipmentwith lower emitting options (e.g.,manual or electrically powered or 4-stroke); switching to low emissionsportable gasoline containers; andimplementing technology upgrades toreduce emissions from school buses.
6Section 6 – Solving IAQ Problems
• Source substitution – Replacingpollutant sources. Examples includeselecting less- or non-toxic art materialsor interior paints.
• Source encapsulation – Placing abarrier around the source so that itreleases fewer pollutants into the indoorair. Examples include covering pressedwood cabinetry with sealed orlaminated surfaces or using plasticsheeting when renovating to containcontaminants.
2. Local Exhaust – Removing (exhaustingfume hoods and local exhaust fans to theoutside) point sources of indoor pollutantsbefore they disperse. Examples includeexhaust systems for restrooms andkitchens, science labs, storage rooms,printing and duplicating rooms, andvocational/industrial areas (such aswelding booths and firing kilns).
3. Ventilation – Lowering pollutantconcentrations by diluting polluted(indoor) air with cleaner (outdoor) air.Local building codes likely specify thequantity (and sometimes quality) ofoutdoor air that must be continuouslysupplied in your school. (If not, seeSection 2 of this Guide for ASHRAErecommendations.) Temporarily increasingventilation as well as properly using theexhaust system while painting or applyingpesticides, for example, can be useful indiluting the concentration of noxiousfumes in the air.
4. Exposure Control – Adjusting the timeand location of pollutant exposure.Location control involves moving thepollutant source away from occupants oreven relocating susceptible occupants.
• Time of use – Avoid use of pollutantsources when the school is occupied.For example, strip and wax floors (withthe ventilation system functioning) onFriday after school is dismissed. Thisallows the floor products to off-gas overthe weekend, reducing the level of
If people areprovided with
information, theycan act to reduce
pollutantexposure.
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pollutants in the air when the school isreoccupied on Monday. Anotherexample is to mow around the buildingand near play fields only before or afterschool hours.
• Amount of use – Use air-pollutingsources as little as possible to minimizecontamination of the indoor air.
• Location of use – Move pollutingsources as far away as possible fromoccupants or relocating susceptibleoccupants.
5. Air Cleaning – Filtering particles andgaseous contaminants as air passesthrough ventilation equipment. This typeof system should be engineered on a case-by-case basis.
6. Education – Teaching and trainingschool occupants about IAQ issues.People in the school can reduce theirexposure to many pollutants byunderstanding basic information abouttheir environment and knowing how toprevent, remove, or control pollutants.
Some solutions, such as major ventilationchanges, may not be practical toimplement due to lack of resources or theneed for long periods of non-occupancy toensure the safety of the students and staff.Use temporary measures to ensure goodIAQ in the meantime. Other solutions,such as anti-idling programs, offer low-cost options that can be easily and quicklyimplemented.
SOLUTIONS FOR OTHERCOMPLAINTSSpecific lighting deficiencies or localizedsources of noise or vibration may beeasily identified. Remedial action may befairly straightforward, such as havingmore or fewer lights, making adjustmentsfor glare, and relocating, replacing, oracoustically insulating a noise or vibrationsource.
In other cases, where problems may bemore subtle or solutions more complex,such as psychogenic illnesses (originatingin the mind), enlist the services of aqualified professional.
Remedial actions for lighting and noiseproblems can range from modifications ofequipment or furnishings to renovation ofthe building. Reducing stress for schoolstaff may involve new managementpractices, job redesign, or resolution ofunderlying labor-management problems.
EVALUATING SOLUTIONSTo help ensure a successful solution,evaluate mitigation efforts at the planningstage by considering the following criteria:
• Permanence;
• Durability;
• Operating principle;
• Installation and operating cost;
• Control capacity;
• Ability to institutionalize the solution;and
• Conformity with codes.
Permanence. Mitigation efforts that createpermanent solutions to indoor airproblems are clearly superior to those thatprovide temporary solutions, unless theproblems are also temporary. Openingwindows or running air handlers on fulloutdoor air may be suitable mitigationstrategies for a temporary problem, suchas off-gassing of volatile compoundsfrom new furnishings, but they are notacceptable permanent solutions becauseof increased costs for energy andmaintenance. A permanent solution tomicrobiological contamination involvescleaning and disinfection as well asmoisture control to prevent regrowth.
Durability. IAQ solutions that are durableare more attractive than approaches thatrequire frequent maintenance orspecialized skills. New items of equipmentshould be quiet, energy-efficient, anddurable.
Operating Principle. The operatingprinciple of the IAQ solution needs tomake sense and be suited to the problem.If a specific point source of contaminantsis identified, treatment at the source byremoval, sealing, or local exhaust is a
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more appropriate correction strategy thandiluting the contaminant with increasedventilation. If the IAQ problem is causedby outdoor air containing contaminants,then increasing the outdoor air supply willonly worsen the situation, unless thesupply of outdoor air is cleaned.
Installation and Operating Costs. Theapproach with the lowest initial costmay not be the least expensive over thelong run. Long-term economicconsiderations include energy costs forequipment operation, increased stafftime for maintenance, differential costof alternative materials and supplies,and higher hourly rates. Strongconsideration should be given topurchasing ENERGY STAR qualifiedproducts.
Control Capacity. It is important to select asolution that fits the size and scope of theproblem. If odors from a special use areasuch as a kitchen entering nearbyclassrooms, increasing the ventilation ratein the classrooms may not be successful. Ifmechanical equipment is needed to correctthe IAQ problem, it must be powerfulenough to accomplish the task. Forexample, a local exhaust system should bestrong enough and close enough to thesource so that none of the contaminantmoves into other portions of the building.
Ability to Institutionalize the Solution.A solution will be most successful if it isintegrated into normal building operations.To ensure success, solutions should notrequire exotic equipment, unfamiliarconcepts, or delicately maintainedsystems. If maintenance, housekeepingprocedures, or supplies must change aspart of the solution, it may be necessary toprovide additional training, new inspectionchecklists, or modified purchasingguidelines. Operating and maintenanceschedules for heating, cooling, andventilation equipment may also needmodification.
Conformity with Codes. Any modificationto building components or mechanicalsystems should be designed and installedin conformance with applicable fire,electrical, and other building codes.
EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESSOF YOUR SOLUTIONTwo kinds of indicators can be used toevaluate the success of correcting anindoor air problem:
• Reduced complaints.
• Measurement of the properties of theindoor air.
Although reduction or elimination ofcomplaints appears to be a clearindication of success, it may notnecessarily be the case. Occupants whofeel their concerns are being heard maytemporarily stop reporting discomfort orhealth symptoms, even if the actual causeof their complaints has not beencorrected. On the other hand, lingeringcomplaints may continue after successfulmitigation if people are upset over thehandling of the problem. A smallernumber of ongoing complaints mayindicate that multiple IAQ problems existand have not been resolved.
Measurements of airflows, ventilationrates, and air distribution patterns can beused to assess the results of controlefforts. Airflow measurements takenduring the building investigation canidentify areas with poor ventilation; laterthey can be used to evaluate attempts toimprove the ventilation rate, distribution,or direction of flow. Studying airdistribution patterns will show whether amitigation strategy has successfullyprevented the transportation of a pollutantby airflow. While in some casesmeasuring pollutant levels can helpdetermine whether IAQ has improved, inmany cases this may be difficult and/orcost prohibitive. Concentrations of indoorair pollutants typically vary greatly overtime, and the specific contaminantmeasured may not be causing theproblem. Measuring a specific pollutantby a professional is appropriate if theproblem can be limited to that pollutant.For further information on IAQmeasurements, see Appendix B: “BasicMeasurement Equipment.”
A solution will bemost successful if it
is integrated intonormal building
operations.
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PERSISTENT PROBLEMSSometimes even the best-plannedinvestigations and mitigation actions willnot resolve the problem. You may havecarefully investigated the problem,identified one or more causes, andimplemented a control system.Nonetheless, your efforts may not havenoticeably reduced the concentration ofthe contaminant or improved ventilationrates or efficiency. Worse, the problemmay continue to persist.
If your efforts to control a problem areunsuccessful, consider seeking outsideassistance. The problem could be fairlycomplex, occur only intermittently, orextend beyond traditional fields ofknowledge. It is possible that poor IAQ isnot the actual cause of the complaints.Bringing in a new perspective at this pointcan be very effective. Appendix A:“Hiring Professional Assistance” providesguidance on hiring professional IAQassistance.
Ongoing complaintsmay indicate that
multiple IAQproblems have not
been resolved.
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S ome indoor air quality (IAQ) problemsare simple to resolve when schoolpersonnel understand the buildinginvestigation process. Many potentialproblems will be prevented if staff andstudents do their part to maintain goodIAQ. However, a time may come whenoutside assistance is needed. For example,professional help might be necessary ordesirable in the following situations:
• If you suspect that you have a seriousbuilding-related illness potentiallylinked to biological contamination inyour building, mistakes or delays couldhave serious consequences (such ashealth hazards, liability exposure,regulatory sanctions). Contact yourlocal or state Health Department.
• Testing for a public health hazard (suchas asbestos, lead, or radon) hasidentified a problem that requires aprompt response.
• The school administration believes thatan independent investigation would bebetter received or more effectivelydocumented than an in-houseinvestigation.
• Investigation and mitigation efforts byschool staff have not relieved an IAQproblem.
• Preliminary findings by staff suggestthe need for measurements that requirespecialized equipment and skills thatare not available in-house.
HIRING PROFESSIONAL HELPAs you prepare to hire professionalservices for a building investigation, beaware that IAQ is a developing area ofknowledge. Most individuals working inIAQ received their primary training inother disciplines. It is important to definethe scope of work clearly and discuss anypotential consultant’s proposed approachto the investigation, including plans forcoordinating efforts among teammembers. The school’s representativesmust exercise vigilance in overseeing
diagnostic activities and corrective action.Performance specifications can help toensure the desired results. Sampleperformance specification language isprovided at the end of this appendix initalicized font.
Other than for lead and asbestosremediation, there are no Federalregulations covering professional servicesin the general field of indoor air quality,although some disciplines (e.g., engineers,industrial hygienists) whose practitionerswork with IAQ problems have licensingand certification requirements. Individualsand groups that offer services in thisevolving field should be questionedclosely about their related experience andtheir proposed approach to your problem.In addition, request and contactreferences.
Local, state, or Federal governmentagencies (e.g., education, health, or airpollution agencies) may be able to provideexpert assistance or direction in solvingIAQ problems. If available governmentagencies do not have personnel with theappropriate skills to assist in solving yourIAQ problem, they may be able to directyou to firms in your area with experiencein IAQ work. You may also be able tolocate potential consultants by looking inthe yellow pages (e.g., under “Engineers,”“Environmental Services,” “Laboratories –Testing,” or “Industrial Hygienists”), or byasking other schools for referrals. Often, amulti-disciplinary team of professionals isneeded to investigate and resolve an IAQproblem. The skills of heating, ventilation,and air-conditioning (HVAC) engineersand industrial hygienists are typicallyuseful for this type of investigation. Inputfrom other disciplines such as chemistry,architecture, microbiology, or medicinemay also be important.
If problems other than IAQ are involved,experts in lighting, acoustic design,interior design, psychology, or other fieldsmay be helpful in resolving occupantcomplaints about the indoor environment.
AHiring Professional Assistance
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EVALUATING POTENTIALCONSULTANTSAs with any hiring process, the better youknow your own needs, the easier it will beto select individuals or firms to servicethose needs. The more clearly you candefine the project scope, the more likelyyou are to achieve the desired resultwithout paying for unnecessary services.An investigation strategy based onevaluating building performance can beused to solve a problem withoutnecessarily identifying a particularchemical compound as the cause. The ideaof testing the air to learn whether it is“safe” or “unsafe” is very appealing. Mostexisting standards for airborne pollutants,however, were developed for industrialsettings where most occupants are usuallyhealthy adult men. Some state regulationscall for the involvement of a professionalengineer for any modifications oradditions to a school HVAC system.Whether or not this is legally mandatedfor your school, the professionalengineer’s knowledge of air handling,conditioning, and sequencing strategieswill help to design ventilation systemmodifications without creating otherproblems. In many situations, properengineering can save energy whileimproving IAQ. An example of this mightbe the redesign of outside air-handlingstrategies to improve the performance ofan economizer cycle.
The following guidelines may be helpfulin evaluating potential consultants:
1. Competent professionals will askquestions about your situation to seewhether they can offer services thatwill assist you.
The causes and potential remedies forIAQ problems vary greatly. A firmneeds at least a preliminaryunderstanding of the facts about whatis going on in your building toevaluate if it can offer theprofessional skills necessary toaddress your concerns and to makeeffective use of its personnel from theoutset.
2. Consultants should be able to describehow they expect to form and testexplanations for and solutions to theproblem.
Discuss the proposed approach to thebuilding investigation. It may involvemoving suspected contaminantsources or manipulating HVACcontrols to simulate conditions at thetime of complaints or to test possiblecorrective actions. Poorly designedstudies may lead to conclusions thatare either “false negative” (i.e., falselyconcluding that there is no problem)or “false positive” (i.e., falselyconcluding that a specific conditioncaused the complaint).
Some consultants may produce aninventory of problems in the buildingwithout determining which, if any, ofthose problems caused the originalcomplaint. If investigators discoverIAQ problems unrelated to theconcern that prompted the evaluation,those problems should be noted andreported. It is important, however, thatthe original complaint is resolved.
3. The decision to take IAQ measurementsshould be approached with caution.IAQ investigators often find a largenumber of potential sourcescontributing low levels of variouscontaminants to the air. These findingsfrequently raise more questions thanthey answer. Before starting to takemeasurements, investigators need aclear understanding of how the resultswill be used and interpreted. Withoutthis understanding, planningappropriate sampling locations andtimes, instrumentation, and analysisprocedures is impossible. Non-routinemeasurements (such as relativelyexpensive sampling for volatile organiccompounds (VOCs)) should not beconducted without site-specificjustification. Concentrations thatcomply with industrial occupationalstandards are not necessarily protectiveof children, or other school occupants.
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4. A qualified IAQ investigator shouldhave appropriate experience,demonstrate a broad understanding ofIAQ problems and the conditions thatcan lead to them (e.g., the relationshipbetween IAQ and the building structure,mechanical systems, sources, andhuman activities), and use a phaseddiagnostic approach.
Have the firm identify the personnelwho would be responsible for yourcase, their specific experience, andrelated qualifications. Contract onlyfor the services of those individuals,or require approval for substitutions.When hiring an engineer, look forsomeone with the equipment andexpertise to perform a ventilationsystem assessment and with strongfield experience. Some engineersrarely work outside the office.
5. In the proposal and the interview, aprospective consultant should presenta clear, detailed picture of theproposed services and work products,including the following information:
• The basic goal(s), methodology,and sequence of the investigation,the information to be obtained, andthe process of hypothesisdevelopment and testing, includingcriteria for decision-making aboutfurther data-gathering.
• Any elements of the work that willrequire a time commitment fromschool staff, including informationto be collected by the school.
• The schedule, cost, and workproduct(s), such as a written report,specifications, and plans formitigation work; supervision ofmitigation work; and trainingprogram for school staff.
• Additional tasks (and costs) thatmay be part of solving the IAQproblem but are outside the scopeof the contract. Examples include:medical examination ofcomplainants, laboratory fees, andcontractor’s fees for mitigationwork.
• Communication between the IAQprofessional and the client: Howoften will the contractor discuss theprogress of the work with theschool? Who will be notified oftest results and other data? Willcommunications be in writing, bytelephone, or face-to-face? Will theconsultant meet with students and/or school staff to collectinformation? Will the consultantmeet with staff, parentorganizations, or others to discussfindings, if requested to do so?
• References from clients who havereceived comparable services.
IAQ-RELATED VENTILATIONMODIFICATIONSThe school’s representatives need toremember: Oversee the work and askquestions that will help you ensure thework is properly performed. Specializedmeasurements of airflow or pre- and post-mitigation contaminant concentrationsmay be needed to know whether thecorrective action is effective.
Performance specifications can be used aspart of the contract package to establishcritical goals for system design andoperation. Performance specifications canbe used to force contractors todemonstrate that they have met thosegoals. At the same time, performancespecifications should avoid dictatingspecific design features such as duct sizesand locations, thus leaving HVAC systemdesigners free to apply their professionalexpertise. You may be able to adaptappropriate sections of the followingsample performance specifications foryour school.
Performance Specifications• The control system shall be modified
and the ventilation system repaired andadjusted as needed to provide outdoorair ventilation during occupied hours.The amount of outdoor air ventilationshall meet ASHRAE Standard 62-2001minimum recommendations or shall bethe maximum possible with the currentair-handling equipment, but in no caseshall the minimum outdoor air
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ventilation rate be less than theventilation guideline in effect at thetime the school was constructed.
• When designing the ventilation systemmodifications, it is important to ensurethat: 1) Increased outdoor air intakerates do not negatively impactoccupant comfort; 2) heating coils donot freeze; and 3) the cooling systemcan handle the increased enthalpyload. A load analysis shall beperformed to determine if the existingheating (or cooling) plant has thecapacity to meet the loads imposed bythe restored or increased ventilationrates.
• If the existing plant cannot meet thisload or, if for some other reason, it isdecided not to use the existing heatingsystem to condition outdoor air, then aheating (or cooling) plant shall bedesigned for that purpose. The proposalshall include a life-cycle cost analysisof energy conservation options (e.g.,economizer cooling, heat recoveryventilation).
• All screens in outdoor air intakes shallbe inspected for proper mesh size.Screens with mesh size smaller than1/2 inch are subject to clogging; ifpresent, they shall be removed andreplaced with larger-sized mesh (not solarge as to allow birds to enter).
Demonstrating SystemPerformance• The proper operation of control
sequence and outdoor air damperoperation shall be verified by schoolpersonnel or the school’s agent afterventilation system modifications andrepairs have been completed. This shallinclude, but not be limited to:observation of damper position fordiffering settings of low limit stats androom stats, measurement of air pressureat room stats and outdoor air damperactuators, direct measurement of airflow through outdoor air intakes, anddirect measurement of air flows atexhaust grilles. The contractor shallprovide a written report documenting:1) Test procedures used to evaluateventilation system performance; 2) testlocations; 3) HVAC operatingconditions during testing; and 4)findings.
Institutionalizing the CorrectiveAction• After the ventilation system
modifications are completed, schoolfacility operators shall be provided withtraining and two copies of a manualthat documents the ventilation systemcontrol strategy, operating parameters,and maintenance requirements.
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T o prevent or resolve indoor air quality(IAQ) problems effectively and efficiently,you must be able to take four basicmeasurements relating to the air within theschool. Your school or school district mayalready own some or all of the equipmentnecessary to make these measurements. Ifnot, buying or borrowing that equipmentis important to assess the IAQ conditionsin your school accurately and ensure thatthe ventilation equipment is workingproperly (which can save the schoolmoney in heating and cooling bills), aswell as improve IAQ. Check with yourEPA regional office about equipmentavailability (see Appendix L:“Resources,” for a complete list of EPAregional offices).
Four measurements are important to theactivities in this Guide:
• Temperature.
• Relative humidity.
• Air movement.
• Airflow volume.
In addition, a carbon dioxide (CO2)
monitor is useful for indicating whenoutdoor air ventilation may be inadequate(see the Ventilation Checklist).
Sampling for pollutants is notrecommended, since results are difficult tointerpret and can require costlymeasurement equipment as well assignificant training and experience. Theactivities described in this Guide are likelyto prevent or uncover problems moreeffectively than pollutant sampling. Thefour measurements listed above are readilyavailable, do not require expensiveequipment or special training, and arestraightforward to interpret.
If your school’s budget does not allow thepurchase of some or all of the equipment,try a cooperative approach:
• Combine resources with other schoolsin the district or neighboring schools.
• Contact school organizations and localgovernment to inquire aboutcooperative purchasing options.
• Borrow equipment from another school,district, a state or local government, oran EPA regional office.
Do not let a lack of equipment prevent youfrom conducting the recommendedactivities. Conduct as many activities aspossible with the equipment you haveavailable. If you cannot obtain the recom-mended equipment due to lack of re-sources, prioritize your equipmentpurchases as follows:
1. Temperature, relative humidity, andchemical smoke device for indicatingair movement;
2. Airflow volume measuring devices; and
3. CO2 monitor.
Basic Measurement Equipment
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POLLUTANT-RELATEDREGULATIONSThe Federal government has a longhistory of regulating outdoor air qualityand the concentrations of airbornecontaminants in industrial settings. In anindustrial environment, specific chemicalsreleased by industrial processes can bepresent in high concentrations. It has beenpossible to study the health effects ofindustrial exposures and establishregulations to limit those exposures.
Some states have established regulationsregarding specific pollutants in schools,such as testing for radon and lead. VariousStates have also established anti-idlingpolicies that establish maximum idlingtimes for school buses and other vehicles.
Indoor air quality (IAQ) in schools,however, presents a different problem. Alarge variety of chemicals used inclassrooms, offices, grounds maintenance,and kitchen and cleaning applicationsexist at levels that are almost always lowerthan the concentrations found in industry.The individual and combined effects ofthese chemicals are very difficult to study,and the people exposed may includepregnant women, children, and others whoare more susceptible to health problemsthan the adult typically present inregulated industrial settings.
There is still much to learn about theeffects of both acute (short-term) andchronic (long-term) exposure to low levelsof multiple indoor air contaminants. Atthis time, there are few Federalregulations for airborne contaminants innon-industrial settings. The OccupationalSafety and Health Administration (OSHA)is the Federal agency responsible forworkplace safety and health. In the past,OSHA focused primarily on industrialworksites, but most recently hasbroadened its efforts to address otherworksite hazards. In spring 1994, OSHAintroduced a proposed rule regarding IAQin non-industrial environments, althoughthe proposal was withdrawn in December
2001. School employees may be able toobtain advice (in the form of training andinformation) from their state OSHA officeon how to reduce their exposure topotential air contaminants. In stateswithout OSHA organizations, the regionalOSHA contact may be able to provideinformation or assistance (see AppendixL: “Resources”).
VENTILATION-RELATEDREGULATIONSVentilation is the other major influence onIAQ that is subject to regulation. TheFederal government does not regulateventilation in non-industrial settings.However, many state and localgovernments do regulate ventilationsystem capacity through their buildingcodes. Building codes have beendeveloped to promote good constructionpractices and prevent health and safetyhazards. Professional associations, such asthe American Society of Heating,Refrigerating, and Air-ConditioningEngineers (ASHRAE) and the NationalFire Protection Association (NFPA),develop recommendations for appropriatebuilding and equipment design andinstallation (e.g., ASHRAE Standard 62-2001, “Ventilation for Acceptable IndoorAir Quality”). Those recommendationsacquire the force of law when adopted bystate or local regulatory bodies. There isgenerally a time lag between the adoptionof new standards by consensusorganizations such as ASHRAE and theincorporation of those new standards ascode requirements. Contact your localcode enforcement official, your State’sEducation Department, or a consultingengineer to learn about the coderequirements that apply to your school.
In general, building code requirements areonly enforceable during construction andrenovation. When code requirementschange over time (as code organizationsadapt to new information and
Codes and Regulations
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technologies), buildings are usually notrequired to modify their structure oroperation to conform to the new codes.Indeed, many buildings do not operate inconformance with current codes, or withthe codes they had to meet at the time ofconstruction. For example, the outdoor airflows that ASHRAE’s Standard 62recommends for classrooms were reducedfrom 30 cubic foot per minute (cfm)/person to 10 cfm/person in the 1930s, andreduced again to 5 cfm/person in 1973 inresponse to higher heating fuel costsresulting from the oil embargo. Concernabout IAQ stimulated reconsideration ofthe standard, so that its most recentversion, Standard 62-2001, calls for aminimum of 15 cfm/person in classrooms.However, many schools that reducedoutdoor air flow during the energy crisiscontinue to operate at ventilation rates of5 cfm/person or less. Thisunderventilation is contrary to currentengineering recommendations, but, inmost jurisdictions, it is not against thelaw.
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A sthma has reached epidemicproportions in the United States,affecting millions of people of all agesand races. Asthma is one of the leadingcauses of school absenteeism, accountingfor more than 14 million missed schooldays in 2001.
Asthma can occur at any age but ismore common in children than in adults.According to the Centers for DiseaseControl and Prevention (CDC), asthma isthe third-ranking cause of hospitalizationfor children 15 years of age and under.Moreover, the asthma rate among childrenages 5 to 14 rose 74 percent between 1980and 1994, making asthma the mostcommon chronic childhood disease.
WHAT IS ASTHMA?Asthma is a chronic disease typicallycharacterized by inflammation of theairways. During an asthma episode, theairways in the lungs narrow, makingbreathing difficult. Symptoms usuallyinclude wheezing, shortness of breath,tightness in the chest, and coughing.Asthma attacks are often separated bysymptom-free periods. The frequency andseverity of asthma attacks can be reducedby following a comprehensive asthmamanagement plan that incorporatesmedical treatment and environmentalmanagement of asthma. While scientistsdo not fully understand the causes ofasthma, outdoor air pollution andenvironmental contaminants commonlyfound indoors are known to trigger asthmaattacks.
ASTHMA TRIGGERSBecause Americans spend up to 90 percentof their time indoors, exposure to indoorallergens and irritants may play asignificant role in triggering asthmaepisodes. Some of the most commonenvironmental asthma triggers foundindoors include:
• Animal dander
• Cockroaches
• Mold
• Secondhand smoke
• Dust mites
• Diesel exhaust
Other asthma triggers include respiratoryinfections, pollens (trees, grasses, weeds),outdoor air pollution, food allergies,exercise, and cold air exposure.
ANIMAL ALLERGENSAny warm-blooded animal—includinggerbils, birds, cats, dogs, mice, and rats—can cause alergic reactions or triggerasthma attacks. Proteins may act asallergens in the dander, urine, or saliva ofwarm-blooded animals. The most commonsource of animal allergens in schools is apet in the classroom. If an animal ispresent in the school, direct exposure tothe animal’s dander and bodily fluids ispossible. It is important to realize that,even after extensive cleaning, pet allergenlevels may stay in the indoor environmentfor several months after the animal isremoved.
Schools can minimize exposure to animalallergens by:
• Seating sensitive students away frompets or considering removing pets fromthe classroom.
• Vacuuming the classroom frequentlyand thoroughly.
• Cleaning cages and the surroundingarea regularly and positioning thesecages away from ventilation systems.
COCKROACHESCockroaches and other pests, such as ratsand mice, often exist in the school setting.Allergens from pests may be significantasthma triggers for students and staff inschools. Certain proteins that act asallergens in the waste products and salivaof cockroaches can cause allergicreactions or trigger asthma attacks in someindividuals. Pest problems in schools may
Asthma
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be caused or worsened by a variety ofconditions such as plumbing leaks,moisture problems, and improper foodhandling and storage practices. It isimportant to avoid exposure to theseallergens through the use of commonsenseapproaches and integrated pestmanagement (IPM) practices throughoutthe entire school.
Schools can minimize cockroach exposureby:
• Removing or covering food or garbagefound in classrooms or kitchens.
• Storing food in airtight containers.
• Cleaning all food crumbs or spilledliquids immediately.
• Fixing plumbing leaks and othermoisture problems.
• Using poison baits, boric acid (forcockroaches), and traps beforeapplying pesticidal sprays.
• If pesticide sprays are used, the schoolshould:
- Notify staff, students, and parentsbefore spraying.
- Limit spraying to the infested area.
- Only spray when rooms areunoccupied.
Ventilate the area well during and afterspraying.
MOLD AND MOISTUREMolds can be found almost anywhere;they can grow on virtually any substancewhen moisture is present. Molds producetiny spores for reproduction that travelthrough the air continually. When moldspores land on a damp spot indoors, theymay begin growing and digestingwhatever they are growing on in order tosurvive. Molds can grow on wood, paper,carpet, and food. If excessive moisture orwater accumulates indoors, extensivemold growth may occur, particularly if themoisture problem remains undiscoveredor ignored. Eliminating all mold and moldspores in the indoor environment isimpractical—the way to control indoormold growth is to control moisture.
When mold growth occurs in buildings,reports of health-related symptoms fromsome building occupants, particularlythose with allergies or respiratoryproblems, may follow. Potential healtheffects and symptoms associated withmold exposures include allergic reactions,asthma, and other respiratory complaints.
Schools can minimize mold and moistureexposure by:
• Fixing plumbing leaks and otherunwanted sources of water.
• Ensuring that kitchen areas and lockerrooms are well ventilated.
• Maintaining low indoor humidity,ideally between 30 and 60 percent. Thehumidity level can be measured with ahygrometer, available at local hardwarestores.
• Cleaning mold off hard surfaces withwater and detergent, then dryingcompletely.
• Replacing absorbent materials, such asceiling tiles and carpet, if they arecontaminated with mold.
SECONDHAND SMOKESecondhand smoke is the smoke from theburning end of a cigarette, pipe, or cigaror the smoke exhaled by a smoker.Secondhand smoke exposure causes anumber of serious health effects in youngchildren, such as coughing, wheezing,bronchitis, pneumonia, ear infections,reduced lung function, and more severeasthma attacks. Secondhand smoke is anirritant that may trigger an asthmaepisode, and increasing evidence suggeststhat secondhand smoke may cause asthmain pre-school aged children. EPA estimatesthat between 200,000 and 1,000,000children with asthma have exacerbatedasthma conditions caused by exposure tosecondhand smoke. Secondhand smokecan also lead to buildup of fluid in themiddle ear—the most common reason foroperations in children.
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Most schools in the United Statesprohibit smoking on school grounds.However, smoking often occurs inschool bathrooms, in lounges, and nearschool entrances. If smoking occurswithin the building, secondhand smokecan travel through the ventilationsystem to the entire school. Even whenpeople smoke outside, secondhandsmoke may enter the school through theventilation system, windows, and doors.
Schools can minimize exposure tosecondhand smoke by implementingand enforcing nonsmoking policies,particularly indoors and near schoolentrances.
DUST MITESDust mites are too small to be seen, butthey are found in homes, schools, andother buildings throughout the UnitedStates. Dust mites live in mattresses,pillows, carpets, fabric-coveredfurniture, bedcovers, clothes, andstuffed toys. Their primary food sourceis dead skin flakes. Dust mite allergensmay cause an allergic reaction or triggeran asthma episode. In addition, there isevidence that dust mites may causeasthma.
Schools can minimize dust miteexposure by:
• Vacuuming carpet and fabric-coveredfurniture regularly. Use vacuums withhigh-efficiency filters or centralvacuums, if possible.
• Removing dust from hard surfaceswith a damp cloth and sweep floorsfrequently.
• Purchasing washable stuffed toys,washing them often in hot water, anddrying them thoroughly.
Combining steps for reducingenvironmental triggers with otherproactive measures—relocating areaswhere vehicles (e.g., buses and deliverytrucks) idle away from air intakes,ensuring sufficient ventilation inclassrooms and offices, eliminating theuse of air fresheners, choosing building
materials with minimal formaldehydecontent, and purchasing environmentallypreferable cleaning products—can helpschools reduce student and staff exposureto asthma triggers.
For additional information on asthma andasthma triggers, refer to Appendix E:“Typical Indoor Air Pollutants” andAppendix L: “Resources.”
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Outdoor Air Pollution
Exposure to outdoor air pollution, such as diesel exhaust, ozone, and particulate matter,can trigger an asthma episode or exacerbate asthma symptoms. There are simple actionsthat schools can take to minimize student and staff exposure to outdoor air pollutants.
DIESEL EXHAUSTExposure to diesel exhaust from school buses and other diesel vehicles can exacerbateasthma symptoms. Diesel engines emit soot, also known as particulate matter (PM), aswell as ozone-forming nitrogen oxides and other toxic air pollutants. PM and ozone (aprimary ingredient of smog) are thought to trigger asthma symptoms and lung inflam-mation, resulting in reduced lung function, greater use of asthma medication, increasedschool absences, and more frequent visits to the emergency room and hospital. DieselPM is also associated with more severe allergies and respiratory disease. In recentstudies, outdoor ozone, or smog, has been associated with more frequent diagnoses ofnew asthma cases in children.
Schools can take simple steps to reduce exposure to diesel exhaust pollutants:
• Do not allow school buses or other vehicles such as delivery trucks to idle on schoolgrounds and discourage carousing.
• Encourage your school bus fleet manager to implement district-wide anti-idlingpolicies and practices.
• Work with your school bus fleet manager to replace the oldest buses and to reduceemissions from newer buses by retrofitting them with emission control technologyand/or by switching to cleaner fuels.
• For more information, visit www.epa.gov/cleanschoolbus or call 734-214-4780.
OZONE AND PARTICULATE MATTERThe Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool to provide the public with clear and timelyinformation on local air quality and whether air pollution levels pose a health concern.The AQI is reported and forecasted every day in many areas throughout the UnitedStates on local weather reports and through national media. Asthma episodes are mostlikely to occur the day after outdoor pollution levels are high.
Schools can take simple steps to ensure the health and comfort of students when the AQIreports unhealthy levels:
• Limit physical exertion outdoors.
• Consider changing the time of day of strenuous outdoor activity to avoid the periodwhen air pollution levels are high or consider postponing sports activities to anothertime.
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T he following four pages presentinformation about several indoor airpollutants common to schools, in a formatthat allows for easy comparison. Thepollutants presented include:
• Biological contaminants (mold, dustmites, pet dander, pollen, etc.)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Dust
• Environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) orsecondhand smoke
• Fine particulate matter (PM)
• Lead (Pb)
• Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2)
• Pesticides
• Radon (Rn)
• Other volatile organic compounds(VOCs) (formaldehyde, solvents,cleaning agents)
Each pollutant is described or analyzedacross five categories:
• Description
• Sources
• Standards and guidelines for indoor airquality
• Health effects
• Control measures
Typical Indoor Air Pollutants
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Dust Dust is made up of particles in the air that settleon surfaces. Large particles settle quickly andcan be eliminated or greatly reduced by thebody’s natural defense mechanisms. Smallparticles are more likely to be airborne and arecapable of passing through the body’s defensesand entering the lungs.
Many sources can produce dust including: soil,fleecy surfaces, pollen, lead-based paint, andburning of wood, oil, or coal.
Carbon dioxide (CO2)Carbon dioxide (CO
2) is a colorless, odorless
product of carbon combustion.Human metabolic processes and all combustionprocesses of carbon fuels, like those in cars,buses, trucks, etc., are sources of CO
2. Exhaled
air is usually the largest source of CO2 in
classrooms.
Biological contaminants Common biological contaminants include mold,dust mites, pet dander (skin flakes), droppingsand body parts from cockroaches, rodents andother pests or insects, viruses, and bacteria.Many of these biological contaminants are smallenough to be inhaled.
Biological contaminants are, or are produced by,living things. Biological contaminants are oftenfound in areas that provide food and moisture.Damp or wet areas such as cooling coils,humidifiers, condensate pans, or unventedbathrooms can be moldy. Draperies, bedding,carpet, and other areas where dust collects mayaccumulate biological contaminants.
Environmental tobacco smoke(ETS), or secondhand smoke
Tobacco smoke consists of solid particles, liquiddroplets, vapors, and gases resulting from tobaccocombustion. Over 4,000 specific chemicals havebeen identified in the particulate and associatedgases.
Tobacco product combustion
Indoor Air Pollutant Description Sources
Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colorless, odorlessgas. It results from incomplete oxidation ofcarbon in combustion processes.
Common sources of CO in schools areimproperly vented furnaces, malfunctioning gasranges, or exhaust fumes that have been drawnback into the building. Worn or poorly adjustedand maintained combustion devices (e.g., boilers,furnaces), or a flue that is improperly sized,blocked, disconnected, or leaking, can besignificant sources. Auto, truck, or bus exhaustfrom attached garages, nearby roads, or idlingvehicles in parking areas can also be sources.
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The EPA Ambient Air Quality standard forparticles less than 10 microns is 50 g/m3 perhour for an annual average and 150 g/m3 for a24-hour average.
Health effects vary depending upon thecharacteristics of the dust and any associatedtoxic materials. Dust particles may contain lead,pesticide residues, radon, or other toxicmaterials. Other particles may be irritants orcarcinogens (e.g., asbestos).
Keep dust to a minimum with goodhousekeeping. Consider damp dusting and high-efficiency vacuum cleaners. Upgrade filters inventilation systems to medium efficiency whenpossible and change frequently. Exhaustcombustion appliances to the outside and cleanand maintain flues and chimneys. Whenconstruction or remodeling is underway, specialprecautions should be used to separate workareas from occupied areas.
There are currently no Federal governmentstandards for biologicals in school indoor airenvironments.
Mold, dust mites, pet dander, and pest droppingsor body parts can trigger asthma. Biologicalcontaminants, including molds and pollens cancause allergic reactions for a significant portionof the population. Tuberculosis, measles,Staphylococcus infections, Legionella andinfluenza are known to be transmitted by air.
General good housekeeping and maintenance ofheating and air conditioning equipment are veryimportant. Adequate ventilation and good airdistribution also help. The key to mold control ismoisture control. If mold is a problem, get rid ofexcess water or moisture and clean up the mold.Maintaining the relative humidity between 30and 60 percent will help control mold, dustmites, and cockroaches. Employ integrated pestmanagement (IPM) to control insect and animalallergens. Cooling tower treatment proceduresexist to reduce levels of Legionella and otherorganisms.
Many office buildings and areas of publicassembly have banned smoking indoors orrequired specially designated smoking areas withdedicated ventilation systems be available. The“Pro-Children Act of 1994” prohibits smoking inHead Start facilities and in kindergarten,elementary, and secondary schools that receiveFederal funding from the Department ofEducation, the Department of Agriculture, or theDepartment of Health and Human Services(except Medicare or Medicaid).
The effects of tobacco smoke on smokers includerhinitis/pharyngitis, nasal congestion, persistentcough, conjunctival irritation, headache,wheezing, and exacerbation of chronic respiratoryconditions. Secondhand smoke has beenclassified as a “Group A” carcinogen by EPA andhas multiple health effects on children. It has alsobeen associated with the onset of asthma,increased severity of or difficulty in controllingasthma, frequent upper respiratory infections,persistent middle-ear effusion, snoring, repeatedpneumonia, and bronchitis.
Smoke outside away from air intakes. Smokeonly in rooms that are properly ventilated andexhausted to the outdoors.
Standards or Guidelines Health Effects Control Measures
The OSHA standard for workers is no more than50 ppm for 1 hour of exposure. NIOSHrecommends no more than 35 ppm for 1 hour.The U.S. National Ambient Air Quality Standardsfor CO are 9 ppm for 8 hours and 35 ppm for 1hour. The Consumer Product Safety Commissionrecommends levels not to exceed 15 ppm for 1hour or 25 ppm for 8 hours.
CO is an asphyxiate. An accumulation of this gasmay result in a variety of symptoms derivingfrom the compound’s affinity for andcombination with hemoglobin, formingcarboxyhemoglobin (COHb) and disruptingoxygen transport. Tissues with the highestoxygen needs—myocardium, brain, andexercising muscle—are the first affected.Symptoms may mimic influenza and includefatigue, headache, dizziness, nausea andvomiting, cognitive impairment, and tachycardia.At high concentrations CO exposure can beFATAL.
Combustion equipment must be maintained toassure that there are no blockages and air andfuel mixtures must be properly adjusted to ensuremore complete combustion. Vehicular use shouldbe carefully managed adjacent to buildings andin vocational programs. Additional ventilation canbe used as a temporary measure when high levelsof CO are expected for short periods of time.
ASHRAE Standard 62-2001 recommends 700ppm above the outdoor concentration as theupper limit for occupied classrooms (usuallyaround 1,000 ppm).
CO2 is an asphyxiate. At concentrations above
1.5 percent (15,000 ppm) some loss of mentalacuity has been noted. (The recommendedASHRAE standard of 700 ppm above theoutdoor concentration is to prevent body odorlevels from being offensive.)
Ventilation with sufficient outdoor air controlsCO
2 levels. Reduce vehicle and lawn and
garden equipment idling and/or usage.
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Indoor Air Pollutant Description Sources
Nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2)The two most prevalent oxides of nitrogen arenitrogen dioxide (NO
2) and nitric oxide (NO).
Both are toxic gases, and NO2 is a highly
reactive oxidant and corrosive.
The primary sources indoors are combustionprocesses, such as unvented combustionappliances (e.g., gas stoves, vented applianceswith defective installations, welding, andtobacco smoke). Outdoor sources, such asvehicles and lawn and garden equipment, alsocontribute to nitrogen oxide levels.
Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5)Fine particulate matter (PM
2.5), or soot, is a
component of diesel exhaust, and is less than2.5 microns in diameter; in comparison, theaverage human hair is about 100 micronsthick. It may consist as a tiny solid or liquiddroplet containing a variety of compounds.
The main source of PM2.5
is diesel engines intrucks, buses, and nonroad vehicles (e.g.,marine, construction, agricultural, andlocomotive). Diesel engines emit largequantities of harmful pollutants annually.
Lead (Pb) Lead is a highly toxic metal. Sources of lead include drinking water, food,contaminated soil and dust, and air. Lead-basedpaint is a common source of lead dust.
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Standards or Guidelines Health Effects Control Measures
No standards have been agreed upon for nitrogenoxides in indoor air. ASHRAE and the U.S. EPANational Ambient Air Quality Standards list 0.053ppm as the average 24-hour limit for NO
2 in
outdoor air.
NO2 acts mainly as an irritant affecting the
mucosa of the eyes, nose, throat, and respiratorytract. Extremely high-dose exposure (as in abuilding fire) to NO
2 may result in pulmonary
edema and diffuse lung injury. Continuedexposure to high NO
2 levels can contribute to the
development of acute or chronic bronchitis.Low-level NO
2 exposure may cause increased
bronchial reactivity in some asthmatics,decreased lung function in patients with chronicobstructive pulmonary disease, and increasedrisk of respiratory infections, especially in youngchildren.
Venting the NO2 sources to the outdoors and
assuring that combustion appliances are correctlyinstalled, used, and maintained are the mosteffective measures to reduce exposures. Developanti-idling procedures for all vehicles andnonroad engines (cars, buses, trucks, lawn andgarden equipment, etc.).
There are currently no Federal governmentstandards for PM
2.5 in school indoor air
environments. EPA’s National Ambient AirQuality Standards list 15 g/m3 as the annuallimit and 65 g/m3 as the 24-hour limit forPM
2.5 in outdoor air.
Particulate matter is associated with a variety ofserious health effects, including lung disease,asthma, and other respiratory problems. Ingeneral, children are especially sensitive to airpollution because they breathe 50 percent moreair per pound of body weight than adults. Fineparticulate matter, or PM
2.5, poses the greatest
health risk, because it can pass through the noseand throat and become lodged in the lungs.These particles can aggravate existingrespiratory conditions, such as asthma andbronchitis, and they have been directlyassociated with increased hospital admissionsand emergency room visits for heart and lungdisease, decreased lung function, and prematuredeath. Short-term exposure may causeshortness of breath, eye and lung irritation,nausea, light-headedness, and possible allergyaggravations.
Effective technologies to reduce PM2.5
includeparticulate filters and catalysts that can beinstalled on buses. An easy, no-cost, andeffective way to control fine particulate matteris to minimize idling by buses, trucks, andother vehicles.
In 1978, the Consumer Product SafetyCommission banned lead in paint.
Lead can cause serious damage to the brain,kidneys, nervous system, and red blood cells.Children are particularly vulnerable. Leadexposure in children can result in delays inphysical development, lower IQ levels, shorterattention spans, and an increase in behavioralproblems.
Preventive measures to reduce lead exposure inbuildings painted before 1978 include: Cleaningplay areas; frequently mopping floors and wipingwindow ledges and other smooth flat areas withdamp cloths; keeping children away from areaswhere paint is chipped, peeling, or chalking;preventing children from chewing on window sillsand other painted areas; and ensuring that toys arecleaned frequently and hands are washed beforemeals.
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S econdhand smoke, also known asenvironmental tobacco smoke (ETS), is amixture of the smoke given off by theburning end of a cigarette, pipe, or cigar,and the smoke exhaled from the lungs ofsmokers. This mixture contains more than4,000 substances, more than 40 of whichare known to cause cancer in humans oranimals and many of which are strongirritants. Exposure to secondhand smokeis called involuntary smoking or passivesmoking.
EPA has classified secondhand smoke as aknown cause of cancer in humans (GroupA carcinogen). Passive smoking causes anestimated 3,000 lung cancer deaths innonsmokers each year. It also causesirritation of the eyes, nose, throat, andlungs. ETS-induced irritation of the lungsleads to excess phlegm, coughing, chestdiscomfort, and reduced lung function.Secondhand smoke may also affect thecardiovascular system, and some studieshave linked exposure to it with the onsetof chest pain.
SECONDHAND SMOKE EFFECTS ONCHILDRENSecondhand smoke is a serious health riskto children. Children whose parents smokeare among the most seriously affected byexposure to secondhand smoke, being atincreased risk of lower respiratory tractinfections such as pneumonia andbronchitis. EPA estimates that passivesmoking is responsible for between150,000 and 300,000 lower respiratorytract infections in infants and childrenunder 18 months of age annually, resultingin 7,500 to 15,000 hospitalizations peryear.
Children exposed to secondhand smokeare also more likely to have reduced lungfunction and symptoms of respiratoryirritation like coughing, excess phlegm,and wheezing. Passive smoking can leadto a buildup of fluid in the middle ear, themost common cause of hospitalization ofchildren for an operation.
Secondhand Smoke
Asthmatic children are especially at risk.EPA estimates that exposure tosecondhand smoke increases the numberof episodes and severity of symptoms inbetween 200,000 and 1,000,000 asthmaticchildren. Passive smoking is also a riskfactor for the development of asthma inthousands of children each year.
RECOMMENDATIONSEPA recommends that every organizationdealing with children have a smokingpolicy that effectively protects childrenfrom exposure to secondhand smoke.Parent-teacher associations, school boardmembers, and school administratorsshould work together to make schoolenvironments smoke-free. Key features ofsmoking education programs includemultiple sessions over many grades, socialand physiological consequences oftobacco use, information about socialinfluences (peers, parents, and media), andtraining in refusal skills. School-basednon-smoking policies are importantbecause the school environment should befree from secondhand smoke for healthreasons and because teachers and staff arerole models for children.
LEGISLATIONIn general, the Federal government doesnot have regulatory authority over indoorair or secondhand smoke policies at thestate or local level. Restricting smoking inpublic places is primarily a state and localissue, and is typically addressed in cleanindoor air laws enacted by states, counties,and municipalities. However, the “Pro-Children Act of 1994” prohibits smokingin Head Start facilities and inkindergarten, elementary, and secondaryschools that receive Federal funding fromthe Department of Education, theDepartment of Agriculture, or theDepartment of Health and HumanServices (except funding from Medicareor Medicaid). The Act was signed into lawas part of the “Goals 2000: EducateAmerica Act.”
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What follows are excerpts from the Act,which took effect December 26, 1994.
PRO-CHILDREN ACT OF 1994Following are excerpts from Public Law103-227, March 31, 1994.
SECTION 1042. DEFINITIONS.
(1) CHILDREN. The term “children”means individuals who have not attainedthe age of 18.
(2) CHILDREN’S SERVICES. The term“children’s services” means the provisionon a routine or regular basis of health, daycare, education, or library services—
(A) That are funded, after the date ofthe enactment of this Act, directly by theFederal government or through state orlocal governments, by Federal grant, loan,loan guarantee, or contract programs—
(i) Administered by either theSecretary of Health and Human Servicesor the Secretary of Education (other thanservices provided and funded solely undertitles XVIII and XIX of the SocialSecurity Act); or
(ii) Administered by theSecretary of Agriculture in case of aclinic; or
(B) That are provided in indoorfacilities that are constructed, operated, ormaintained with such Federal funds, asdetermined by the appropriate Secretary inany enforcement action under this title,except that nothing in clause (ii) ofsubparagraph (A) is intended to includefacilities (other than clinics) wherecoupons are redeemed under the ChildNutrition Act of 1966.
(3) PERSON. The term “person” meansany state or local subdivision thereof,agency of such state or subdivision,corporation, or partnership that owns oroperates or otherwise controls andprovides children’s services or anyindividual who owns or operates orotherwise controls and provides suchservices.
SEC. 1043. NONSMOKING POLICYFOR CHILDREN’S SERVICES.
(a) PROHIBITION. After the date of theenactment of this Act, no person shallpermit smoking within any indoor facilityowned or leased or contracted for andutilized by such person for provision ofroutine or regular kindergarten,elementary, or secondary education orlibrary services to children.
(b) ADDITIONAL PROHIBITION. Afterthe date of the enactment of this Act, noperson shall permit smoking within anyindoor facility (or portion thereof) ownedor leased or contracted for and utilized bysuch person of regular or routine healthcare or day care or early childhooddevelopment (Head Start) services tochildren or for the use of the employees ofsuch person who provides such services.
(c) FEDERAL AGENCIES.
(1) KINDERGARTEN,ELEMENTARY, OR SECONDARYEDUCATION, OR LIBRARY SERVICES.After the date of the enactment of this Act,no Federal agency shall permit smokingwithin any indoor facility in the UnitedStates operated by such agency, directly orby contract, to provide routine or regularkindergarten, elementary, or secondaryeducation or library services to children.
(e) SPECIAL WAIVER.
(1) IN GENERAL. On receipt of anapplication, the head of the Federal agencymay grant a special waiver to a persondescribed in subsection (a) who employsindividuals who are members of a labororganization and provide children’sservices pursuant to a collectivebargaining agreement that—
(A) Took effect before the date ofenactment of this Act; and
(B) Includes provisions relatingto smoking privileges that are in violationof the requirements of this section.
(2) TERMINATION OF WAIVER.A special waiver granted under thissubsection shall terminate on the earlierof—
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(A) The first expiration date(after the date of enactment of this Act) ofthe collective bargaining agreementcontaining the provisions relating tosmoking privileges; or
(B) The date that is 1 year afterthe date of the enactment of this Act.
(f) CIVIL PENALTIES.
(1) IN GENERAL. Any failure tocomply with a prohibition in this sectionshall be a violation of this section andany person subject to such prohibitionwho commits such violation, or may besubject to an administrative complianceorder, or both, as determined by theSecretary. Each day a violationcontinues shall constitute a separateviolation.
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BACKGROUND INFORMATIONEPA and other major national andinternational scientific organizations haveconcluded that radon is a humancarcinogen and a serious public healthrisk. An individual’s risk of developinglung cancer from radon increases with thelevel of radon, the duration of exposure,and the individual’s smoking habits. EPAestimates that 7,000 to 30,000 lung cancerdeaths in the United States each year areattributed to radon.
Because many people spend much of theirtime at home, the home is likely to be themost significant source of radon exposure.For most school children and staff, thesecond largest contributor to their radonexposure is likely to be their school. As aresult, EPA recommends that homes andschool buildings be tested for radon.
RESULTS FROM A NATIONALSURVEY OF RADON LEVELSIN SCHOOLSA nationwide survey of radon levels inschools estimates that 19.3 percent of U.S.schools, nearly one in five, have at leastone frequently occupied ground-contactroom with short-term radon levels at orabove the action level of 4 pCi/L(picocuries per liter)—the level at whichEPA recommends mitigation.Approximately 73 percent of these schoolswill have only five or fewer schoolroomswith radon levels above the action level.The other 27 percent will have six or moresuch schoolrooms. If your building has aradon problem, it is unlikely that everyroom in your school will have an elevatedradon level. However, testing allfrequently occupied rooms that havecontact with the ground is necessary toidentify schoolrooms with elevated radonlevels.
Radon
GUIDANCE FOR RADON TESTINGEPA’s document, Radon Measurement inSchools – Revised Edition (EPA 402-R-92-014), provides guidance on planning,implementing, and evaluating a radontesting program for a school.
To assist schools with testing, helpfulaids, such as a checklist of the testingprocedure, are included in the document.Before initiating radon testing in yourschool however, contact your state RadonOffice (see Appendix L: “Resources”)for information on any state requirementsconcerning radon testing or for a copyof the document. Checkwww.epa.gov/iaq/schools for documentson radon in schools.
To reduce the health risk associated withradon, EPA recommends that officials testevery school for elevated radon levels.Because the entry and movement of radonin buildings is difficult to predict, officialsshould test all frequently occupiedschoolrooms that are in contact with theground. If testing identifies schoolroomswith radon levels of 4 pCi/L or greater,officials should reduce the radon levelsusing an appropriate mitigation strategy.
GUIDANCE FOR RADONMITIGATIONIf you identify a radon problem in yourschool, EPA developed guidance on radonmitigation entitled Reducing Radon inSchools – A Team Approach (EPA 402-R-94-008) that describes the recommendedapproach to radon mitigation in schoolsand provides an overview of the mitigationprocess to the IAQ Coordinator.
For a free copy, please call NSCEP at1-800-490-9198 or contact your stateRadon Office (see Appendix L:“Resources”).
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GUIDANCE FOR RADONPREVENTION IN RENOVATIONS ANDNEW BUILDINGSEPA’s document entitled RadonPrevention in Design and Construction ofSchools and Other Large Buildings (EPA625R-92-016) provides guidance forincorporating radon resistant and/or easy-to-mitigate features into the design of anew school building including designrecommendations for heating, ventilation,and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems.This guidance is useful to schoolpersonnel (e.g., school business officials)and architects involved with the newschool construction.
For a free copy, contact 1-800-490-9198.
TRAINING FOR TESTING ANDMITIGATIONTo develop public and private sectorcapabilities for radon testing andmitigation, EPA formed four RegionalRadon Training Centers (see Appendix L:“Resources”). These training centers offercourses on testing and mitigation inschool buildings designed to simulatehands-on activities by having participantssolve practical problems. Contact yourstate Radon Office (see Appendix L:“Resources”) for information on localtraining opportunities or state trainingrequirements.
TESTING AND MITIGATION COSTSCost for radon testing in a typical schoolbuilding ranges from $500 to $1,500.Costs for testing depend on the type ofmeasurement device used, the size of theschool, and whether testing is performedin-house using school personnel or ameasurement contractor.
If a radon problem is identified, the costfor radon mitigation typically ranges from$3,000 to $30,000 per school. The cost ofmitigating a school depends on themitigation strategy, the school buildingdesign, the radon concentration in theschool room(s), and the number of schoolrooms affected. The appropriate mitigationstrategy will consider the school buildingdesign and initial levels of radon.Mitigation costs at the high end of thecost range are often associated with amitigation strategy involving therenovation of school HVAC systems.Although the cost is higher, this strategyhas the added benefit of improvingventilation within a school building,which contributes to the overallimprovement of IAQ.
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M olds can be found almost anywhere;they can grow on virtually any substance,providing moisture is present. Molds cangrow on and within wood, paper, carpet,and foods. When excessive moistureaccumulates in buildings or on buildingmaterials, mold growth will often occur,particularly if the moisture problemremains undiscovered or unaddressed.There is no practical way to eliminate allmold and mold spores in the indoorenvironment; the key to control indoormold growth is to control moisture. Ifmold is discovered, clean it upimmediately and remove excess water ormoisture. In addition, maintaining therelative humidity between 30 and 60percent will help control mold.
Molds produce tiny spores to reproduce.Mold spores waft through indoor andoutdoor air continually. When mold sporesland on a damp spot indoors, they maybegin growing and digesting whateverthey are growing on to survive.
There are many different kinds of mold.Molds can produce allergens, toxins, andirritants. Molds can cause discolorationand odor problems, deteriorate buildingmaterials, and lead to health problems—such as asthma episodes and allergicreactions—in susceptible individuals.
CONDENSATION, RELATIVEHUMIDITY, AND VAPORPRESSUREMold growth does not require thepresence of standing water, leaks, orfloods; mold can grow when the relativehumidity of the air is high. Mold can alsogrow in damp areas such as unventedbathrooms and kitchens, crawl spaces,ducts, utility tunnels, gyms, locker rooms,wet foundations, leaky roof areas, anddamp basements. Relative humidity andthe factors that govern it are oftenmisunderstood. This section discussesrelative humidity and describes commonmoisture problems and their solutions.
Water enters buildings both as a liquid andas a gas (water vapor). Water is introducedintentionally in bathrooms, gym areas,kitchens, and art and utility areas, andaccidentally by way of leaks and spills.Some of the water evaporates and joins thewater vapor that is exhaled by buildingoccupants. Water vapor also moves intothe building through the ventilationsystem, through openings in the buildingshell, or directly through buildingmaterials.
The ability of air to hold water vapordecreases as the air temperature falls. If aunit of air contains half of the water vaporit can hold, it is said to be at 50 percentrelative humidity (RH) or greater. The RHincreases as the air cools and approachessaturation. When air contains all of thewater vapor it can hold, it is at 100 percentRH or greater, and the water vaporcondenses, changing from a gas to aliquid. The temperature at whichcondensation occurs is the “dew point.”
Reaching 100 percent RH withoutchanging the air temperature is possible byincreasing the amount of water vapor inthe air (the “absolute humidity” or “vaporpressure”). It is also possible to reach 100percent RH without changing the amountof water vapor in the air, by lowering theair temperature to the “dew point.”
The highest RH in a room is always nextto the coldest surface. This is referred toas the “first condensing surface,” as it willbe the location where condensationhappens first, if the relative humidity ofthe air next to the surface reaches 100percent. Understanding this is importantwhen trying to understand why mold isgrowing on one patch of wall or onlyalong the wall-ceiling joint. The surface ofthe wall is likely to be cooler than theroom air because of a gap in the insulationor because the wind is blowing throughcracks in the exterior of the building.
Mold and Moisture
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TAKING STEPS TO REDUCEMOISTURE AND MOLDRespond to water damage within 24–48hours to prevent mold growth, whichdepends on moisture.
Mold growth can be reduced if relativehumidities near surfaces can bemaintained below the dew point. This canbe done by: 1) reducing the moisturecontent (vapor pressure) of the air; 2)increasing air movement at the surface; or3) increasing the air temperature (eitherthe general space temperature or thetemperature at building surfaces).
Either vapor pressure or surfacetemperature can be the dominant factor ina mold problem. A vapor pressure-dominated mold problem may not respondwell to increasing temperatures, whereas asurface temperature-dominated moldproblem may not respond very well toincreasing ventilation. Understandingwhich factor dominates will help inselecting an effective control strategy.
If the relative humidity near the middle ofa room is fairly high (e.g., 50 percent at70º F), mold or mildew problems in theroom are likely to be vapor pressuredominated. If the relative humidity nearthe middle of a room is fairly low (e.g., 30percent at 70º F), mold or mildewproblems in the room are likely to besurface temperature dominated.
VAPOR PRESSURE-DOMINATEDMOLD GROWTHVapor pressure-dominated mold growthcan be reduced by using one or more ofthe following strategies:
• Use source control (e.g., direct ventingof moisture-generating activities suchas showers to the exterior).
• Dilute moisture-laden indoor air withoutdoor air at a lower absolute humidity.
• Dehumidify the indoor air.
Note that dilution is only useful as acontrol strategy during heating periods,when cold outdoor air contains little totalmoisture. During cooling periods, outdoorair often contains as much moisture asindoor air.
Consider a school locker room that hasmold on the ceiling. The locker roomexhaust fan is broken, and the relativehumidity in the room is 60 percent at 70ºF. This is an example of a vapor pressure-dominated mold problem. In this case,increasing the surface temperature isprobably not an effective way to correctthe mold problem. A better strategy is torepair or replace the exhaust fan.
SURFACE TEMPERATURE-DOMINATED MOLD GROWTHSurface temperature-dominated moldgrowth can be reduced by increasing thesurface temperature using one or more ofthe following approaches:
• Raise the temperature of the air nearroom surfaces.
• Raise the thermostat setting.
• Improve air circulation so that supplyair is more effective at heating the roomsurfaces.
• Decrease the heat loss from roomsurfaces.
• Add insulation.
• Close cracks in the exterior wall toprevent “wind washing” (air that entersa wall at one exterior location and exitsanother exterior location withoutpenetrating into the building).
Consider an old, leaky, poorly insulatedschool that has mold and mildew in thecoldest corners of one classroom. Theindoor relative humidity is low (30percent). It is winter and cold air cannothold much water vapor. Therefore, outdoorair entering through leaks in the buildinglowers the airborne moisture levelsindoors. This is an example of a surfacetemperature-dominated mold problem. Inthis building, increasing the outdoor airventilation rate is probably not an effectiveway to control interior mold and mildew.A better strategy would be to increasesurface temperatures by insulating theexterior walls, thereby reducing relativehumidity in the corners.
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MOLD CLEAN UPBecause moisture is the key to moldcontrol, it is essential to clean up the moldand get rid of excess water or moisture. Ifthe excess water or moisture problem isnot fixed, mold will most probably growagain, even if the area was completelycleaned. Clean hard surfaces with waterand detergent and dry quickly andcompletely. Absorbent materials such asceiling tiles may have to be discarded.
Note that mold can cause health effectssuch as allergic reactions; remediatorsshould avoid exposing themselves andothers to mold. Wear waterproof glovesduring clean up; do not touch mold ormoldy items with bare hands. Respiratoryprotection should be used in mostremediation situations to preventinhalation exposure to mold. Respiratoryprotection may not be necessary for smallremediation jobs with little exposurepotential. Refer to Appendix L:“Resources,” for more information onmold remediation. When in doubt consulta professional, experienced remediator.
IDENTIFYING ANDCORRECTING COMMON MOLD ANDMOISTURE PROBLEMS
Exterior Corners and WallsThe interior surfaces of exterior cornersand behind furnishings such as chalkboards, file cabinets, and desks next tooutside walls are common locations formold growth in heating climates. Theytend to be closer to the outdoortemperature than other parts of thebuilding surface for one or more of thefollowing reasons:
• Poor indoor air circulation
• Wind washing
• Low insulation levels
• Greater surface area of heat loss
Sometimes mold growth can be reducedby removing obstructions to airflow (e.g.,rearranging furniture). Buildings withforced air heating systems and/or roomceiling fans tend to have fewer moldproblems than buildings with less airmovement.
SET-BACK THERMOSTATSSet-back thermostats (programmablethermostats) are commonly used to reduceenergy consumption during the heatingseason. Mold growth can occur whentemperatures are lowered in buildings withhigh relative humidity. (Maintaining aroom at too low a temperature can havethe same effect as a set-back thermostat.)Mold can often be controlled in colderclimates by increasing interiortemperatures during heating periods.Unfortunately, this also increases energyconsumption and reduces relativehumidity in the breathing zone, which cancreate discomfort.
AIR-CONDITIONED SPACESMold problems can be as extensive incooling climates as they are in heatingclimates. The same principles apply: eithersurfaces are too cold, moisture levels aretoo high, or both.
One common example of mold growth incooling climates can be found in roomswhere conditioned “cold” air blowsagainst the interior surface of an exteriorwall. This condition, which may be due topoor duct design, diffuser location, ordiffuser performance, creates a cold spotat the interior finish surfaces, possiblyallowing moisture to condense.
Possible solutions for this probleminclude:
• Eliminate the cold spots (i.e., elevatethe temperature of the surface) byadjusting the diffusers or deflecting theair away from the condensing surface.
• Increase the room temperature to avoidovercooling. NOTE: During the coolingseason, increasing temperaturedecreases energy consumption, thoughit could cause comfort problems.
Mold problems can also occur within thewall cavity, when outdoor air comes incontact with the cavity side of the cooledinterior surface. It is a particular problemin rooms decorated with low maintenanceinterior finishes (e.g., impermeable wallcovering such as vinyl wallpaper), whichcan trap moisture between the finish andthe gypsum board. Mold growth can be
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Mold andHealth Effects
Molds are a majorsource of indoorallergens. Moldscan also triggerasthma. Evenwhen dead orunable to grow,mold can causehealth effects suchas allergic reac-tions. The typesand severity ofhealth effectsassociated withexposure to molddepend, in part, onthe type of moldpresent, and theextent of theoccupants’ expo-sure and existingsensitivities orallergies. Promptand effectiveremediation ofmoisture problemsis essential tominimize potentialmold exposuresand their potentialhealth effects.
CONCEALED CONDENSATIONThe use of thermal insulation in wallcavities increases interior surfacetemperatures in heating climates, reducingthe likelihood of interior surface mold andcondensation. The use of thermalinsulation without a properly installedvapor barrier, however, may increasemoisture condensation within the wallcavity.
The first condensing surface in a wallcavity in a heating climate is typically theinner surface of the exterior sheathing.
Concealed condensation can be controlledby any or all of the following strategies:
• Reducing the entry of moisture into thewall cavities (e.g., by controlling entryand/or exit of moisture-laden air with acontinuous vapor barrier).
• Raising the temperature of the firstcondensing surface.
• In heating-climate locations: Installingexterior insulation (assuming that nosignificant wind washing is occurring).
• In cooling-climate locations: Installinginsulating sheathing to the interior ofthe wall framing and between the wallframing and the interior gypsum board.
rampant when these interior finishes arecoupled with cold spots and exteriormoisture.
A possible solution for this problem is toensure that vapor barriers, facing sealants,and insulation are properly specified,installed, and maintained.
THERMAL BRIDGESLocalized cooling of surfaces commonlyoccurs as a result of “thermal bridges,”elements of the building structure that arehighly conductive of heat (e.g., steel studsin exterior frame walls, uninsulatedwindow lintels, and the edges of concretefloor slabs). Dust particles sometimesmark the locations of thermal bridgesbecause dust tends to adhere to cold spots.
The use of insulating sheathingssignificantly reduces the impact ofthermal bridges in building envelopes.
WINDOWIn winter, windows are typically thecoldest surfaces in a room. The interiorsurface of a window is often the firstcondensing surface in a room.
Condensation on window surfaces hashistorically been controlled by using stormwindows or “insulated glass” (e.g.,double-glazed windows or selectivesurface gas-filled windows) to raiseinterior surface temperatures. In olderbuilding enclosures with less advancedglazing systems, visible condensation onthe windows often alerted occupants to theneed for ventilation to flush out interiormoisture, so they knew to open thewindows.
The advent of higher performance glazingsystems has led to a greater number ofmoisture problems in heating climatebuilding enclosures because the buildingscan now be operated at higher interiorvapor pressures (moisture levels) withoutvisible surface condensation on windows.
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E missions from gas or diesel-poweredengines are a source of pollution forschool grounds and buildings. Exhaustemissions come from mobile sources suchas school buses, cars, delivery trucks, andmotorcycles, gasoline or diesel vehicles,engines, and equipment used forconstruction and grounds maintenance.
“Mobile sources” is a term used todescribe a wide variety of motor vehicles,engines, and equipment that generate airpollution and that move, or can be moved,from place to place.
MOBILE SOURCES AT SCHOOLSome mobile sources at your school mayinclude:
• School buses
• Cars
• Delivery trucks
• Portable fuel containers
• Mowers, snowblowers, trimmers, andother equipment used for groundsmaintenance
Special situations involving motorvehicles or equipment off school propertymay also contribute to the deterioration ofthe overall air quality near schools. Thesemight include, for example, truck loadingdocks or construction sites.
MOBILE SOURCE EMISSIONSMobile sources pollute the air through fuelcombustion and fuel evaporation. Theseemissions contribute to air pollutionnationwide and are the primary cause ofair pollution in many areas. Mobilesources emit several significant airpollutants that affect human health and theenvironment, including carbon monoxide,hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, andparticulate matter. See Appendix E:“Typical Indoor Air Pollutants,” for moreinformation about these pollutants.
In addition, mobile sources produce airtoxins (e.g., acetaldehyde, acrolein,
Emissions from Motor Vehiclesand Equipment
benzene, 1,3-butadiene, diesel exhaust,and formaldehyde), which are pollutantsknown or suspected to cause cancer orother serious health or environmentaleffects. Mobile sources are responsible forabout half the air toxin emissions and risknationwide.
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5
) in dieselexhaust creates further health concerns.Recent studies suggest that children on ornear school buses may be exposed toelevated levels of diesel exhaust. Childrenare especially susceptible to advancerespiratory effects of PM
2.5 because it can
penetrate children’s narrower airways,reaching deep within the lungs where it islikely to be retained, and because childrenhave higher rates of respiration per unit oftheir body weight than adults.
AIR QUALITY ISSUESMobile source air pollutants cancontribute to air quality issues at schools.With sufficient concentrations andduration, these pollutants may increase thechance of cancer or other serious healtheffects, such as asthma.
• Studies indicate that students can beexposed to high levels of diesel exhaustwhen they are inside school buses, nearidling school buses, and even insideschools (due to exhaust penetrationfrom idling buses). Queuing of busesfor pick-up and drop-off and periods ofidling during the bus commute itselfmay be particular problems. Dieselexhaust can aggravate respiratory andcardiovascular disease and existingasthma. It can also cause acuterespiratory symptoms, chronicbronchitis, and decreased lung function.
• Outdoor emissions can infiltratethrough windows and air intakes,resulting in student and staff exposureto pollutants and toxics.
• Chemicals and gasoline stored inschool buildings can contribute to
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indoor air quality concerns, andequipment usage can result in exposureto air pollutants and toxics.
• Students, staff, and vehicles sometimescongregate in the same place at thesame time, which increases theirexposure.
REDUCING EMISSIONSSuccessful reduction of vehicle andequipment emission involves a variety ofapproaches, some of which are no- or low-cost options. Those concerned aboutimproving air quality in and around schoolcan choose from options ranging frombetter vehicle technology and better transitoptions to cleaner fuels.
Schools can help reduce air pollution frommobile sources in a number of differentways. A comprehensive program mightinclude bus retrofits and replacement, anti-idling policies, reduced power equipmentusage, environmentally friendlytransportation choices, and equipmentreplacement. Some other smart actionsthat reduce emissions include adoptingdriving practices that save gas and improvemileage, maintaining vehicles on a regularbasis, and using cleaner fuels.
ANTI-IDLINGPolicies to minimize idling offer a smart,effective, and immediate way to reduceemissions at little or no cost. In fact,reduced idling will save money in mostcases because idling wastes fuel. Theeasiest way to reduce vehicle idlingemissions is to “Just turn it off!” Today’sbus engines generally require only three tofive minutes of warm-up time, even incold weather. The problem of diesel fuelgelling in cold weather has been resolvedby the creation of winter blends of fuel andfuel additives that better withstand coldertemperatures.
Contrary to popular belief, idling actuallydoes more damage to an engine thanstarting and stopping. Idling causesadditional wear on an engine’s internalparts and, therefore, can increasemaintenance costs and shorten the life ofthe engine.
Several States and local communities have
already implemented anti-idling laws.These programs can reduce pollution,odor, and noise, and save schools moneyby reducing engine wear and fuelconsumption. Finally, anti-idlinginformation is easy to incorporate intoexisting training and communicationsopportunities. See Appendix B:“Developing Indoor Air Policies” in theIAQ Coordinator’s Guide for sample anti-idling policies and a sample memo to busdrivers.
TRANSPORTATION CHOICESAlternative transportation choices can alsobe beneficial for reducing emissions. Forinstance, “school-pooling” programsencourage carpools, bike partners, or“walking school buses” that reduce thenumber of vehicles on school grounds.Public transit buses may also be anappropriate option for some students orstaff.
OTHER MOBILE SOURCES ONSCHOOL GROUNDSSince cars and trucks are not the onlymobile sources on school grounds,attention should also be paid to lawn andgarden equipment for reducing emissions.The two main ways to reduce emissionsfrom such equipment are to replaceexisting equipment with cleaner options(e.g., manual, electric, or new 4-stroke,gasoline engines) and to reduce usage.
EPA adopted more stringent standards forgasoline-powered equipment, such aslawnmowers and string trimmers, whichwill lower hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxideemissions. Schools can reduce harmfulemissions by ensuring their groundsmaintenance equipment meets currentstandards. Like school bus retrofits andreplacements, alternate equipment choiceswill be specific to your school’s situation.While manual and electric equipment aremost beneficial because they do notproduce emissions, these options are notalways practical for large grounds.
Portable gasoline containers are anothersource of emissions on school grounds.Due to evaporation of gasoline, these canspollute even when they are not being used,and especially when they are stored in a
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warm place. New, low-emission gasolinecans are designed for easy use and have athicker lining in order to reduce fuelevaporation. They meet specifiedstandards to minimize air pollution,including automatic closure, automaticshut-off, only one opening, and limitedpermeation. Many portable containersavailable nationwide meet all but thepermeation standard. In addition, they areinexpensive (approximately $10), makingthem cost-effective solutions for reducingexposure to evaporated fuel.
Finally, proper maintenance and storagehelp decrease exposure to emissions fromlawn and garden equipment. For example,lawn and garden equipment should bemaintained regularly according tomanufacturer guidelines to preventproblems that decrease efficiency andincrease emissions. Keeping equipmenttuned and in good condition is inexpensiveand beneficial for minimizing emissions.In addition, fuels, chemicals, andequipment should be stored appropriatelyin a well-ventilated, cool, and dry space.For extended periods of storage (e.g.,wintertime), gasoline should be emptiedfrom equipment and containers or astabilizer should be added to decreaseevaporation.
BENEFICIAL OR ENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLY LANDSCAPINGBeneficial landscaping refers to a suite oflandscaping practices that yieldenvironmental, economic, and aestheticbenefits. These environmentally friendlypractices include planting native speciesand low-maintenance turf grasses,reducing lawn area, strategic use of trees,integrated pest management (seeAppendix K: “Integrated PestManagement”), and optimizing waterefficiency. Ultimately, beneficiallandscaping produces a healthierenvironment and reduces air, water, andsoil pollution by minimizing emissionsfrom power equipment, chemicals,fertilizer, and water.
In addition, beneficial landscaping iseffective on any size of land. Emissionreductions from beneficial landscapingalone can result in nearly 100 pounds less
of smog-forming hydrocarbons and 10pounds less of nitrogen oxide emissionsper year per acre of lawn converted tonatural landscaping due to reducedmowing. Hence, even small convertedareas can contribute to notable reductionsin emissions.
Grass can be replaced with trees, shrubs,native wildflowers, and other native plantsthat do not require mowing and arealready adapted to local conditions. Trees,shrubs, and native plants absorb watermore efficiently than lawns and thereforeminimize runoff and erosion. They canalso decrease the amount of time youspend on weeding and watering andreduce the need for fertilizers andpesticides.
Beneficial landscaping can result inreduced building heating and coolingcosts. For example, planting deciduoustrees on the south side of a buildingprovides shade, reducing heat absorbed bythe building during the summer. Thispractice can decrease air conditioningcosts by up to 20 percent. In the winter,deciduous trees lose their leaves, allowingthe winter sun to warm the building.Planting conifers on the northwest side ofa building helps to block northwest winds,reducing heating costs. Finally, plantingtrellis vines on the bare walls of buildingshelps to keep these walls cooler byabsorbing the sunlight. Planting treesaround parking lots helps shade pavedareas and further reduce sun-heatingeffects.
Finally, schools should use outdoor waterefficiently by laying mulch in appropriateareas and installing efficient irrigationsystems.
WHAT ARE GOOD PRACTICES TO USEIN AREAS WHERE MAINTAININGLAWNS IS NECESSARY?Where lawns are necessary on schoolgrounds, such as on play areas or sportsfields, the following practices are bestsuited for reducing environmental impacts:
• Plant low-maintenance turf grasses thatgrow slowly and require less mowing.
• Leave grass clippings on lawns. This
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practice decreases the need forfertilizers and the amount of municipalsolid waste entering landfills.
• Keep grass well maintained. Only one-third of the grass blade should be cutoff at one time, and no more than oneinch should be cut at one time.
WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS?Many advantages are associated withbeneficial landscaping. Beneficiallandscaping can be incorporated intoscience and environmental education. Itcreates hands-on learning experiences forstudents, while encouraging them to learnabout natural habitats and take an interestin their surroundings.
Beneficial landscaping helps create asafer environment by reducing student andstaff exposure to harmful emissions. Itleads to fewer emissions from fossil fuelconsumed during mowing, less fertilizeruse, and lower landscape maintenance laborand costs. Beneficial landscaping can alsohelp decrease heating and cooling bills,reduce noise pollution (due to lessmowing), conserve water, reduce floodingand stormwater management costs, anddecrease the strain on municipal wastecollection and water treatment plants. Inaddition, it can lead to cleaner water bodiesfor fishing, swimming, and drinking due toreduced chemical use and erosion.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCESFor more information about mobilesources on school grounds, please visitthe EPA Clean School Bus USA Initiativeat www.epa.gov/cleanschoolbus. CleanSchool Bus USA provides informationand resources to school districts on how toreduce pollution from school busesthrough retrofit, replacement, and anti-idling programs.
Ways to ReduceEmissions fromMobile sources
• Diesel vehiclereplacementand retrofit
• Idling policy andtraining
• “School-pooling” andtransportationchoices
• Environmentallyfriendlylandscaping
• Low-emissiongas cans
• “Best Practices”for equipmentmaintenanceand storage
CleanestEquipmentChoices
Manually powered:
Reel mowers,rakes, clippers,shovels
Electric/battery-powered:
Walk-behindmowers,shredders, edgers,tillers, hedgetrimmers, hand-held leaf blowers
4-stroke gasolineengines:
Available in almostall new lawn andgarden equipment
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More than 385,000 portable classrooms,or relocatables, are used in approximately36 percent of school districts across thenation, according to the National Centerfor Education Statistics (NCES). Portableclassrooms are attractive to many schooldistricts because they provide a quick andrelatively inexpensive way to deal withunpredictable school enrollment numbers,limited building construction funds, andthe time lag between identification ofneed and the construction of newfacilities. While portable classrooms areintended to provide flexibility to schooldistricts, in reality, portable classroomsare seldom moved and often becomepermanent fixtures of the school.
Recent surges in student population fueledan explosion in the use of portableclassrooms in many parts of the country.Health-related concerns associated withportable classrooms have arisen. Teachersin the new units frequently complain ofchemical odors. In older units, odorproblems are often associated with moldyclassroom carpets. Both new and olderunits are often subject to complaints aboutpoor ventilation and indoor air quality(IAQ).
INDOOR AIR QUALITY ANDPORTABLE CLASSROOMSAll school buildings use similarconstruction and furnishing materials, sothe types of chemicals present in theindoor air are not likely to be different forportable versus permanent classrooms.However, pressed-wood products, whichmay contain higher concentrations offormaldehyde, are used more frequently infactory-built portable units than inbuildings constructed on-site. As a result,concentrations of some airborne chemicalsmay be higher in new portable classrooms,especially if ventilation is reduced.
The most common problems with portableclassrooms include:
• Poorly functioning ventilation systemsthat provide inadequate quantities ofoutside air;
• Poor acoustics due to loud heating andcooling systems;
• Chemical off-gassing from pressedwood and other high-emissionmaterials, which may be of greaterconcern because of rapid occupancyand poor ventilation after construction;
• Water entry and mold growth; and
• Site pollution from nearby parking lotsor loading areas.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SCHOOLSUSING PORTABLESAlthough portable classrooms are oftenthe lowest cost option for housingstudents, they range in quality. Careshould be taken during specification andselection to ensure that the health of thestudents is not compromised oninexpensive, low quality designs. Whendistricts specify a portable design, theytypically create a term contract that otherdistricts can use to purchase the same (orslightly different) design. This practice(often called “piggy-backing”) can save adistrict valuable time and money onspecifications and approvals, but it canalso compound poor decisions made bythe original procurement.
Like all school facilities, portableclassrooms should contain appropriatebuilding materials and properly designedventilation systems to minimize thepresence of indoor air pollutants.Commissioning and regular maintenanceare also important to maintain the qualityof the indoor environment.
Portable Classrooms
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The following steps can help schoolsmaintain a healthy indoor environment intheir portable classrooms:
Specifying New PortableClassrooms• Specify the appropriate vapor barrier
location for exterior wall construction,consistent with the climate where theclassroom will be used.
• When specifying a new portableclassroom, ensure that the heating,ventilation, and air-conditioning(HVAC) system can: (a) provide aminimum of 450 cfm of outside air(based on 30 occupants at 15 cfm/occupant); and(b) heat and cool this outdoor air atdesign outdoor air temperatures for thespecific geographic location whereeach classroom is installed.
• Order an additional “outdoor air kit”since manufacturers do not includeoutdoor air intakes in their standardclassroom models. Outdoor air intakesshould not be located under portableunits; these areas are typically not wellventilated and are prone to moisture,biological contaminants, and otherpollutants.
• Outdoor air should be suppliedcontinuously when a classroom isoccupied. In order to provide acontinuous outdoor air supply, it isimportant to ensure that the HVACthermostat fan switch is set in the “on”or continuous mode when occupied.
• Air filters are needed for protection ofHVAC components and reduction ofairborne dust, pollens, and micro-organisms from recirculated andoutdoor air streams. Air filters shouldhave a spot rating between 35 and 80percent or a Minimum EfficiencyRating Value (MERV) of between8 and 13.
• If carpets are specified, use carpets thathave been tested under the Carpet andRug Institute’s Green Label CarpetTesting Program. Do not use carpet inentryways to classrooms with directoutdoor access. Supply waterproofmats and walk-off mats over carpetedentryways and other areas used fordrying clothing and umbrellas.
• Locate classroom away from areaswhere vehicles idle or wateraccumulates after rains.
• Ensure that at least one supply airregister and return air grille are locatedin each enclosed area. Also, make surethat building air intakes are locatedaway from any exhaust outlet(s) orother contaminant sources.
• Specify operable windows to provideuser-controlled ventilation whenneeded.
• Locate HVAC and air handler units asfar away as possible from teachingareas to reduce noise.
• Specify minimal use of VOC emittingbuilding materials.
• Install an awning over the portable’sentrance to help prevent rain and snowfrom blowing directly into classrooms.
• Specify complete documentation ofoperation and maintenancerequirements.
Commissioning• Prior to occupany of any new portable
units, operate HVAC systems at theirmaximum outdoor air intake ratecontinuously for several days. Start the“flush out” as soon as the HVACsystem is operational, and continueafter furniture installation. During thisperiod, do not re-circulate return air. Inhumid climates, avoid introducingsignificant amounts of moisture duringthe flush out.
• Measure the amount of outdoor airentering the outdoor air intake of theHVAC unit to ensure it meets orexceeds the amount specified or 15 cfmper person, whichever is greater.
• Do not “bake out” the unit. “Bake out”is defined as increasing temperaturesup to 100o F in order to “artificiallyage” building materials. Itseffectiveness has not been proven and itmay in fact damage parts of the HVACsystem or building components.
• Establish and implement an IntegratedPest Management plan.
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Operations and Maintenance• Provide training on operation and
maintenance of new HVAC equipmentfor appropriate staff. Instruct teachersand staff on proper use and settings ofthermostat and ventilation controls.
• Train teachers how to minimizepotential toxic emissions from thedecorations and cleaning materials usedin their classrooms. Develop andimplement a “list of things to do beforestarting the class,” including ensuringthat the ventilation system is operatingat least one hour before the class startsand watching for rust spots, wet spots,and other signs of deterioration ofinfrastructure. Teachers should also beeducated about the potential risks ofturning off HVAC systems.
• Establish a regular and timely plan fortesting, inspecting, and performingspecific maintenance tasks: Inspectroofs, ceilings, walls, floor, and carpetfor evidence of water leakage (e.g.,stains), and for mold growth or odor.Replace water-damaged materialspromptly and fix leaks as soon aspossible.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCESFor more information about portableclassrooms and recommendations fordesigning, constructing, and renovatingschool facilities to maintain good IAQ,please visit EPA’s IAQ Design Tools forSchools Web site at www.epa.gov/iaq/schooldesign/.
National Clearinghouse for EducationalFacilities Portable Classrooms/ModularConstruction Resource List available atwww.edfacilities.org/rl/portable.cfm.
California Advisory on Relocatable andRenovated Classrooms available atwww.cal-iaq.org/ADVISORY.pdf.
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Integrated Pest Management
I ntegrated Pest Management (IPM) is acomprehensive approach to eliminatingand preventing pest problems with anemphasis on reducing pest habitat andfood sources. IPM is a safer and usuallyless costly option for effective pestmanagement in the school community. Awell-designed integrated pest managementprogram is both effective andenvironmentally sensitive. IPM relies on acombination of (1) low-impact pesticides;(2) comprehensive information aboutpests; (3) available and economical pestcontrol methods; and (4) safetyconsiderations for people, property, andthe environment.
Pests seek habitats that provide basicneeds—air, moisture, food, and shelter.Pest populations can be eliminated,prevented, or controlled by:
• Creating inhospitable pestenvironments;
• Removing basic elements that pestsneed for survival; or
• Blocking pest access into buildings.
Pests may also be managed by othermethods such as traps and vacuums.
MANAGING PESTS IN SCHOOLSCommon pests found in schools (or onschool grounds) include flies,cockroaches, yellow jackets, ants, spiders,mice, and termites.
Although they can help control pests,pesticides need to be used carefully.Children may be more sensitive topesticides than adults. In particular, youngchildren may be particularly susceptible asthey can encounter pesticides whilecrawling, exploring, or through hand-to-mouth activities.
Public concern about health andenvironmental risks associated withpesticides and other chemicals isincreasing, particularly when children areinvolved. School administrators and
others responsible for decisions aboutschool-based pest control need to be awareof these risks and knowledgeable aboutsafe alternatives.
There are many safe IPM practices forschools:
• Keep vegetation, shrubs, and woodmulch at least one foot away fromstructures.
• Fill cracks and crevices in walls, floors,and pavement.
• Empty and clean lockers and desks atleast twice a year.
• Clean food-contaminated dishes,utensils, and surfaces right away.
• Clean garbage cans and dumpsters atleast bimonthly.
• Collect and properly dispose of litter orgarbage at least once a week.
• Identify the problem or pest beforetaking action.
• Apply smaller amounts of fertilizersseveral times during the year (spring,summer, and fall, for example) ratherthan one heavy application.
• Use spot applications or pesticides (ifnecessary) rather than area-wideapplications.
• Store pesticides in well-ventilatedbuildings that are inaccessible toundesignated personnel or locatedoffsite.
• Lock lids of bait boxes and place baitaway from the runway of the box.
ESTABLISH AN IPM PROGRAM FORYOUR SCHOOLAn efficient IPM program can and shouldbe integrated with other schoolmanagement activities, such as preventivemaintenance, janitorial practices,landscaping, occupant education, and stafftraining.
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To establish an IPM program in yourschool:
Step 1: Develop an official IPM PolicyStatement. In addition to showing thedistrict’s support for an integratedapproach to pest management, thestatement should outline methods toeducate and train staff, store pesticides,notify parents and school occupants ofpesticide applications, and keep accuraterecords. This policy statement can also actas a guide for the IPM manager whiledeveloping an IPM program.
Step 2: Designate specific roles for pestmanagement personnel, school occupants,and key decision-makers. For example,encourage occupants to keep their areasclean, encourage parents to learn aboutIPM practices and follow them at home,designate a qualified person to be the pestmanager, and gain the support decision-makers who control the funds for IPMprojects. Establish methods for goodcommunication among these groups ofpeople, and educate or train them in theirrespective roles.
Step 3: Set specific pest managementobjectives for each site. Tailor eachobjective to the site and situation.Examples of objectives for schoolbuildings may include preserving theintegrity of building structures orpreventing interference with the learningenvironment of the students. Providingsafe playing areas and best possibleathletic surfaces are sample objectives forschool grounds.
Step 4: Inspect site(s) to identify andestimate the extent of pest problems. Afteridentifying potential pest habitats inbuildings and on school grounds, developplans to modify the habitats (for example,exclusion, repair, and sanitation).Establish a monitoring program thatinvolves routine inspections to track thesuccess of the habitat modifications andto estimate the size of the pest population.
Step 5: Set thresholds for taking action.These thresholds are the levels of pestpopulations or site environmentalconditions that require remedial action. Itis important to consider sensitiveindividuals when setting thresholds.
Step 6: Apply IPM strategies to controlpests when you reach an action thresholdor to prevent pest problems. Thesestrategies may include redesigning andrepairing structures, establishing wateringand mowing practices, and storingpesticides in well ventilated areas. Refer tothe IPM Checklist for a list of possiblestrategies for indoor and outdoor sites aswell as information on safe pesticide useand storage.
Step 7: Evaluate the results of your IPMpractices to determine if pest managementobjectives are being met. Keep writtenrecords of all aspects of the program,including records for state and localregulations.
EVALUATING THE COSTSIPM programs may actually cost less inthe long-term than a conventional pestcontrol program that relies solely on theuse of pesticides. Although the long-termlabor costs for IPM may be higher thanthose for conventional pesticidetreatments, the labor costs are often offsetby reduced expenditures for materials.
Whether an IPM program raises or lowerscosts depends in part on the nature of thecurrent housekeeping, maintenance, andpest management operations. The costs ofimplementing an IPM program alsodepend on whether the pest managementservices are contracted, performed in-house, or a combination of both. To fit theIPM program into the existing budgetaryframework, school administrators mustconsider what additional and redistributedexpenditures are involved. As with anyprogram, insufficient resources willjeopardize the success of an IPM program.
SUMMARYIPM provides schools with an economical,environmentally friendly alternative tocontrol and prevent pest problems.Schools should tailor IPM programs tomeet their specific needs and setappropriate objectives and thresholds tohelp them implement a successful pestmanagement program.
For additional information on IPM, seeAppendix L: “Resources.”
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T his appendix lists organizations with information or services related to indoor air quality(IAQ). In addition, the appendix includes a section on IAQ-related publications. Following isa list of the subsections contained in this appendix.
Federal Agencies with Major Indoor AirResponsibilities for Public and Commercial Buildings 60
EPA Regional Offices 60
Other Federal Agencies 61
State and Local Agencies 62
Professional and Standards Setting Organizations 62
Product Manufacturer Associations 63
Building Service Associations 64
Unions 65
Environmental/Health/Consumer Organizations 65
Multiple Chemical Sensitivity-Related Organizations 66
Organizations Offering Training on Indoor Air Quality 66
Radon 66
Other EPA Contacts and Programs of Interest 67
Publications 68
General Information 69
Indoor Air Quality 69- Secondhand Smoke (Environmental Tobacco Smoke)- Asthma- Radon- Asbestos- Biological Contaminants- Carbon Monoxide- Lead- PCBs
Building Management, Investigation, and Remediation 75
New Building Design 76
Ventilation/Thermal Comfort 76
Standards and Guidelines 79
Resources
Please Note:
Reference hereinto any specificcommercialproducts, process,or service by tradename, trademark,manufacturer, orotherwise, doesnot necessarilyconstitute or implyits endorsement,recommendation,or favoring by theUnited StatesGovernment. Theviews andopinions ofauthors expressedherein do notnecessarily state orreflect those of theUnited StatesGovernment andshall not be usedfor advertising orproductendorsementpurposes.
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(CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, VT)EPA Region 11 Congress Street, Suite 1100 (CAP)Boston, MA 02114-2023617-918-1639 (indoor air)617-918-1285 (radon)617-918-1524 (asbestos)
(NJ, NY, PR, VI)EPA Region 2290 Broadway (MC R2DEPDIV)28th FloorNew York, NY 10007-1866212-637-4013 (indoor air)212-637-4013 (radon)212-637-4081 (asbestos)
(DC, DE, MD, PA, VA, WV)EPA Region 31650 Arch Street, (3PM52)Philadelphia, PA 19103-2029215-814-2086 (indoor air)215-814-2086 (radon)215-814-2103 (asbestos)
FEDERAL AGENCIES WITH MAJOR INDOOR AIR RESPONSIBILITIES FOR PUBLICAND COMMERCIAL BUILDINGSThe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency conducts a non-regulatory IAQ program thatemphasizes research, information dissemination, technical guidance, and training. EPAissues regulations and carries out other activities that affect IAQ under the laws forpesticides, toxic substances, and drinking water.
EPA Indoor Environments Division(Headquarters)Mailing Address:1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, #6609JWashington, D.C. 20460www.epa.gov/iaq
Additonal Resources from EPA:
Indoor Air QualityInformation Hotline(sponsored by U.S. EPA)P.O. Box 37133Washington, DC 20013-7133Toll Free: 1-800-438-4318
EPA Office of Transportation andAir QualityNational Vehicle and Fuel EmissionsLaboratory2000 Traverwood DriveAnn Arbor, MI 48105734-214-4333 (voicemail) or734-214-4462www.epa.gov/otaq
Advances clean fuels and technology toreconcile the transportation sector with theenvironment and promote more livablecommunities. Sponsors a voluntary dieselretrofit program.
EPA REGIONAL OFFICESAddress inquiries to IAQ staff in the EPA regional offices at the following addresses:
(AL, FL, GA, KY, MS, NC, SC, TN)EPA Region 461 Forsyth Street, SWAtlanta, GA 30303-3104404-562-9143 (indoor air)404-562-9145 (radon)404-562-8978 (asbestos)
(IL, IN, MI, MN, OH, WI)EPA Region 577 W. Jackson Boulevard(MC AE-17J) (MC AT-18J)Chicago, IL 60604-3590Region 5 Environmental Hotline:1-800-621-8431312-353-2000 (outside Region 5)312-886-6053 (indoor air)312-886-6053 (radon)312-353-9062 (asbestos)
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(AZ, CA, HI, NV, AS, GU)EPA Region 975 Hawthorne Street (MC AIR-6)San Francisco, CA 94105415-947-4189 (indoor air)415-947-4193 (radon)415-947-4168 (asbestos)
(AK, ID, OR, WA)EPA Region 101200 Sixth Avenue (MC OAQ-107)Seattle, WA 98101-9797206-553-1189 (indoor air)206-553-7660 (radon)206-553-4762 (asbestos)
(AR, LA, NM, OK, TX)EPA Region 61445 Ross Avenue, Suite 1200(6 PD-T)Dallas, TX 75202-2733Region 6 Environmental Hotline:1-800-887-6063214-665-7298 (indoor air)214-665-8541 (radon)214-665-3127 (asbestos)
(IA, KS, MO, NE)EPA Region 7901 N. 5th Street (MC ARTD/RALI)Kansas City, KS 66101913-551-7391 (indoor air)913-551-7605 (radon)913-551-7020 (asbestos)
(CO, MT, ND, SD, UT, WY)EPA Region 8999 18th Street, Suite 300(MC 8P-AR)Denver, CO 80202-2466303-312-6017 (indoor air)303-312-6031 (radon)303-312-6406 (asbestos)
OTHER FEDERAL AGENCIESOccupational Safety and HealthAdministration (OSHA) promulgatessafety and health standards, facilitatestraining and consultation, and enforcesregulations to ensure that workers areprovided with safe and healthful workingconditions.Room N3641200 Constitution AvenueWashington, DC 202101-800-321-OSHAwww.OSHA.gov
National Institute for OccupationalSafety and Health (NIOSH) conductsresearch, recommends standards to theU.S. Department of Labor, and conductstraining on various issues including IAQ topromote safe and healthful workplaces.Undertakes investigations at request ofemployees, employers, other Federalagencies, and state and local agencies toidentify and mitigate workplace problems.
Requests for Field Investigations:Hazard Evaluations and TechnicalAssistance Branch (R-9)4676 Columbia ParkwayCincinnati, OH 45226513-841-4382Requests for Information:1-800-35-NIOSHwww.cdc.gov/niosh
Centers for Disease Control &Prevention4770 Buford Highway, NEMail Stop K50Atlanta, GA 30341770-488-5705www.cdc.gov
• Office on Smoking and HealthDisseminates information about thehealth effects of passive smoke andstrategies for reducing exposure tosecondhand smoke.
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• National Center for EnvironmentalHealthProvides information and materialsregarding air pollution and respiratoryhealth, including asthma education andprevention.www.cdc.gov/nceh
• Division of Adolescent and SchoolHealthProvides information on school health,including environmental health policyand guidance.www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dash
National Heart, Lung, & Blood InstituteInformation CenterP.O. Box 30105Bethesda, MD 20824-0150301-592-8573www.nhlbi.nih.govProvides information and materialsregarding asthma education and prevention.
U.S. Department of EnergyEnergy Efficiency and Renewable Energy1000 Independence Avenue, SWWashington, DC 20585202-586-9220www.eere.energy.govDeveloping industry standards forventilation and ventilation strategies.
• Bonneville Power AdministrationP.O. Box 3621-RMRDPortland, OR 97208503-230-3000800-282-3713www.bpa.govWithin the Department of Energy, BPAserves the Northwest and providesinformation on radon-resistantconstruction techniques, source control,and removal technology for indoor airpollutants. Also provides teacherresources and a variety of classroomcurricula.
STATE AND LOCAL AGENCIESYour questions and concerns about indoor air problems can frequently be answered mostreadily by the government agencies in your state or locality. Responsibilities for IAQ issuesare usually divided among many different agencies. You will often find that calling orwriting the agencies responsible for health or air quality control is the best way to startgetting information from your state or local government. Check the EPA Web site for stateagency contacts (www.epa.gov/iaq/contacts.html).
PROFESSIONAL AND STANDARDS SETTING ORGANIZATIONSAir and WasteManagement Association1 Gateway Center, 3rd FloorPittsburgh, PA 15222412-232-3444www.awma.org
Air-Conditioning andRefrigeration Institute4301 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 425Arlington, VA 22203703-524-8800www.ari.org
American Conference ofGovernmental Industrial Hygienists1330 Kemper Meadow DriveCincinnati, OH 45240513-742-2020www.acgih.org
American IndustrialHygiene Association2700 Prosperity AvenueSuite 250Fairfax, VA 22031703-849-8888www.aiha.org
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The American Instituteof Architects1735 New York Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20006202-626-7300www.aiaonline.com
American Society for Testingand Materials100 Bar Harbor DriveWest Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959610-832-9710www.astm.org
American Society of Heating,Refrigerating, andAir-Conditioning Engineers1791 Tullie Circle, NEAtlanta, GA 30329404-636-8400www.ASHRAE.org
Art and Craft Materials InstituteP.O. Box 479Hanson, MA 02341781-293-4100www.acminet.orgConducts a certification program toensure nontoxicity (or proper labeling)and quality of products. Works to developand maintain chronic hazard labelingstandard for art and craft materials.
Association of Higher EducationFacilities Offices (APPA)1643 Front StreetAlexandria, VA 22314703-684-1446www.appa.org
Council of Educational FacilitiesPlanners International (CEFPI)9180 E. Desert Cove Drive, Suite 104Scottsdale, AZ 85260480-391-0840www.cefpi.org
National Associationof School Nurses1416 Park Street, Suite ACastle Rock, CO 801091-866-627-6767
National Conference of States onBuilding Codes and Standards, Inc.505 Huntmar Park DriveSuite 210Herndon, VA 20170703-437-0100www.ncsbcs.org
PRODUCT MANUFACTURER ASSOCIATIONS
Adhesive and Sealant Council7979 Old Georgetown RoadBethesda, MD 20814301-986-9700www.ascouncil.org
Asbestos Institute1002 Sherbrooke St., WestSuite 1750Montreal, QuebecCanada H3A3L6514-844-3956www.asbestos-institute.ca/main.html
Association of Wall and CeilingIndustries, International803 West Broad Street, Suite 600Falls Church, VA 22046703-534-8300www.awci.org/e-mail: [email protected]
Carpet and Rug Institute310 Holiday AvenueDalton, GA 30720706-278-3176www.carpet-rug.com
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Chemical SpecialtiesManufacturers’ Association1913 I Street, NWWashington, DC 20006202-872-8110
Electric Power Research InstituteP.O. Box 10412Palo Alto, CA 94303650-855-2902www.epri.com
Gas Technology Institute1700 South Mount Prospect RoadDes Plaines, IL 60018-1804847-768-0500www.gri.org
Manufacturers of Emissions ControlsAssociation1660 L Street, NWSuite 1100Washington, DC 20036202-296-4797www.meca.org
National Paint andCoatings Association1500 Rhode Island Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20005202-462-6272www.paint.org
North American InsulationManufacturers’ Association44 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 310Alexandria, VA 22314703-684-0084www.naima.org
Outdoor Power Equipment Institute,Inc.341 South Patrick StreetAlexandria, VA 22314703-549-7600www.mow.org
Sustainable Building Industry Council1331 H Street, N.W., Suite 1000Washington, DC 20005 USA202-628-7400 x210www.sbicouncil.org
BUILDING SERVICE ASSOCIATIONSAir-Conditioning andRefrigeration Institute4301 North Fairfax DriveSuite 425Arlington, VA 22203703-524-8800www.ari.org
Air-Conditioning Contractorsof America1712 New Hampshire Ave., NWWashington DC 20009202-483-9370www.acca.org
American Council of EngineeringCompanies1015 15th Street, NW, Suite 802Washington, DC 20005202-347-7474www.acec.org
Associated Air Balance Council1518 K Street, NW, Suite 503Washington, DC 20005202-737-0202www.aabchq.com
Association of Energy Engineers4025 Pleasantdale Rd., Suite 420Atlanta, GA 30340404-447-5083www.aeecenter.org
Association of Specialists inCleaning and Restoration Intl.8229 Clover Leaf Drive, Suite 460Millersville, MD 21108410-729-9900www.ascr.org
National Air DuctCleaners Association1518 K Street, NW, Suite 503Washington, DC 20005202-737-2926www.nadca.com
National Associationof Power Engineers5707 Seminary Rd, Suite 200Falls Church, VA 22041703-845-7055www.nape.net/nape.html
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National EnergyManagement Institute601 North Fairfax St., Suite 120Alexandria, VA 22314703-739-7100www.nemionline.org
National EnvironmentalBalancing Bureau8575 Grovemont CircleGaithersburg, MD 20877-4121301-977-3698www.nebb.org
National Pest Control Association, Inc.8100 Oak StreetDunn Loring, VA 22027703-573-8330www.pestworld.org
Sheet Metal and Air ConditioningContractors National AssociationP.O. Box 221230Chantilly, VA 20153703-803-2980www.smacna.org
EMPLOYEE UNIONSAmerican Association of ClassifiedSchool Employees7140 SW Childs RoadLake Oswego, OR 97035503-620-5663www.aacse.org
American Federation of Teachers555 New Jersey Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20001202-879-4400www.aft.org
National Education Association1201 16th Street, NWWashington, DC 20036202-833-4000www.nea.org
ENVIRONMENTAL/HEALTH/CONSUMER ORGANIZATIONSAmerican Lung Association(or your local lung association)61 Broadway, 6th FloorNew York, NY 10006212-315-8700www.lungusa.org
Consumer Federation of America1424 16th Street, NW, Suite 604Washington, DC 20036202-387-6121www.consumerfed.org
National EnvironmentalHealth Association720 South Colorado Blvd.South Tower, Suite 970Denver, CO 80222303-756-9090www.neha.org
Occupational Health Foundation815 16th Street, NW, Room 312Washington, DC 20006
Wild Ones—NaturalLandscapers, Ltd.P.O. Box 23576Milwaukee, WI 53223-0576920-730-3986www.for-wild.org
National Education AssociationHealth Information Network1201 16th St. NW, Suite 521Washington, DC 20036800-718-8387
www.neahin.org
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MULTIPLE CHEMICAL SENSITIVITY (MCS)-RELATED ORGANIZATIONSHuman Ecology Action League (HEAL)P.O. Box 29629Atlanta, GA 30359404-248-1898www.members.aol.com/HEALNatnl
National Center forEnvironmental Health Strategies1100 Rural AvenueVoorhees, NJ 08043856-429-5358www.ncehs.org
ORGANIZATIONS OFFERING TRAINING ON INDOOR AIR QUALITYAlso, note Regional Radon Training Centers in next section.
American IndustrialHygiene Association2700 Prosperity Avenue, Suite 250Fairfax, VA 22031703-849-8888www.aiha.orgSponsors IAQ courses in conjunction withmeetings for AIHA members only.
American Society of Heating,Refrigerating, andAir-Conditioning Engineers1791 Tullie Circle NEAtlanta, GA 30329.404-636-8400www.ASHRAE.orgSponsors professional developmentseminars on IAQ.
Mid-Atlantic EnvironmentalHygiene Resource CenterUniversity City Science Center3624 Market Street, 1st Floor EastPhiladelphia, PA 19104215-387-2255Provides training to occupational safety andhealth professionals and paraprofessionals.
OSHA Training Institute155 Times DriveDes Plaines, IL 60018www.OSHA.gov/fso/ote/training/training_resources.htmlOSHA.ucsd.eduProvides courses to assist health and safetyprofessionals in evaluating IAQ.
RADON
State Radon OfficesFor information, call the radon contact in the EPA Regional Office for your state, or visit theEPA Radon Web site www.epa.gov/radon
Regional Radon Training CentersEPA has coordinated the formation of four Regional Radon Training Centers (RRTCs). TheRRTCs provide a range of radon training and proficiency examination courses to the publicfor a fee. See www.epa.gov/radon/rrtcs.html
National Foundation for theChemically Hypersensitive4407 Swinson RoadRhodes, MI 48652517-689-6369www.mcsrelief.com
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Eastern Regional Radon TrainingCenter (ERRTC)Cook College102 Ryders LaneNew Brunswick, NJ 08901-8519732-932-9271www.cookce.rutgers.edu/programs/radon.html
Midwest Universities Radon Consortium(MURC)University of Minnesota1994 Buford Avenue (240)St. Paul, MN 55108800-843-8636 or 612-624-4754radon.oznet.ksu.edu/radon_courses.htm.
Southern Regional Radon TrainingCenter (SRRTC)Auburn University217 Ramsay HallAuburn University, AL 36849-5331800-626-2703 or 334-844-5719eng.auburn.edu/contedu/pd/radon/index.html
Western Regional Radon TrainingCenter (WRRTC)University of Colorado1420 Austin Bluffs ParkwayColorado Springs, CO 809181-877-723-6601www.wrrtc.net
OTHER EPA CONTACTS AND PROGRAMS OF INTERESTEPA Asbestos and Small BusinessOmbudsman1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NWMail Code: 1808TWashington, DC 204601-800-368-5888http://www.epa.gov/sbo/Provides information on asbestos.
EPA Clean School Bus U.S. Initiative734-214-4780Email: [email protected]/cleanschoolbusProvides information and resources toschools and school districts on how toreduce pollution from school busesthrough retrofit, replacement, andanti-idling programs.
EPA ENERGY STAR Programs1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NW. (6202J)Washington, DC 204601-888-STAR-YESwww.epa.gov/energystar
EPA Healthy Schools Web Sitewww.epa.gov/schoolsComprehensive resource for all healthyschools-related programs at EPA. Links toindividual EPA programs.
IPM School ContactsBiopesticides and Pollution PreventionDivision (7511C)Pollution Prevention StaffAriel Rios Building1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NWWashington, D.C. 20460www.epa.gov/oppbppd1/biopesticides/bppd_contacts.htm
Field and External Affairs Division(7506C)Office of Pesticide ProgramsAriel Rios Building1200 Pennsylvania Ave., NWWashington, DC 20460www.epa.gov/pesticides/
National Lead Information Center1-800-424-5323Provides information on lead, leadcontamination, and lead hazards.
National Pesticide Information CenterOregon State University333 WenigerCorvallis, OR 97331-65021-800-858-7378npic.orst.edu/
National Pesticides TelecommunicationsNetwork1-800-858-7378In Texas: 806-743-3091Provides information on pesticides,hazards, and risks.
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Purdue University’s IPM TechnicalResource CenterServes only Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.1-877-668-8IPM (1-877-668-8476)www.entm.purdue.edu/entomology/outreach/schoolipm/EPA Supported Technical Resource Centerfor IPM in Schools and Day Cares.Provides tools, training and technicalsupport for schools and day care centersto start an IPM program. Trainingopportunities, IPM principles, and specificmanagement techniques are available forcustodial and maintenance staff.
RCRA/Superfund/EPCRA Hotline1-800-424-9346
Safe Drinking Water Hotline1-800-426-4791Provides information on lead in drinkingwater.
Stratospheric Ozone InformationHotline1-800-296-1996Provides information onchlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Texas A&M University’s IPM TechnicalResource CenterServes only Texas, New Mexico, andOklahoma.1-877-747-6872schoolipm.tamu.edu/
EPA Supported Technical Resource Centerfor IPM in Schools and Day Cares.Provides tools, training and technicalsupport for schools and day care centers tostart an IPM program. Trainingopportunities, IPM principles, and specificmanagement techniques are available for
custodial and maintenance staff.
TSCA Hotline Service202-554-1404Provides information on asbestos andother toxic substances.
University of Florida’s IPM in Schoolsschoolipm.ifas.ufl.edu/Provides free, useful information for schooladministrators, staff members, pestmanagers, and parents to start an IPMprogram.
Voluntary Diesel Retrofit ProgramOffice of Transportation and Air Quality(6401A)1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20460202-564-1682www.epa.gov/otaq/retrofitAddresses pollution from dieselconstruction equipment and heavy-dutyvehicles that are on the road today.
PUBLICATIONSItems marked * are available for order from the National Service Center forEnvironmental Publications (NSCEP). 1-800-490-9198 or Fax: 513-489-8695. Contact:P.O. Box 42419 Cincinnati, OH 45242-0419. www.epa.gov/ncepihom/index.htm
Items marked ** are available for order from NIOSH Publications Dissemination. 1-800-356-4674 or 513-333-8287. Contact: 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45202. Viewthe list of available publications at www.cdc.gov/niosh/publistd.html
Items marked *** are available for order from the U.S. General Accounting Office. 202-512-6000, Fax: 202-512-6061. Contact: P.O. Box 37050 Washington, DC 20013. Search foravailable publications at www.gao.gov:8765/
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General Information
America’s Schools Report DifferingConditions. (June 1996)*** Prepared bythe U.S. General Accounting Office.Report to Congressional requesters onSchool Facilities. GAO/HEHS 96-103Publication #B260872.
Conditions of America’s Schools.(February 1995)*** Prepared by the U.S.General Accounting Office. Report toCongressional requesters on schoolfacilities. GAO/HEHS 95-61 Publication#B259307.
Healthy Buildings, Healthy People: AVision for the 21st Century. (October2001)** Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA 402-K-01-003.
Profiles of School Conditions by State.(June 1996)*** Prepared by the U.S.General Accounting Office. Report toCongressional requesters on SchoolFacilities. GAO/HEHS 96-148 Publication#B272038.
Report of the Inter-ministerial Committeeon Indoor Air Quality. (1988) G. Rajhans.Contact: G. Rajhans, Health and SafetySupport Services Branch, Ministry ofLabour, 400 University Avenue, 7th Floor,Toronto, Ontario, Canada M7A 1T7.
Indoor Air QualityGeneral IAQ Information
IAQ Tools for Schools Kit (CD ROM).(Third Edition, December 2003)*Prepared by U.S. EPA. Includes all writtenmaterials provided in the Kit, including theIAQ Backgrounder and checklists, inAdobe PDF and MS Windows PageMakerformat. EPA 402-C-00-002.
Indoor Air Quality and StudentPerformance. (August 2003)* Preparedby U.S. EPA. Presents information aboutthe problem of poor IAQ, its causes, healthconsequences, and solutions. EPA 402-K-03-006.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools:Actions to Improve IAQ. (September1999)* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Serves as amarketing tool for the IAQ Tools forSchools Kit and program. EPA 402-F-99-008.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for Schools CaseStudies.* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Sharesexperiences, including issues incommunicating problems, financing, andremediation, of schools across the countrythat have or are implementing the IAQ TfSKit. View a list of case studies available fororder on the EPA Web site atwww.epa.gov/iaq/schools
Indoor Air Quality Tools for SchoolsCommunications Guide. (September2002)* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Offerscommunication strategies for schoolpersonnel addressing IAQ concernsexpressed by the school community. EPA402-K-02-008.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for SchoolsProgram: Benefits of Improving AirQuality in the School Environment.(October 2002)* Prepared by U.S. EPA.EPA 402-K-02-005.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for SchoolsTraining Modules 1 and 2. (CD ROM)*Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides threemodules, including Power Pointpresentation slides, to assist in the trainingof school district personnel for use of theIAQ Tools for Schools Kit. EPA 402-C-99-002.
Indoor Air Quality Tools for SchoolsCompanion Documents
Air Quality Guidelines for Europe.Prepared by the World Health Organization(WHO). (1987) Available from WHOPublications Center USA. Contact: 49Sheridan Avenue, Albany, NY 12210.WHO Regional Publications, EuropeanSeries Number 23.
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Purdue University’s IPM TechnicalResource CenterServes only Illinois, Indiana, Michigan,Minnesota, Ohio, and Wisconsin.1-877-668-8IPM (1-877-668-8476)www.entm.purdue.edu/entomology/outreach/schoolipm/EPA Supported Technical Resource Centerfor IPM in Schools and Day Cares.Provides tools, training and technicalsupport for schools and day care centersto start an IPM program. Trainingopportunities, IPM principles, and specificmanagement techniques are available forcustodial and maintenance staff.
RCRA/Superfund/EPCRA Hotline1-800-424-9346
Safe Drinking Water Hotline1-800-426-4791Provides information on lead in drinkingwater.
Stratospheric Ozone InformationHotline1-800-296-1996Provides information onchlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
Texas A&M University’s IPM TechnicalResource CenterServes only Texas, New Mexico, andOklahoma.1-877-747-6872schoolipm.tamu.edu/
EPA Supported Technical Resource Centerfor IPM in Schools and Day Cares.Provides tools, training and technicalsupport for schools and day care centers tostart an IPM program. Trainingopportunities, IPM principles, and specificmanagement techniques are available for
custodial and maintenance staff.
TSCA Hotline Service202-554-1404Provides information on asbestos andother toxic substances.
University of Florida’s IPM in Schoolsschoolipm.ifas.ufl.edu/Provides free, useful information for schooladministrators, staff members, pestmanagers, and parents to start an IPMprogram.
Voluntary Diesel Retrofit ProgramOffice of Transportation and Air Quality(6401A)1200 Pennsylvania Avenue, NWWashington, DC 20460202-564-1682www.epa.gov/otaq/retrofitAddresses pollution from dieselconstruction equipment and heavy-dutyvehicles that are on the road today.
PUBLICATIONSItems marked * are available for order from the National Service Center forEnvironmental Publications (NSCEP). 1-800-490-9198 or Fax: 513-489-8695. Contact:P.O. Box 42419 Cincinnati, OH 45242-0419. www.epa.gov/ncepihom/index.htm
Items marked ** are available for order from NIOSH Publications Dissemination. 1-800-356-4674 or 513-333-8287. Contact: 4676 Columbia Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45202. Viewthe list of available publications at www.cdc.gov/niosh/publistd.html
Items marked *** are available for order from the U.S. General Accounting Office. 202-512-6000, Fax: 202-512-6061. Contact: P.O. Box 37050 Washington, DC 20013. Search foravailable publications at www.gao.gov:8765/
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The Health Consequences of InvoluntarySmoking: A Report of the Surgeon General.(1986) Prepared by U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, Public HealthService, Office on Smoking and Health.1600 Clifton Road, NE (Mail Stop K50)Atlanta, GA 30333.
The Secondhand Smoke CommunityAction Kit (online only).* Prepared byU.S. EPA. Assists community leaders ineducating communities about the dangersof secondhand smoke. EPA 402-C-06-005.
Asthma
Asthma Media Campaign: Fish Out ofWater Brochure. Prepared by U.S. EPA.Provides information to people withasthma and parents and caretakers ofchildren with asthma on strategies formanaging asthma and exposure to triggers.EPA 402-F-01-008. (Also available inSpanish, EPA 402-F-01-008A.)
Asthma Speakers Kit. Prepared by U.S.EPA. Provides resources, including 35mmslides for educating the general public onasthma topics, including high-riskpopulations, effects of the indoorenvironment on asthma prevalence, andcommon indoor asthma triggers. EPA 402-B-01-002.
Asthma Speakers Kit (CD ROM). Preparedby U.S. EPA. Provides all resourcesavailable in the asthma education modulein electronic format. EPA 402-C-01-002.
Managing Asthma: A Guide for Schools.Prepared by NHLBI. A 17-page bookletthat provides action steps for schoolpersonnel to develop an asthmamanagement program for students withasthma. Available for order from NHLBI,P.O. Box 30105, Bethesda, MD 20824.Publication 91-2650. (Order fee: $3.50.)Additional resources are available for orderfrom the NHLBI Web site atemall.nhlbihin.net
Clear Your Home of Asthma Triggers: YourChildren Will Breathe Easier.* Prepared byU.S. EPA. This tri-fold brochure educatesparents and caretakers of children withasthma on common environmentalallergens and asthma triggers found in thehome and offers suggestions for easy stepsto control exposure to and reduce oreliminate the presence of allergens in thehome. EPA 402-F-99-005. (Also availablein Spanish EPA 402-F-99-005D,Vietnamese EPA 402-F-99-005B, ChineseEPA 402-F-99-005A, and Korean EPA402-F-99-005C.)
Health at Home: Controlling Asthma(English/Spanish VHS Video)* Preparedby U.S. EPA. EPA 402-V-01-006.
IAQ Tools for Schools Bulletin: Asthmaand Allergy. (Fall 2001)** Prepared byU.S. EPA. Presents articles on various issuesrelating to asthma and allergies managementin schools. EPA 402-F-01-019.
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Radon
A Citizen’s Guide to Radon: The Guide toProtecting Yourself and Your Family fromRadon (January 2009)* Prepared by U.S.EPA, U.S. Department of Health andHuman Services, and U.S. Public HealthService. Offers strategies for testing radonlevels and what to do after testing,discussion of the risks of radon andcommon myths. EPA 402-K-09-001.
Consumers’ Guide to Radon Reduction:How to Reduce Radon Levels in YourHome.* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Providesguidelines for buildings that have testedpositive for radon and have elevated radonlevels. EPA 402-K-06-094.
Home Buyer’s and Seller’s Guide toRadon. (January 2009)* Prepared byU.S. EPA. Provides information on testingfor radon in homes and related health risksfor new homebuyers, sellers, real estate,relocation professionals, and homeinspections. EPA 402-K-09-002. Alsoavailable for downloading in PDF from theEPA Web site at www.epa.gov/radon/pdfs/hmbuygud.pdf. Also available inSpanish (EPA 402-K-02-001).
Indoor Radon and Radon Decay ProductMeasurement Device Protocols. (July1992) Prepared by U.S. EPA. Providesinformation, recommendations, andtechnical guidance for using radon decayproduct measurement methods to establishstandard operating procedures. EPA 402-R-92-004. Online only at www.epa.gov/radon/pubs.
Learning About Radon: A Part of Nature.(February 2002) Prepared by U.S. EPA.Targeted to Native Americans, discussesthe basics of radon sources in the naturalenvironment, testing for radon and howhomes can be fixed to reduce radon levels.EPA 402-K-02-002. Online only atwww.epa.gov/radon/pubs.
Radon in Schools (3rd Edition, October2003) Prepared by the NationalEducation Association and the AmericanLung Association. Presents information onradon to raise awareness among students,teachers, and parents for potential radonproblems in schools. EPA 402-F-03-025.Online only at www.epa.gov/radon/pubs.
Radon Measurements in Schools—RevisedEdition. (1993)* Prepared by U.S. EPA.EPA 402-R-92-014. Online only atwww.epa.gov/radon/pubs.
Radon Measurement in Schools: Self-Paced Training Workbook. (1994)*Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA 402-B-94-001.
Radon Prevention in the Design andConstruction of Schools and Other LargeBuildings. (June 1994)* Prepared by U.S.EPA. Provides comprehensive information,instructions, and guidelines on designingand constructing a new building withradon-resistant features and techniques forradon mitigation that are currently beingstudied and applied. EPA 625-R-92-016.Available online at www.epa.gov/ORD/NRMRL/pubs.
Asbestos
ABCs of Asbestos in Schools.* Prepared byU.S. EPA. EPA 745-K-93-017.
Abatement of Asbestos-Containing PipeInsulation. (1986)** Prepared by U.S.EPA. Technical Bulletin No. 1986-2.
A Guide to Monitoring Airborne Asbestosin Buildings. (1989) Dale L. Keyes andJean Chesson. Environmental Sciences,Inc., 105 E. Speedway Blvd., Tucson,Arizona 85705.
A Guide to Respiratory Protection for theAsbestos Abatement Industry. (1986)**Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA 560-OTS-86-001.
Asbestos Abatement Projects: WorkerProtection. 40 CFR Part 763. (February1987)** U.S. EPA.
Asbestos Ban and Phaseout Rule. 40 CFRParts 763.160 to 763.179. ** U.S. EPA.Federal Register, July 12, 1989.
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Asbestos Fact Book.* Prepared by U.S.EPA. EPA 745-K-93-016.
Asbestos in Buildings: Guidance forService and Maintenance Personnel(English/Spanish). (1985)** Prepared byU.S. EPA. EPA 560-5-85-018. (“CustodialPamphlet”)
Asbestos in Buildings: Simplified SamplingScheme for Surfacing Materials. (1985) **Prepared by U.S. EPA. 560-5-85-030A.(“Pink Book”)
Asbestos in Schools: Evaluation of theAsbestos Hazard Emergency Response Act(AHERA).* Summary report prepared byU.S. EPA. EPA 560-491-012.
Construction Industry Asbestos Standard.29 CFR Part 1926.58.
Fact Sheet: Asbestos.* Prepared by U.S.EPA. EPA 745-F-93-007.
Fact Sheet: Asbestos in Schools:Evaluation of AHERA.* Prepared by U.S.EPA. EPA 745-F-91-100.
General Industry Asbestos Standard. 29CFR Part 1910.1001.
Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-Containing Materials in Buildings.(1985)** Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA 560-5-85-024. (“Purple Book”)
Guidelines for Conducting the AHERATEM Clearance Test to DetermineCompletion of an Asbestos AbatementProject. ** Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA560-5-89-001.
Managing Asbestos In Place: A BuildingOwner’s Guide to Operations andMaintenance Programs for Asbestos-Containing Materials. (1990)** Preparedby U.S. EPA. 1990. (“Green Book”)
Measuring Airborne Asbestos Following AnAbatement Action. (1985)** Prepared byU.S. EPA. EPA 600-4-85-049. (“SilverBook”)
National Emissions Standards forHazardous Air Pollutants. 40 CFR Part 61.(April 1984)** Prepared by U.S. EPA.
Biological Contaminants (Mold, Pests, Etc.)
Guidelines for the Assessment ofBioaerosols in the Indoor Environment.(1989) Prepared by the AmericanConference of Governmental IndustrialHygienists. 6500 Glenway Avenue,Building D-7, Cincinnati, OH 45211.
Integrated Pest Management in Schools (ABetter Method). (VHS Video or CD-ROM)Prepared by Safer Pest control Project(SPCP). Explains in simple language whatIPM is and how to get it started. Availablefrom the SPCP Web site at spcpweb.org/ orat 312-641-5575.
Integrated Pest Management for Schools: AHow-to Manual. (1997) Prepared by U.S.EPA, Region 9. Provides a full discussionof IPM concepts, policies, andimplementation practicalities. It also hasspecific management strategies for 14common pests and problem sites atschools. EPA 909-B-97-001. Available
A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture, and YourHome.** Prepared by U.S. EPA. Providesinformation and guidance for homeownersand renters on how to clean up residentialmold and moisture problems and how toprevent build-up. (Available in Spanish.)EPA 402-K-02-003. Available fordownloading in PDF from the EPA Website at www.epa.gov/mold/pdfs/moldguide.pdf
Bioaerosols, Assessment and Control.(1999) Prepared by the AmericanConference of Governmental IndustrialHygienists, Inc. Cincinnati, OH. ISBN 1-882417-29-1. 513-742-2020.www.acgih.org
Fact Sheet: Mold in Schools. (2004)**Prepared by U.S. EPA. Provides anorganized summary of information relatedto facts of mold growth in school buildingsand portable classrooms. EPA 402-F-03-029.
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from the EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/pesticides/ipm/schoolipm/index.html
Mold Remediation in Schools andCommercial Buildings. (March 2001)**Prepared by U.S. EPA. Presents guidelinesfor the remediation and clean-up of moldand moisture problems in schools andcommercial buildings, including measuresfor protecting the health of buildingoccupants and remediators duringimprovements. EPA 402-K-01-001.Available for downloading in PDF fromthe EPA Web site at www.epa.gov/mold/pdfs/moldremediation.pdf
Pest Control in the School Environment:Adopting IPM. (1993)* Prepared by U.S.EPA. This booklet is designed toencourage and assist school officials inexamining and improving their pestmanagement practices. It identifies waysto reduce the use of pesticides in schoolbuildings and landscapes, as well asalternative methods of managing pestscommonly found in schools. EPA 735-F-
93-012. Available from the EPA Web site atwww.epa.gov/pesticides/ipm/brochure.
Pesticides: Uses, Effects and Alternativesto Pesticides in Schools. (November1999)*** Prepared by the U.S. GeneralAccounting Office. Report to the RankingMinority Member, Committee onGovernment Affairs, Resources,Community and Economic DevelopmentDivision. GAO/RCED-00-17.
Protecting Children in Schools from Pestsand Pesticides. (2002)* Prepared by U.S.EPA. The brochure provides resources,success stories and examples of IPMpractices for safer pest management withinour nation’s schools. EPA 735-F-02-014.
The ABCs of IPM: A Modular VideoTraining Course. (VHS Video 2087)Prepared by the Texas AgriculturalExtension Service. Available from theTexas A&M University Web site atschoolipm.tamu.edu/
Carbon MonoxideProtect Your Family and Yourself fromCarbon Monoxide Poisoning. (October1996)** Prepared by U.S. EPA. This factsheet discusses common health hazardsassociated with exposure to CO andprovides guidance on what to do ifsuffering from CO poisoning and how toprevent exposure to CO, including the useof carbon monoxide detectors. EPA 402-F-96-005. (Also available in Spanish EPA402-F-97-004, Vietnamese EPA 402-F-99-004C, Chinese EPA 402-F-99-004A, andKorean EPA 402-F-99-004B.)
What You Should Know About CombustionAppliances and Indoor Air Pollution.(1991) Prepared by the U.S. ConsumerProduct Safety Commission, AmericanLung Association, and EPA. Answerscommonly asked questions about the effectof combustion appliances (e.g., kitchenovens, fuel-burning furnaces, fireplaces,space heaters) on IAQ and human health,and suggests ways to reduce exposure tocombustion pollutants with properinstallation, use, and maintenance ofcombustion appliances in the home. EPA400-F-91-100.
Lead
Fight Lead Poisoning with a Healthy Diet.(2001) Prepared by U.S. EPA. Containslead poisoning prevention tips for families.For hard copies, call the National LeadInformation Center at (800) 424-LEAD.(Available in Spanish.) EPA 747-F-01-004.
Lead Poisoning and Your Children. (2000)Prepared by U.S. EPA. Presents generallead information and safe practices forparents in a foldout poster. For hard copies,call the National Lead Information Centerat (800) 424-LEAD. (Available inSpanish.) EPA 747-K-00-003.
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Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)A Recommended Standard forOccupational Exposure to PolychlorinatedBiphenyls. (1977) Prepared by U.S.Department of Health and HumanServices, Public Health Service, Centersfor Disease Control, and National Institutefor Occupational Safety and Health.DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-225.Available from the National TechnicalInformation Service, 5285 Port RoyalRoad, Springfield, VA 22161.
Current Intelligence Bulletin 45:Polychlorinated Biphenyls—PotentialHealth Hazards from Electrical EquipmentFires or Failures. (1977) Prepared by U.S.Department of Health And HumanServices, Public Health Service, Centersfor Disease Control, and National Instituteof Occupational Safety and Health. DHHS(NIOSH) Publication No. 86-111.Available from the National TechnicalInformation Service, 5285 Port RoyalRoad, Springfield, VA 22161.
Transformers and the Risk of Fire: A Guidefor Building Owners. (1986)** Preparedby U.S. EPA. OPA/86-001.
An Update on Formaldehyde. (1997)Prepared by the U.S. Consumer ProductSafety Commission. Provides informationabout where consumers can come incontact with formaldehyde, health effects,and how to reduce exposure to chemicals.Available from the CPSC Web site atwww.cpsc.gov/cpscpub/pubs/725.pdf
Building Air Quality Action Plan (BAQAction Plan).** Prepared by U.S. EPA.Follows eight logical steps and includes achecklist to assist building owners andmanagers in understanding buildingconditions and implementing good IAQmanagement practices. EPA 402-K-98-001. (A companion to BAQ: A Guide forBuilding Owners and Facility Managers.)Available for downloading in PDF from theEPA Web site at www.epa.gov/iaq/largebldgs/pdf_files/baqactionplan.pdf
Building Air Quality: A Guide for BuildingOwners and Facility Managers. (December1991)* Prepared by U.S. EPA and U.S.Department of Health and HumanServices. EPA 402-F-91-102. Alsoavailable for downloading in PDF from theEPA Web site at www.epa.gov/iaq/largebldgs/pdf_files/iaq.pdf
Fact Sheet: Flood Cleanup: AvoidingIndoor Air Quality Problems. (August1993)* Prepared by U.S. EPA. Providestips to avoid creating IAQ problems duringflood cleanup and making residentialrepairs. EPA 402-F-93-005.
Healthy Indoor Painting Practices. (May2000) Prepared by U.S. EPA, Office ofPollution Prevention and Toxics, theConsumer Product Safety Commission,and the Montgomery County MarylandDepartment of Environmental Protection.
Building Management, Investigation, and Remediation
Lead Poisoning Prevention MediaOutreach Kit. (2001). Prepared by U.S.EPA. Assists state and local health,environmental, and housing agencies inworking with the media, and to createpress and outreach materials. For hardcopies, call the National Lead InformationCenter at (800) 424-LEAD. (Available inSpanish.) EPA 747-K-01-002.
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Available for download in PDF from theEPA Web site at www.epa.gov/opptintr/exposure/docs/inpaint5.pdfEPA 744-F-00-011. (Also available inSpanish, www.epa.gov/opptintr/exposure/docs/sp-pai~1.pdf)
IAQ Building Education and AssessmentModel (I-BEAM). (2001)** Prepared byU.S. EPA. I-BEAM software updates andexpands EPA’s existing Building AirQuality guidance and is designed to becomprehensive state-of-the-art guidancefor managing IAQ in commercialbuildings. This guidance was designed tobe used by building professionals andothers interested in indoor air quality incommercial buildings. I-BEAM containstext, animation/visual, and interactive/calculation components that can be used toperform a number of diverse tasks.EPA 402-C-01-001.
Interior Painting and Indoor Air Quality inSchools. (March 1994) Bruce Jacobs.Maryland State Department of Education,Division of Business Services, SchoolFacilities Branch, 200 West BaltimoreStreet, Baltimore, MD 21201.410-333-2508.
Office Building Occupant’s Guide toIndoor Air Quality. (October 1997)*Prepared by U.S. EPA. Providesinformation on factors contributing to IAQin office buildings, promoting apartnership between building managersand occupants to ensure a comfortableworking environment. EPA 402-K-97-003.
Orientation to Indoor Air Quality.**Prepared by U.S. EPA. Includes instructorand student materials to conduct a 2–daytraining course. (Order fee: $180)
Science Laboratories and Indoor AirQuality in Schools. Bruce Jacobs. March1994. Maryland State Department ofEducation, Division of Business Services,School Facilities Branch, 200 WestBaltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201.410-333-2508.
What You Should Know About Using PaintStrippers. (February 1995)** Prepared byU.S. EPA and the U.S. Consumer ProductSafety Commission. Discusses properprocedures for handling and using paintstrippers to reduce exposure to chemicalsand lessen health risks. CPSC Publication#F-747-F-95-002.
New Building DesignIndoor Air Quality Design Tools forSchools. EPA’s Web site for guidance ondesigning and maintaining healthy, high-performing school buildings.www.epa.gov/iaq/schooldesign
Building A Healthy Environment. (March1997) Prepared by Elizabeth Simon.Published by Learning by Design,pp 17-20. Available from the EducationalResources Information Center (ERIC)Clearinghouse, Publication EF 501126.www.ericse.org/
Healthy Building Design for theCommercial, Industrial and InstitutionalMarketplace. (1999) Prepared by WilliamA. Turner. Provides examples for highperformance building design. Availablefrom the ERIC Clearinghouse, PublicationEF 005342. www.ericse.org/
High Performance Schools Best PracticesManual. (March 2001) Prepared byCharles Eley, Ed. The Collaborative forHigh Performance Schools. This three-volume guide presents guidelines fordesigning high performing schools,including issues of IAQ, ventilation andthermal comfort. Available from EleyAssociates, 142 Minna Street, SanFrancisco, CA 94108.
Preventing Indoor Air Quality Problems inNew Buildings. (March 1998) Prepared byLisa M. Jackson. Published by CollegePlanning and Management, v1, n2,pp 65-66, 68-69. Describes how IAQ canbe built into new facility planning, designand construction. Available from the ERICClearinghouse, Publication EF 501170.www.ericse.org/
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Texas Sustainable School DesignGuideline. (1999) Prepared by MichaelNicklas, Gary Bailey, Harshad D. Padia,Nadav Malin. Published by InnovativeDesign, Inc, Padia Consulting, Inc. and EBuild, Inc. Explores a detailed list ofpractices and technologies that can helpcreate a sustainable school, from siteselection to construction. Available fromthe ERIC Clearinghouse, Publication EF005655. www.ericse.org/
Ventilation/Thermal ComfortASHRAE materials are available fromtheir Publication Sales Department, 1791Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329. 404-636-8400.
Air Cleaning Devices for HVAC SupplySystems In Schools. (December 1992)Arthur Wheeler. Maryland StateDepartment of Education.
Energy Cost and IAQ Performance ofVentilation Systems and Controls ModelingStudy.** Prepared by U.S. EPA. Reports onthe results from a 1999 EPA study to assessthe compatibilities among energy, IAQ,and thermal comfort for HVAC systems,comparing an office building, a school,and an auditorium. www.epa.gov/iaq/largebldgs/eiaq_page.htm
Guideline for the Commissioning of HVACSystems. (October 1989) ASHRAEGuideline 1-1989. ASHRAE Standard 62-1989. Available from the ASHRAEJournal. www.ASHRAE.org/template/JournalLanding
Healthy Indoor Air for America’s Homes:Indoor Hazards Every Homeowner ShouldKnow About.* Prepared by U.S. EPA. EPA402-K-98-002.
Indoor Air Facts, Number 7: ResidentialAir Cleaners. (February 1990)* Preparedby U.S. EPA. Discusses air cleaning as amethod of reducing indoor air pollutantsand lists types of air cleaners for the home,factors to consider, and sources foradditional information. EPA 20A-4001.
Indoor Air Facts, Number 8: Use and Careof Home Humidifiers. (February 1991)*Prepared by U.S. EPA. Describes thedifferent types of humidifiers, commonpollutants dispersed from the water tanks,and recommendations for their use andmaintenance. EPA 402-F-91-101.
Method of Testing General Ventilation Air-Cleaning Devices for Removal Efficiencyby Particle Size. (2000) ASHRAE Standard52.2-1999.
Right from the Start - Constructing aHealthy School. (June 1994) Prepared byMary Oetzel. Published by Schoolbusiness Affairs v. 60, n. 6, pp 4-8, 10-11.Describes school construction practicesused to design high performance schoolsin Minnesota. Available from the ERICClearinghouse, Publication EA 529542.www.ericse.org/
School Indoor Air Quality BestManagement Practices Manual. (1995)Prepared by Richard Hall, Richard Ellis,and Tim Hardin. Describes best practicesthat can be followed during siting, design,construction and renovation of schools toensure good IAQ. Published by theWashington State Department of Health,Office of Environmental Health andSafety. PO Box 47825, Olympia, WA98504-7825. Available from the ERICClearinghouse, Publication EF 005693.www.ericse.org/
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Ozone Generators That Are Sold As AirCleaners. Prepared by U.S. EPA. Providesaccurate information to consumers onusing ozone-generating devices in indooroccupied spaces. www.epa.gov/iaq/pubs/
Practices for Measurement, Testing,Adjusting and Balancing of BuildingHeating, Ventilation, Air-Conditioning andRefrigeration Systems. ASHRAE Standard111-1988. resourcecenter.ASHRAE.org/store/ASHRAE/
Reducing Emissions of Fully HalogenatedChlorofluorocarbon (CFC) Refrigerants inRefrigeration and Air ConditionEquipment and Applications. (1996)ASHRAE Guideline 3-1996.resourcecenter.ASHRAE.org/store/ASHRAE/
School Advanced Ventilation EngineeringSoftware (SAVES). Prepared by U.S. EPA.Helps school designers assess the potentialfinancial payback and indoor humiditycontrol benefits of Energy RecoveryVentilation (ERV) systems for schoolapplications. To download the software,visit: http://www.epa.gov/iaq/schooldesign/saves.html.
Residential Air-Cleaning Devices: ASummary of Available Information.**Prepared by U.S. EPA. Describes thegeneral types of residential air cleanersand their effectiveness in reducing indoorpollutants and provides tips for choosingan air cleaner and when to use it.
Selecting HVAC Systems for Schools.(October 1994) Arthur Wheeler and WalterKunz, Jr. Maryland State Department ofEducation, Division of Business Services,School Facilities Branch, 200 WestBaltimore Street, Baltimore, MD 21201.410-333-2508.
Should You Have the Air Ducts in YourHome Cleaned? (October 1997)**Prepared by U.S. EPA. Presentsinformation to help consumers andhomeowners understand air duct cleaning,assess if they need the service performed,choose a duct cleaner, determine if thecleaning was done properly, and preventcontamination of air ducts. EPA 402-K-97-002.
Thermal Environmental Conditions forHuman Occupancy. (1992) ASHRAEStandard 55-1992.resourcecenter.ASHRAE.org/store/ASHRAE/
The Ventilation Directory. NationalConference of States on Building Codesand Standards, Inc., 505 Huntmar ParkDrive, Suite 210, Herndon, VA 22070.703-481-2020. Summarizes natural,mechanical, and exhaust ventilationrequirements of the model codes,ASHRAE standards, and unique statecodes.
Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor AirQuality. (2001) ASHRAE Standard 62-2001. resourcecenter.ASHRAE.org/store/ASHRAE/
Standards and GuidelinesNIOSH Recommendations forOccupational Safety and Health.(1991)*** Prepared by U.S. Department ofHealth and Human Services, Public HealthService, Centers for Disease Control,National Institute for Occupational Safetyand Health. Compendium of PolicyDocuments and Statements. DHHS(NIOSH) Publications 91-109.
OSHA Standards for Air Contaminants. 29CFR Part 1910.1000. Prepared by U.S.Department of Labor. OSHA Regulations.
Available from the U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, DC 20402.202-783-3238. Additional health standardsfor some specific air contaminants are alsoavailable in Subpart Z.
Threshold Limit Values and BiologicalExposure Indices. (1990–91) AmericanConference of Government IndustrialHygienists. 6500 Glenway Avenue,Building D-7, Cincinnati, OH 45211.
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Glossary and Acronyms
AHERA – Asbestos Hazard Emergencyresponse Act
AHU – See “Air handling unit.”
AQI – The Air Quality Index is a tool thatprovides the public with clear and timelyinformation on local air quality andwhether air pollution levels pose a healthconcern.
ASHRAE – American Society of Heating,Refrigerating, and Air-ConditioningEngineers. See Appendix L: “Resources”for more information.
ASTM – Consensus standard-settingorganization. See Appendix L:“Resources” for more information.
Aftertreatment Device – Enginepollutant emissions are generally reducedby engine modifications, fuelspecifications, or exhaust gasaftertreatment. An aftertreatment device isa component used to reduce enginepollutant emissions downstream of thecombustion chamber. Catalytic convertersand particulate filters are examples ofaftertreatment devices.
Air Cleaning – An IAQ control strategyto remove various airborne particulatesand/or gases from the air. The three typesof air cleaning most commonly used areparticulate filtration, electrostaticprecipitation, and gas sorption.
Air Exchange Rate – The rate at whichoutside air replaces indoor air in a space.Expressed in one of two ways: Thenumber of changes of outside air per unitof time—air changes per hour (ACH); orthe rate at which a volume of outside airenters per unit of time—cubic feet perminute (cfm).
Air Handling Unit – For purposes of thisdocument, refers to equipment thatincludes a blower or fan, heating and/orcooling coils, and related equipment suchas controls, condensate drain pans, and airfilters. Does not include ductwork,registers and grilles, or boilers andchillers.
Air Toxics – Chemicals in the air that areknown or suspected to cause cancer orother serious health effects, such asreproductive problems or birth defects. Airtoxics are also known as “hazardous airpollutants.” Mobile sources emit a numberof air toxics associated with both long-term and short-term health effects inpeople, including heart problems, asthmasymptoms, eye and lung irritation, cancer,and premature death.
Alternative Fuel – An alternative fuel isany fuel other than gasoline and dieselfuels, such as methanol, ethanol,compressed natural gas, and other gaseousfuels. Generally, alternative fuels burnmore cleanly and result in less airpollution.
Antimicrobial – Agent that kills microbialgrowth. See “disinfectant,” “sanitizer,” and“sterilizer.”
BRI – See “Building-related illness.”
Benzene – A cancer-causing hydrocarbon(C6H6) derived from petroleum. Benzeneis a component of gasoline. Benzeneemissions occur in exhaust as a byproductof fuel combustion and when gasolineevaporates.
Biological Contaminants – Biologicalcontaminants are or are produced by livingorganisms. Common biologicalcontaminants include mold, dust mites, petdander (skin flakes), droppings and bodyparts from cockroaches, rodents and otherpests, or insects, viruses, and bacteria.Biological contaminants can be inhaledand can cause many types of health effectsincluding allergic reactions, respiratorydisorders, hypersensitivity diseases, andinfectious diseases. Also referred to as“microbiologicals” or “microbials.” SeeAppendix E: “Typical Indoor AirPollutants” for more information.
Building-Related Illness – Diagnosableillness with identifiable symptoms forwhich the cause can be directly attributedto airborne building pollutants (e.g.,Legionnaire’s disease, hypersensitivitypneumonitis).
M
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occupied space. As used in this document,supply air enters a space through a diffuseror vent and return air leaves a spacethrough a grille.
Disinfectants – One of three groups ofantimicrobials registered by EPA forpublic health concerns. A disinfectantdestroys or irreversibly inactivatesundesirable (and often infectious)organisms. EPA registers three types ofdisinfectant products based uponsubmitted efficacy data: limited, general/broad spectrum, and hospital disinfectant.
Drain Trap – A dip in the drain pipe ofsinks, toilets, floor drains, etc., which isdesigned to stay filled with water, therebypreventing sewer gases from escaping intothe room.
Emissions – Releases of pollutants intothe air from a source, such as a motorvehicles, furnishings, or cleaningproducts.
Emissions Standards – Rules andregulations that set limits on how muchpollution can be emitted from a givensource. Vehicle and equipmentmanufacturers have responded to manymobile source emissions standards byredesigning vehicles and engines to reducepollution.
EPA – United States EnvironmentalProtection Agency. See Appendix L:“Resources” for more information.
ETS – Environmental tobacco smoke.Mixture of smoke from the burning endof a cigarette, pipe, or cigar and smokeexhaled by the smoker (also secondhandsmoke or passive smoking). SeeAppendix E: “Typical Indoor AirPollutants,” Appendix F: “Secondhandsmoke,” and Appendix L: “Resources” formore information.
Evaporation – The process by which asubstance is converted from a liquid to avapor. “Evaporative emissions” occurwhen a liquid fuel evaporates and fuelmolecules escape into the atmosphere. Aconsiderable amount of hydrocarbonpollution results from evaporativeemissions that occur when gasoline leaksor spills, or when gasoline gets hot andevaporates from the fuel tank or engine.
Central AHU – See “Central air handlingunit.”
Central Air Handling Unit – Forpurposes of this document, this is thesame as an Air handling unit, but servesmore than one area.
CFM – Cubic feet per minute. Theamount of air, in cubic feet, that flowsthrough a given space in one minute. 1CFM equals approximately 2 liters persecond (L/s).
CO – Carbon monoxide. See AppendixE: “Typical Indoor Air Pollutants” formore information.
CO2 – Carbon dioxide. See Appendix B:
“Basic Measurement Equipment” andAppendix E: “Typical Indoor AirPollutants” for more information.
Combustion – The process of burning.Motor vehicles and equipment typicallyburn fuel in an engine to create power.Gasoline and diesel fuels are mixtures ofhydrocarbons, which are compounds thatcontain hydrogen and carbon atoms. In“perfect” combustion, oxygen in the airwould combine with all the hydrogen inthe fuel to form water and with all thecarbon in the fuel to form carbon dioxide.Nitrogen in the air would remainunaffected. In reality, the combustionprocess is not “perfect,” and engines emitseveral types of pollutants as combustionbyproducts.
Conditioned Air – Air that has beenheated, cooled, humidified, ordehumidified to maintain an interior spacewithin the “comfort zone.” (Sometimesreferred to as “tempered” air.)
Dampers – Controls that vary airflowthrough an air outlet, inlet, or duct. Adamper position may be immovable,manually adjustable, or part of anautomated control system.
Diesel Engine – An engine that operateson diesel fuel and principally relies oncompression-ignition for engineoperation. The non-use of a throttle duringnormal operation is indicative of a dieselengine.
Diffusers and Grilles – Components ofthe ventilation system that distribute andreturn air to promote air circulation in the
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Exhaust Ventilation – Mechanicalremoval of air from a building.
Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5
orPM fine) – Tiny particles or liquiddroplets less than 2.5 microns in diametersuspended in the air that can contain avariety of chemical components. PM fineparticles are so small that they are nottypically visible to the naked eye. Thesetiny particles can be suspended in the airfor long periods of time and are the mostharmful to human health because they canpenetrate deep into the lungs. Someparticles are directly emitted into the air.Virtually all particulate matter frommobile sources is PM
2.5. See Appendix E:
“Typical Indoor Air Pollutants” for moreinformation.
Flow Hood – Device that easily measuresairflow quantity, typically up to 2,500 cfm.
Highway Engine – Any engine that isdesigned to transport people or propertyon a street or highway.
HVAC – Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system.
Hypersensitivity Diseases – Diseasescharacterized by allergic responses topollutants. The hypersensitivity diseasesmost clearly associated with indoor airquality are asthma, rhinitis, andhypersensitivity pneumonitis.Hypersensitivity pneumonitis is a rare butserious disease that involves progressivelung damage as long as there is exposureto the causative agent.
IAQ – Indoor air quality.
IAQ Backgrounder – A generalintroduction to IAQ issues as well as IAQprogram implementation information thataccompanies the IAQ checklists.
IAQ Checklist – A list of suggested easy-to-do activities for school staff to improveor maintain good indoor air quality. Eachfocuses on topic areas and actions that aretargeted to particular school staff (e.g.,teachers, administrators, kitchen staff,maintenance staff) or specific buildingfunctions (e.g., HVAC system, roofing,renovation). The checklists are to becompleted by the staff and returned to theIAQ Coordinator as a record of completedactivities and requested assistance.
IAQ Coordinator – An individual at theschool and/or school district level whoprovides leadership and coordination ofIAQ activities. See Section 2: “Role andFunctions of the IAQ Coordinator,” in theIAQ Coordinator’s Guide for moreinformation.
Indoor Air Pollutant – Particles and dust,fibers, mists, bioaerosols, and gases orvapors. See Section 2: “UnderstandingIAQ Problems” and Appendix E: “TypicalIndoor Air Pollutants” for moreinformation.
IPM – Integrated Pest Management. Acomprehensive approach to eliminatingand preventing pest problems with anemphasis on reducing pest habitat andfood sources. See Appendix B:“Developing Indoor Air Policies” in theIAQ Coordinator’s Guide and AppendixK: “Integrated Pest Management” formore information.
MCS – See “Multiple ChemicalSensitivity.”
Make-up Air – See “Outdoor AirSupply.”
Microbiologicals – See “BiologicalContaminants.”
Mobile Sources – Motor vehicles,engines, and equipment that move, or canbe moved, from place to place. Mobilesources include vehicles that operate onroads and highways (“on-road” or“highway” vehicles), as well as nonroadvehicles, engines, and equipment.Examples of mobile sources are cars,trucks, buses, earth-moving equipment,lawn and garden power tools, ships,railroad locomotives, and airplanes.
Multiple Chemical Sensitivity (MCS) –A condition in which a person reportssensitivity or intolerance (as distinct from“allergic”) to a number of chemicals andother irritants at very low concentrations.There are different views among medicalprofessionals about the existence, causes,diagnosis, and treatment ofthis condition.
NIOSH – National Institute forOccupational Safety and Health. SeeAppendix L: “Resources” for moreinformation.
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Negative Pressure – Condition that existswhen less air is supplied to a space than isexhausted from the space, so the airpressure within that space is less than thatin surrounding areas. Under thiscondition, if an opening exists, air willflow from surrounding areas into thenegatively pressurized space.
Nonroad Engine – A term that covers adiverse collection of engines, equipment,vehicles, and vessels. Sometimes referredto as “off-road” or “off-highway,” thenonroad category includes garden tractors,lawnmowers, bulldozers, and cranes.Although nonroad engines can be self-propelled, their primary function is toperform a particular task. See Appendix I:“Mobile sources” for more information.
OSHA – Occupational Safety and HealthAdministration. See Appendix L:“Resources” for more information.
Outdoor air supply – Air brought into abuilding from the outdoors (often throughthe ventilation system) that has not beenpreviously circulated through the system.
Oxidation Catalyst – A type of catalyst(catalytic converter) that chemicallyconverts hydrocarbons and carbonmonoxide to water vapor and carbondioxide.
Particulate Filter/Trap – Anaftertreatment, anti-pollution devicedesigned to trap particles in dieselparticulate matter from engine exhaustbefore they can escape into the atmosphere.
Particulate Matter 2.5 (PM2.5
) –See “Fine Particulate Matter”.
Plenum – Unducted air compartmentused to return air to central air handlingunit.
Pollutant Pathways – Avenues fordistribution of pollutants in abuilding. HVAC systems are the primarypathways in most buildings; however, allbuilding components and occupantsinteract to affect how pollutants aredistributed. See Section 2:“Understanding IAQ Problems” for moreinformation.
Pollutants (Pollution) – Unwantedchemicals or contaminants found in theenvironment. Pollutants can harm humanhealth, the environment, and property. Air
pollutants occur as gases, liquid droplets,and solids. Once released into theenvironment, many pollutants can persist,travel long distances, and move from oneenvironmental medium (e.g., air, water,land) to another.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) –Mixtures of synthetic organic chemicalswith the same basic chemical structureand similar physical properties rangingfrom oily liquids to waxy solids. PCBswere used in hundreds of industrial andcommercial applications includingelectrical, heat transfer, and hydraulicequipment; as plasticizers in paints,plastics, and rubber products; in pigments,dyes, and carbonless copy paper, andmany other applications. Production ofPCBs in the United States ceased in 1977.
Positive Pressure – Condition that existswhen more air is supplied to a space thanis exhausted, so the air pressure withinthat space is greater than that insurrounding areas. Under this condition, ifan opening exists, air will flow from thepositively pressurized space intosurrounding areas.
PPM – Parts per million.
Pressure, Static – In flowing air, the totalpressure minus velocity pressure. Theportion of the pressure that pushes equallyin all directions.
Pressure, Total – In flowing air, the sumof the static pressure and the velocitypressure.
Pressure, Velocity – The pressure due tothe air flow rate and density of the air.
Preventive Maintenance – Regular andsystematic inspection, cleaning, andreplacement of worn parts, materials, andsystems. Preventive maintenance helps toprevent parts, material, and systemsfailure by ensuring that parts, materials,and systems are in good working order.
Psychogenic Illness – This syndrome hasbeen defined as a group of symptoms thatdevelop in an individual (or a group ofindividuals in the same indoorenvironment) who are under some type ofphysical or emotional stress. This does notmean that individuals have a psychiatricdisorder or that they are imaginingsymptoms.
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Radon – A colorless, odorless gas thatoccurs naturally in almost all soil androck. Radon migrates through the soil andgroundwater and can enter buildingsthrough cracks or other openings in thefoundation. Radon can also enter throughwell water. Exposure to radon can causelung cancer. See Appendix G: “Radon”and Appendix E: “Typical Indoor AirPollutants” for more information.
Re-entry – Situation that occurs when theair being exhausted from a building isimmediately brought back into the systemthrough the air intake and other openingsin the building envelope.
Retrofit – An engine “retrofit” includes(but is not limited to) any of the followingactivities:
• Addition of new/better pollutioncontrol aftertreatment equipment tocertified engines.
• Upgrading a certified engine to acleaner certified configuration.
• Upgrading an uncertified engine to acleaner “certified-like” configuration.
• Conversion of any engine to a cleanerfuel.
• Early replacement of older engines withnewer (presumably cleaner) engines (inlieu of regular expected rebuilding).
• Use of cleaner fuel and/or emissionsreducing fuel additive (without engineconversion).
SBS – See “Sick Building Syndrome.”
Sanitizer – One of three groups of anti-microbials registered by EPA for publichealth uses. EPA considers anantimicrobial to be a sanitizer when itreduces but does not necessarily eliminateall the microorganisms on a treatedsurface. To be a registered sanitizer, thetest results for a product must show areduction of at least 99.9 percent in thenumber of each test microorganism overthe parallel control.
Secondhand Smoke – See Appendix F:“Secondhand Smoke” for more information.
Short-circuiting – Situation that occurswhen the supply air flows to return orexhaust grilles before entering thebreathing zone (area of a room where
people are). To avoid short-circuiting, thesupply air must be delivered at atemperature and a velocity that result inmixing throughout the space.
Sick Building Syndrome – Termsometimes used to describe situations inwhich building occupants experienceacute health and/or comfort effects thatappear to be linked to time spent in aparticular building, but where no specificillness or cause can be identified. Thecomplaints may be localized in aparticular room or zone, or may be spreadthroughout the building.
Soil Gases – Gases that enter a buildingfrom the surrounding ground (e.g., radon,volatile organic compounds, gases frompesticides in the soil).
Sources – Sources of indoor air pollutants.Indoor air pollutants can originate withinthe building or be drawn in from outdoors.Common sources include people, roomfurnishings such as carpeting,photocopiers, art supplies, etc. SeeSection 5: “Diagnosing IAQ Problems”for more information.
Stack Effect – The flow of air that resultsfrom warm air rising, creating a positivepressure area at the top of a building and anegative pressure area at the bottom of abuilding. In some cases the stack effectmay overpower the mechanical system anddisrupt ventilation and circulation in abuilding.
Sterilizer – One of three groups of anti-microbials registered by EPA for publichealth uses. EPA considers anantimicrobial to be a sterilizer when itdestroys or eliminates all forms ofbacteria, fungi, viruses, and their spores.Because spores are considered the mostdifficult form of a microorganism todestroy, EPA considers the term sporicideto be synonymous with “sterilizer.”
TVOCs – Total volatile organic compounds.See “Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs).”
ULSD – Ultra-low Sulfur Fuel. Themanufacturers of retrofit technologies,which reduce sulfur emissions, specify themaximum allowable sulfur level foreffective operation of its products. For thepurposes of the diesel retrofit program,
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diesel fuel must contain less than 15 ppmsulfur to be considered as ultra-low sulfurfuel. The use of ultra-low sulfur fuel alonecan reduce emissions of particulatematter. Sulfate, a major constituent ofparticulate matter, is produced as abyproduct of burning diesel fuelcontaining sulfur. Reducing the sulfurcontent of fuel, in turn, reduces sulfatebyproducts of combustion and, therefore,particulate matter emissions.
Unit Ventilator – A single fan-coil unitdesigned to satisfy tempering andventilation requirements for individualrooms.
VOCs – See “Volatile OrganicCompounds.”
Ventilation Air – Defined as the total air,which is a combination of the air broughtinside from outdoors and the air that isbeing recirculated within the building.Sometimes, however, used in referenceonly to the air brought into the systemfrom the outdoors; this document definesthis air as “outdoor air ventilation.”
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) –Compounds are a gas at room tempera-ture. Common sources that may emitVOCs into indoor air include housekeep-ing and maintenance products andbuilding and furnishing materials. Insufficient quantities, VOCs can cause eye,nose, and throat irritations, headaches,dizziness, visual disorders, memoryimpairment; some are known to causecancer in animals; some are suspected ofcausing, or are known to cause, cancer inhumans. At present, not much is knownabout what health effects occur at thelevels of VOCs typically found in publicand commercial buildings. See AppendixE: “Typical Indoor Air Pollutants” formore information.
Zone – The occupied space or group ofspaces within a building that has itsheating or cooling controlled by a singlethermostat.
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IndexA
airdistribution
19, 34flow
23, 24, 28, 82, 83movement
6, 7, 25, 27, 46, 47air filters
54, 79air handling unit
5, 79, 80, 82air pressure
6, 24, 25, 82allergens
1, 7, 29, 30, 31, 34, 45, 48, 71animals
39antimicrobial
79, 80, 83art supplies
83asbestos
4, 21, 34, 59, 60, 61, 63, 67, 68, 71,72, 73, 79
ASHRAE5, 6, 17, 24, 25, 27, 28, 34, 36, 63, 66,76, 77, 78, 79
asthma1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 13, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 36,39, 45, 48, 49, 59, 62, 71, 72, 79, 81
B
basic measurement equipment25
biological contaminants13, 33, 34, 73, 74, 79
building occupants3, 5, 7, 11, 30, 45, 70, 83
building-related illness21, 79
C
carbon dioxide25, 33, 34, 80, 82
carbon monoxide1, 2, 13, 33, 34, 49, 59, 74, 80, 82
carpet3, 30, 31, 34, 45, 53, 54, 55, 63, 75, 83
chemical smoke25, 27
cleaning agents33
codes3, 4, 6, 17, 18, 19, 27, 28, 63, 77
combustion appliances34, 36, 74
communication3, 5, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 23, 50, 58, 67,69, 70
condensation45, 48
construction3, 27, 28, 34, 36, 43, 44, 49, 53, 54,55, 62, 68, 72, 73, 76
D
dampers80
diagnosing an IAQ problem15
diesel engine32, 36, 80
diffuser47, 80
disinfectants80
drafts7, 16
drain trap4, 80
ductwork4, 79
dust34, 36
dust mites1, 29, 31, 33, 34, 79
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E
education2, 18, 21, 27, 34, 39, 40, 52, 53, 55,57, 62, 63, 65, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77
emergency response13, 73, 79
exposure control17
F
fans4, 6, 47
flooring4, 9
food2, 4, 29, 30, 31, 34, 36, 45, 57, 81
formaldehyde31, 33, 49, 53, 75
fume hoods6
fumes17, 34
G
grille24, 25, 54, 79, 80, 83
H
health problems1, 3, 27, 45
heating system24, 25, 47
housekeeping3, 19, 34, 58, 84
humidity1, 4, 5, 6, 25, 27, 30, 34, 45, 46, 47
I
IAQ Coordinator7, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 43, 50, 81
IAQ Management Plan9
IAQ measurements19, 22, 23
IAQ problems21, 23
integrated pest management (IPM)30, 34
L
lead1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 13, 15, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28,29, 30, 33, 34, 36, 39, 45, 52, 67, 68,81
leaks30, 45, 46, 55, 80
local exhaust17, 19
locker room45, 46
M
maintenance1, 2, 3, 7, 13, 18, 19, 24, 25, 27, 34,47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58,68, 73, 74, 77, 81, 82, 84
mobile sources3, 49, 50, 52, 79, 81, 82
moisture6, 18, 30, 34, 45, 46, 47, 48, 54, 57, 73
mold1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 29, 30, 33, 34, 45, 46, 47,48, 53, 55, 73, 79
N
natural disaster43
nitrogen oxides32, 33, 36, 49
O
odors4, 5, 6, 9, 19, 53
off-gassing18, 53
OSHA27, 28, 34, 59, 61, 66, 78, 79, 82
outdoor air intake5, 17, 24, 25, 54
outdoor air supply19, 54, 82
80897 EPA F REV.pmd 8/31/08, 4:35 PM86
87
P
paint3, 4, 9, 17, 34, 36, 64, 75
parents1, 2, 3, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 30, 39, 58,68, 70, 71, 72
pest control9, 57, 58, 65, 73, 74
pesticides3, 4, 5, 17, 33, 34, 51, 57, 58, 60, 61,67, 68, 74, 83
pollutants3, 6, 19, 22, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 33, 36,49, 50, 53, 54, 62, 73, 74, 77, 79, 80,81, 82, 83, 84
professional assistance3, 6, 20, 21
R
radon3, 6, 5, 21, 27, 28, 33, 34, 41, 43, 44,59, 60, 61, 62, 66, 67, 68, 71, 72, 82,83
relative humidity1, 4, 5, 6, 25, 27, 34, 45, 46, 47
renovation9, 18, 27, 28, 43, 44, 76, 81
retrofit (engine)32, 50, 52, 60, 67, 68, 83
roof3, 9, 45, 47, 54, 55, 81
S
sample memo50
school bus1, 2, 17, 27, 32, 43, 49, 50, 52, 67, 76
science supplies2
secondhand smoke3, 6, 29, 30, 31, 33, 34, 39, 59, 61, 70,71, 80, 83
solvents33
solving IAQ problems3, 5, 3, 13, 15, 17, 21
sources1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17,18, 22, 23, 25, 27, 30, 31, 33, 34, 36,43, 44, 47, 49, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57, 58,59, 60, 62, 66, 67, 71, 72, 74, 76, 77,79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84
spills13, 16, 45, 81
T
temperature25, 27
thermal bridges48
thermal comfort77
thermostats5, 47
tobacco smoke34, 39, 70, 71
U
unit ventilators5
V
ventilation23, 24, 25, 28, 34, 44, 77
ventilation system23, 25, 28, 34
volatile organic compounds (VOCs)23
W
water34, 36, 61, 68
80897 EPA F REV.pmd 8/31/08, 4:35 PM87
80897 EPA F REV.pmd 8/31/08, 4:35 PM88
80897 EPA F REV.pmd 8/31/08, 4:35 PM89
80897 EPA F REV.pmd 8/31/08, 4:35 PM90
80897 EPA F REV.pmd 8/31/08, 4:35 PM90