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Boct, David B.The ?ole of Non-Acaaamic Emplor,!!-at in :':durationuf Graduate Studezts end Facult-. Strea7ther_irgAcademic and Professional Cult m-,1.Off of Career E±uc:ation (DELT- .E),n.C.Se n -?52o-

NFU"! ?CO3 Plus Poste.Car e_=___--- Development; Career Ed.trz=.o_n: *P1==±11q; *Doctoral Degrees; D*Eduration Work Relationship:7:Oppertunities; *Employment Pot tL-Development; Graduate Study; H gher 1--Oot

Pl.,cement; Job Skills; Networks; *S.7..ho,...eothipademic Careers

ABSTRACTD-,-igned to apply basic principles

education to c-radm-te education, this monographreshaping gradmate edr.7atdon to make Ph.D.s more np (D,

placement of Int.D.7, amd (3) necessary complementaryfaculty and ai.:inL.7tramive culture. Chapter brief17 ci:-Pmss4z.efforts to re Fin-7. the mission of the academic profess:.;-s-prepare stude--: ft ton-academic careers and obtain irrat-,..7_,= cceducation an rrk It closes with a plan to create Cz:ctedf.!_:ti=of Academic ,.7-rufess.cons tc provide technical assistarce-r 2describes netvcrtim= by which Ph.D.s in nonacademic empl=7,b, -land

employers comaire irfth universities to collaborate in pme?-artl'a.z1Ph.D.s for nc--.-=cademic employment. Efforts b' academic 13=xis.-s:_=sand institutic= tt lor-ate and place able Ph.D.s are cier.vt.:f.Chapter 3 addresses developing a career development prr.:=41113 t'rfaculty. A pilot eff-ort to offer all faculty career edcz.=-,- cs7..s

is reviewed that includes internsYips in other uni7erscmnonacademic emplo7m-t. Chapter II proposes a coalitionand universities to recruit talent and to work with stude.t.5integrate education aid work. The proposal suggests buithr.competency-based ed==4.ion movement to encourage studentsin voluntary assesL-0--+ts preceding graduate education todirection for career mlanning. (YLB)

* ****Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that cars. be =ade

from the original document. ****v************************************************* ****

The Role ofLJJ

Non-Acadernic EmploymentIn The Education OfGraduate Students

And Faculty

3

Strengthening Academicend Professional-Culture

Dr. David B. BoothSpecial Assistant

to theDeputy Director

Office of Career EducationU.S. Office of Education

September 1979

U S DEPARTMENT OF NEA.LTH.EDUCATION A Ilit:LA6ARENATIONAL INSTITUTE OF

EDUCATION

00Cilml NT HAS BEEN REPRO-Du( 50 E*A(Tly As RECEIVED FROMTHE PERSON OR OPOANIAATION ORIGINA tr.a", IT POINTS VIEW OR OPINIONS)TA TED DO No, EcESSAP 'EY REPRE-SENT OFFICIAL NAT.ON.FL INSTITUTE OFEDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

Acknowledgements

This monograph builds on personal observation, in-terviews (many by telephone), and a review of the re-search literature. Individual chapters or selected por-tions of the manuscript were reviewed and improvedthrough reactions provided by many peoplethese in-clude D. Lydia Bronte, of the Rockefeller Foundation,Susanne Ellis and Louis Slack of the American Instituteof Physics and John Kuhnle of the Federal NationalMortgage Association. I profited from several discussionswith Susan T. Hitchcock, a free lance writer and EnglishPh.D., who was responsible for information on the roleof the grac;uate student in preparing other graduate stu-dents for nonacademic employment. Susan Hitc--icockwas good enough to prepare a tape document:4 herexperience with graduate students at the University ofVirginia. Computer searches of the literature were pro-vided by the National Institute of Education and YorkUniversity's Inszitute of Behavioral Research.

The monogrmli concentrates on a description of twomeetings. The first was held at the University of Mary-land. Its topic was nonacademic employment. JasparNeel, formerly director of the Association of Depart-ments of English, designed this conference and invitedme to attend it. The second consisted of an appraisalreview of people considered for inclusion in the "Careersin Business" Program of New York University. In thisregard the staff of the program is to be thanked for per-mitting me to attend and for supplying additional infor-mation on the program. Richard Freedman of Nev. YorkUniversity was of particular assistance.

The manuscript required a study of efforts to improvethe education of graduate students for non-academic em-

ployment. To do this, I studied_=rograms for graduatestudents at the University of Michigan, Harvard Uni-versity, and the University of Texas. I talked with theirGraduate Deans and with their staffs. In this connectioninformation provided by James Kiolik, the Director ofthe University of Michigan's program on Non-AcademicCareer Counseling and Placement and Donna T. Mar-tyn, the Graduate Placement Dean at Harvard Univer-sity, was most helpful. David Thompson and ThomasEasthope of the University of Michigan's Office of Stu-dent Affairs rounded out my understanding of the pos-sibility of liaison between Student Services and theGraduate School. David Thompson permitted me topublish preliminary results of his study of graduate stu-dent orientations to graduate education and to work.

The manuscript benefited from informal discussionswith staff in the academic professions. I want to thankthe staffs for their courtesies and, in particular, LouisCimino of the American Anthropological Association andArnita Jones of the American Historical Association, forproviding information on their work.

The monograph was made possible by the Office ofCareer Education of the Office of Education. I owe aspecial debt to its Deputy Director, Dr. John Lindia,who shovvs in his personal and professional life how onecan productively integrate business and educational in-terests. The staff of the Office including Dr. KennethHoyt, its Director, Dr. Sidney High, its Program Offi-cer, and Dr. Joseph Scherer, Provided a challengingenvironment in which to work. am grateful to the sup-port staff for their excellent assistanceto Joan Bowen,Pat Dickerson, Diane Harlfinger, and Tern Ivey.

3iii

. The community should not becornailopele Ito twoparts, one part of technicians concerned only wit::: .-ceptingimplicitly the terms power puts to them, an otio.r,3,intellectuals more concerned with maintaini4-7theirs!rm 3f a puritythan with making their ideas effective. Exr.zrts the be,and perhaps also critics capable of steppir4.7mentiF,. :-fir societyand looking relentlessly at its assumptions in suferienii. aurnbe:-.- -4zid withsufficient freedom to make themselves felt_ l'resun.A3ly the rc-,ssibility ofdebate between, them will continue to exist.znd the nutEectuai.=rimunitywill have within it types of minds capablecEmi. ediaiing betweeL...ii worldof power and the world of criticism. If so, litr----llectual society w void thedanger of being cut up into hostile and u,..-,---_,ommumi-ative segirr.:7its. Oursociety is sick in many ways; but such hea'th. as it r.a.,. lies in the pluralityof the elements composing it and their to irh-ract with -,uvc.a other.It would be tragic if all intellectuals aim _serve _.r-wer; but I: would beequally tragic if all intellectuals who hmaitte assceiti-oitcl with .power weredriven to believe they no longer had at.,77.-:s7Jnne6c:.- with the :nteDectualcommunity: their conclusion would alm r,..K-7. evil that their-respon-sibilities are to power alone."

FlicE=d Hofstacier,Anti-intellectual.is:n inAnrerican Life

iv

:ontents

.:_cknowledgements

introduction

Chapter I: Enlarging the Scope of Grad=ateEducation

What is the Discipline For?Broadening the CurriculumHistory Attempts to Integrate Education

and WorkManpower PlanningA Confederation of Academic Disciplines

Page

iii

Page

Uiniv# ies to Act 25Linktr ate School

vii Ft 47. 71.L...1!--- 28Graduate School

291 .iumni Support 301 -7.ms. Work

1

367

Chapter II: Ph.D.'s and jobs 11Educating Ph.D.'s

Matching Alumni With Ph.D.'s inEnglish 11

Networking in Other Professions 15Is There Life After Death? 18

Educating Employers 22Creating a National Coalition 22The New York University Cari.:2rs in

Business Program

Chapter I 'Ttfying Faculty andiministrative Culture

Dive F:.. izity CultureSystem Woe.

FacultyEdt1,7aboon for Faculty

Dive ring Administrative Culture

Chapter the Next Step? 39

Informat-, for Graduate Students and Fa._.-Ityon Wc- 43

22 Referenr 45

Figures and Tables

Figure 1 Occupations of 1976-77 Ph.D.'s inPhysics one year after theygraduated

Page

4

Table I David Thompson's University ofMichigan Study of Graduate Studentsand Non-Academic Employment .... 15

Page

Table 2 B.A. Ph.D. Switching, 1960-1974 ... 19

Table 3 Baccalaureate Source Fields as Per-cent of Each Ph.D. Field Total 20

Table 4 Gradu...;.e Students at the Universityof Michigan Report their Willingnessto Invest in their Training 32

IntroductionI_.: monograph is :Tied to answer three questions:. V,Vhat has been d=.: and what needs to be dor' to

-reshapE graduate LL'.---,ucation so that Ph.D.'s will be-more employable?"What has been done.and what needs to be done bythe academic profes=ns and by institutions to placePh.D.'s?What complementa.. changes are needed in facultyand administrative culture?

The monograph has =en written both as a report ofwhat has happened as a source of ideas as to whatneeds to be done nex .

Proposals for Strtzetural Change

The present surplus of Ph.D.'s has prcduced a policycrisis in higher education. Most proposals to deal withthis crisis suggest that we can control it by reducing thenumber of students who enter graduate school, by clos-ing programs, by being more selective in funding, or bybeing more hard nosed in judging the performance ofstudents. A recent study by Hirschberg and Itkin (1978,p. 1083) followed the careers of graduate students whowere observed while in residence in psychology at theUniversity of Illinois. They found that fellow studentsand faculty were aware of lasting traits that led to successor failure. Being nice to marginal students really meantbeing cruel, if the criterion was concern for their re-search effectiveness. Graduate programs could be moreeffective by controlling the number and type of studentsenrolled and graduated. One alternative would be togive students more information on alternatives so thatthey could make voluntary decisions that would be intheir own interests to guide their selection of programsand to help them make the most of graduate education.(Booth, 1964) There have been many proposals to dosegraduate programs but few have been closed and whenthey have been closed the savings have been minor, todate.

These proposals to rationalize graduate education bymaking it more humanistic and selective have been com-plemented by others that seek to reduce tly. surplus byinfluencing Federal or State policies. A detailed studyof these proposals is beyond the scope of this monograph.Yet the reader should recognize that without attentionto proposals for structural change, we will continue to

live with many of our present conflicts. One way to re-duce the pressures for:ernployability in higher educationwould be to increase_themumber of available positions.This could be done by funding half-time tenured posi-tions and separating funding for teaching from fundingfor research. (Keyfitz, 1978) Blackburn (1979) proposesthat we assume that thenormal situation should be half-time tenured slots to permit more faculty to work asacademics and pursue scholarship as an avocation. TheNational Science Foundation has pioneered in pusb ingfor Federal funding to stockpile senior faculty talent andto permit earlier retirement without loss of pensionfunds. Yet studies of this question suggest that earlyretirement is at best a marginal solution. (Patton, 1977)

As long as teaching and research serve ambiguous cul-tural goals Federal and State interests will focus on moresalient issues such as unemployment, inflation, and en-

gy. It is unlikely that the government will reach adeliberate policy on the proper level for teaching andresearch unless these policies can be linked to broadersocietal issues. Discussions with policy makers indicatethat higher education will be forced to make its owndecisions on policy with a limited budgetwith themarket as the main arbiter of change. Although thereare growing pressures to solve the problems of oversup-ply by ending the tenure system it is much simpler forgovernment to let the market take its toll and lot facultyand institutions decide who is to be fired than to end thetenure system by fiat. Rather than accept governmentalaction to end the tenure system, this monograph pro-poses that faculty contribute to a partially self-supportingeducational fund to work with people at critical stagesin their lives to maintain high levels cf competence atwork. A modest training investment per faculty membershould activate a training network that would providesupport for the education and job-placement of facultyand graduate students. Some of this would be done ininstitutions with the help of State systems. Part of thework could be done by the a^ademic disciplines them-selves, through a confederation (as suggested in the lastpart of Chapter 11.

We recognize the validity of attempts to get Federalsupport for policies that change the structure of graduateeducatic z. It is unlikely that these policies will befunded, not simply because they are not politically "hot,"but because their outcomes are ambiguous. (Klitgaard,1978) Our focus on nonacademic employment for grad-

vii

uate students reflects the belief that planned change ispossible in graduate education if we use the strengthsof nonacademic employment to improve the diversityand breadth of academic life and to gain for it new con-stituencies. Any program for graduate students musthave a complement for faculty and this is the reason thatChapter III advocates using nonacademic employmentand sabbaticals to diversify faculty cultur3.

In of Monograph

The monograph will raise more questions than it willanswer. It is designed to stimulate debate among readersand to raise to consciousness options for planning andaction.

Chapter I briefly describes efforts to redefine themission of the academic professions so they prepare stu-dents for nonacademic careers and obtain informationon student reactions to education and work. The chaptercloses with a plan to create a Confederation ofAcademicProfessions to provide technical assistance to the aca-demic disciplines, to faculty, and to graduate studentsin relating education to work. Chapter II describes net-working by which Ph.D.'s in nonacademic employmentand employers combine with universities to collaboratein the preparation of Ph.D.'s for nonacademic employ-ment. The chapter includes discussions of how graduatestudents can initiate these networks and could publishreports on differences in quality in graduate education.The chapter also reports in some detail on efforts by tl.eacademic professions and institutions to locate ablePh.D.'s and help them find suitable jobs. The chapteremphasizes the need for leadership at the top in devel-oping and implementing university programs. The need

viii

to integrate efforts c: ._ademic departments, the grad-uate school, carr ceanLseling, and placement are re-viewerl. Chapter._- :717:7:ay discusses ways in which acareer developme 7.1=...-am can be developed for fac-ulty. Without derr,c- ; !Ale value of academic culture,career programs rr,7,"--77'''fF" better use of sabbaticals. Wewill review a pilot efil= m offer all faculty career edu-cation options inclua:inz year long internships in otherunits of the univer&F cz- in non-academic employment.Chapter IV proposes a. zoalition of employers and uni-versities to recruit talent and to work with students tointegrate education: and work wlvAher or not studentslater go to graduate,. school. The proposal suggests thatwe build on the positive aspects of the competency-basededucation movement to encourage students to engagein voluntary assessments preceding graduate educationto provide direction, for career planning. (Booth, 1964)

The monograph applies basic principles of career ed-ucation to graduate education. (For a related attempt todo this see Kenneth Hoyt's statement of an IdealisticModel of Career- Education for Higher Education.(Hoyt, 1976.) A -modest reform in the few graduateschools that educate a large proportion of future facultywould have a profound influence on faculty culture,while making corresponding gains in the education ofthose who will earn Ph.D.'s but work outside highereducation. Since these discussions are pioneering, andbuild on selective research and observation, the authorwelcomes active participation of the reader in this policyreview. It is likely that the suggestions made will bemodified on the basis of the experience of others whoare working to broaden graduate education and to ?_kclinks between graduate education and work for graduatestudents and faculty. Hopefully, future policy will buildon the accumulated experience of colleagues.

7

Chopter I

Enlarging the Scope of Graduate Education

Introduction

The business of this chapter is change in graduateeducation through the development of Professional Mi-nors and through the incorporation of new specialtiesthat take into account the need to extend the scope ofthe professions to include nonacademic work. We willstudy the efforts of historians such as Robert Kelley,Richard Hewlett, and their associates in the NationalCoordinating Committee for the Promotion of Historyto demonstrate how faculty in the academic disciplinescan gain support for new work to serve new constituen-cies. To guide us in this work, manpower planning isneeded. In this regard we will review the work of theAmerican Institute of Physics which has conducted man-power surveys as one of its administrative services tomember associations. We propose an extension of thismodel to the academic disciplines in the social sciencesand the.humanities. An administrative center could beestablished oLl Nonacademic Employment that wouldserve the various disciplines, interested departments,and graduate students. One of the activities of such anadministrative center would be the development andappraisal of options for internships. The center wouldbecome a loose Confederation of Academic Disciplineswith freedom to act and provide technical assistancewithout obligating its constituency.

What is the Discipline For?

The academic professions are in ferment. Professionalnewsletters and journals in Anthropology, History, Po-litical Scier:ce and Sociology report a vigorous debate onthe role of applied specialties and perspectives. Peoplelike Elliot Chapple in Anthropology, who have spear-headed efforts to make Anthropology relevant to policyissues in the past, are pressing for more integration ofeffort, more synthetic thinking, to bring the professionback to its earlier focus on social change in societies.Anthropology, particularly hard hit by the academic la-bor market, is trying to get its faculties and graduatestudents to see the value of field work as a basic strategyof social investigation, not limited to academic work. The

8

1978 Annual Report of the American AnthropologicalAssociation (9. 27) presses the association to end its frag-mentation and to unify theory and methodology. In so-ciology a Section on Sociological Practice was foundedseveral years ago to provide a forum for the discussionof applied issues. The Section now has its own journal.It is no accident that sociology has had two ExecutiveOfficers in the last half decade who have built their ca-reers in applied specialties. The times call for new lead-ership and the academic professions are beginning torespond although the leaders are, of course, appointedor elected for a short-term and must serve the interestsof those with established careers and traditional con-cerns. In Political Science, an established scholar, Rob-ert E. Lane (1974) calls for more attention to "sciencemanagement" to anticipate the unemployment of stu-dents and faculty and to make graduate education moreresponsible ?.nd relevant. Lane's thorough analysis of theconditions for creavity within political science is an ex-ample of the productive thinking which is possible fromfaculty within the academic professions. The melody isfamiliar in the social sciencesthe debate has been goingon for a long time. The latent tension between theoristsand specialists in traditional specialities vs. those withapplied and clinical approaches produces a running bat-de"closet" scientists who were working in appliedfields without much visibility are now pressing forchange in the goals and social organization of the aca-demic professions.

Broadening the Curriculum

A Professional Skills Mii:or. Would HumanitiesPh.D.'s be better able to compete with M.B.A.'s andLaw School graduates if they had taken a minor thatintroduce' them to the decisionmaking tools of modernmanagement? Since most Ph.D.'s in the Humanitieshave shied away from quantitative courses and have littleunderstanding of what managers do, a minor could atleast give them enough knowledge so they could talkwith potential employers about work. Although it mayseem simple for students to make these decisions ontheir own, few do. Departments do not encourage them

to do so and students who still think that they will getan academic job may be reluctant to let faculty knowthat they are considering work outside academe. Theprofessional schools are overloaded and it would only benatural for them to give preference to their own studentsin scheduling or admissions.

A minor in Professional Skills in the College of Artsand Science represents a practical solutionit retainsa student's allegiance to the Liberal Arts and uses theCollege of Arts and Sciences as the mentor. One suchsequence, a Professional Skills Minor, has now beenapproved at Pennsylvania State University.

These are the courses which are to be included in theminor (or optional additional courses beyond the re-quirements for a degree):

Professional Skills Minor /Option

15 Credits

Problem Analysis/ProblemSolutions

Information %esources:Government and Private

Advanced Technical WritingThe Editorial ProcessOral Communications in Industry

or Business and GovernmentIndividual Project or Practicum

3 credits

3 credits3 credits3 credits

3 credits3 credits

Arthur Lewis, the proposer for this minor option explainsits rationale:

The College of Liberal Arts wishes to establisha 15 credit Professional Skills Minor/Option atthe graduate level concerned with research, an-alytic, and communication skills integral to doc-toral programs offered wifnin the College. Formany years we have known that attainment ofthe Ph. D. has been accompanied by the devel-opment of a number of specific skills as well asa more general intellectual sophistication thathave proved useful and appropriate in a varietyof professional contexts. As our graduates moreand more seek vocational placement outside ofthe traditional academic positions we believe wecan assist them further by offering training thatwill augment and broaden this inherent skillsdimension of graduate work.

The sequence of courses is designed to meetthese objectives. The Problem Analysis /ProblemSolution course will expand the student's gen-eral problem solving skills by giving practice aswe!' as instruction in a variety of individual andgroup approaches. While a student doing grad-

2

uaie level work is familiar with the professionalliterature within his/her discipline areas and, byextension, could develop similar awareness ofother analogous academic areas, few have hadany real experience with nontraditional andnonacademic sources. The Library Studies coursewill expose the student to a variety of nontra-ditional materials while emphasizing govern-ment sources, data banks, and private specialcollections. The writing, editing, and speechsegments will, in turn, expand the student'sawareness of the communication process anddevelop effective techniques for conveying in-formation and arguments to individuals withvaried professional backgrounds. While ea&course will concentrate on one specific aspectof the research, analysis, and communicationprocess, each will inevitably cont?in elementsfrom all three; the primary synthesis, however,is exr .'cted to take place in the individual studiesproject or the practicum where each student willbe responsible for a project ofsome complexity.Where possible, this component will be locatedin an internship program.

The module will be used in two ways by grad-uate students: as a traditional integral minorwithin their conventional program and as anoption supplemental to their conventional grad-uate program. Requirements will be the samefor both uses.

The Professional Skills Minor/Option will be ad-ministered by the Associate Dean of the Collegeof Liberal Arts in consultation with a programadvisory committee, appointed by the Dean.The Associate Dean wiii receive applications foradmission to the option; maintain records forstudents enrolled; when the option is used asan integral minor, negotiate nominees involvedwith the Professional Skills Minor/Option toserve on the Ph.D. examination committees;and supervise the examination procedure forstudents using the module as a supplementaloption. Upon completion of all requirements,the Associate Dean will notify the GraduateSchool so that this fact can be recorded on thestudent's transcript that a Certificate of Awardmay be presented.

(The syllabus for the Problem Solving Course,Liberal Arts 582, is worth examining if onewishes to develop a management sequence forgraduate sti, e.nts. It can be obtained by writingArthur Lewis at the English Department ofPennsylvania State Uniyersity, UT)! ersity Park,Pennsylvania 16802.)

9

Offering a Professional Skills Minor permits the aca-demic professions to retain their core programs yet pro-vide students with complimentary courses to enhancetheir employability. At first it may seem as though thisis an essary duplication of effort. Why should stu-dents not take these courses in a professional school?Liberal arts students need an introduction to these sub-jects that takes into account their ignorance of manage-ment concepts and mathematics. A professional minoris an attempt to bring students to a point where they canat least talk with people at work about technical matters.The minor is no substitute for a program of studies ina professional school. It gives students an introductionto work which they will need to master later. By certi-fying that they have had this information, their chancesfor employability may be improved.

History Attempts toIntegrate Education andWork

A recent study shows that about one-third of Ph.D.'sin History could only find temporary jobs. Another one-third worked outside colleges and universities. (Jones,1978, p. 50) History has been hard hit by the enrollmentdecline. It has lost much of its influence in high schoolswhere it previously had controlled the social science.curriculum. In the boom years of the 1960's there war.no reason to ask how the scope of the nrotession couldbe enlarged. Today there is clear evidence of the needto provide new definitions of historical work outside ac-ademe.

The staff of an academic profession cannot, by them-selves, move a profession to begin taking a policy standon these issues. History is more fragmented than mostof the academic disciplines in its separation into manyseparate and autonomous professional societies. (The twomain societies are the American Historical Associationand the Association of American Historians.) Historyacted out of need, prodded by dissident faculty, whowere pushing for an expanded curriculum and a newExecutive Director willing to take risks, who hired Ar-nita Jones as the Director of a committee to begin todeal with these issues. She was hired on a part-timebasis. No-one knew whether or not the profession wouldprovide the funds needed to survive. The National Co-ordinating Committee, launched in 1976, is organizedto bring its message to the attention of departments,business, and government as shown in the brochure onthe page which follows.

The Coordinating Committee's purpose is describedin a new journal, The Public Historian, published by theUniversity of Santa Barbara, which organized the firstPh.D. program in Public History (Jones, 1978, p. 52),as follows:

10

At its most fundamental level the National Co-ordinating Committee represents a clear rec-ognition of the fact that the historical profes-sion is in a stare of crisis and that historiansmust take positive action to allieviate the crisis.The National Coordinating Committee set outto organize its activities on the premise thatpublic perceptions about the value of historicalknowledge and skills are inseparable from theproblem of the employment of historians. Inshort, historians need to learn how to marketthemselves and their discipline. Few of usdoubt that the historical perspective is muchneeded in the boardroom or in the bureau-cracies of various levels of government, but fewof us have been willing to try to provide thisperspective.

The new field of Public History prepares students forcareers as historians in government, industry, or as pri-vate consultants. A History Group, established in At-lanta, has begun to compete with the Grey Line Toursto offer tours with tour escorts who are historians. It hasrecently completed a study of Black Atlanta.

Denartmentx have been asked to establish Advisorythat include alumni and placement officers as

Ponpective employers or their representatives.'mg Council is trying to get departments

, historians can do outside colleges andui .11(0? 0*. and create curriculums which educate stu-dents or is work. A survey (Jones, CLIO, Confronts)shows k.,11i..t 58 departments have new graduate programsin Public History: in archival and information manage-ment, in cultural resources management (historical pres-ervations md museums), and in applied research. Theprograms usually offer an M.A. degree and provi,le in-tensive interdisciplinary training.

An internship is usually required in the new graduateprograms. This adds an extra year to the student's pro-gram. "Although internships are old hat in many fields,they are new in the academic discipline; L They certainlyare in history where the internship provides the contextfor a project that becomes the student's Master's Thesis.Although the concept is not now, it represents a clearbreak with tradition and based on a fairly revolutionaryassumption that the history department bears a highlevel of responsibility of a very different nature from thetraditional protege role that the student assumes in re-lation to his or her thesis advisor. There has already beensome movement in this direction within traditional pro-grams, with the development of the office of graduateplacement advisor, and even career workshops; but as-suming the burden of placing students in internshipsrepresents an unprecedented sense of responsibility to-ward employment." (Jones, CLIO Confronts) a livelybrochure by the Public Historical Studies Program of

3

REDEFINITION

his-tor i-an, n., writer of history (esp, in highersense, as opp. to mere chronicler or compiler).

An historian is no longer solely a writer or teacher;

the definition has expanded. Contemporary histori-

ans' expertise includes: corporate planning, appliedresearch, market analysis, information and archival

management, and cultural resource management(historic preservation and museum administration).

PUBLIC HISTORIANS bring the historical method ofanalysis to specific problems in private and public

enterprises. Public historians are currently employedby industry, finance and banking, public utilities,

consulting firms, services and other not-for-profit

organizations.

BUSINESS DEMANDS

SKILLED, MOTIVATED EXECUTIVESCAPABLE OFEFFECTIVELY:

analyzing problems and presenting solutions

long-range/contingency planning

collecting and managing information, extract-ing relevant data

synthesizing increasingly specialized business

techniques in terms meaningful to top man-agement

identifying trends and profit cycles

preparing clear, concise reports and analyses

HISTORIANS SUPPLY

ability to write and speak dearly

complex research and quantitative techniques

unique insights and perspectives on past,present and future events

intern ling and other oral history techniques

synthesis of diverse viewpoints through objec-tive 3alysis

A PARTNERSHIP

CONSTITUENT

MEMBERS

NATIONAL COORDINATING COMMITTEE

FOR THE PROMOTION OF HISTORY

R E S OUR CE

1 8..

G R 0UPS

INSTITUTIONAL

MEMBERS

DEPARTMENTS

OF HISTORY

FACULTY

HISTORY

ADVISORY

COUNCILS

STUDENTS

BUSINESS

EDUCATION

FOR HISTORY

STUDENTS

PUBLICATIONS INSTITUTES AND

SEMINARS FOR

BUSINESS

LEADERS

The N Networ'; Promotes an EffectloExchange of Advice and Informatim

On the Use of Katory

BUSINESS

BENEFITS

Share common concerns with a nationwide networkof informed historians and

businesses

Secure preferential access to highly qualified historians,interns, consultants and

employees

Help shape the curriculum required to qualify candidates for your businessKeep appraised of techniques, skills and methods required by modem businessReceive publications from NCO and from a comatuent member of your choice 12

NCC MEMBER ORGANIZATIONS share in thegoals of broadening historical knowledge among thegeneral public, promoting historical studies, especial-ly in schools, and educating employers in the publicand private sectors to the value of employing profes-sional historians.

CONSTITUENT MEMBERS support NCC financiallyand provide organizational, and staff assistance forthe programs and activities of the NCC.

INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSc-Atribute annual dues of $100 for nonprofit

organizations, $500 for corporationsreceive bi-monthly NCC Reports and other

publicationsreceive recognition in NCC publications

choose institutional membership in any one ofNCC's constituent member organizations. Member-ship includes subscription to a scholarly journal andinformation about annual meetings.

RESOURCE GROUPS have been organized to pro-mote history and provide information about opportu-nities for historians in such specific employmentareas as business, state and local government, orhistoric preservation. Primary activities of thesegroups include:

research on the employment of historians--identification of growth areas in which histori-

ans' skills can be utilizedidentification of training and internship pro-

grams aimed at preparing historians for employmentoutside the university

HISTORY ADVISORY COUNCILS are composed ofcitizens from a local community who provide adviceto departments of history in such areas as:

the use of historians' skills by business, gov-ernment and not-for-profit organizations

support for programs involving public (ap-plied) history

the appropriateness of the department's cur-riculum as applied to students ,considering public(applied) history careers

career development techniques, including re-sume preparation and job seeking strategies

inclusion of history students in internship pro-grams

13

Pi

0

NATIONAL C FOR THE

COORDINATING PROMOTION

COMMITTEE C OF HISTORY

r

5

the University of California at Santa Barbara describesits new programs and internships. It is worth examingto get a feeling for the ways in which it departs fromtradition. (A detailed and thoughtful discussion of theways in which the concept of Public History has beenimplemented as a means to give more depth to publicpolicy decisions will be found in the first chapter of thefirst issue of the journal, Public History.) (Kelley, 1978)

The graduate programs in Public History representone facet of a broad effort by the National CoordinatingCommittee to make the profession aware of historicalwork that can be done outside academe and to preparestudents for it. The obvious goal is to enlarge the con-stituencies of the profession. We need to be moderatein our claims for these programs as the next sectionsuggests since "nonacademic employment" options maybe elected by few students and may provide entre toonly a few positions. The demand for jobs by Ph.D.'s islarge, the new training programs are limited in number,and there is a limit to the numbers of graduates who canfind employment in special "nonacademic" programs.The elite institutions, that educate a large proportion ofstudents, will probably continue to teach history in tra-ditional ways. Their students who want new approachesto the stile/ of history must find their training in profes-sional schools where these specialities are being taught.(Jones, clio Confronts, p. 12)

The model which history has developed is worth fur-ther study to learn what has been done on a modestbudget. In the chapter which follows we will note activ-ities of alumni with Ph.D.'s in history who have designedand coordinated workshops for Ph. D's in New York Cityand Washington, D.C. The Coordinating Committeeoperates at a modest cost. It can exert quality controlover the formation of new programs which give the ap-pearance of creditability, yet do not have sufficient con-tinuity or substance. A national Coordinating Council isin a position to advise against "instant" programs thatare not in the long run interest of the discipline evenwhen they appear to strengthen a department's positionin a university.

Will "Add-On" Curriculums Work?

Every academic profession would like to believe thatits field of inquiry gives it a special mandate for jobs. Tovalidate this claim, new graduate programs have beendesigned and put on the books. The graduate programsin History are one example. These curriculums are underattack, as any new program will be, for several reasons.Some believe that the academic professions should re-trench if need be but "stick to their knittIng" !Ind dowhat they know well without branching out. Others be-lieve that unless the academic professions do branch outthey will go under and that the practical programs that

6

are competitors will short chap7.e students in basic skills.Will policy programs ensull- jobs? Will they deliver

the goods if the' are taught within a singe academicdepartment? And if so, win this mean that students cancompete for policy positions without traditional profes-sional training? Even if one has minimal entry require-ments jobs may be reserved for those with professional,degrees. Academic departments heed to do careful mar-ket research to be sure that they are not kidding them-selves when they offer a new program to give students"nonacademic" employment. Market research is nec-essary to be sure that there will be a reasonable likeli-hood that the programs will kad to jobs. (Licklider, 1979p. 28) Licklider has mare a study of this subject. Hiscomments on this matter follow:

Corporations don't just go out and hire some-one because it seems like a good idea. Hiringis a bureaucratic process, and it is not at alleasy to establish a new, entry -level positionwith the Ph.D. as the appropriate credentialrather than a M .B A. or a law degree. It cer-tainly can be done, but it requires a willingnessby one or more senior executives to spend con-siderable bureaucratic and political capita!within the corporation. This kind of commit-ment does not often come out of cocktail partyconversation. The experience of a related fieldis worth noting. In recent years there has beena concerted effort to add an international busi-ness component to the M .B A. curriculum withsuch success that the American Assembly ofCollegiate Schools of Business now requires itfor accreditation. Despite this legitimizationwithin the field, teachers agree that there areno entry-level jobs for M .B A. graduates withinternational business concentrations. Suchstudents must have a functional sp,,cialization(finance, etc.) in order to get a job. Problemsof acceptability are obviously going to be muchgreater with the Ph.D. as a major credential.

Manpower Planning

The Need. Professional fields such as engineeringand chemistry make it a practice to know who plans toenter the profession, what courses they take, and howeducation affects career. These professions secure cur-rent information on the supply and demand for man-power. Not so most academic professions. W.-y? Facultyusually think of themselves as educators, not trainers offuture professionals. Yet academic interests would beserved if there was current information on who plannedto major in an academic discipline, what courses studentstake, and how education affects employability.

14

What Pily..cs Has Done. Since the 1960's, theAmerican Institute of Physics has conducted manpowerstudies. Each year mailings are mad,. to all graduates ofdepartments in four national survt-Ts. These reportchange in enrollments, the popularir ci specialties andthe relative popularity of theoretical vs. experimentalwork. There is also a great deal of information on em-ployment. The profession learns how many job offersgraduates receive and whether they plan further grad-uate study. The surveys ask alumni for suggestions toimprove instruction in science. They also izsk ho, ed-ucation was related to work. (The complete set of reportsare worth study to see what can be learned from a shortquestionnaire. They can be requested from the AmericanInstitute of Physics at 335 East 43th Street, New York,New York 10017).

A full time staff member, Susanne Ellis, is responsiblefor the design and execution of the study. The surveyshave become a regular feature of Institute services.

A copy of the 1978 Employment Survey for Ph.D.'sfollows. Note the last question: What advice would yougive to science-oriented undergraduates in regard tophysics careers? This information should provide theInstitute with accurate and timely information to helpstudents make career decisions and to teach faculty whatstudents face when they go to work. Figure 1 whichfollows shows what happened to 1976-77 Physics Ph.D.'sa year after they received the doctorate. Note how muchinformation the profession gains on the employment his-tories of graduates. They loam where they work and theproportion that accept a Postdoctoral fellowship reluc-tantly. Comparable surveys in the academic professionscould tell us the proportion of Ph.D.'s who accept mar-ginal teaching positions and the proportion working ina tenure track position.

A Confederation ofAcademic Disciplines?

The secret of the success of the American Institute ofPhysics (Barton, 1956) has been its ability to get its con-stituent societies to let it do things that it can do betterthan they without restricting disciplinary autonomy.Some of the funds which the Institute receives comesfrom page charges which 80 percent of researchers' in-stitutions pay when an article is accepted for publication.Other funds come from advertising and from employercontributions. The Institute is an administrative agencyand it includes manpower issues as one of its functions.

Could we create an analagous confederation in thesocial sciences and the humanities? The confederationwould provide information on student enrollment andthe careers of graduates as one of its services. The con-federation would handle the

moreof journals and

the updating of mail lists more economically than indi-vidual associations acting alone. Since jobs for Ph.D.'s

is an issue that affects all the academic Alisciplines, theconfederation would work on common problems of ::2-reer development and might sponsor coriaborative ca-reer appraisal and planning p-ograrns. (Booth, 1964).

The confederation would work with employers andtheir associations to get support for the Eying of Ph. D's.This might lead naturally to an internsh:p program whereslots would he filled by the best applicants from all ofthe collaborating academic disciplines.

If federal funds are to be obtained for the educationof vaduate students to help them get the work experi-ence and credibility needed to compete for jobs, wemust link with societal and regional interests in economicdevelopment. By doing this we gain access to funds madeavailable for internships by the Economic DevelopmentProgram of the Federal Government. A team of graduatestudents including engineers, scientists, social scientists,and humanists, would collabos ate in the design and ex-ecution of projects that deal with cultural and economicdevelopment. The work of the Atlanta Group mentionedearlier is an example of what can be done. The chancesof getting financial support for internships would bemuch greater if the academic disciplines worked to-gether rather than if each competes for grants on its own.

The Western Interstate, Commission on Higher Ed-ucation (WICHE) has established a successful internshipprogcani in the west for over a decade but as far as weknow, it has not focussed on Ph.D.'s as possible interns.WICHE and other regional associations shc'ild extendpresent programs which are designed to reduce redun-dancy in graduate education to offer technical assistanceto the academic disciplines in establishing graduate in-ternship programs that broaden graduate education, con-tribute to economic development, and enhance the fu-ture employability of Ph.D.'s.

A Consumer's Reports for Graduate Educa-tion? Graduate educators should continue to innovatewithout feeling that what is done has to fall into a singlemold. We advocate new conceptions of the academicprofessions to take into account new types of membersthose who will work in nonacademic employment Thedescriptions of what has been done underplay how dif-ficult it is to make a change, whether it is the introductionof a new specialty, or the introduction of a new-minor.Better information on what graduate departments aredoing both to inform students:as to where to study andto give recognition to work that is well-done, would bea real public service. We need a "Consumers Report"that will complement what we know about buying re-frigerators with brief statements of what is happening topromote quality and breadth in graduate education.Change Magazine has begun to provide quality reportsfor undergraduate education. Comparable reports areneeded at the graduate level. Graduate departmentswith equal prestige can be very different places in whichto study. The ways in which the social environments are

7

E

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

EMPLOYMENT SURVEY 1978

If your name or address is incorrect,please enter correct information below.

Note: The information you supply below will only be published in siatistical form and will not be associated with yoozr name.

Highest degree Date received

A. YOUR CURRENT OCCUPATIONAL STATUS:1. Still completing requirements for the PhD2. Holding a temporary 'postdoc', from

8

to

Month year

mo. yr. mo. yr.Did you seek a 'postdoc' rather than a potentially permanent position? 1. yes 2. noDid you have employment offers with potential permanence when you accepted your'postdoc'? 1. yes 2. no

3. Full-time employed, starting Would you describe your work as:mo. yr.

a. physics related1. and in the subfield you pursued

in graduate school2. but in a different subfield

(Check listing on back of form)

b. unrelated to physics1. but research oriented

(please specify)

2. but in a new area(please specify)

3. other4. Not Employed and seeking

5. Other (please specify)

B. POST-DEGREE EMPLOYMENT 1. Full-time 1. Permanent2. Part-time 2. Temporary

What type of employer are you currently working for?

What is your work .ztivity at the above employer?

How many months e actively seeking employment did you spent' to secure your present position?

How long have you held your present position?

Is it your first post-PhD employment?

If not, how many previous employers have you been affiliated with?Monthly salary $

What advice would you give to science-oriented undergraduates in regard to physics careers?

16

Figure 1

Occupations of 1976-77 Physics Ph.D.'s One Year After Graduation

96Astronomy doctorate

recipients

39Doctoral respondents

/ Total no. of degreerecipients 1976-77

Follow-up Surveywinter 1977-78

22'Postdocs'

15 7specifically acceptedsought 'postdoc''postdoc'

1

declined otheroffer to accept'postdoc'

14had onlypostdoctoraloffer(s)

Comments from the astronomy PhD recipientsrefer to the limited opportunities for a careerin astronomical research despite the small numberof graduates in that discipline. Recommendationsto science-oriented undergraduates by these new

17

17Potentiallypermanentemployment

Employers

8 Coll. or Univ.5 Res. institute2 Government2 Industry

astronomers invariably include the acquisition ofsome marketable skills such as applied physics orcomputer science before concentrating on anastronomy career.

9

meisured, not simply to "evaluate" but to provide in-formst4on for voluntary improvement, are reported byMary Jo Beck in the Volume V, Number 1, 1979 issueof Findings published by Educati6,_ J Testing Service.

10

These proposals would give graduate education morebras -1 and better prepare Ph. D.'s for academic ornonue.4demic careers. Once we have acted on these pro-posL we will be in a better position to help Ph. D.'sfind .t,sthe topic of the next chapter.

Chapter ;;

Ph.D.'s and Jobs

Introduction

This chapter reports on personal observations of theauthor and relates these to policy issues. During the pastye-r I observed a pilot effort to create a training morselfor Ph.D.'s at the University of Maryland which wasdesigned by the Association of Departments of Englishto educate faculty with regard to employability. We willreport on an attempt to educate employers through"Careers in Business" Programs in which businessmenand academics select Ph.D.'s for further training andlater broke their skills to prospective employers to dem-

onstrate that Ph.D.'s can hold responsible managementand staff positions. The final section of the chapter isdevoted to a third educational problem: how to getuniversities to make the changes which are required sothat there is better integration of effort in the preparationof students for nonacademic careers.

We conclude with a review of our earlier discussionwith regard to the feasibility of a confederation of aca-demic disciplines to see whether this proposal still makessense and to consider complementary suggestions to en-hance the eniployability of Ph.D.'s.

Educating Ph.D.'s

Matching Alumniwith Ph.D.'s in English

It is a mammoth task to get Ph. D.'s to understandenough about the world of work so that they can assesswhat they have to offer and learn how to maximize theiremployment options. But this is only half of tw story.In the past I was told that much time was spenz .cryingabout the past, complaining about the injustim-in thelabor market (and there is plenty!), in sociological terms:"in disengagement!"

The tendency has been to try to stay as long as possiblein graduate school, to search for a Tostdoctoral Fellow-ship if this is available, and to delay as long as possiblethe need to seek nonacademic employment. In this proc-ess of disengagement faculty play a key role. If there isconsensus within the faculty on the legitimacy of seekingnonacademic employment, and if faculty show by theiractions how proud they are if students do get acceptablenonacademic employment, the atmosphere is such thatnonacademic options can be discussed openly. Thus"reeducation" must involve faculty as well as graduatestudents.

An academic discipline that traditionally meets to dis-cuss administrative as well as scholarly issues has a step

19

ahead of the rest in working through these issues. Thisis the case in English and the Foreign Languages wherethere is an Association of Departments of English (andDepartments of Foreign Languages) independent of, yethoused in the Modern Languages Association Office inNew York City. I visited a weekend conference on "Non-Academic Employment" sponsored by the Associationof Departments of English (A.D.E.) last March at theUniversity of Maryland preceded by an earlier meetingwith faculty. The idea was to prepare faculty for themeeting so that they would be aware of what was takingplace and would support action to make the departmenthospitable to the ideas presented at the Conference.

I had attended a conference of the A. D. E. a decadeago when it was pioneering with seminars for new chair-persons. The Association has an interesting blend of ac-ademic and administrative tone that gives its discussionsa reality that comes from its joint constituencies (chair-persons and faculty). It has its own journal so depart-ments are made aware of what takes place at its meetings.It has played a critical role in the past in the developmentof English as a profession and it was interesting to seehow its Director, Jaspar Neel, used a modest budget toput together an educational weekend for graduate stu-dents, Ph.D.'s, and faculty from neighboring institutions

I j

and from institutions planning to run comparable work-shops (the University of Illinois and Missouri plan aWorkshop in 1980).

The Conference. The basic idea was to in., ,te Pn. a'swith doctorates in English who have different kinds ofnonacademic jobs to talk with participants about theirreactions to nonacademic employment and to help grad-uate students and recent Ph.D.'s raise to consciousnesselements of strength that would show them they canhave productive and satisfying work outside academe.The theme of the conference could be summed up inone sentence: "We are great. . . We have skill. . Wewill prevail!" Clearly the effort was to ease the pain ofdisengagement for those who had looked forward to anacademic career and to focus their attention on the pos-itive facets of nonacademic employment.

The emphasis was on the convertability of academicexperience. I will paraphrase comments which weremade on the relevance of academic studies to technicalediting, job security, and research in government.

Technical Editing Applies Academic Skill:Catherine Fisher, a technical editor for General Elec-tric, reported how her English training and her lackof technical expertise made her valuable to her workgroup. If she had known 1. n-e about the technicalfacets of work her value as an editor would hive beenreduced since she would not know how laymen wouldreact to technical writing. Her background was alsouseful in writing grant proposals that were clearenough to be understood by reviewers. Her trainingwas also useful in educating staff to edit reports andletters on word processing equipment.

Training Creates Unique Skills that Provide Job Secu-rity.

Christopher E. Arthur, a 1976 Ph.D. from Cornell,now works as a Congressional aide. "I could not befired," he told the audience. "I am the only one in theoffice who can write!"Although Arthur's writing skills gives him job securityonce on the job, it was not the reason why he washired. He secured his position on the basis of an av-ocational interest in politicshe worked in a cam-paign and was around at the right time to secure astaff position on Capital Hill.

Training Relevant to Government Research.Thomas J. Hargrove, Senior Operations Officer at theU.S. Customs Service reminded the audience thatthey had more research experience than many in gov-ernment who now work in research. He encouragedthem not to be modest about their research experi-ence.

These comments may seem obvious to those with ex-perience in career counseling and placement. They are

12

not obvious to people who have assumed that they willwork in an academic environment where career is de-fined by specialty, by where one teaches, and by one':;academic rank. The meeting was successful 'n raisingthese and other issues by balancing the homogeneity o:the group (almost everyone was from English) with amix of people from other in,titutions. The audience wasbalanced almost equally between participants from theUniversity of Maryland, from the Universities of Vir-ginia, Tennessee (Knoxville), the University of NorthCarolina at Chapel Hill, the University of Kentucky,Duke University, and Catholic University. The mix ofadministrators and faculty, and the obvious impact ofself-selection (people who were not interested did notcome) provided the context for frank discussions,

Voluntary Decisions to Leave Academe. The WOO-shop did its best to extinguish perceptions of failureamong those who had tried for a tenured position andwere unable to obtain one. The theme of the programshifted from discussions of how academics "made do" innonacademic employment to three reports on voluntarymoves from academe to show the audience that for somethe shift to nonacademic employment was made fromchoice rather than from constraint.

Careers in Public Affairs. These are positions forwhich there is keen competition. A person who movesinto them requires adaptability, empathy, and the ca-pacity to work 7.s a member of a team. Academic em-phasis on solo work can be a disadvantage since thePublic Affairs staff members must write speeches whichothers give. To do this well one needs to understand thestyle of the employer and be able to write a speech whichan employer will feel comfortable giving.

Marvin Olasky was the speaker who works in PublicAffairs for Du Pont. He has written for the editorial pageof the Wall Street Journal since going with Du Pont andfinds himself at case in the corporate and academicworlds. His talk was interesting particularly as it showedhow carefully he had planned a job search _after havingleft a regular faculty position at San Diego State Uni-versity to seek a career with greater challenge. Olaskycompleted his work for a Ph.D. in American. Studies atthe University of Michigan in 1976. He spent threemonths planning his career and deciding that he wouldseek work in a public affairs or public policy office of acompany that had a good record on safety and socialresponsibility.

Olasky gave us a short report on his work. Most of thetime he worked on speeches that someone else wouldgive. This meant that he would sit down with an exec-utive, learn how he thinks, and then write a speech thathad substance yet was close enough to the person's styleso it could be read nate - fly. In Olasky's words thismeant ". .weaving a tar knowing the cadences,not writing too many complex sentences. It is tough,draining, but intellectually stimulating. It requires col-

20

laboration. I do not fee' bad if what I suggest is acceptedor not. I am applying elements of my discipline to thefuture of the country. I have had a chance to have someof my work published." This requires more than themechanical application of craft or discipline. "They canget hundreds of people who can write in Public AffairsDepartments. !t is 'hard to get people who can write andthink."

Careers in Consulting. Again the conference inviteda speaker to ".how and tell" who had made a voluntarydecision to leave academe, to show that some peopleprefer a career outside of a college or university. MaryLou Ference, who participated in the Harrison-May"Careers in Business" Program which will be describedlater in this chapter, wrote the report of her talk \ Inchwe are selectively reprinting.

". . .1 was completing graduate work in Vic-torian literature when 1 began job-hunting fornon-academic positions. As a graduate assist-ant and instructor in a State university 1 hadalready taught composition and literaturecourses and had been involved in academicadministration. One of my responsibilities wasto design and supervise an internship program

for undergraduate English majors.My involvement with students and employers

in the intern program made me aware of othercareer options. My advisees were publishingarticles in local papers, writing a newsletterfor Senators' offices, and directing communi-cations programs for social service agencies.While I felt that my teaching had been quiterewarding, 1 did not believe that the rewardsof tenure would compensate for the lack of chal-lenge 1 was beginning to feel.

Later I interviewed with a consulting firmto whom 1 had sent a resit' ae addressed to aP.O. Box number, one of many blind ads 1 hadanswered always with hope. The company waslooking for someone with an education /re-search /administration background to serve asa research assistant for educational manage-ment projects. 1 accepted the position afterturning down a couple others that were on cam-pus or that were strictly editing. The positioninvolved management analysis, workshop de-sign, proposal writing and research. In addi-tion, 1 had the opportunity to work in otherdivisions of the firm and found myself writingmarket, feasibility and strategy studies forstreet sweepers, amusement parks, recrea-tional aircrafta far cry from The Ring andthe Book, but the interviewing and researchwere familiar skills.The most difficult thing during this whole tran-

21

sition from academia to business is the changeit commitmerg that is like a divorce in thepsychic turmoil it causes. For a while, mostgraduate stunts will feel like "I .ey're "Wan-dering between two worlds, one dead, theother powerless to be burn," as Matthew Ar-nc Id noted.But you have to have the faith that there isnother world that can be as comfortable andperhaps even more exhilirating than the collegecampus.

The preceding section of the report illustrates the dif-ficulty in making a career shift into management con-sulting. Ference told us why this shift was difficult: itmeant working as a team rn.3mber rather than workingas an individual, and beginning to ask what the clientrequires rather than simply doing what one feels shouldbe done. There was the need to pace one's work to meetdeadlines which is less necessary in an academic situa-tion. When she balanced the losses and gains, there wasa substantial net gain in ability to chart one's course incareer and to reach a level -)f achievement which per-mitted her to have more control over work than wouldnormally be the case as a teacher.

Careers in Management. One of the most interestingand candid talks was made by John Kuhnle, DeputyDirector of the Federal National Mortgage Association.John had taught for many years and left his full timeposition in academe primarily because he was interestedin administration and saw little chance to get the ex-perience that he wanted in a reasonable period of timein academic life. Since we will talk later about efforts toimpress employers with the ease with which Ph.D.'s canshift to nonacademic employment, it is useful to em-phasize here the adaptations which are required. Johndescribes these as follows: (I paraphrase.)

Suddenly 1 found myself as a former profes-sional, working on my own in a university muchas a doctor or lawyer would without the statusthat I was used to. I felt like a worker ratherthan a professor! Everyone else said they"worked for a boss" but me to this day 1 donot say that 1 have a "boss." What was difficultwas to lose one's sense of pride as a profes-sional. As an academic 1 would work as longas it took to get the work done. People wouldwork their own hours. Everyone did not comein at the same time or leave together. 1 feltchained to the clock.

When we move from an academic to a nonacademicwork environment, we can "box ourselves in" withoutknowing it by reactions to these differences which areinterpreted as personal arrogance that signals to others

13

that we come from a "better world." Our language maygive us away by the very terms we use: "higher edu-cation" to separate ourselves from elementary and sec-ondary' educators. The ego and self-confidence whichgoes with a productive research career is important, ifnot essential, since people need to believe that whatthey publish has value, even if many disagree. But thebrashness that creates "an audience" in a university turnspeople off in an organization where work requires in-terdependence.

Kuhn le recognized the validity of academic culture foracademic work. But as a manager, he is expected to workin an environment whe.:: teaching is subordinate to ef-fectiveness and profits. The transition from an academicto a management role made him realize that he was toooptimistic about people as a manager and too much theteacher at work. When employee performance was mar-ginal, he would hope that with time people wouldchange. The teacher in him led him to be idealistic andto look for improvement. But when it did not come theperson was stuck in an inappropriate work assignmentand so was the organization. Kuhnle was able to learnhow to adapt his behavior to the requirements of a man-ager while not giving up his educational interests. Hecontinues to teach in the evenings even though thismakes it difficult to make late evening business meet-ings. He hopes in the future to combine his administra-tive experience outside academe with an appointmentto an administrative position in a university which wouldcapitalize on his avocational interests in teaching and hisadministrative experience.

Kuhnle's voluntary decision to leave academe to getmore administrative experience, with a possible returnlater as an administrator, is an unusual life plan. Facultybelief that administration requires a sympathetic under-standing of academic life includes the assumption thatadministrators should work throughout their lives in acollege or university. This can be self-defeating for sev-eral reasons. (We Will discuss some of them in the chap-ter on diversifying faculty and administrative culture.)If administrators never work outside academe they areisolated from colleagues who could provide them witha network that would keep them alert to new develop-ments and, supply the contacts for alternative employ-ment should things not work out where they are. Thiswould encourage them to take more fists and to managewith more integrity. In these days when it is :;) difficultfor a person to be appointed to an administrative positionfrom outside an institution, due to equal opportunitypressures and to the desire by faculty to reserve admin-istrative positions for themselves, it is critical that admin-istration be seen as a generic profession providing op-tions for mobility and achievement outside colleges anduniversities. If administrators are to expand their hori-zons, one strategy is to offer short internships outsideacademe. Such a program has just been announced by

14

the American Council on Education providing a few ad-ministrators with a chance to come to Washington fora few months. This could be the 1 !ginning of a nationaleffort to make it possible for academic administrators tolearn more about how other organizations work.

A Minority ,Response. A conference that extends itsnet widely to invite graduate students to consider newapproaches to nonacademic employment will not in-stantly convert students to the points of view just pre-sented. For some, anti-business beliefs reflect early lifedecisions which now appear to have been a mistake. Itis difficult under these conditions to look candidly foropportunities outside academe and in business when oneearlier had rejected these options. This was illustratedby a discussion which I had with one participant in theconference. He had committed himself early to an aca-demic career when there was a reasonable chalice to getan academic job. He did well, received almost all A's,but now finds only part-time work in teaching available.He ekes out a marginal living and is now finding thatthe academic world in which he works is managed by"businessmen" more concerned about money than peo-ple. When I suggested that he had cont-cts for workwith childhood friends wk have been successful in busi-ness, some making several hundred thousand dollars intheir own businesses, he rejected the possibility out ofhand! The hurt was too deep. These were people whohad consciously decided as youth to make a lot of moneyand this is exactly what they had done! The psychicdamage was increased when he found that an employersuch as the Library of Congress, where his research skillscould obviously be used, would not consider his appli-cation. It was swamped with applications from Ph.D.'s,while it was able to hire people with bachelor's degreesfor entry positions at much less than it would have hadto pay people with doctoral training!

The fact that this person attended the weekend con-ference on "Nonacademic Employment.' indicates hisalertness and his willingness to search for work. He didfollow through on some suggestions for work in educationof which he was unaware. His problem came from hislack of breadth in work experience and his assumptionsthat he would sell out by working for industry. It isindustry that has the job openings as government andeducation retrench. Yet the data in question 6 on Table1 which follows, from David Thompson's study of grad-uate students at the University of Michigan, shows thatthis sample, which should be as well-informed as any,gives the lowest priority to work in industry as opposedto work in government and education. This is under-standable yet self-defeating. If Ph.D.'s were not so seton working as specialists and could sense the challengeof working in small businesses, where the major growthwill take place in the next decade, they could move intofamily-type businesses where their skills and disciplinewould be put to work. It should be easier to make contact

22

Table 1

David Thompson's University of Michigan Study of Graduate Students and Non-Academic Employment(Complete Study Available from the Office of Counseling Services)

Question

1. Nonacademic skills learned through graduate trainingother than course work:

Yes No51.2% 48.8%

2. Commitment to complete the doctorate: Very High High Somewhat Not at allCommitted

58.7% 25.9% 12.9% 2.4%

3. Student considers dropping out of graduate school:

4. Thinks carefully about employment options:

Very Often7.2%

26.3%

Often14.0%

38.6%

Rarely Never40.7% 37.7%

27.0% 7.6%

5. Commitment to Employment as a Faculty Member Very High22.8%

High Somewhat Not at All23.4% 27.6% 25.7%

6. Employment preference on graduation: (Students a--sessed many options)

UniversityFour-Year CollegeCommunity CollegeLarge Private BusinessSmall Private BusinessFederal Government AgencyState Government Agency

Strongly PreferPrefer Not Not

Prefer StronglyPrefer

4.14.6

21.9, 30.8

30.712.319.0

9.011.238.629.135.120.232.5

29.844.132.130.330.252.941.9

56.929.87.39.73.9

14.56.4

with small businesses, too, since they do not have largepersonnel offices that make judgements about who is orwho is not capable of work.

The Training Model. This extended report on theUniversity of Maryland conference and related issuesshould give the reader an idea of the types of issuesdiscussed at a conference sponsored by an academicprofession. The Maryland conference proves that theseissues can at least be raised in an economical fashion.The consultants were modestly paid ($50 plus travel).Participants came at their own expense. Matching em-ployed Ph.D.'s with young faculty and new Ph.D.'s isan effective way of opening up basic issues, legitimatingcandid discussions, and beginning a network of alumnito help Ph.D.'s find work. A similar workshop has beenplanned at Emory University. Ten universities depart-ments will contribute $500 each to cover the costs of themeeting. Each will send five graduate students and afaculty member, perhaps someone who will not get ten-ure. The national officct of the Association of Depart-ments of English will help where it can in coordinationand in the supply of a list of possible "consultants"-

23

Ph.D.'s working in nonacademic employment. JasparNeel reports that workshops such as this are planned forthe coming year. Thus a self-supporting system is beingcreated that can provide groups of departments with aneconomical training device. Already there has been pres-sure on the Big 10 universities to establish their owntraining programs. Thus English has initiated a trainingmodel that is effective, economical, and builds on thecapacity of a quasi-disciplinary organization, the Asso-ciation of Departments of English, to coordinate andsustain effort.

Networking in OtherProfessions

There is no reason why the matching of alumni andPh.D.'s needs to be an expensive matter. It does requiresomeone to initiate and coordinate action. The newslet-ter of an academic discipline is a natural medium to carryinformation that encourages networking. Anthropologyhas shown the way by publishing a series of biographiesof anthropologists working outside academe.

15

These biographies permit Ph.D.'s in nonacademic em-ployment to tell their stories and to seed the idea ofbroadening graduate education. The biographies stressthe importance of taking quantitative courses as part ofone's graduate training. They also help legitimize thesearch for nonacademic employment and broaden theconception of Ph.D.'s of types of appropriate nonaca-demic employment. The message is that experience andskill cour.:',-s: but that people should not restrict them-selves to jobs where the employer is looking for an an-thropologist. (Louis Cimino is responsible for this writ-ing.)

Eventually departments must take some responsibilityfor placement. To do this an active Advisory Committeeis useful if it lets the department know what the expe-rience of graduates has been and if it takes responsibilityfor counseling and helping to place students. A shortstatement on the functions of Advisory Committees hasbeen published by the National Coordinating Commit-tee for the Promotion of History: "The History AdvisoryCouncil." Anyone planning to establish an AdvisoryCouncil would be well advised to order and study thispamphlet. It takes thought to understand the proper

balance between people with influence, people who willwork, and people with ideas. Since the career educationmovement has faced this problem of creating effectiveadvisory councils for many years, the reader may wantto review a brief statement by Kenneth Hoyt on thissubject. (Hoyt, 1978, pp. 14-30.)

Once an Advisory Council has been established. theground has been laid for informal initial meetings be-tween graduate students, new Ph.D.'s, and people whocan help job seekers think about work and find work.History has pioneered again in this work. It has beenable to get local people to initiate brief meetings on acollaborative basis (inviting representatives from severaluniversities). I visited with Lawrence Bruser, a Colum-bia Ph. D., who organized such a short conference forPh.D.'s in the New York City area in March 1979. Thetopics and the response of Ph.D.'s who served as panel-ists with placement counselors are included in the reportwhich follows the agenda. These meetings are not pan-aceas. They open up discussions and need to be followedby complementary skill-training :ind job-search activitiesfor graduate students and Ph.D.'s.

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY CITY UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

Careers In Business Workshops

For History Graduate Students and Ph. D's

The American Historical Association with the cooperation of New York metropolitan universities is presenting twoworkshops for students and graduates in History. The intent of these workshops is to provide information and skillsto be used in the job hunt for nonacademic careers.

The first workshop will present a panel discussion by historians who have made the transition and are pursuingsuccessful careers outside the college classroom.

Session 1. March 5, 1979 6-9prn at Room 207, Graduate School, CUNY, 33 West 42nd St.Panel of history Ph. D.'s now employed in business will discuss their experiencesChairperson, Larry Bruser (Ph.D., Columbia)

Major topics of discussion will include:

Briefly describe your job (kind of company, your duties, etc.).How do you feel about having left academic life?Why did you choose a career in business?What difficulties did you encounter in making the transition from academia to business?What are the most important skills, knowledge, personal qualities required for your job?What aspects of your graduate history training, if any, are relevant to your job (research and analysis skills,

historical perspective, etc.)?What are the major satisfactions of your job?What salary can be expected?What are the major frustrations?What advice do you have for historians planning to explore careers in business?

16

24

The second workshop will concentrate on the stills needed to find and obtain nonacademic jobs. PlacementOfficers will present materials and methods necessary to achieve these job hunting skills.

Session 2. March 12, 1979 6-9pm at Room 207, Graduate School, CUNY, 33 West 42nd St.

Techniques of job seeking by placement counselcrs.Chairperson, Larry Bruser (Ph.D., Columbia)

Major topics of discussion will include:

Defining your job objectiveDefining and analyzing your skillsPreparing a nonacademic resumejob-hunting techniques: direct (answering ads) vs. indirect (seeing personal contacts for advice and information)Interview techniquesImportance of attitude and self-confidence.

Careers In Business WorkshopFor History Graduate Students and Ph. D's

Highlights of Session #1Experiences of Ph. D .'s Now Employed in Business

A. Job descriptions of participants in panel.

1. Chairman prepares monthly "intelligence" report on American political, social and economic trends for Mitsuibased on research and direct interviews.

2. Women with degree in Soviet history works for "Business International"consulting firm for multinationalcorporations. job entails research, writing, traveling, selling. Prepares studies, for example, on how corporationscan contribute to improving social conditions overseas in fields of health, housing, etc.

3. I.B.M. data processing executive; studies client/company problems for I.B.M.; studies b'°,41 to improve equip-ment companies already owned. Crosses all levels of management lines.

4. Employee of small full-service advertising and public relations agency directed toward Japanese corporateclients. Advises in employee relations, trade fairs, and prepares house organ audio-visual materials, etc.

5. Operations manager for Auto-Europe, competitor of Avis and Hertz. Trains personnel; supervises three offices.

B. How do you feel about having left academic life?

All panelists are happy. Would not return to academia if offered jobs. Enjoy office interaction. Find political sideof business world "cleaner" than in academia. Miss long summer vacations. Do not find 9:00-5:00 days a grind.Enjoy having more responsibility, influence and respect than in academia. #5 used intellectual capacities to fullerextent in business.

C. Why did you choose a career in business?

Most, made a virtue of necessity: #2 did not relish the idea of one-year positions all over thr country, #3 frightenedby oversupply of Ph.D.'s, sought "depression-proof and growing field." Others failed to get tenure or academic jobs.

D. What difficulties did you encounter in making the transition from academia to business?

Lack of background in economics, accounting and finance bothered several. Some corporations do send employeesback to school to take crash courses in order to fill in gaps. More time pressure business with less opportunityfor dawdling. More emphasis on short-term mastery of subjects. #1 not used to predicting future. #4 not used toworking closely with others. Several panelists suggested a History Ph. D. plus an M.B.A. would be invaluable assetto person in early 20's.

. 2517

E. What aspects of your graduate training, ifany, are relevant to your job?

All panelists used doctoral training in their work: research skills, writing, speaking to groups, quick study, writing,reading, analysis, report preparation, etc. Teaching training stressed by #3 and language training by #4. Most skillsare transferable.

F. What are your major job satisfactions? your major job frustrations?

Positive aspects are: lack of routine, opportunity to use skills, good salaries, sense of responsibility, authority,satisfaction in seeing tangible results quickly. Several panelists found business people more helpful and courteousthan academics. #3 feels he has more control over his own destiny and far greater impact than he would have hadin a college or university. All expressed sense of fulfillment in business and are enjoying jobs "in the real world."Negative aspects are: time pressure, short vacations. #5 complained his bosses were not as intelligent as he is.

G. What salary can be expected?

For publi affairs jobs, the starting salary is $18,000. Often an applicant with a Ph.D. and a nonacademic resumecan start at from $20,000 to $25,000. In addition there are stock options, savings programs, fringe benefits, generousexpense and travel accounts. In large companies, starting salaries exceed that of assistant professor and equivalentof a full professes's salary is often achieved after a few years.

H. What advice do you have for hie9rians planning to explore careers in business?

Drop negative attitudes and beliefs about business and nonacademic careers. Recognize that academic research islimiting, solitary and confining and that academia is sheltered. Learn about successful transitions from those whohave made them. Use your imagination. Many exciting jobs exist for trained historians. First step toward success:"I know I can." You can combine job with historical writing and research. #3 has managed to publish articles andbooks while working full-time for I.B.M.. All it requires is organization and efficiency. Sell your maturity. Explainyour transition and be convincing. This is a favorable time for women to find excellent high paying, nonacademicjobs. The doctorate shows commitment and self-discipline and great organization ability. Ask yourself: "What do Iwant to do with my life?" and proceed.

Bniser believes that the key to the initiation of these types of programs is not money. There is a need for alumniw:th Ph.D.'s to be linked on a sustaining basis with graduate students. Eventually a person like Bruser could teachas an adjunct faculty member perhaps in a course on the work of the historian outside academe.

Is There LifeAfter Death?

The key question for people who have invested a dec-ade or more of their lives in preparation for the doctorateis whether basic skills are convertible. In short, whatwill be the basic gains and losses of moving from aca-deme? We have discussed this matter earlier. Our pur-pose here is to review data on the careers of HumanitiesPh.D.'s which illustrate their poverty of experience,making it difficult for them to understand what life islike outside academe, and to selectively report researchthat indicates that job satisfaction and academic researchproductivity is likely to be higher outside academe forthe average faculty member than it will be as a teacher.

The data on the undergraduate majors of HumanitiesPh.D.'s follows on two separate pages. The first chartshows by reading horizontally Oil the line labelled H theproportion of people in a B.A. field who remain in thisfield or change it in graduate school. The data labelledV shows the proportion of graduate students by Ph.D.field who majored in different B.A. subjects or fields.18

Even though work in the humanities does not requirethe sequential study that it does in the sciences, a sub-stantial proportion of Humanities Ph.D.'s have majoredin a humanities bachelor's degree field (79.4%). Table2 which follows shows how much inbreeding there hasbeen in the Humanities. Table 3 shows the same rela-tionships diagramatically. If one looks at the top row ofTable 3 you can see that humanists have specialized asmuch as have those in the physical sciences and engi-neering. This pattern of specialization may be self-sup-porting. If one takes a B.A. in a humanistic disciplineand finds that employment is difficult after graduating,one may go back to school to remain in a domain thatone knows well and that gives one a chance to live andwork in an intellectual environment. It is not surprisingthen that David Thompson's study of Michigan graduatestudents' perception of their opportunity to utilize theircurrent training in nonacademic employment indicatedthat 33% of the students said the chances were fair, 17%said the chances were poor, and 4% said the chanceswere non-existent. If graduate students have not beenworking outside academe, how would they know what

26

Table 2

BA-PhD Field Switching, 1960-1974

PhD Fields

Agricul-

Chemis Earth Engi- turd Sri. Medical Biosci Psycho!. Social Humani Profes- Educa-

BA Fields % Math Physics try Sciences neering cues Sciences ences ogy Sciences ties sions tion Total Total N

Mathematics H 56.4 4.5 1.2 1.3 5.1 0.2 0.2 2.8 2.4 6.6 2.9 1.8 14.5 100.0 17,033

V 73.7 4.1 0 4 3,5 2.3 0.3 0.6 1.3 1,7 3.6 1,0 2.2 3.8 5.1

Physics H 3.7 73,0 0.11 3.0 8.3 0.2 0.3 4.3 0.8 1.1 1.2 0.6 2.6 100.0 19,248

V 5,4 76.9 0.7 8.9 4,3 0.3 1.0 2.3 0.7 0.7 0,5 0,8 0.8 5.7

Chemistry 11 0.4 0.8 69.2 0.9 1.8 1,0 2.0 17,9 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.5 3.7 100.0 31,250

V 0.9 1.4 85.6 4.1 1.5 2.7 10.5 15.4 1.0 0,6 6,5 1.1 1.8 9.3

Earth sciences H 0.5 0.7 0.3 84,1 2.2 0.8 0.2 1.9 0.6 3.1 1.3 0.5 3.7 100.0 4,950

V 0.2 0,2 0,1 63,8 0.3 0.4 0.1 0.3 0,1 0,5 0,1 0.2 0.3 1.5

Engineering H 3,1 5.2 2.6 1.2 78.7 0.3 0.2 1.3 0.6 1.8 0.8 2.8 1.4 100.0 40,842

V 9.8 11.5 4.2 7.4 86.8 1,2 1.3 1.5 1.1 2.4 0.7 8.0 0.9 12.2

Agricultural sciences H 0,2 1.6 0.6 0.7 59.9 1.1 22.3 0.2 6.4 0.3 0.7 6.0 100.0 13,470

V 0.2 0.8 1.2 0.2 73.0 17 8.3 0.1 2.7 0.1 0.7 1.3 4.0

Medical sciences ,,,,,,, ,,,,, .......... H 0,1 0,1 11.5 0,2 3,2 41.0 22.9 3.0 2.8 1.3 0.8 13.1 100.0 5,051

V 0.1 2,3 1.5 35.6 3.2 0,7 0.4 0.1 0.3 1.0 1.5

Biosciences H 0,1 0.1 1.0 0.9 0.2 4.6 5.0 75.4 2.0 1.0 1.0 0.4 8.3 100.0 27,022

V 0.3 0.1 1.1 3.5 0.2 11.3 23.4 56.3 2.3 0.8 0.5 0.8 3.5 8.1

Psychology H 0.2 0.1 0,1 0.4 1.3 72.8 3.3 1.8 2.1 17.8 100.0 21,482

V 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.1 1.6 0.8 66.8 2.2 0.8 3.2 5.9 6.4

Social sciences 11 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.6 0.3 0.6 4,0 62.5 7.1 6.1 17.8 100.0 29,224

V 0.9 0,1 1.0 0.2 1.6 1,7 0.5 5,0 57.5 4.3 12.6 8.1 8.7

Humanities H 0.4 0.3 0,4 0.2 0,5 0.2 0.3 1.3 3.8 6.7 61.0 4.9 20.2 100.0 63,224

V 1.9 1,1 1.0 1.7 0.9 1.0 2.9 2.2 10.3 13,3 79.4 21.6 19.8 18.8

Professions H 0.5 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.7 0.6 0.5 1.2 4.4 17.1 9,6 40.2 24.6 100.0 13,718

V 0.5 0.1 0.1 0.4 0,3 0,8 1,2 0.5 2,6 7.4 2.7 38.8 5.2 4.1

Education H 0.7 0,2 0,6 0.2 0.1 1.1 0.3 2.7 2,8 2.6 5.8 1.7 81.1 100.0 35,527

V 2.0 0.5 0.8 0.9 0.1 3.4 1.6 2.7 4.3 2.9 4.2 4.3 44.7 10.6

Unknown H 3.8 5,4 4,7 1.7 7.5 2.0 6.7 12.7 6.0 11.9 18.0 5.6 14.1 100.0 13,603

V 3.9 1.0 2.5 3.5 2.8 2.5 15.7 4.8 3,5 5,1 5.0 5.3 3.0 4.1

Grand Total N110 1,305 15:7 2,527 653 3,701 1,105 581 3,622 2,344 3,177 4,857 1,421 6,444 33,564

H 3.9 5.4 7,5 1.9 11,0 3.3 1.7 10.8 7,0 9,5 14.5 4.2 19.2 100.0 335,644

N = number of CMS; H = horizontal percentage; V = vertical percentage.

SOURCE: NRC, Commission on Human Resources.

28

Table 3

Baccalaureate Source Field as Percent of Each Ph.D. Field Total

FIELD OF DOCTORATE

100Math Physics Chem Earth Engr Agr

Engrngr

Med Si Pay Soc Sci Hum Prof Educ

MathPhys

Agr

Earth

Bio

Pay

SS

Hum

50

0

C:1

a.

LL0

Engra.

10 -Engr

1LL

0Phys

50

50co

2 - Educ

Med

Except in medical sciences, the professio:,$, and education, moateventual Phd's stay in their baccalaureate fields for thedoctorate,but 0.1. ",:tnems are varied

Bio

Bio

Chem

Chem

Hum

Hum

Educ

Prof

HumHum

SS

Phys

Engr

Agr

Hum

PhysMath Engr Chem

MathBio

Med Math

Med

Hum

Chem Agr Educ

RyaHut"

SS

Engr SSProf

Educ

Prof

Bio

Math

EducAgr

EngrPay

SS EducEduc

Pay

Prof

Math

Pay

Prof

MathBio

Chem

Hum

Chem

Agr

Hum Bio

Hum SS

SSMed

SS

EducPay Engr

MathEngr

ProfEngr

Hum Phys

Math

EngrChem

Chem

Agr

ChemMath Med

SOURCE: NRC, Commission on Human Resources

Relative frequency of various BA source fields, for each PhD field.

2920

types of skills are required at work and how could theybecome in a position to see how their generic compe-tencies might be used in nonacademic employment?

Thus one part of an educational program for graduatestudents includes a review of the research on the ex-perience of Ph.D.'s in nonacademic employment. If stu-dents and faculty understand this literature they canspeak with more authority about the possibility of con-verting academic skill to nonacademic employment. Wewill examine this literature in the pages which follow.

Nonacademic Sociologists Do More Research andHave High Levels of Job Satisfaction. A study on "So-ciologists in Nonacademic Employment" was completedby Sharon Panian and Melvin Defleur for the AmericanSociological Association. Over 100 sociologists in non-academic employment, who belonged to a professionalsociological society, were asked about conditions ofwork, job satisfaction, professional participation, com-mitment and identification with the profession, theirpublications, and graduate training. The results contra-dict the assumption of academic sociologists that non-academic employment provides little challenge. The au-thors summarize their conclusions: (Panian and Defleur,P. 33)

. . . Ph. D.'s in nonacademic employment feelthat they are doing socially significant work forimportant public and private groups. . . . Thiswork is applied research or administrative ac-tivities that coordinate the work of others. Theyfind it complex, challenging and interesting.Clearly these sociologists were well paid . . .

they evaluated their jobs and the settings inwhich they work in favorable terms. . . . Manyhad chosen this career line after work in aca-demic life and had decided that their nonaca-demic positions had greater advantages forthem. They had satisfactory options for pro-motion; they perceived their supervisors andfellow workers in favorable terms; they feltadequately provided for in terms of retirementand other fringe benefits; and they enjoyed op-portunities to travel. While they sacked thescheduling freedom and vacation time of aca-demic sociologists, these were not seen as majorsources of discontent. In terms of professionalactivities, these sociologists were relatively ac-tive. Most had published, presented papers atprofessional meetings, and attended sociologi-cal conventions with some frequency. In theserespects they were generally more active thanthe majority of their fellow professionals whowork in teaching positions. The emerging pic-ture is one showing both a high level of profes-sional accomplishment and job satisfaction.Such an overview appears to have relativelylittle relationship to the myths about nonaca-

3 0

demic employment that one sometimes encoun-tered ."

Leaving an academic employer does not necessarily re-quire giving up the fruits of graduate training.

Louis Solmon makes these points in a recent summaryfrom his research on the careers and skills of doctoralstudents in the Humanities: (Solmon, 1979)

". . .0ne of the fundamental factors in deter-mining whether or not a nonacademic job is agood one for a doctorate-holder is relatednessof job to doctoral training. Yet relatedness isa concept confounded by several others. Forexample, research and writing jobs are usuallyconsidered to be related, even if other jobs aremore satisfying. Also, if graduate training pro-vides skills and knowledge useful on the job,the job is considered related even if it does notutilize course content. Hence, both studentsand their faculty should be more concernedthat students acquire competencies useful formany types of work (which they do) and makecertain that the utility of these skills are madeknown to potential nonacademic employers(which is rarely done). The holder of a Ph. D.in English literature may be unlikely to utilizehis or her knowledge of the plots of plays any-where except in the classroom. But surely re-search, writing, critical thinking, analyticaland other skills are transferable. This obviouspoint is often ignored."

Solmon's research supports our earlier summary of re-search on job satisfaction. Working as faculty does notmean that academic skill will be fully used. Over 90percent of a sample of sociologists in colleges and uni-versities said that their teaching is related to their grad-uate training. But when asked whether their professionalskill is fully utilized only about 33 percent said yes! (Sol-mon, 1979.)

Clarity requires that we separate the institutional en-vironment from the work itself. Research shows thatsatisfaction can be as high or higher outside academethan in it. The research of Ivar Berg and Associates (Berget al., 1978, p. 109), in which a group spent several yearsstudying these questions, led to the conclusion thatoverall job satisfaction is largely determined by the linkbetween skill, its utilization, job challenge and job re-wards. This means that if Ph.D.'s have the basic skillsthat are required for nonacademic work, even if thoseskills are not labeled as academic, if the skill is used onthe job, if it provides challenge and if there is a rewardwhen work is well-done, job satisfaction should be ashigh outside as within higher education.

Summary. The studies reported here clearly showthat simply working in a college or university as a faculty

21

member is no guarantee that the skill of a faculty memberwill be used or that research will be conducted. In fact,for sociology and for the humanities, there was greateraverage research outside academe than in it. The reasonfor taking time to report these findings is that they pro-vide a baseline for rational assessment of appropriateplacements for Ph.D.'s. The object should be to mate',person and skill rather than to ask whether the teachingor research will be conducted in an educational insti-tution, a business, or in government.

We have emphasized the concern of doctoral candi-dates and new faculty for work that permits continuityand the maintenance of scholarly interests. Employersare willing to permit some of these where there is a

Creating aNational Coalition

realization on the part of the prospective employee thatthe organization's needs must come first! Since an or-ganization has to meet client and market pressures whichcolleges and universities have not had to meet in thepast, it is understandable that they have hesitated to hirePh.D.'s if the assumption is that the Ph.D. will insist ondoing basic research whether or not this will serve or-ganizational needs.

To understand steps taken to educate employers sothat they will be willing to at least consider Ph.D.'s fornonacademic employment, we now shift from a reviewof attempts to educate Ph.D.'s to a review of efforts toeducate employers.

Educating Employ rs

The effective use of talent is a national problem. Itrequires attention at the national level. In the 1960's,Allan Cartter's research predicted the surplus of Ph.D.'sin the 1970's, This surplus has had its most devastatingimpact on the Humanities, though the impact has beensevere in most disciplines. In a sense, the humanitiesrepresent elite values. Thus it is no surprise that theirprimary advocates have been foundations: institutionsthat take the long-term view and are concerned aboutcultural continuity. The two foundations that have donethe most to initiate thinking on these matters have beenthe Rockefeller Foundation and the Danforth Founda-tion. Rockefeller, under the leadership of L. LydiaBronte, called two informal conferences in 1974 to ap-praise the problem and to encourage planning and ac-tion. The Danforth Foundation funded a small confer-ence in June of 1979 to get the academic professionsthinking about the need for an expansion of their scopeto include Ph.D.'s not working in academe. Thus theseeds for a national coalition with employers (buildingon the work initiated by Bronte at Rockefeller) and anexpansion of the constituencies of the academic profes-sions (profiting from the support given by the DanforthFoundation) have been planted. As this monograph iswritten the situation is still fluid. We do not know yetwhat will emerge. The sections that follow may be help-ful in suggesting ideas for action and in providing guide-lines for effective implementation of new policies.

Getting the Facts

Before programs to prepare Ph.D.'s for work in in-dustry could be launched, information on the previous

22

experience of Ph.D.'s at work was needed. This infor-mation was secured through a series of studies. (Solmon,1979; May and Harrison, 1978). Questionnaires weresent to 5,000 humanities graduate students in 40 grad-uate hools in English, History, Philosophy, Spanish,and French. Another study was made of former Ph.D.'s-4,000 men and women who received humanities doc-torates over the past 25 years. The facts secured in thesestudies showed that Ph.D.'s outside ar:ademe in theHumanities had a successful job record. They were pro-moted faster than others once they proved themselvesafter a few years at entry levels. They were performanceoriented and had highly developed analytic skills. Theywere known to finish their work. Yet the reputation thatPh.D.'s had with Personnel Directors was just the op-posite. (Lierheimer, 1976). These people felt that thelast person in the world that they wanted to hire was aPh.D. Our earlier discussion emphasized the need toeducate Ph.D.'s not to turn up their noses at nonaca-demic employment. The facts secured from studies ofemployers showed that a comparable program was nec-essary to make employers willing to consider hiringPh.D.'s. But to do this it was necessary to establish ascreening device that would promise employers thatpeople who were hired would be good! The programthat was sold to the National Endowment of the Hu-manities by Dorothy G. Harrison and Ernest R. Maypromised to do just that!

The New YorkUniversity Careersin Business Program

Harrison and May secured a grant of $360,000 for atwo-year program to recruit, train, and place Ph.D.'s inBusiness from the National Endowment for the Human-

31

ities. Fifty students were to be recruited and placed in1978, 50 in 1979. The initial grant was for $360,000$200,000 as an outright grant and $160,000 through amatching program. Industry, the New York State Boardof Regents and the Rockefeller Foundation contributed$80,000. The National Endowment for the Humanitiesmatched this contribution. The Endowment made itclear that it would not get into the business of retrainingPh.D.'s for nonacademic employment. This was to bea one time grant that would have to become self-sus-taining in the future.

Program Plan. The idea was to conduct a nationalcompetition for talent to recruit, select, and then educate50 Ph.D.'s or A. B. D.'s each year for two years at theNew York University School of Business. The prelimi-nary agenda for the 1979 sessions appears on the pageswhich follow. Financial assistance was provided to coverliving costs and books.

The idea was explained by Harrison and May thro'ighadvertisements and through visits to campuses. May toldme that there was opposition to the plan on some cam-puses. On one campus he met students who told himthat their faculty advisor had warned them not to attendthe orientation session on the "Careers in Business" Pro-gram. It was perceived by some as a Trojan horse thatwould destroy the humanities. (Similar opposition wasexpressed by some faculty in attacking a comparableprogram that was established at the University of Texasin the summer of 1979.) Nevertheless, 120 candidatesapplied for admission to the first class. Of these 50 wereselected after coming to New York City for interviewswith teams of appraisers consisting of a faculty memberand a business person. In 1979, the second year of theprogram, the number of applicants rose 400 percent.The quality increased, too. The staff felt that they couldhave filled their quota of 50 many times over with ex-ceptionally well qualified candidates.

Assessing Finalists. 1 spent a day in New York Cityobserving an assessment team interview prospectiveparticipants in the "Careers in Business" Program ofNew York University. This experience gave me a feelingfor the program as a social movement combining altruismwith pragmatism. The sponsors wanted to see Human-ities Ph.D.'s working in industry. Yet they wanted topick people who would be successfulin a sense, peoplewho need the program more for legitimating entry thanfor giving them the training they need for success. Likeany other training program, the search was for those whohave so much going for them '!,at they are likely tosucceed without the program.

The group met early in the morning for a briefing byHarrison and Richard Freedman, a Professor of Man-agement, who has worked as an instructor and now isresponsible for the evaluation of the program. Freedmandesigned a guide for interviewing. The guide, designedto focus the interview, raised questions about the mo-

3 2

tivation to change careers, the motivation to go into busi-ness (rather than some other type of work), and themotivation of the candidate for management vs. a tech-nical or staff position. The assessors were asked to givepreference to those whJ were plannir g a career in man-agement over those who were seeking a position in tech-nical or staff work. Freedman also asked appraisers tolook for evidence of an applicant's management potentialand the likelihood that the person would learn from theprogram. Teams were asked to independently rate ap-plicants on these matters and then give a single overallestimate of their eligibility for the program. In the groupthat I observed there usually was substantial consensuson these ratings. The member of the assessment teamwho came from business was able to predict the type ofcareer that a finalist would probably opt for. Predictionswere made also as to the likely starting salary.

The assessment team which I observed worked on ahigh professional level yet maintained a cordial and sup-portive relationship with finalists. It tried to be sure thatfinalists had complete information on the program. Insome cases it supplied career information and guidance.One finalist asked the team about the value of an M.B.A.Another discussed with the team the value of foreignlanguage training. One finalist admitted a problem atwork in the past. This was not held against this personbut seemed to give him more creditibility since he wasconscious of behavior in the past that had been non-productive and was now working to correct it.

The assessment team which I observed interviewedcandidates with many talents. One person, in particular,stands out as the type that was sought for the program.She had been accepted for the "Careers in Business"Program in 1978 but had turned it down for a tenuredtrack teaching position. She returned to her campus andworked for a year and found that the work providedinsufficient challenge. She then re-applied the next yearto the "Careers in Business Program" after havingworked out her aspirations for an academic career andhaving decided that such a career would not have suf-ficient challenge. Thus the move to industry was notcaused by the need to leave academe but by a consciousdecision to do so. Her interview epitomized personalqualities that were sought. She had a precise long-termgoal: to improve the marketing of a large company whichshe felt was inadequate. She was confident, at ease inmaking decisions, and wanted to live well. A combina-tion of self-esteem, agressiveness and foresightedness,plus a familiarity with how business worked, made thisperson an ideal candidate.

The assessment team had an image of the ideal can-didate and their interviewing was designed to discoverwhether an applicant had the qualities that they wanted.These seemed to include personal contact and identifi-cation with people who have had an active business ca-reer. The team wanted to screen out those who were

23

Careers in Business Program (1979)(Preliminary)

Three class sessions will be held each day as follows:

Week

1)

2)3)

Subject

9:15-10:4511:00-12:302:00- 3:30

Sessions Faculty1 Macroeconomics 3 Ritter

(6/18-22) Microeconomics 2 RitterAccountingFinancial 8 HowellCareer Orientation and Other 2 Freedman, Siegel

Total 152 AccountingManagerial 4 Howell

(6/25-29) FinanceFinancial Analysis 3 Maldonado-BearStatistics 5 KurnowCareer Orientation and Other 3 Freedman, Siegel

Total 153 FinanceFinancial Analysis .1 Maldonado-Bear

(7/2-6) Capital Budgeting 1Statistics 4 KurnowMarketing 2 RosenbergCareer Orientation and Other 4 Freedman

Total 124 FinanceCapital Budgeting 2 Maldonado-Bear

(7/9-13) Portfolio Management 1Statistics 1 KurnowMarketing 3 RosenbergCorporate Strategy 3 Dutton

5 Corporate Strategy 3 Dutton(7/16-20) Integrating Cases 9 Dutton, Howell,

RosenbergSpecial Topics, e.g., Intl Business 3 Walter

Social and Legal Environment Lindsey, WiesenPerspectives and Careers Lamb

Total 2,56 Integrating Cases 6 Dutton, Howell,

Rosenberg(7/23-27) Special Topics 3

Job Interviews islayETotal 15

7 Job Interviews 5 days(7/30-8/2) '

An hour and a half lunch hour will enable us to invite business executives to address the group.Tutoring Services will be provided by graduate students and, where possible, by volunteers from accounting

and other organizations.A self-test in mathematics will be sent to all students to assure a minimum level of competence in mathematics.All candidates will be required to complete a programmed text covering basic accounting concepts before classes

start.

Of the 81 sessions 14 are devoted to career orientation, 15 use the case method, 12 deal with accounting and 10 dealwith statistics.

24

anti-business. They were seeking applicants with a pre-cise goal with a plan that would progressively put thisgoal into action. This made them skeptical of applicantswho wanted to work in Public Affairs or policy who hadlittle understanding of what is required for success inthese fields. The assessment team was looking both forevidence of technical competence and for style. It wasnot simply what people said but how they handled con-flict. There was a search for a "maturity" factor. Theteam watched people's reactions to questions to seewhere they would press and where they would give. Theaim was to learn how people reacted to conflict andwhether they had a sense of what was worth pushingand where pushing would simply be counter-productive.

What Have We Learned? The program has shownthat carefully selected Ph.D.'s are employable in majororganizations after a short training period. Of the 50students included in the 1978 program, 5 have returnedto academic life, 30 are working in industry and 15 areeither completing their Ph.D.'s or are negotiating towork in industry or government. (This information wasprovided by Sheila Murdick of the Program Staff.) In1079 about 50 companies are expected to send repre-sentatives to interview program graduates for jobs. Thisis double the number that came in 1978. Ernest Mayreports that the companies that appear most interestedin program graduates are not those that traditionallyhired Ph.D.'s. Instead he notes that the companies thatare most interested in graduates are those that haveusually hired engineers but are now faced with problemsof government regulations dealing with energy and en-vironmental issues. Hopefully, the Ph.D.,'s coming from

the program will help diversify management skill andvalues.

The longitudinal study which Richard Freedman isconducting of the experience of graduates in host orga-nizations should tell us in a year or so whether Ph.D.'sactually had the desired impact on organizations. It willalso help us to learn whether the network that the pro-gram hoped to create by placing Humanities Ph.D.'s inorganizations has actually been established. We will wantto know whether those placed by the program actuallyfelt a responsibility to help place others. Freedman'sstudy should go beyond a report on the careers of grad-uates and their employers. It would be useful to knowmore about the backgrounds of those who have contrib-uted time to the programin promoting it, in supportingit financially, and in helping with assessment. Are theseindividuals who feel isolated in industry with Ph.D.'sand seek a larger network to diversify their colleaguesand to enhance their strength by increasing the numbersof Ph.D.'s in their organizations? Has the program cre-ated a network of collaborators who will continue to worktogether when it ends? If this is so, we have the frame-work for institutional programs if other program sponsorscan be found.

Conclusion. We have shown that it is possible tocreate networks of employers and academics to identifytalent and to prepare able Ph.D.'s to work in responsiblepositions outside academe. The coalitions which havebeen created with or without Federal support indicatethat it is possible to create a viable liaison between place-ment, business faculty, and academic fa,zulty. The nextstep should be action at the institutional level. It is tothis question that we now turn.

Convincing Universities to Act

By this time the reader is familiar with the effectiveand low cost activities in English and History to helpPh.D.'s disengage psychologically from academe andbegin to establish networks within the academic profes-sions. The Harrison-May program suggests the neee forcomplementary programs within institutions that buildon the expertise of the Business Faculty and their Place-ment Offices. Our purpose in this section is to examineseveral practical steps which universities have taken orcould take to improve the employability prospects oftheir Ph. D. 's.

Institutional"Careers inBusiness" Programs

Programs to use the Business School faculty to recruit,educate, and late; place Ph.D.'s are in the planning

34

stages at Harvard, Michigan, and the University of Vir-ginia. The implementation of programs has been sloweven though the basic idea is simple and the cost mod-erate. The success of the program at the University ofTexas at Austin in the summer of 1979, even though itwas announced late, helps us understand what are thecmiditions for success and, in retrospect, why other pro-grams have been slow to evolve. One would think thatgiven the pressures to place Ph.D.'s that programs wouldhave sprung up long ago. Need alone is an insufficir ntprod to action if those with special interests (graduatestudents and Ph.D.'s) have little power. The businessschools, which are sympathetic, are busy with their ownactivities. They can place graduates and are overloadedwith their own activities. Several months ago a consor-tium of business schools was asked by its central officeif Business Schools would consider organizing a "Careersin Business Program." Not one was interested!

25

One reason that programs have been so slow to emergeis the difficulty of getting action from the Graduate Deanwho is beholden to academic departments, yet usuallyhas .no power-and almost no discretionary budget. Thework of the graduate school may focus on routine: thefiling of applications, the handling of dissertations, andthe resolution of conflicts between departments. Atten-tion is drawn to the need to prepare reports: for equalopportunity boards and for accreditation and programreview. The graduate dean is as much the prisoner ofhis constituencies as it leader. Without power, formalinfluence, with a modest discretionary budget (if any),the dean may have little authority or power to use forchange. If a program becomes too visible to assistPh.D.'s, the dean becomes subject to attack from theProvost especially if the legislature gets wind of the pos-sibility that the university is educating too many Ph.D.'s.

Sources of Strength for the Texas Program. As thismanuscript is written, plans for these programs areunderway at the Universities of Harvard, Michigan, andVirginia. To provide perspective on what it takes to runa successful program we will report on the Summer,1979, "Careers in Business" Program which was estab-lished at the University of Texas at Austin through theefforts of Irwin C. Lieb, the University's Vice-Presidentin charge of Academic and Professional Programs.

Note that Lieb is responsible for the management ofthe university's academic and professional programs.This makes it easier to make policy that integrate aca-demic and professional programs. It provides a mandateto improve both systems and to take into account theirinterdependence. It provides political leverage so thatin the give and take of university politics, exchanges canoccur which will serve tf,la general interest of the uni-versity rather than the interest of the professions or theacademic disciplines. Lieb has a history of concern forthe development of graduate education at Texas. Heconducts a yearly study of the jobs which Ph.D.'s haveobtained on graduation. The "Careers in Business" Pro-gram which was established in the summer of 1979 atthe University of Texas represents one phase of a pro-gram to maintain and develop graduate studies in theacademic disciplines (Lieb has a Ph.D. in Philosophy).

The Politics of Change. Lieb's position as Vice-Pres-ident of Academic and Professional Studies permittedhim to act, to take responsibility for the program if it

26

failed, and to organize affairs so that others would getthe credit if g was successful. When he approached theBusiness School he volunteered to raise the funds forthe program himself. He did this (raising $52,000). Healso recognized the need to cover the extra costs involvedin program coordination. The basic work of coordinationwas given to the Extension Division of the BusinessSchool. The bottom line would be placement. Thebudget for the program took into account the need topay Placement for its work during the summer in liningup interviews for graduates of the program. The successof the program would depend on the enthusiasm that itreceived from the Business School's Placement Office.In all of this Lieb did not move peremptorily. The im-plementation of the program was delayed by at least oneyear by faculty resistance. One faculty member accusedhim of ". . .selling out For money!" The program wascarried out by William H. Cunningham, the AssociateDean of the Graduate School of Business, an official whorecognized the importance of the program and contrib-uted to its success. The net impact of these steps wasto design a program that took into account the experienceand wisdom of the Business, Extension, and Placementfaculties. To do these things behind the scenes took theright "structure" or formal position, but much moreawillingness to work, to take risks, and to give otherscredit for their work!

The Texas Program. The mechanics of the plan par-allel those of the Harrison-May program at New YorkUniversity. Seventy -two students applied, 43 were in-terviewed and 22 were invited to participate. Halfof thestudents were women. First priority went to those inthe last phase of their work for the Ph.D. Second prioritywent to recent Ph.D.'s. The program was managed bythe Extension Division of the Business School, it wasnoncredit, and it was restricted to students living inAustin, Texas. Each student received a $1200 live-ingrant for the 12 week program. This program was of suchobvious value to prospective students that several de-clined the stipend after they were accepted into theprogram. One person said that he had invested in thestock market and was able through these investments toearn enough money so he could cover his expenses onhis own. (Evidence of business-skill?) The program an-nouncement appears on the next page. It describes thecurriculum and the plan for the program.

35

University of Texas"Careers In Business"

sponsored byGraduate School

andGraduate School of Business

The Careers in Buisness program is designed to prepareadvanced graduate students in the liberal arts to considerthe prospect of making their careers in business. Stu-dents in the program will be introduced to business inthree ways:

1. A set of five Graduate Business School courses willgive a comprehensive view of the areas of businessand its environment;

2. Informal lectures and visits by business executiveswho will describe corporate life and business careers,and;

3. Access through the Business School Placement Officeto companies interested in hiring liberal arts graduatestudents.

Length of Program

The program will last the entire twelve (12) weeks of thenormal Summer schedule.

Courses

Special sections of the following courses will be formedwhich will take into account the background of the stu-dents. The courses are:

BA 282S. ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATIONSAnalysis of individual behavior in organizations andof organizations as complex socio- technical systems;emphasis on variables relevant to organizational de-sign in management.

BA 381T. DISTRIBUTION DYNAMICS AND LO-GISTICSKey elements of marketing and distribu-tion activities, and their impact on orga;7,..ations andsociety. Topics include market analysis, demand stim-ulation, and physical distribution.

BA 382T. PLANNING AND CONTROLConcep-tual and operational relationship of planning and con-trol with management and accounting information sys-tems. Topics include data collection and analysis forshort and long ranv organizational decisions.

BA 383T. MACROENVIRONMENTAL ANALY-SIS The macroeconomic environment in which thebusiness firm must operate; the determination of na-tional income, the role played by money and the im-pact of the government will be examined as well asmajor public issues.

BA 385T. CAPITAL MANAGEMENT Concepts and

36

techniques employed in the determination of optimalcapital structures, procurement of resources from fi-nancial markets and their allocation to productive in-estments.

A brie; description of the program by William Cun-ningham, the Associate Graduate Dean, follows. In itCunningham reports on the selection of students andthe decision to arrange field trips to employers whereseveral job offers were made when prospective employ-ers perceived the high quality of the students.

Selection Priority and Process

First priority will be given to doctoral candidates ofthe College of Liberal Arts. Second priority will be givento recent Ph.D.'s in Liberal Arts and remaining spaceswill go to second and third year doctoral students.

Applicants must complete a form obtainable from theGraduate School MAI 101 or the Management Devel-opment Programs Office, BEB 200D. A transcript mustbe sent with the application. Faculty members from theGraduate School of Business and the College of LiberalArts will form an Admissions Committee and conductpersonal interviews for some or all of the candidates.

Teams of Business School and Liberal Arts deans andprofessors met with the candidates individually and weredirected to look for several qualities that we consideredessential for the success of the individual candidate andthe program as a whole. All the students who had appliedwere highly intelligent, but we were looking for evidencethat their intelligence was actively inquiring and creativeand that the students had not restricted themselvessolely to their particular liberal arts disciplines. Wewanted evidence of expansive interests. The right kindof intelligence was not enough, however. We had aninflexible requirement that the students must not viewthis program as a second class alternative or as a com-promise. We wanted them to be as excited about it aswe were. In addition, our interviewers were instructedto rate the students on their ability to express themselveswell. As a result, the Careers in Business students arearticulate, innovative, and highly motivated toward thisopportunity to seek business careers.

At the end of the twelve-week program our studentswill have completed the equivalent of fourteen credithours credit in Financial Accounting, Macroenviron-mental Analysis, Capital Management, Administrative

27

Organizations, and Distribution Dynamics and Logis-tics. While these courses are currently offered on a non-credit basis, they may serve as a possible waiver ofM.B.A. courses. Therefore, our faculty employs regulargrading procedures. This summer 2oursework :s indeedheavier thamthe normal student courseload; and in fact,this is academically the most rigorous program of itstype.

The UT Careers in Business Program is not purelyacademic, however. As a general rule, Tuesday andThursday lunches are reserved for informal sessions withguest speakers, and a variety of business executives havebeen recruited for these luncheons. These businessspeakers add a richness to the program with their stim-ulating presentations of nonacademic aspects of the busi-ness world. We have additionally scheduled field tripsto San Antonio and Houston so that our students canobserve business enterprises in operation at first hand.

In short, we believe that we have succeeded in offeringthe most comprehensive program yet designed to intro-duce ambitious and highly educated men and women tothe world of business and to match the needs of a highlyqualified group of persons with the opportunities of to-day's corporate world.

It is not surprising that this type of program, thoughsimple to operate and not very expensive, has been soslow to emerge. The Texas program is the first effortthat we know of to estalAish a training and Placementmodel ".-n- Ph.D.'s without Federal funding. A key re-quirement is that the decision to act comes from anadministrative level which oversees the academic andprofessional schools. The structure needs to be right anda person has to have the courage and diplomacy to act.At Texas, the need to obtain faculty approval took timeand delayed program implementation by at least a year.

Linking the GraduateSchool with Placement

Program implementation built on relationships betwithe Graduate School and the Business School which hadbeen developed over many years. Mutuality of interestmay exist, but this alone is insufficient to get a programmoving. Nor is money the key. Someone has to puttogether a coalition that includes Placement, the Busi-ness School and the Graduate School in a way that pro-vides incentives for each to collaborate.

The business faculty were challenged by students whowere more theoretical, and more willing to deal withissues that require breadth. A selective student groupprovided a rich incentive to broaden faculty experienceand to provide new challenge in teaching to businessfaculty. Lieb reports that the Ph.D.'s were no sloucheseither when it came to quantitative ability. They scoredhigher on accounting examinations than did the regular

students. Lieb was pleased because the programthat lie !wiped organize was not perceived as a burdenby the business faculty. He told me that -. . . there wasa true two-way street in which the business school con-tributed but where the business school also gained."

Employers were equally enthusiastic. A week afterthe program closed 7 students had job offers. Lieb hadguessed that fifteen companies would send representa-tives to interview students for jobs. Instead 21 companiesdid. The Chemical Bank flew a recruiter from Irelandto interview students. Exxon was interested in the pro-gram and sent an inteviewer. The Texas CommerceBank, which has hosted students on a field trip, hiredfive students. These companies were not looking formechanical or technical skill which they could buy bythe dozen. Lieb reports that Exxon's reactions was typ-ical: . . We've been told to get away From M.B.A.types. We can get all the routine workers that we need.What we need is range and versatility."

Getting Institutions To Act

The bottom line comes when an institution attemptsto place its Ph.D.'s. Before the job crunch this could bedone through the academic departments. Now that theacademic market has been depleted universities arefaced with a dilemma. Is the best plan that of Michigan'swhich involves a potential integration of Student Affairsand Placement or is it to establish within the GraduateSchool a separate and independent Placement Office?This approach has been taken at Harvard where DonnaT. Martyn is working as the Graduate Placement Officer.

28

The important question is not who gets the credit andwhat the title is but that the work is done. Essentiallythis means that at least one person in an institution mustwork full time on issues of graduate employment.

The first step is for academic faculty and those withinfluence in the institution to investigate what Placementstaff is now doing or could do with adequate collaborationfrom faculty and graduate students. I have found thatPlacement staff are willing to talk with departments anddepend on departments to initiate requests for assist-ance. As the composition of departmental committeeschange id as chairpersons change, a department willshift from an active relationship with Placement to an

3

inactive one. Yet university policy may make it possiblefor Placement to create links with students through dis-cussions with the leaders of student clubs to open upcareer discussions early enough so that students are notunnecessarily hurt. One example of such activity is pro-vided by the Placement Office of New York University'sBusiness School. It anticipates problems for students inpopular programs where many want to get in but fewwill be admitted. One example is Clinical Psychologywhere there are many more applications for doctoraladmissions than there are positions. Placement initiatesdiscussions with student clubs to set up times when itcan meet with graduate students in their I.A. year.Alumni who have Psychology degrees but v.ork outsideacademe meet with students. They explain how theirwork in psychology could lead to employment in appliedfields. Students are encouraged to take the courses thatcomplement a Psycho Irk, Major and lead to employ-ment in fields such as market research. Thus the Place-ment Office takes an active role in providing informationto students to help them integrate academic and profes-sional studies. This may be easier to do in a privateinstitution than in a public one.

Placement may be able to use its normal facilities toassist graduate students ;:nd job:. A computerized sys-tem of matching people with job requests can be madeavailable to graduate students as well as to undergrad-uates. A system of this type, primarily to assist alumni,has been developed at Kent State University. Kent willautomatically send to job applicants information on jobrequests. It will also provide prospective employers withlists of prospective employees. If such a system exists,graduate students should know about it and use it whenthey are on campus and after they leave.

Linking the Graduate Schooland Students

When students seek advice on careers in graduateschool their faculty are usually in a poor position to help.Most students will not qualify for selective retrainingprograms of the type offered at Texas and New YorkUniversity. There needs to be some place on campuswhich belongs to graduate students and is sufficientlyremoved from departments so students can be candidabout their goals and problems. This office needs to or-chestrate the education of graduate students and theeducation of employers (the major focus of this chapter)with an institutional frame of reference in collaborationwith the Graduate School.

The University of Michigan began a program severalyears ago which suggests one approach to the integrationof the Graduate School with Student Services. It createdan Office of Nonacademic Career Counseling and Place-ment to assist graduate students and departments plan

38

for nonacademic employment in collaboration with em-ployers. The office is unique, to my knowledge, in thatit is jointly funded by Student Affairs and the GraduateSchool. The staff is small, including a Director, JamesKrolik and a half-time assistant. It benefits from severalservices in Student Affairssuggesting one reason whythe Office should be in Student Affairs where the StudentAffairs staff is agressive. Krolik has access to a recentstudy of graduate student orientations to education andwork completed by David Thompson (which will be re-ported in a preliminary fashion later). He will also haveinformation on the needs of students as these are un-covered by a newly appointed needs assessor. As far aswe know, this is the only Graduate Student Office forNon-Academic Employment that has access to researchon its student's goals and experiences.

Service. to Students and Departments. The Michi-gan plan 'earls to work with departments to encouragethem to organize on their own to learn about the ex-perience of' graduates and become better able to offerstudents job-seeking services. I visited the English De-partment at the University of Michigan to learn aboutplans to prepare a questionnaire to study the work ex-perience of Ph.D.'s on graduation. The department plansto create its own internship program as part of itsMaster's Program. It would work with the University'sOffice of Non-Academic Career Counseling and Place-men:: to bring to campus several alumni to talk withgraduate students in their first year of graduate work.These informal talks could lead to placement of studentsin internships in the summer following their first yearof school. To organize a program of this type at thedepartmental level takes time and I found that althoughinterest is there, it is difficult for a department to act onits own even when its chairperson is supportive.

This makes it all the more important that a centralstaff office be available to consult with departments.James Krolik writes about his work with departments asfollows:

. . .(we hold) placement orientation meetingswith many graduate departments on non-aca-aernic employment. Through these meetings,both academic and non-academic markets arediscussed directly with interested students. En-tering graduate students in Ph .D . programsreceive by mail a brochure which describes thecareer services available through the °Dice,thereby increasing student awareness of whatthe office can provide. (Krolik, 1979, p. 63).

These meetings with departments are com-plemented by personal sessions with graduatestudents. Since it is impossible for a single staffperson to meet individually with graduate stu-dents and since the generic problems are oftenthe same, Krolik works with groups of students

29

in job finding workshops. The workshops aredesigned to relieve the 1. -ins of negative ex-periences on the job market and to assuage thedespair and discouragement which are commonreactions to rejections on the job market. Basicprinciples of career education are built into theprogram. The emphasis is on getting graduatestudents to do the basic career thinking andplanning that will identify their values, inter-ests, and skills. When this is done students areable to organize their own job search programsin an agressive, planful manner. Rather thanbegging for work they are prepared to dem-onstrate the value of their experience and skillsto prospective employers.

The basic dilernna of an office such as thisis that people wait until the end to do the careerplanning and thinking which is essential tomaximize their options for achievement. Thetime to assess competence and values is whenpeople begin a program rather than when itends. But everyone with whom I talked whohas experience in career counseling for grad-uate students reports that students are unwill-ing to take career planning seriouslc. until theyare just about done with their programs. Whenstudents begin working on their dissertationthey begin looking for a job. It is then that theyare interested in career counseling and plan-ning.

If we recognize the poverty of higher edu-cation in these times we will be foolhardy toassume that there will be an instant answer tothe question of where to get additional incomefor these services. True, there are Federalfunds available potentially through the full im-plementation of P .L . 95-207 (Higher EducationExemplary Programs in Career Education) orthrough new cooperative education programsin graduate education through the Office ofEducation's Cooperative Education Office. TheMichigan Program was initially funded throughsupport by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation andnow is self-sustaining. If foundation or gov-ernment funding becomes available, this willbe a plus. But it is hardly worth holding one'sbreath given the scarcity of funds and the com-petition for grants.

Students Take Responsibility for theirCareers

Susan Hitchcock came to Virginia after completing aMaster's Degree in English at the University of Mich-igan. Before enrolling at Virginia she worked in the pub-

30

lishing field for two years. This gave her an understand-ing of the labor market and made her realize that shecould support herself outside of a college and university.She returned to Virginia hoping to work in their Uni-versity Press. When this was impossible, she registeredfor a graduate program in English and later completedher doctorate in English. She is now working as a freelance writer. Her experience at Virginia, which led tothe establishment of a program to help graduate studentsdisengage from the academic world, emphasizing theproblems of identity transfer, and assisting them in find-ing appropriate work, is worth summarizing.

We will paraphrase the main points. When Hitchcockbegan her graduate studies, she realized that studentswere in trouble when they received their Ph.D. Therewere always about 30 students who were about to com-plete a degree or had completed a degree. She realizedthat recent alumni would be in a position to help studentsplan for a productive nonacademic career. She invitedrecent alumni to a conference that was held at the Uni-versity of Virginia. They were glad to return to theuniversity as they had friends there so there was noexpense involved for honoraria. The alumni were pleasedto meet informally with students to talk candidly abouttheir experience. This initial meeting led the next yearto the formation of an informal group of about ten stu-dents. They originally met through Hitchcock's initiativebut later on became self-sustaining. They conversedabout common interests and began working on variousfacets of career planning. Susan Hichcock met with stu-dents informally to help them work out plans to get non-academic jobs.

Hitchcock's work attracted the attention of the Uni-versity of Virginia's Office of Career Planning and Place-ment. They recognized the need for assistance to Ph.D.'sand commissioned her to write a short and lively pam-phlet entitled: "Branching-Out" (Hitchcock, 1979). It isworth purchasing and reading. Hitchcock was later em-ployed by the Career Planning and Placement Office towork with graduate students in the Department of Eng-lish at Virginia. She found that it was very difficult formost students to break a dependency relationship inwhich their major source of social support came throughtheir identification as academics. Although she adoptedmodern approaches to job search and career planning,students were reluctant to engage in this work until theyhad partially resolved their concerns about career.

The last phase of Hitchcock's work with the Depart-ment of English at Virginia was one in which the facultyacted to legitimate student disengagement from academeafter students had begun to move on their own and hadrequested that the department establish a liaison officewith them. Edgar Shannon, a Professor of English andthe former President of the University of Virginia,agreed to serve as the Departmental Officer on Non-Academic Employment. This made the students feel

39

great! It indicated to them that the department was notupset if they sought nonacademic jobs. It had asked aperson of real eminence to work with them.

There may be little that faculty can do for studentsother than to give them the social-psychological supportwhich they need to combine academic studies with plansfor nonacademic employment. Once these psychologicalmatters are straightened out, the information, the formalcounseling, and the work with other university agencieswill take care of itself. The key element is a partial res-olution of the natural conflict between a student's desirefor an academic career, the assumption thateven if therewill only be 1 job in 100 that the student will get thisone (this really happens!), and the practical need to makesomething of one's life. Thus a departmental programneeds to build on the life experience of graduate studentsand to make links between people like Hitchcock, Place-ment, and Career Counseling and Planning. But whenthe chips are down, students have to be willing to acton their own with the assistance of alumni.

I have found no example of an Alumni Association thatis actively working to help create internship programsor job-placement programs for Ph.D.'s, although it isclear that alumni do have a strong attachment to theiralma mater and are logical sources of support to assistacademic departments. Would it not make sense to havea series of articles in an Alumni Magazine that wouldpermit Ph.D.'s in nonacademic employment, or their

employers, to describe how Ph.D.'s have been produc-tive in nonacademic employment and encourage alumnito hire them? Why not honor alumni who have gone outof their way to help Ph.D.'s find nonacademic employ-ment?

Getting the alumni associations and alumni to coop-erate is not a simple task. There is competition for their1:egiance and money. Each unit within the university

wants to get to them first. Alumni do not usually identifywith their graduate school. It is the undergraduate de-partment or professor that has their allegiance. The cam-paign to get support from alumni for internships for grad-uate students and jobs for Ph.D.'s needs to be mountedthen by faculty within the academic departments whoare likely to retain the loyalty of alumni. Through per-sonal contacts or through articles in the Alumni Maga-zine, the undergraduate academic departments can ap-peal to their alumni for support. Low key off the recordcontacts between placement staff, academic faculty, andmembers of alumni clubs through-out the country areneeded to give Ph.D.'s access to job networks that arecontrolled by the universities in which they study. Theplacement of students needs to be adapted to their tal-entsall will not deserve nor can they attain positionsleading to high level work. But the universitycan extendits network of contacts to find a place where people canhave productive work and where their university degreewill not be held against them.

Making Programs WorkThis chapter has built on our earlier theme which

suggested the importance of building breadth into grad-uate education so that students complete their Ph.D.'swith sufficiently broad education so that they competefor jobs. This requires tapping into existing networks(as Lieb did in Texas by using the Business School'sPlacement Office to place Ph.D.'s), or the activation ofnew ones. There is a dynamic process at work in whichemployers compete for talent and prospective candidatesuse their credentials and networks to put themselves inthe running for jobs. The complex task is to activate theacademic departments, the Graduate School, so thatPh.D.'s learn how to approach these networks and learnenough about the labor market so that they do not boxthemselves in, in the preemployment interviews or inthe first few months on the job. To activate this processand monitor it is a full time job. Someone in an institutionhas to take responsibility for integrating the efforts ofthe academic departments, graduate students, and thoseworking with placement and employers. Our report sug-gests the importance of lodging this responsibility highenough in an institution so that a program is put into

40

operation and implemented. The politics of the situationmay mean that the program is conducted without fan-farethus at Harvard and Michigan people are notshouting about their work. They are, instead, meetingwith individuals and with small groups of faculty in de-partments.

Irwin Lieb's experience at Texas shows that it is pos-sible to mount a selective training and placement pro-gram without Federal support. It is possible to get mov-ing without a grant. By simply holding a "Careers Day"for graduate students one could invite employers to sendrepresentatives to meet with graduate students on aninformal basis. This could lead to decisions by studentsto work for organizations on a part-time basis whileschool is on or to complete projects for them withoutpay as a way to get their foot in the door. Many orga-nizations have summer programs whichare open to grad-uate students or could be made available to them. Thussimply introducing students to prospective employerswould be productive at almost no cost to an institution.Irwin Lieb's program recruited students who turneddown a training stipend because they realized how im-

31

portant the experience was to them and they did notneed the money. David Thompson's recent study ofgraduate students at the University of Michigan also

Table 4

Graduate Students Report their Willingness to Investin their Training

(From David Thompson's study at the University ofMichigan)

Question: Flow many full-time semesters would youinvest in training to get a good job

beyond that already required for a degreeif:

Tuitionand

LivingCostsWerePaid

Ph. D.'sPaidOwn

LivingExpenses.

TuitionCovered

Ph.D. PaidEverything

Tuition:Out-of-

In-State Stal3

Semesters:0 28.5% 48.2% 28.5% 27.5%1 19.1 23.8 19.1 9.32 29.0 18.2 29.0 8.53 9.2 3.0 9.2 1.94 13.9 6.7 13.9 1.4

32

showed that graduate students are willing to invest intheir own training. As shown in Table 4, about 20 to 50percent of graduate students said that they would bewilling to remain in school for an extra semester or twoto cover their own tuition and living costs to obtain train-ing for employment.

To make a program work, the people with power inan institution must understand what needs to be doneand insist that it be done. Although departments can dosomething on their own, and will act if there is properinstitutional support, the leadership needs to be takenby those with power in the institution. This means thatthe key leaders, to provide legitimation and funding nec-essary must be the President and .0-- e Academic Provost.Governing Boards are sources of ii,Itiative, too. Presi-dents and Governing Board members are sensitive toleadership provided by their associations. Thus actionby the American Council for Education and the Asso-ciation of Governing Boards would be most helpful atthis time. These organizations have pipelines to key ac-ademic administrators and to members of GoverningBoards. They are in a position to help explain what theproblems are, what institutions have done on their own,and to suggest what could be done through a coalitionbetween board members and academic administratorsto create an integrated program that broadens graduateeducation, uses work experience as an integral part ofit to prepare for work, and then uses alumni contacts tohelp place students once they have completed theirwork.

41

Chapter III

Diversifying Faculty and Administrative Culture

Introduction

Before graduate education can be changed, facultyculture needs complementary change. How can facultyencourage students to complement their academic stud-ies with professional studies and internships if theythemselves have limited work experience and may feelboxed in by the labor market? No human institutionwillingly gives primary attention to its clients. If we wantto make fundamental improvements in graduate edu-cation, our first priority is to attend to the interests offaculty which, if unmet, will make it impossible for usto re-shape graduate education.

The issue must be framed in terms of enhancing op-tions for learning for all faculty, using institutional slack

wherever possible to make life better for those with pureand applied interests. The fundamental issue is the wayin which we manage our institutions. It is not simply aquestion of updating laggards. Nonacademic employ-ment becomes a relevant issue when it is raised as astrategy to enrich faculty experience and thus give newvitality to faculty careers. It should be put into the con-text of policies that build training and development intothe bones of academe. A good chairperson uses non-academic employment as one strategy to enhance thediversity of faculty life. (Booth, 1975). Nonacademic em-ployment gains its strength as a training device when itfits into a total institutional system in which the need fordiversity and training is recognized and the budgetmakes a place for these as part of the regular work load.(This is the case at the University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh.)

Diversifying Faculty Culture

Makag theSabbaticalSystem Work.

The sabbatical is one of the few tangible investmentswhich institutions make to enhance faculty learning andcompetence. About 2 percent of faculty are on sabbaticalat one time. Aside from a study on sabbaticals by Mar-garet Lorimer, formerly of Michigan State University,there have been almost no attempts to learn how thesabbatical system affects departments (through the re-moval of faculty) or how it affects faculty competence.The author has made a preliminary study of this matterthrough selective interviewing of about twenty faculty.

The sabbatical is underutilized as a device to promotebreadth primarily because it has been assumed that thesabbatical is earned' through seniority and that a facultymember should be able to make good use of it withoutany long-term planning. This is in keeping with our as-sumption in academe that graduate education preparespeople for productive careers and then faculty consoli-date their learning in the first few years out of school.

42

When this happens it is wonderful! Yet the system doeslittle to encourage a productive link between educationand work so that the first few years lead to a consolidationof gains and to a career in which there is continuity andprogressive growth. The sabbatical is too mechanical. Itcannot be built-in when it is most needed, as is possibleat the University of Wisconsin at Oshkosh. There is theassumption that when it comes people will be ready.

Given these limitations, the sabbatical system couldstill be put to better use if we anticipated the elementswhich need to be present for maximal growth. If peopleleave home, contacts need to be made ahead of time tomake sure that the visit will have reciprocal benefits.The faculty member needs to consider what will be givenand what will be gained. This should involve the personand the family. I interviewed one faculty member whohad made excellent use of the sabbatical. He plannedto work at a more prestigeful university, was asked toteach a course (that the host department could not have.taught without him), and made contacts through thedepartment that led to a plan to publish a book. Whenthe sabbatical ended, the faculty member had combined

33

new learning in his discipline with a pleasant culturalvisit. He had become integrated into a new network ofassociates from an institution with higher academicstandards Cum his. When he returned to his campus hewas better able to develop a career in whit': he wouldnot have to depend on colleagues for professional chal-lenge. He now had a wider range of colleag ee

We need better ways to evoke planning Or the sab-batical to enhance its contribution to lam v learning.Few institutions encou faculty to use the bbaticalto enhance teaching. The Chemistry Department of theUniversity of Nebraska has now completed a programwith FIPSE support to host a group of faculty on sab-batical and to work with them to improve their skill asteachers. Complementary programs that offer facultyoptions to work in government or industry are alson..eded. Kenneth Hoyt has proposed that this be doneon a reciprocal basis so that a faculty member moves toanother organization and it sends one of its staff to thecollege or university. The idea of using the sabbatical asa time for renewal outside of a college or university isworth considering since it could give faculty a chance totest new interests and skills without having to let theircolleagues in their departments know what they weredoing. Since relatively few faculty go on sabbatical inany year, there should be time to work with them beforethey go to assist in career planning and to work withthem, where appropriate, to make them aware of optionslbr learning outside academe. In some professions suchas economics where faculty are moving all the time intopolicy roles, external assistance may not be necessary.In others such as English or Foreign Language, wherethere is ordinarily little opportunity to be employed out-side academe, a Confederation of Academic Professions,as mentioned in Chapter I, could provide technical as-sistance to groups of faculty members in planning a sab-batical. The time may be ripe for the development of anational sabbatical program in which organizations wouldreserve a position to be held by a different faculty mem-ber each year. Earlier, we suggested the possibility ofteam research focused on cultural and economic devel-opment. These teams might be supplied by faculty work-ing on sabbatical.

Internshipsfor Faculty

A sabbatical system depends on personal wisdom andinitiative for its impact. The times do not permit us towait that long. An external internship outside °fa collegeand university can give faculty an understanding of howthey stand up against different types of pressures andcompetition. it can make them decide to leave or it canbolster their self-esteem and give them new confidencein their worth when they return to their campus. We

34

say this because faculty are under attack and they mayunconsciously accept external conceptions of incompe-tence. One way to get a fresh sense of self is to spendsome time working outside academe. We will report ontwo such programs: the short internship which Bir-mingham-Southern College has organized and a moreintensive attempt to raise career issues among all facultywhich has been organized at Loyola University in Chi-cago.

The Birmingham-Southern Program. Don Casella,a former Career Education Program Director at theUniversity of Alabama, gives us information on the cur-rent faculty career education program at BirminghamSouthern College. This program put into operation Ken-neth Hoyt's suggestion that there be an exchange be-tween the community and faculty. In it, 15 executivescome to the college to study and 15 faculty go out intothe community. At first people in the community hadno interest in coming to the college to study under areleased time arrangement with their employers. Nowthat the program has caught on, the college has moreapplicants from the community than it can place. Man-agers appear to treasure the chance to get away from thebustle of their daily work and to begin thinking aboutbasic issues in the college. This was particularly true ofthose working for the city.

What were the reactions of fac "lty? They were givena stipend of $1200, about what they would make forteaching a course in the summer, for using the breakbetween the fall and winter term to work outside thecollege (some faculty worked during the year or duringsummer). Out of 65 faculty in the college, 35 facultymembers applied for the program and 27 were accepted.Don Casella reports that two faculty members were of-fered jobs. Both refused with a net increase in their self-confidence. One faculty member is reported to havebeen changed in a dramatic fashion. Now that he is doingconsultation work for an organization where he has tomeet deadlines, he now teaches students by breakingtheir work into modules that requires them to meet shortdeadlines. He tells the students ". . .You'll need thesework skills when you go to work!"

Birmingham Southern has had a large Kellogg grantto mount its program. It will continue the program whenthe grant ends in a scaled down version. My telephonediscussions with staff indicate that the program will def-initely persist. The moral: consider short term leave orinternships for faculty that can be created on a modestbudget. Look for support from those who contribute toyour institution (they may want to see your faculty!) An-nounce the program without giving it a lot of publicity.Let a few faculty members participate in itand thenlet them spread the word! Perhaps a small program canbe organized within an academic department withoutinvolving an entire institution.

43

Career Educarionfor Faculty

Loyola University in Chicago has designed and is nowimplementing a career development program for facultywhich illustrates the importance of beginning where fac-ulty are, of focussing on practical career issues for all,and of opening up alternatives for more in-depth workthat includes life-career planning and year-long intern-ships in other work sites either on campus or off Theprogram is noteworthy for its comprehensiveness andfor its basic common sense. It assumes that at any onetime a minority of faculty are open to serious careerplanning.

Loyola's program developed through collaborativeplanning by administration and faculty. It was presentedto the Faculty Senate for review where it was approvedconditional on the funding of the program by FIPSE.When the FIPSE grant was made, the program was toinclude a core component open to all and an internshipprogram that would be open to selected faculty. Thecore component consists of workshops on financial andtime management (spouses were usually invited), indi-vidualized career counseling (on a confidential basis),and small grants to faculty to permit them to put theirideas to work. The Loyola program built on a history ofsupport and cooperation between administration and fac-ulty. The administration was interested in the idea andit fits well into the philosophy of service of a church-related institution. (Note that there is no union at Loyolaas vet.)

From the administration's viewpoint, the key elementin the program is the internship where a faculty memberworks for a year at full pay but in a different job. Thekey to the success of such a program is the care whichgoes into the matching of intern and sponsor. RobertBarry, the Program's Director, required that all 32 fac-ulty who said that they wanted to be considered for aninternship complete one of the three Life PlanningWorkshops which the program has sponsored in its firstyear of operation. This experience and discussions withprogram staff convinced half of these applicants that theinternship was not for themor at least not for them in1979-80. For a variety of personal reasons including theopportunity to teach a favored course for the first time,faculty chose not to apply for the internship. Barry saysthat from 6-12 faculty will be placed in an internship,roughly 1 percent of Loyola's faculty.

The internships include the "blue-chips" of Chicago'sorganizations. The list includes large and progressiveorganizations usua'Ay with Catholic sponsorsoftenalumni of the university, particularly alumni of businessschool extension courses. These are people who arethemselves taking continuing education courses andmight be expected to contribute to the continuing ed-ucation of others Barry seems to be trying to match

44

lifestyle of mentor with that of intern. He felt that hehad to do this work himself rather than work with hisuniversity's placement office (an example of the isolationof placement from the academic component of the uni-versity). The Internship Program which Loyola is cre-ating permits it to strengthen its relationships with al-umni who in the future might be asked to teach inLoyola's career education program for students. Overtime, a network can be developed which stengthens al-umni in their attempt to innovate in their institutionsand enhances the prestige of alumni by permitting themto make an active association with the university.

Outcome. My information from the program comesfrom telephone interviews with Robert Barry and witha member of the administrative staff of the university.Participation in the initial program in the first year wasextensive. One out of seven faculty attended one of theevents. The program will have a tangible impact in 1979-80 by removing about 1% of the faculty and permittingthis money either to be saved or to be invested in otherfaculty who can bring new points of view to campus.Barry expects 6-12 faculty to participate in the internshipin its first year. The program could easily develop insuch a way that one member of the faculty resigned orasked to work part-time every year. This could provide7-10 new positions for assignment in a decade. Equallyimportant, it should bring more breadth and realism tofaculty on their return so that they see their frustrationsmore as universal facets of organizational life than as thepeculiar design of "mean" administrators! Faculty whothought they were overloaded would really see what anoverload is when they work in government or industry.The number of faculty who will leave the university ina period of inflation is unpredictable. (Note that noneleft at Birmingham Southern.) The faculty who returnwill be re-oriented or at least a little shaken-up by theirimmersion in a new work environment.

(Robert Barry reports that a Professor of Religion atLoyola has already begun working in an internship toprovide new administrative services to one of Loyola'scampuses. This person will now work on grant admin-istration and provide this service to a campus whichbefore the program began did not have such an office.Thus the program may lead to a lateral move by a facultymember within the university rather than a decision towork outside academe.)

Planning for Success. The real problem is not to con-trol outcomes because th4se_are truly not under controlanyway. The faculty member who resigns her or hisposition after a year's internship might have been ne-gotiating for a similar position and could have taken aleave without pay anyway. If we "lose" good people theloss may be partial. First of all, they may continue teach-ing the course or two which they like best on a part-timebasis. Furthermore, their loss must be balanced by thenet gain which comes from new perspectives among reg-

35

ular faculty, a chance to hire new faculty while they areon their internships, and the opportunity to build a newconstituency of sponsors and their organizations.

A more fundamental question is how a college oruniversity creates the balance between challenge andpeer support which is required to get faculty to continueto learn? Lifelong habits are difficult to break. It is noteasy for older faculty to learn, to change their percep-tions, and to benefit by new experience. External sup-port is needed. The Loyola Program invited spouses tothe Life Planning Workshop hoping that this would in-fluence the faculty member in a constructive fashion.The Loyola Program recognizes the need for additionalcareer support groups. Professor Sarenson from Yale hasbeen retained to work with faculty who are on intern-ships to help them assess what they are learning. TheLoyola program statement amplifies this plan:

. It will be necessary to develop some sup-portive groups so that the learning and growth,the normal stress involved in a new workingsituation, and the perceptions that are devel-oped in the new positions can be used for max-imum career expansion. . . Outside consult-ants will be brought in and there will bemeetings that will encourage the exchange ofexperiences, the sharing of insights, and thegenerating of strategies for the new tasks.These meetings will allow for maximum per-sonal contact by involving a small number ofpersons who will be together for an entire day."(Description of Loyola Program, page 5.)

Gene ralizability. It is not necessary to have such anelaborate program to get results. When there are mem-bers of one's faculty who are experienced counselors orlife planners. Business faculty should be willing to offerworkshops on time management or life planning througha Faculty Association. Your Placement Office can helpyou line up suitable placements. Thus the ingredientsfor a productive program are probably in place. Themissing ingredient is an administrative decision that theprogram is important and that responsibility for programmanagement be assumed by a person with the necessaryinfluence with faculty to get a program started.

Policy Implications. To the man in the street, to thelegislator, and to the young Ph.D. looking for an aca-demic job, the issues are not as esoteric. The basic issueis the public and young Ph.D.'s perception of the ob-solescence of tenured faculty. Although the academicprofessions are not alone in protecting service, they areparticularly fragile scapegoats. Isn't it time that the ac-ademic professions begin making the continuing edu-cation and the career development of faculty a matterof prime importance? The first step is to tax ourselvescollectively to create a fund to insure our own self-de-

36

velopment. If every faculty member in North Americaagreed to an internal tax of $10 a year to create a commontraining pool, to provide technical assistance in careeranalysis and job search, and to offer loans at low interestrates to cover retraining expenses and moving expenses,we would make career education for faculty a cardinalprinciple of institutional functioning. T. I. A.A. -C. R. E. F.would be the logical organization to initiate and admin-ister the program.

Such a fund could cover seminars for faculty and anetwork that would be available to faculty for personalconsultation. We need not duplicate services that areavailable outside academe but since many of us do notknow what these are, facully do not have the informationthey need for knowing where to get career counsel andassistance. The fund might be divided among the aca-demic disciplines for the development of workshops andto cover travel for faculty who were able to help otherfaculty improve their competence as researchers orteachers or begin career counseling to consider movesoutside academe. If 50 percent of faculty contributed$10 per person, we would have a yearly budget of about$3,000,000. This is not a lot for a national program butit would be enough to begin.

Why, you may ask, should faculty make this invest-ment themselves when they are hit by inflation and byretrenchment? Some States have begun making invest-ments in trainingPennsylvania, Wisconsin, and NewYork. In New York recently, the union in the State Col-leges insisted on making training investments part of thecollective agreement! I believe that we need to take onpart of the retraining responsibility ourselves to bufferthe political stigma which we are now facing. Times aretough and they will get tougher! The government willinvest in retraining for people when it is too late! TheWisconsin legislature refused to support retraining whenit felt that it would be used for people who were notabout to be fired! I am suggesting the reversethat weapply "preventative" medicine to the academic profes-sions and develop a sense of esprit de corps which insiststhat we will not permit faculty to become redundant.Our focus should be on people's careers at key stageswhere a little support, a little education, a little coun-seling from a colleague, can make all the difference inthe world between a productive and a nonproductivecareer. The problem, of course, is that the needs offaculty in middle ranks and in moderately selective in-stitutions are not the same as those who are the stars inthe research universities. Thus the problems which therank and file face are not those of the elite who tend tocontrol institutional functioning and the academic dis-ciplines.

State level policy makers may be willing to set asideincentive grants that include faculty career developmentcomponents as well as components to improve the qual-ity of graduate education and to assist graduate students

and new Ph.D.'s. Incentive grants to faculty, to permitfull funding of sabbatical leaves when these are organizedto suggest real benefits to students as well as faculty arein order. Canada has pioneered by offering a Leave Fel-lowship Grant on a competitive basis to teachers, re-searchers, and administrators who have distinguishedcareers. A comparable program might be considered inthe United States or in the States. The program providesa good reason for faculty to think about the sabbaticaland to plan it with wisdom. It is low in cost because itgives a limited number of awards. A similar pattern ofcompetition could be offered to provide support for fac-ulty career education or career development programs.These programs could be linked with programs for grad-uate students building on some of the suggestions madein the previous chapter. Thus the proposal would showwhat would be done to improve graduate education andwhat would be done to improve the education of faculty.A State would be reasonable in asking for outcome pre-dictions showing how the institution would be differentif these grants were made. An incentive award systemcould be arranged so that those institutions that followedthrough with their promises would receive a bonus pay-ment.

If the academic community talks with its pocketbook,and agrees to share in the burden of retraining' (as ameans to increase the average level of competence inthe discipline), it should gain new allies at the State and

Federal levels. Students should be more willing to backfaculty interests. They have more political power thanfaculty anywa:, . A coalition of interest groups might beformed to look at the relationship between educationand work in America to see what changes need to bemade in Federal legislation that reflect the interests ofall groups. One such change would be to strengthencareer education or job search services provided by theUnited States Employment Service. Instead of only cov-ering the costs of this Service for placements when theemployer lists with it, the functions of the Service couldbe expanded to imiude career and life planning for thoseunemployed and looking for jobs that are not listed withU.S. E. S. Such a change in the law would help everyone.It would make modern approaches to career plizmingand job search a right of citi; enship. (Wegmann, 1979)

We have made a number of proposals which go beyondthe confines of our earlier examples. The chapter beganwith a statement of what needs to be done and what hasbeen done by institutions to improve the career edu-cation of faculty. The two models presented were prom-ising and may be useful to others. The pressures forchange are great but it is unlikely that faculty will receivethe assistance which is needed except in a few institu-tions. If this be the case, State and Federal programs areneededto be funded by the government where this ispossible, but funded by faculty where this can be doneeither alone or in a collaborative effort.

Diversifying Administrative Culture

Space permits only a few suggestions of what couldbe done to diversify administrative culture. Before achairperson takes office this person could be invited tovisit with chairpersons on campus who have superiorability in one facet of their work. Some faculty as chair-persons are superior at taking care of detail. Others doan exceptionally fine job on personnel matters. Simplyby talking with chairpersons or observing how they runa departmental meeting, a prospective chairperson candiversify her or his understandings of how a departmentcan be managed. These internal studies need to be ex-tended to observe other organizations at work. Depend-ing on the nature of the department, visits could bearranged to surrounding organizations to talk with man-agers and possibly assist them in some facet of their workas managers. Finally, a prospective chairperson couldbe encouraged to talk with the dean to get a sense ofwhat the dean expects, what strengths the chairpersonhas, and to work out a mutual plan that capitalizes onthe strengths of all members of a department. The com-

46

mon failing is to underutilize the secretary and to fail tounderstand how important a secretary can be in de-partmental development. (Booth, 1975, 1978)

With time, the role of the chairperson will becomele,s important and that of administration more impor-tant. In diversifying the experience of administrators, itis important to establish a preservice plan that givesprospective administrators a chance to examine otheracademic and external organizations to learn how theyare managed and to give more breadth to the under-standing of management. A low-cost program of visitsor short internships is needed. It gives the person whois moving into academic administration a sounding boardfor testing policies with a broader network of colleaguesthan would be the case if the person moves into academicadministration solely on the basis of academic experi-ences. We have given much attention to the need todiversify faculty culture. The need for diversificationamong administrators may be equally great.

37

Chapter IV

What's the Next Step?Introduction

It is one thing for an outsider to suggest to graduateeducators or faculty that change be implemented. It isanother for this change to be carried out under the re-alistic conditions of life. We are not asserting that learn-ing through nonacademic employment for graduate stu-dents is a simple affair. An internship may sound simpleas a means for facilitating mutual learning. It is complex,indeed! We h- *o be clear as to who benefits andwhether it is r. ly an educational or a work expe-rience. Whets q.e internship or work experience isdesigned as c facet of the education of a graduatestudent or of a faculty member, we have to be realisticabout the possibility of building unreal expectations intoone facet of life.

We need to be realistic, too, about the sources ofaction for individuals, organizations, and for society. Thetypes of programs which we are proposing using non-academic employment as a source of learning for grad-uate students and faculty are likely to occur naturally asa result of changes in society rather than as a responseto altruism. In reality, there is fierce competition forscarce talent between organizations and institutions. Inthe real world it is competition which drives motives.If we are to put to work what we know about people andorganizations, we need to see where self-interest can beharnessed.

Sources of Action

Self-Interest as a Spur in the Academic Disciplines. Asubstantial part of this monograph has been taken upwith a report on how self-interest has been used as ameans to create lietworks to link Ph.D.'s with jobs. Webegan with a brief review of how the humanities, hurtingthrough diminished enrollments, have begun to pioneerwith expanded curriculums (Public History was one ex-ample) and with activities tc legitimate networking be-tween graduate students and recent Ph.D.'s. The con-cern about survival has provided the spur within theacademic disciplines and their professional organizationsto begin to listen to society about its concerns. to or-

47

ganize to meet them through changed curriculums, andto work with Ph.D.'s to help them find jobs.

Students Act on Their Own. We found that Ph.D.'scan do a lot for themselves. Susan Hitchcock's experi-ence, initiating informal discussions with recent Ph.D.'swho were glad to come back to campus and her workwith a self-sustaining group of graduate students andPh.D.'s, showed how much can be accomplished by stu-dents who are willing to act in their own interest. Thekey element here was someone who had broad experi-ence within the group. Hitchcock had had successfulexperience in nonacademic employment and thus couldprovide internal leadership. Institutions may be able tointervene in the social organization of graduate educationto encourage more diversity of contacts among graduatestudents. Whether this is through the provision of socialactivities, through the conscious pairing of graduate stu-dents in dormitories to enhance diversity, or throughthe organization of noncredit seminars or brown bagdiscussions, it is important to build on the diversity ofgraduate culture to enhance peer learning among grad-uate students. We should be sensitive to the limitationsof faculty action to intervene in the careers of graduatestudents. After all, we live in a free society and no onehas the right to tell others what to do. But a judiciousmonitoring of graduate student culture can help usunderstand when interventions are useful. At the Uni-versity of Virginia, this apparently came when the stu-dents asked for a faculty member to work on issues ofnonacademic employment and the department re-sponded positively.

Incentives for Institutions. As suggested earlier, weneed to be creative to learn how to reward departmentsand institutions that do an excellent job of integratingeducation and work for graduate students. Would itmake sense to offer incentives, perhaps at the state level,to institutions that learn most about the careers of theirstudents in school and afterwards ?nd initiate policiesthat are designed to improve the fit between educationand work? Would it be productive for a State Systemsuch as New York or California, which has already pi-oneered in offering retraining programs for faculty, tooffer incentives to institutions to encourage new ap-proaches to educating graduate students? A statewide

39

pgram of internships for graduate students and facultyis needed to assist faculty use nonacademic employmentoptions as supplements to regular sabbaticals. Experi-ence,would tell us what form these programs should take.Our point here is that the leverage provided by Statesystems in their program planning and budgeting, andin their incentive awards, is needed to encourage insti-tutions to educate graduate students and faculty alonglines suggested in this monograph. Private foundationsare also in a position to recognize institutions that arepioneering along the lines suggested here. Our earliersuggestion of "Consumers Report" on Graduate Edu-cation, supplementing reports now planned at the un-dergraduate level, would highlight institutional innova-tion and provide market pressures to encourage ablestudents to attend departments and institutions that arecreative in integrating education and work.

Can Self-Interest Create Coalitions that Identify andDevelop Talent Early? We are trying to maintain tra-ditional practices and find a way to place Ph. D.'s whenthey graduate. This is fine if students do not expectacademic work on graduation. But it is unrealistic if werecognize the status-enhancement capacity of graduateeducation in the Arts and Science fields and the naturaldesire of students to move in a way that maintains ratherthan depreciates status.

We need a competence-based approach to graduateeducation that builds on the assessment strategies whichDouglas Bray and his associates have pioneered at BellTelephone. Using some of the ideas which the Armyused in World War H to predict who would do well incombat, Bray and associates have been working for alifetime on research that relates assessments of compe-tence when people went to work as management traineesto their achievement at work. Bray could predict withabout 60 percent efficiency who would be effective asa manager and who would not. Furthermore, he couldspot cases where people entered an organization witha lot of potential where the organization's malfunctioningcontributed to the deterioration of competence. Thisidea of assessing potentials for achievement has beenused by the "Careers in Business" Program at New YorkUniversity to help Ph.D.'s and A.B.D.'s assess their ca-pacity to deal with challenge and to use this informationto provide more insight into what people do well andwhere they can best use their talents.

Given the support that the competency-based move-ment in education now has, and the research which isnow going on in this field (the National Institute of Ed-ucation has close to a million dollars in research on theattributes of a competency-based educational program),could we not use self-interest as an incentive stimulusto bring together employers and universities to use as-sessment as a device to jointly identify students withdistinctive combinations of value, motivation, and talent

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and work with them beginning as undergraduates toprovide the balance between depth and breadth whichwill maximize student potential and the potential of stu-dents to work effectively in collaborating organizations?Could we not use competence-based examinations whichare now being developed through grants to such orga-nizations as Educational Testing Service and the Amer-ican College Testing Service to identify types of studentswith unique capacities for achievement? The computercould be programmed to spot profiles of distinction.With the student's permission, names could be given tothe coalition of employers and universities. Assessmentcenters would provide more than individual testing:briefings on future changes in the labor market and in-dividualized education-work plans. People with a bentfor the academic world might be given a purposefullyintense exposure to nonacademic work sites. A personlike the author who has an academic bent might be askedto work in a gas station, manage a shoe store, to balanceacademic with nonacademic experience. Employerswould profit by being able to give prospective employeesthe diversity of experience within their organizationsthat would permit them to later work in a more spec-ialized or managerial role with a gut feeling for the work.Universities would profit if students later became pro-fessors by contacts with nonacademic employment andthe capacity to work in nonacademic employment if atenured position were not available. Since the object ofthis program would be competence and adaptability, theparticipating graduate schools would be working with itto integrate nonacademic employment appropriatelyinto their program;'. More important, they would beencouraged to develop a lasting relationship with em-ployers so that there would be collaboration in definingand assessing training outcomes. If students were work-ing while attending graduate school there could be moteemphasis on generic and intrinsic learning and less con-cern about employment as an outcome of graduate ed-ucation.

The idea of a competency-based graduate program isworth developing as a continuation of our theme in thismonograph of utilizing nonacademic employment as aneducational resource. Whether it is as undergraduates,as graduate students, or as faculty, nonacademic em-ployment can add a tonic to life and can help academicsto see life in a broader perspective. Suitable integrationof work and academic studies enriches undergraduateeducation, graduate education, and faculty careers. Thecompetency-based idea promises that employers andeducators will work together to make education and workcount. It means that both will be open to change in whatis taught and how. Better integration of education andwork has long been the platform of the cooperative ed-ucation movement. Most of these programs have beenfocussed in professional schools. New experiments are

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needed that help us understand how they can play anequally productive role in the education of students inthe liberal arts and in the academic disciplines.

Strengthening Academic and ProfessionalCultures. There is no reason for asserting the uniquequalitative superiority of academic or professional cul-ture. Both are useful. Both demand a high level of com-petence. They require the trained integration of intellectand power as was suggested in the introductory quota-tion from Hofstader. Times have changed and the aca-demic disciplines are now more and more under attack.We must relate to the new era without exaggerating

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differences between the person of intellect and the per-son who works in professional or managerial capacities.The necessity to work outside academe can be a blessingin disguise if it leads to productive engagement and con-flict between academic and nonacademic ideas. It is thecontinued tension between these two worlds that is pre-cious fo.- both. We do not intend to disappear nor willwe be all powerful. Instead, the new labor market por-tends new opportunities to relate to nonacademic em-ployment as_a new constituency, as a source of educationfor graduate students and faculty, and as a way to extendthe scope of the academic professions.

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Information for Graduate Studentsand. Faculty on Work

Graduate Students

Graduate students may want to follow Susan Hitch-cock's suggestion and establish their own informal job-search and career planning "club." In doing so, the itemslisted may be helpful. (The writer would appreciate anyinformation which you may have on good informationfor graduate students.)

A General Guide: Zambrano, Ana L. and Entine,Alan. A Guide to Career Alternatives for Academ-ics. (Change Magazine Press, New Rochelle, NewYork. 1976.)

Finding Government Work. James P. McGregor,Government Job-Hunting in Washington, PoliticalScience, Fall, 1978, p. 492-498.

A Guide for Job Candidates and Department Chair-men in English and Foreign Languages, Modern Lan-guage Association, New York City, (62 Fifth Avenue,New York, N.Y. 10011), 1978.

Hitchcock, Susan T. Branching Out: Advice for Grad-uate Students Considering Careers Beyond CollegeTeaching. Office of Career Planning and Placement,University of Virginia, Charlotteville, Virginia.

The College Placement Council in Bethlehem, Penn-sylvania 18001 is a good. source of information. Theyhave a new paperback out on careers as managers. Itis by Richard Thain, entitled The ManagersStudents in English or the Foreign Lanugages maywish to read: Employment and the Profession, a specialjoint issue of the A.D.E. and A.D.F.L. Bulletins pub-lished in September 1976 by the Modern LanguageAssociation. It contains a collection of articles on var-ious facets of work. The book was edited by RichardBrod, Elizabeth Cowan, and Neal Woodruff.

Information for Faculty on Work.

Internships: The National Center for Public Serv-ice Internships programs may haveinformation that can be helpful ongraduate, postgraduate and mid-ca-reer professional internships. It hasa directory that is available for $6.00

to non-members. Write the Na-tional Center, 1735 Eye St., N.W.,Suitt. 601, Washington, D.C. 20006.

Faculty who are advising graduatestudents about internships shouldinvestigate possibilities for graduatestudents to work in civil service atthe Federal level and gain senioritycredits. This is possible when stu-dents work for six months. For in-formation, write the Office of Per-sonnel Management.

Fellowships: Each year there are 75 or more fac-ulty fellowships or "I. P.A.'s" whichare arranged through IPA "mobilityprogram coordinators" in Washing-ton agencies. For information, pleasewrite the Office of Faculty Fellowsand Personnel Mobility, Bureau ofIntergovernmental Personnel Pro-grams, Office of Personnel Manage-ment, 1900 E. Street, N.W., Wash-ington, D.C. 20415. The telephonenumber is 202-254-7316. The Amer-ican Council on Education, 1 Du-pont Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C.may have helpful information on fel-lowships. Please write to their Officeof Leadership Development. TheCouncil is inaugerating a three-monthinternship for academic administra-tors in Washington, D. C.

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Questionnaires on graduate studentreactions to their departmental pro-grams can be obtained by writingEducational Testing Service, Prince-ton, New Jersey and requestingbackground information from MaryJo Clark in their Higher EducationDivision.

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Information to present to studentsto help them understand how busi-ness works, is available from theAmerican Historical Associatioh. Areport on "Careers for Historians"may be of special ifitereSt ii:S It re=port on what a department has doneon its own. Several publications byRobert W. Pomeroy III may be ofinterest, too. They are good to givestudents who are thinking of busi-ness careers. These are availablefrom the American Historical Asso-ciation.

How Does One Make an Intern-ship Work Out (so people learn)?

The College Work Study Programmay be a valuable learning oppor-tunity for your students. In manyuniversities the office running theprogram is so busy that it has diffi-culty explaining to students whatthey can learn in work-study jobs.Syracuse University has produced anexcellent brochure showing the rangeof work available. Their 1978 bro-chure may be of special interest.

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FIPSE has funded a program at Virginia State College,Petersburg, Virginia, to learn how to provide assistanceto the administrators of Work-Study programs so thatthey can make the program of real educational value tostudents, Tom Little of Virginia State University canprovide details.

Organizing discussions with employers to develop plansfor collaboration and internship programs:

See Kenneth Hoyt, Refining the Concept of Collab-oration in Career Education, August 1978, publishedby the U.S. Office of Education Government PrintingOffice.

Also see a pamphlet on Faculty/Management Forum,a Guide for Planning and Operating a Corporate/Col-lege Project, published by the Council on CorporateCollege Communications, Suite 700, One DupontCircle, N.W., Washington, D.C. N.W. 20036.

See J. Dudley Dawson, "Learning Objectives andEducational Outcomes in Cooperative Education,"Journal of Cooperative Education, (November 1975),12-32.

Also see J. Dudley Dawson, "New Directions for Co-operative Education," Journal of Cooperative Edu-cation, 7, (November 1970), 1-12.

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ReferencesBarton, H.A. "The Story of the American Institute of Physics," Physics

Today, (January 1956).Berg, Ivar et al. Managers and Work Reform. The Free Press, New

York, 1978.)Blackburn, Robert. "Part-time Faculty and the Production of Knowl-

edge," Employing Part-Time Faculty, David W, Leslie, Editor,New Directions for Institutional Research, Jossey-Bass, San Fran-cisco. 1979.

Booth, David B. "Department and Chairperson Development," De-veloping and Evaluating Administrative Leadership, New Direc-tions in Higher Education (Jossey -Bass, San Francisco, 1978),Number 22.

The Making of a Good Department. Case History of superiordepartmental management. (Department of Sociology-Anthro-pology, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario, Canada, 1975.)

-. "Graduate Education in the Social Sciences," Paper presentedat the 1964 Annual Meeting of the Society for the Study of SocialProblems.

Brenneman, David. "Graduate School Adjustments to the New Depres-sion in Higher Education, National Board on Graduate Education,National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. 1975.

Brown, Sylvia J. and Cynthis Whitten. Cooperative Education forGraduate Students. (Northeastern University Cooperative Edu-cation Research Center, Boston, Massachusetts, 1977.)

Clark, Mary Jo. A Practical Guide to Graduate Program Review. Find-ings. Educational Testing Service, Volume V, Number 1, 1979.

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Froomldn, Joseph. Needed: A New Federal Policy for Higher Educa-tion. Institute for Educational Leadership, Washington, D.C.,1978.

Harmon, Lindsey, R. A Century of Doctorates: Data Analyses ofGrowth and Change. U.S. Ph. D.'s-Their Numbers, Origins,Characteristics, and the Institutions from Which They Come.National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1978.

Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. Branching Out: Advice for Graduate StudentsConsidering Careers Beyond College Teaching. Office of CareerPlanning and Placement, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,Virginia, 1979.

Hirschberg, Nancy and Stuart Itkin. "Graduate Student Success inPsychology," American Psychologist, (December 1978), p. 1083.

Hoyt, Kenneth. Increasing Collaboration Efforts in Career EducationK-12, Phase I and Phase II, (Office of Education Washington,D.C., November 1978.)

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Jones, Arnita. "The National Coordinating Committee: Programs andPossibilities," The Public Historian, 1, (Fall, 1978), pp. 49-60.

"Clio Confronts Adam Smith: A Survey of National Trends inthe Adjustment of Training Programs for Historians."

Katz, Joseph and Rodney Hartnett. Scholars in the Making. The De-velopment of Graduate and Professional Students. (Ballinger Pub-lishing Company, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1976.)

Keyiltz, Nathan, "The Impending Crisis in American GraduateSchools," Public Interest, 52, (Summer, 1978), pp. 85-97.

Kelley, Robert, "Public History: Its Origins, Nature, and Prospects."The Public Historian, 1, (Fall, 1978), pp. 16-28.

Klitgaard, Robert E. The Decline of the Best? An Analysis of thefitlationships between Declining Enrollments, Ph. D. Production,and .Research . The Kennedy Center, Harvard University, Cam-bridge, Massachusetts. 1978.

Krolik, James. Ph.D.'s: Moving Into a Non-Academic Setting. Journalof College Placement, Winter, 1979, pp. 63-64.

Lane, Robert E. "To Nurture a Discipline," American Political ScienceReview, 66, (March 1972). pp. 169-177.

Licklider, Roy E. "A Skeptic's View of Corporate Jobs and New Ac-ademic Programs," Political Science, 12, (Winter, 1979).

Lierheimer, Alvin P. "Final Report on the New York State Regent'sProject, Alternatives for Graduate Education," (September 1976).ERIC Monograph ED 148 248.

Loyola University. Career Development Program. (1300 W. LoyolaAvenue Chicago, Illinois 60626.) 1978.

May, Ernest R., Dorothy G. Harrison. The Academic Job Crisis andthe Future of the Humanities, A Manuscript Prepared for Pub-lication. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Decem-ber 19;8.

Panian, Sharon K. and Melvin L. DeFleur, Sociologists in Non-Aca-demic Employment, American Sociological Association, Washing-ton, D.C.

Patton, Carl V. et al. A Survey of Institutional Practices and an As-sessment of Possible Options Relating to Voluntary Mid-and Late-Career Changes and Early Retirement for University and CollegeFaculty. (Abt Associates, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1977.)

Solmon, Lewis C. "Ph.D.'s in Non-Academic Careers: Are ThereGoodJobs?" Paper given at the 1979 Annual Meeting of the AmericanAssociation for Higher Education.

Walker, Jack L. "Challenges of Professional Development for PoliticalScience in the Next Decade and Beyond,"Political Science, (Fall,1978), 484-490.

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* U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1981-302-101

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