environmentally and socially sustainable … · 1 culture and development in africa: ... the 1995...

ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND MONOGRAPHS SERIES 23

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ESSD Proceedings Series

1 Culture and Development in Africa: Proceedings of an International Conference (Also in French)

2 Valuing the Environment: Proceedings of the First Annual International Conferenceon Environmentally Sustainable Development

3 Overcoming Global Hunger: Proceedings of a Conference on Actions to Reduce Hunger Worldwide

4 Traditional Knowledge and Sustainable Development: Proceedings of a Conference

5 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: A Report to the Development Community

6 The Human Face of the Urban Environment: Proceedings of the Second Annual World Bank Conferenceon Environmentally Sustainable Development

7 The Business of Sustainable Cities: Public-Private Partnershipsfor Creative Technicaland Institutional Solutions

8 Enabling Sustainable Community Development

9 Sustainable Financing Mechanismsfor Coral Reef Conservation: Proceedings of a Workshop

10 Effective Financing of Environmentally Sustainable Development: Proceedings of the Thiird Annual World BankConference on Environmentally Sustainable Development

11 Servicing Innovative Financing of Environmentally Sustainable Development

12 Ethics and Spiritual Values: Promoting Environmentally Sustainable Development

13 The Self and the Other: Sustainability and Self-Empowerment

14 Meeting the Challenges of Population, Environment, and Resources: The Costs of Inaction

15 Rural Well-Being: From Vision to Action

ESSD Studies and Monographs (formerly Occasional Paper) Series

1 The Contribution of People's Participation; Evidencefrom 121 Rural Water Supply Projects

2 Making Development Sustainable: From Concepts to Action

3 Sociology, Anthropology, and Development: An Annotated Bibliographyof World Bank Publications 1975-1993

4 The World Bank's Strategyfor Reducing Poverty and Hunger: A Report to the Development Community

5 Sustainability and the Wealth of Nations: First Steps in an Ongoing Journey

6 Social Organization and Development Anthropology: The 1995 Malinowski Award Lecture

7 Confronting Crisis: A Summary of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerabilityin Four Poor Urban Communities (Also in French and Spanish)

8 Confronting Crisis: A Comparative Study of Household Responses to Poverty and Vulnerabilityin Four Poor Urban Communities

9 Guidelinesfor Integrated Coastal Zone Management

(continued on the inside back cover)

ENVIRONMENTALLY AND SOCIALLY SUSTAINABLEDEVELOPMENT STUDIES AND MONOGRAPHS SERIES 23

Bioengineering of CropsReport of the World Bank Panelon Transgenic Crops

Henry W Kendall, Roger Beachy, Thomas Eisner,Fred Gould, Robert Iferdt, Peter H. Raven,Jozef S. Schell, and M. S. Swaminathan

The World BankWashington, D.C.

Copyright C 1997The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printing October 1997

This report has been prepared by the staff of the World Bank. The judgments expressed do notnecessarily reflect the views of the Board of Executive Directors or of the governments they represent.

Cover photograph by Luis Fernando Pino. A technician at the International Center for TropicalAgriculture (CIAT) uses molecular markers to examine genetic variability in varieties of Latin Americanrice. Reprinted with permission from CIAT, Cali, Colombia.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bioengineering of crops: report of the World Bank Panel on TransgenicCrops / Henry W. Kendall . . [et al.].

p. cm. - (Environmentally and socially sustainabledevelopment studies and monographs series ; 23)

Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-8213-4073-51. Transgenic plants. 2. Plant genetic engineering. 3. Crops-

Genetic engineering. I. Kendall, Henry Way, 1926- . II. WorldBank Panel on Transgenic Crops. III. Series.SB123.57.B56 1997338.1'62-dc2l 97-40525

CIP

®3 The text and the cover are printed on recycled paper, with a flood aqueous coating on the cover.

Contents

About the Authors v

Acknowledgments vi

Introduction 1

1. World Food Supplies 3

2. Bioengineering Technology 11

3. Possible Problems 19

4. Conclusions and Recommendations 25

Appendix. Integrated Intensive Farming Systems 29

iii

About the Authors

Roger Beachy Henry W. KendallScripps Family Chair, Scripps Research Institute; J. A. Stratton, Professor of Physics, Massachusettsfull member, Department of Cell Biology; Head, Institute of Technology. Chair, Union of Con-Division of Plant Biology. Co-director, Inter- cemed Scientists. Awarded 1990 Nobel Prize innational Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural Physics.Biotechnologies. Fellow, American Association forthe Advancement of Science. Received 1991 Peter H. RavenCommonwealth Award for Science and Invention. Director, Missouri Botanical Garden. Professor ofMember, National Academy of Sciences. botany, Washington University. Home secretary,

National Academy of Sciences. Fellow, thirteenThomas Eisner other national academies of science. AwardedSchurman Professor of Chemical Ecology and numerous honorary degrees and other awards,director, Comell Institute for Research in including the Japan International Prize for Bio-Chemical Ecology, Cornell University. Fellow, logy, and jointly received the Sasakawa Prize, theNational Academy of Sciences, and several Volvo Prize, and the Prize of the Institut de la Vie.other nations' academies of science. Awarded1994 National Medal of Science. Jozef S. Schell

Director, Department of Genetic Principles ofFred Gould Plant Breeding, Max Planck Institut fur Ziuch-Reynolds Professor of Entomology, North tungsforschung. Professor, plant molecular biol-Carolina State University. Research areas: inte- ogy, College de France. Member, ten nationalgrated pest management, population ecology academies, including the Deutsche Akademieand genetics, evolutionary biology. Consultant, der Naturforscher Leopoldina, the National Aca-International Rice Research Institute. Received demy of Sciences, and the Royal Swedish Aca-U. S. Award for Excellence in Integrated Pest demy of Sciences. Winner of numerous awardsManagement. and distinctions, including the Wolf Prize, the Sir

Hans Krebs Medal, and the Australia Prize.Robert HerdtDirector, agricultural sciences, Rockefeller M. S. SwaminathanFoundation, with responsibility for the founda- UNESCO Professor in Ecotechnology and chair,tion's agricultural work throughout the world. M.S. SwaminathanResearchFoundation, Madras,Agricultural economist, International Rice India. Fellow, Royal Society of London. ForeignResearch Institute, 1973-83. Faculty member, associate, National Academy of Sciences, and sev-University of Illinois, and science adviser, World eral other nations' academies of science. AwardedBank, 1983-86. Fellow, American Association numerous honorary degrees and other awards,for the Advancement of Science. including the World Food Prize.

v

Acknowledgments

This volume was prepared for the World Bank important issues, leading to useful changes inand the Consultative Group on International the paper. We are grateful for their help,Agricultural Research. The authors wish to although the authors of the report remain solelyexpress their thanks to Ismail Serageldin, vice responsible for its content. The reviewers werepresident for Environmentally and Socially Nina Fedoroff, Pennsylvania State University;Sustainable Development (ESSD), World Bank, Rebecca Goldberg, Environmental Defensefor initiating this study and supporting it Fund; Mardi Mellon, Union of Concernedthroughout its course. Robert T. Watson, Scientists; Per Pinstrup-Andersen, InternationalDirector of the World Bank's Environment Food Policy Research Institute; Alison G. Power,Department, provided aid and advice that Cornell University; and Virginia Walbot,advanced the project. Stanford University.

A number of thoughtful people reviewed the We also wish to thank Barbara Corbisier formanuscript. Their comments provided an array her work in preparing and maintaining the Webof additional checks on the work and raised site that proved so useful during our work.

vi

-- - ----- -- . - =:_12 =

Introduction

T he primary objectives of the World Bank much to contribute, but it is a novel system andGroup are to alleviate poverty, malnutri- possible risks need to be evaluated carefully.tion, and human misery in developing Opposition to bioengineering research and its

nations while encouraging and supporting a application has already arisen, not all of it care-transition to environmentally sustainable activ- fully thought out. As the World Bank has recog-ities. The issue of providing adequate food, nized, a considered and technically competentbased on sustainable agricultural practices, understanding of both the potential and the per-looms large in gaining these objectives, for fail- ceived risks of bioengineered crops is a requisiteure in this area will virtually guarantee failure to to their successful development and use. Publicmeet other objectives. Moreover, failure will perceptions that genetically engineered cropsmake certain continued misery for many of our and animal products pose specific dangers mustfellow human beings. Agricultural systems are be carefully considered and addressed if suchalready under stress, and they will become more products are to reach widespread use.stressed as populations continue to swell and In 1996 Ismail Serageldin, the World Bank'sthe need for food supplies increases. vice president for Environmentally and Socially

The World Bank has made important contri- Sustainable Development and chairman of thebutions to the alleviation of hunger and malnu- CGIAR, initiated a study panel to assess thetrition through its programs that aid agriculture potential of crop bioengineering as well as thein the developing world. Its aid was a major inherent risks. The panel was to provide thefactor in making India self-sufficient in food Bank with guidance in its activities, including itsproduction in the difficult time after World War support to the CGIAR. This is the panel's report.II. Similarly, its support to the Consultative In what follows we review the status ofGroup on International Agricultural Research world food supplies and the prospects and(CGLAR) was instrumental in enabling the needs for the future with emphasis on the devel-CGIAR to be a major player in introducing the oping world. We then describe bioengineeringGreen Revolution, which contributed so much technology and the potential contributions thatto economic growth in the developing world.' transgenic crops might make to the alleviation ofBut despite contributions by the Bank and other problems of food security. After that we dealorganizations and by nations, the need to with possible risks from the widespread deploy-enhance food security in much of the development of genetically altered crops. Finally, weing world will remain a critical problem for offer some conclusions and recommendations.many years to come.

Among the numerous approaches to Noteexpanding food supplies in the developing 1. Henry Owen, "The World Bank: Is 50 Yearsworld in environmentally benign ways is the Enough?" Foreign Affairs 73 (September/October 1994):bioengineering of crops. Bioengineering has 99.

1

CHAPTER 1

World Food Supplies

C urrent and future demands for food and zens with adequate food when they wish to dothe pressures and stress on the world's so. Indeed, well over one-third of world grainagricultural sector generate the need to production is fed to livestock to enhance the

set priorities among a cluster of problems and supply of animal protein, which is consumedavailable solutions, including the bioengineer- most heavily in the industrial world.ing of crops.' This section of the report sets out In the developing world, matters are differ-and assesses the challenges as they stand today ent. More than 1 billion people do not getand evaluates what the future may bring. enough to eat on a daily basis and live in what

the World Bank terms "utter poverty"; aboutCurrent Circumstances half of that number suffer from serious malnu-

trition. A minority of nations in the developingWe are now facing the following challenges. world are markedly improving their citizens'

standard of living: in some fifteen countries 1.5Population billion people have experienced rapidly rising

incomes over the past twenty years. But in moreThe world's population stands at 5.8 billion and than a hundred countries 1.6 billion people haveis growing at about 1.5 percent a year. The experienced stagnant or falling incomes. Sinceindustrial, wealthy nations, including Japan 1990 incomes have fallen by a fifth in twenty-oneand the nations of Europe and North America, countries of eastern Europe.have about 1.2 billion people. These nations are Had the world's food supply been distrib-growing at a slow rate, roughly 0.1 percent a uted evenly in 1994, it would have provided anyear. adequate diet of about 2,350 calories a day per

Population in the developing world is 4.6 bil- person for 6.4 billion people, more than thelion and is expanding at 1.9 percent a year, a rate actual population.2

that has been decreasing somewhat in the past In addition to the food shortages suffered bydecade. The least developed nations, with a total many in developing countries, there are wide-population of 560 million, are growing at 2.8 spread deficiencies in certain vitamins and min-percent a year. If they continue to grow at this erals. Vitamin A appears to be lacking fromrate, their population will double in twenty-four many diets, especially in Southeast Asia, andyears. At present about 87 million people are there is deficiency in iron, which contributes toadded to the world's population each year. widespread anemia among women in the devel-

oping world.3

Food: Nutrition and Malnuttrition Food prices have been declining over thepast several decades, and some observers have

The wealthy nations have high levels of nutri- argued that the decline is a sign that adequatetion and little problem supplying all their citi- food for all is now available. But those in utter

3

4 Bioengineering of Crops

poverty do not have the resources to purchase of prime farm land for nonfarm uses, make itadequate food, even at today's prices. More essential for these two countries to adopt eco-recently, food prices have risen, while grain logically sustainable, intensive, and integratedstocks have fallen to their lowest level in thirty farming systems (see appendix).years.4 In China land is communally owned but indi-

vidually cultivated under the country's House-Agriculture hold Responsibility System. In India land is

individually owned and agriculture constitutesAbout 12 percent of the world's total land sur- the largest private-sector enterprise in the coun-face is used to grow crops, about 30 percent is try. India's population of 950 million is growingforest or woodland, and 26 percent is pasture or at about 1.9 percent annually, while China'smeadow. The remainder, about one-third, is stands at 1.22 billion and is growing at 1.1 per-used for other human purposes or is unusable cent a year. China has nearly 50 percent of its cul-because of climate or topography. In 1961 the tivated land under irrigation, while less than 30amount of cultivated land supporting food pro- percent of India's cultivated area is irrigated.6

duction was 0.44 hectares per capita. Today it is Agriculture in both countries must provideabout 0.26 hectares per capita, and based on not only more food but also more employmentpopulation projections, it will be in the vicinity and income. Modern industry is frequentlyof 0.15 hectares per capita by 2050.5 The rate of associated with economic growth, but growthexpansion of arable land is now below 0.2 per- without adequate expansion of employment.cent a year and continues to fall. The bulk of the Modern agriculture can foster job-led economicland best suited to rainfed agriculture is already growth. Therefore, farming cannot be viewed inunder cultivation, and the land that is being either country as merely a means of producingbrought into cultivation generally has lower more food and other agricultural commodities;productivity. instead, it must be looked upon as the very foun-

Urbanization frequently involves the loss of dation of a secure livelihood. New technologies,prime agricultural land, because cities are usu- such as biotechnology, information and spaceally founded near such land. Losses of prime technologies, and renewable energy, are pivotalland are often not counterbalanced by the open- to building vibrant agricultural sectors, to pro-ing of other lands to production because the ducing more from less land and water, and toinfrastructure that is generally required for mar- strengthening local economies.ket access is frequently lacking on those lands.

Irrigation plays an important role in global Pressures on Agricultural Systemsfood production. Of the currently exploitedarable land, about 16 percent is irrigated, pro- Widespread injurious agricultural practices, inducing more than one-third of the world crop. both the industrial and the developing worlds,Irrigated land is, on balance, over two and a half have damaged the productivity of land, in sometimes more productive than rainfed land. cases severely.7 These practices have led to

The situation in India and China is particu- water- and wind-induced erosion, salination,larly acute because their people account for compaction, waterlogging, overgrazing, andnearly half of the developing world's popula- other problems. For example, the estimated losstion. Both countries have expanding popula- of topsoil in excess of new soil production is esti-tions and diminishing per capita arable land and mated to be about 0.7 percent of the total topsoilwater resources. The average farm size in both each year; this loss amounts to some 25 billioncountries is one hectare or less. Agriculture, tons, equivalent to the total in Australia's wheatincluding crop and animal husbandry, forestry, growing area. An additional 0.7 percent annualand fisheries, has been a way of life and a means loss occurs from land degradation and theto achieve a livelihood for several thousand spread of urbanization. Erosion has made a bil-years. Expansion in population and increases in lion hectares of soil unusable for agriculturepurchasing power, coupled with the diversion over past years.8 Asia has the highest percentage

World Food Suepplies 5

of eroded land, nearly 30 percent, but in all a basis for a humane future or from partial ormajor regions the percentage exceeds 12.9 It is complete destruction of the resource base, whichestimated that 17 percent of all vegetated land would bring widespread misery.was degraded by human activity between 1945and 1990. The Future

The effects of erosion on crop yield are notwell documented because researching such In future years we are likely to face the follow-effects is difficult and expensive and because ing challenges.degradation can be masked for short periods oftime by more intensive agricultural practices. PopuilationHowever certain data are available.10 Erosioncan ultimately destroy the land's productive Although fertility has been declining worldwidecapacity by stripping off all of the soil, as has in recent decades, it is not known when it willoccurred in Haiti. "Haiti suffers some of the decline to replacement level. There is broadworld's most severe erosion, down to bedrock agreement among demographers that if currentover large parts of some regions, so that even trends are maintained, the world's populationfarmers with reasonable amounts of land cannot will reach about 8 billion by 2020, 10 billion bymake a living."'1 2050, and possibly 12 to 14 billion before the end

Irrigation practices continue to contribute to of the next century. Virtually all of the growth insalinization and other forms of land damage. For coming decades will occur in the developingexample, more than half of all irrigated land is world.in dry areas, and 30 percent of that land is mod-erately to severely degraded. Salinization is a Food Demandserious problem in Australia, Egypt, India,Mexico, Pakistan, and the United States. Some To provide increased nutrition for a growing10 percent of the world's irrigated land suffers world population, it will be necessary to expandfrom salinization. food production faster than the rate of popula-

There are also serious problems with sup- tion growth. Studies forecast a doubling inplies of water-much of the world is in short demand for food by 2025-30.16 Dietary changessupply.12 Worldwide, nations with some 214 and the growth in nutritional intake that accom-river or lake basins and 40 percent of the world's pany increased affluence will contribute to mak-population now compete for water.13 Much irri- ing food demand larger than the projectedgation depends on "fossil" underground water increase in population.supplies, which are being pumped more rapidly Asia, which has 60 percent of the world'sthan they are being recharged.14 This problem population, contains the largest number of theaffects portions of Africa, China, India, the world's poor; 800 million people in Asia live inUnited States, and several countries in the absolute poverty and 500 million live in extremeMiddle East, especially Israel and Jordan. The poverty. Projections by the United Nations Foodhuman race now uses 26 percent of the total ter- and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Worldrestrial evapotranspiration and 54 percent of the Bank, and the International Food Policyfresh water runoff that is geographically and Research Institute show that the demand fortemporally accessible. Most land suitable for food in Asia will exceed the supply by 2010.17rai-nfed agriculture is already in production. 15 China, the world's most populous nation, has

It is now clear that agricultural production is more than 1.2 billion people and an annualcurrently unsustainable. Indeed, human activi- growth rate of 1.1 percent a year. The countryties, as they are now conducted, appear to be will face considerable challenges in years aheadapproaching the limits of the earth's capacity. from stress resulting from major environmentalThese unsustainable activities, like all unsus- damage, shortages of water, and diversion ortainable practices, must end at some point. The degradation of arable lands.' 8 Animal proteinend will come either from changes that establish has increased in the Chinese diet from about 7


percent in 1980 to more than 20 percent today, products.22 The greatest challenges will be facedaggravating the country's food challenges. Most by nations that lack the capacity for substantialof the water available in China is used for agri- oil exports or other sources of wealth with whichculture, and heavy use of fertilizers has polluted to purchase food imports. These nations includemuch of the water supply. Afghanistan, Cyprus, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon,

Lester Brown and Hal Kane have argued that Mauritania, Somalia, Tunisia, and Yemen,by 2030 India will need to import 45 million tons whose combined population exceeded 125 mil-of food grain annually and China 216 million lion in 1994. Food self-sufficiency is unattainabletons to feed their growing populations."9 The for most of these countries. Oil exportingwidening gap between grain production and nations will, as their oil resources dwindle, joinconsumption in the two countries, caused by this less fortunate group.increases in population and purchasing power, Sub-Saharan Africa is the region whosewill lead to the need for such imports. Brown prospective food supplies generate the greatestand Kane have pointed out that while demand concern; since 1980 agriculture there has grownwill grow, production prospects are not bright at 1.7 percent a year, while population, now atowing to stagnation in applying yield-enhanc- 739 million, has grown at 2.9 percent a year.23

ing technologies and growing damage to the Some twenty years ago, Africa produced foodecological foundations essential for sustainable equal to what it consumed; today it producesadvances in farm productivity. It is apparent that only 80 percent of the food it consumes.2 4 With awithout substantial change there will not be population growth rate of close to 3 percent aenough grain to meet the needs of the two coun- year, Sub-Saharan Africa cannot close its foodtries, a conclusion that at least some Chinese gap. The gap will likely grow, requiringscholars agree with.20 increased imports of food to prevent growing

Latin America, which is economically and malnutrition and increased risk of famine. If pre-demographically advanced compared with sent worldwide decreases in foreign aid persist,Africa and Asia, appears to enjoy a relatively these imports may not be forthcoming.favorable situation with respect to food sup-plies and food security. Some regions are, how- Agriculture and Irrigationever, under stress because of economicproblems and continuing high rates of popula- As described above, the current rates of injury totion increase. Bolivia, northeast Brazil, Peru, arable land are troubling. Since 1950, 25 percentmuch of Central America, and parts of the of the world's topsoil has been lost, and contin-Caribbean, especially El Salvador, Guatemala, ued erosion at the present rate will result in theHaiti, and Honduras, face important chal- further irreversible loss of at least 30 percent oflenges. Latin America's population is expected the global topsoil by the middle of the next cen-to increase from 490 million to nearly 680 mil- tury. A similar percentage may be lost to landlion by 2025, and it is possible that more than a degradation, a loss that can be made up onlyquarter of the area's annual cereal consumption with the greatest difficulty through conversionwill be imported by 2020. The major countries of pasture and forest, themselves under pres-in the region, including Argentina, Brazil, Chile, sure. In Asia 82 percent of the potentially arableColombia, and Mexico, appear to have the land is already under cultivation. Much of theresources necessary to meet their projected food land classed as potentially arable is not availableneeds, but doing so will require maintaining because it is of low quality or easily damaged.stable populations and implementing success- The FAO has projected that over the nextful land management programs. 2' twenty years arable land in the developing coun-

Countries in the Middle East and North tries could be expanded by 12 percent at satisfac-Africa have seen demand for food outpace tory economic and environmental costs, althoughdomestic production. Differences in oil wealth such expansion would inflict major damage toand agricultural production determine differ- the world's remaining biodiversity.? The yieldsences in ability to import grains and livestock per hectare on this land would be less than on the

World Food Suipplies 7

land already in production. This expansion is to production. Productivity is projected tobe compared with the 61 percent increase in food increase in some areas and decrease indemand that is expected to occur in these coun- others, especially the tropics and sub-tries during the same period, according to a sce- tropics. ... There may be increased risknario discussed by the FAO. The last major of hunger and famine in some locations;frontiers that can potentially be converted to many of the world's poorest people-arable land are the acid soil areas of the Brazilian particularly those living in subtropicalcerrado, the llanos of Colombia and Venezuela, and tropical areas and dependent on iso-and the acid soil areas of central and southern lated agricultural systems in semi-aridAfrica. Bringing these unexploited, potentially and arid regions-are most at risk ofarable lands into agricultural production poses increased hunger. Many of these at-riskformidable but not insurmountable challenges.26 populations are found in Sub-Saharan

The prospects for expanding irrigation, so Africa; South, East, and Southeast Asia;critical to the intensification of agricultural pro- and tropical areas of Latin America, asductivity, are also troubling. The growth of irri- well as some Pacific island nations.2 9

gated land has been slowing since the 1970s,owing to the problems discussed above as well Further deleterious changes may occur inas to "siltation" of reservoirs and the environ- livestock production, fisheries, and global sup-mental problems and related costs that arise plies of forest products. Salt intrusion intofrom the construction of large dam systems. The coastal area aquifers, many of which supplyproblems can include the spread of disease. water for irrigation, can occur as a result of ris-

An important "wild card" in any assessment ing sea levels. While important uncertaintiesof future agricultural productivity is climatic about climatic change and its consequences willchange resulting from anthropogenic emissions remain for some years, the matter must be con-of greenhouse gases. The consequences of such sidered in assessing the prospects for expandingchange touch on a wide range of technical issues nutrition in the developing world.that will not be summarized here.27 However, theIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Prospects(IPCC) concluded in its second assessmentreport that the balance of evidence suggests that Today, there are hundreds of millions of peoplethere is a discernable human influence on climate who do not get enough food. Given the circum-and that a global warming of about two degrees stances described above, it appears that over theCelsius, with a range of uncertainty from one to next quarter century grave problems of foodthree and a half degrees Celsius, will occur by security will almost certainly affect even more2100. The consequences of a two-degree warm- people, as a number of observers have pointeding would include regional and global changes out.30

in climate and climate-related parameters suchas temperature, precipitation, soil moisture, and Given present knowledge, therefore,sea level. These changes could in turn give rise to maximum realization of potential land,regional increases in "the incidence of extreme and water, supplies at acceptable eco-high temperature events, floods, and droughts, nomic and environmental costs in thewith resultant consequences for fires, pest out- developing countries still would leavebreaks and ecosystem composition, structure them well short of the productionand functioning, including primary productiv- increases needed to meet the demandity."28 According to the IPCC: scenarios over the next twenty years.31

Crop yields and changes in productivity The task of meeting world food needs todue to climate change will vary consid- 2010 by the use of existing technologyerably across regions and among locali- may prove difficult, not only because ofties, thus changing the patterns of the historically unprecedented incre-


ments to world population that seem The application of modern techniques ofinevitable during this period but also crop bioengineering could be a key factor inbecause problems of resource degrada- implementing many of these improvements.tion and mismanagement are emerging. These techniques are a powerful new tool withSuch problems call into question the sus- which to supplement pathology, agronomy,tainability of the key technological para- plant breeding, plant physiology, and otherdigms on which much of the expansion approaches that serve us now.of food production since 1960 has If crop bioengineering techniques are devel-depended.32 oped and applied in a manner consistent with

ecologically sound agriculture, they couldAs is the case now, those in the lower tier of decrease reliance on broad spectrum insecticides,

the developing countries will continue to be which cause serious health and environmentalmost affected by shortfalls in food production. problems. This reduction could be accomplishedThe industrial nations and the developing by breeding crop varieties that have specific tox-nations whose economies continue to improve icity to target pests but do not affect beneficialwill face acceptable costs in providing their citi- insects. Furthermore, bioengineering techniqueszens with adequate nutrition. The extent of could assist in the development of crop varietiesdeprivation and economic and environmental that are resistant to currently uncontrollablecosts remains the subject of controversy between plant diseases. At their best bioengineering tech-optimists and pessimists.33 niques are highly compatible with the goals of

sustainable agriculture because they offer surgi-Meeting the Challenges cal precision in combating specific problems

without disrupting other functional componentsThe main challenge is to expand agricultural of the agricultural system.production at a rate exceeding population While it is feasible to use biotechnology togrowth in the decades ahead so as to provide improve the ecological soundness of agriculture,food to the hungry new mouths to be fed. This well-informed decisions must be made regard-goal must be accomplished in the face of a fixed ing which specific biotechnology projects areor slowly growing base of arable land offering encouraged and which are discouraged. Forlittle expansion, and it must involve simultane- example, ten years ago, when crop bioengineer-ous replacement of destructive agricultural ing was being introduced in the United States,practices with more benign ones. Thus the call some projects were focused on engineering cropsfor agricultural sustainability.34 Owing to the for tolerance against a dangerous herbicide. Thedaunting nature of this challenge, every eco- projects were dropped after environmentalnomically, ecologically, and socially feasible groups protested. Projects targeted for develop-improvement will have to be carefully exploited. ing countries will have to be scrutinized to makeA list of potential improvements includes: sure that their long-term impacts are beneficial.

* Introducing energy-intensive farming, inclu- Not all challenges to sustainable and pro-ding, in some areas, increased fertilizer use ductive agriculture can be addressed with

* Conserving soil and water, with special pri- biotechnology. For example, improving soil andority given to combating erosion water conservation, maintaining biodiversity,

* Maintaining biodiversity and improving irrigation techniques must be* Improving pest control dealt with by other means.* Expanding irrigation and making it more We must emphasize that the improvements

efficient in agriculture described in this report, while* Improving livestock management badly needed, do not address all of the difficul-* Developing new crop strains with increased ties faced by the lower tier of developing

yield, pest resistance, and drought tolerance nations. There is almost no dispute that careful* Reducing dependency on pesticides and planning and selection of priorities, coupled

herbicides. with substantial commitments from both indus-

World Food Supplies 9

13. World Resources Institute, World Resoutrcestrial and developing nations, will be required to 1992-93 (Washington, D.C., 1995).

provide the food supplies that the future will 14. Lester R. Brown, "Future Supplies of Land and

demand, to move to sustainable agricultural Water Are Fast Approaching Depletion," in Populationpractices, and to alleviate hardship in now- and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century: Meeting

impoverished nations. Futuire Food Demand of an Increasing Popiulation, ed.Nurul Islam (Washington, D.C.: International FoodPolicy Research Institute, 1995).

Notes 15. Sandra Postel, Gretchen Daily, and Paul Ehrlich,"Human Appropriation of Renewable Fresh Water,"

1. See H. W. Kendall and David Pimentel, Science, 9 February 1996, 785-88."Constraints on the Expansion of the Global Food 16. Donald L. Plucknett, "Prospects of MeetingSupply," AMBIO 23 (May 1994): 198-205. Future Food Needs through New Technology," in

2. Norman E. Borlaug, "Feeding the World: The Population and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century,Challenges Ahead," in Meeting the Challenges of 207-08; Borlaug, "Feeding the World: The ChallengesPopulation, Environment, and Resources: The Costs of Ahead."Inaction, H. W. Kendall and others. (Washington, D.C.: 17. Kirit Parikh and S. M. Dev, "Comments: Asia," inWorld Bank, 1996). Popuilation and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century,

3. Robert W. Herdt, "The Potential Role of Biotech- 117-18.nology in Solving Food Production and Environmental 18. Vaclav Smil, "Comments: Asia," in China'sProblems in Developing Countries," in Agricutlture and Environmental Crisis-An Inquiry into the Limits of NationalEnvironment: Bridging Food Production and Environ- Development (Armonk, N.Y: M. E. Sharpe, 1993).mental Protection in Developing Countries, ed. Anthony 19. Lester R. Brown and Hal Kane, Fiull Houtse:S.R. Juo and Russell D. Freed, American Society of Reassessing the Earth's Popuilation Carrying CapacityAgronomy Special Publication 60 (Madison, Wis., (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994); Lester R. Brown, Who1995),33-54. Will Feed China? Wake-Up Call for a Small Planet (New

4. Per Pinstrup-Andersen and James L. Garrett, York: W. W. Norton, 1995).Rising Food Prices and Falling Grain Stocks: Short-Run 20. "Malthus Goes East," Economist, 12 August 1995,29.Blips or New Trends? 2020 Brief (Washington, D.C.: 21. Tim Dyson, Population and Food (London andInternational Food Policy Research Institute, 1996). New York: Routledge, 1996).

5. Robert Engelman and Pamela LeRoy, Conserving 22. Thomas Nordblom and Farouk Shomo,Land: Population and Sustainable Food Production "Comments: Middle East/North Africa," in Poptulation(Washington, D.C.: Population Action International, and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century, 131.1995). 23. World Bank, Rural Development: From Vision to

6. World Resources Institute, World Resources 1994-95 Action (Washington, D.C., 1997).A Report of the World Resources Institute 24. J. Cherfas, Science, 1990, 1140-41.(Washington, D.C., 1995). 25. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United

7. See especially D. Norse and others, "Agriculture, Nations, Agricultutre: Towards 2010; Pierre Crosson, inLand Use, and Degradation," in An Agenda of Sciencefor Popiulation and Food in the Early Twenty-First Century,Environment and Development into the 21st Century, ed. 143-59.J. C. I. Dooge and others (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge 26. Borlaug, "Feeding the World: The ChallengesUniversity Press). Ahead."

8. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United 27. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeNations, Agriculture towards 2010 (Rome, 1993). (IPCC), Radiative Forcing of Climate Change-The 1994

9. Robert W. Herdt, "The Potential Role of Report of the ScientificAssessment Working Group of IPCCBiotechnology in Solving Food Production and (New York: IPCC, World Meteorological Organization,Environmental Problems in Developing Countries," and United Nations Environment Programme, 1994);33-54; World Resources Institute, World Resources John Houghton, Global Warming-The Complete Briefing1992-93 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993). (Oxford: Lion Publishing, 1994).

10. David Pimentel and J. Krummel, "Biomass 28. IPCC, Summary for Policymakers: Impacts,Energy and Soil Erosion: Assessment of Resource Adaptation, and Mitigation Options, The SecondCosts," BioScience 14 (1987): 15-38. Assessment Report of Working Group II (Washington,

11. World Commission on Environment and D.C., 1995).Development, Ouir Common Future (New York: Oxford 29. IPCC, Summary for Policymakers. See also ADBUniversity Press, 1987). (Asian Development Bank), Climate Change in Asia:

12. Sandra Postel, "Water and Agriculture," in Water Executive Suimmary (Manila, 1994); David W. Wolfe,in Crisis, A Gtide to the World's Fresh Water Resources, "Potential Impact of Climate Change on Agricultureed. Peter H. Gleick (New York: Oxford University and Food Supply" (Paper presented at the Center forPress, 1993),56-62. Environmental Information's Conference on


Sustainable Development and Global Climate Change, 33. See John Bongaarts, "Can the Growing HumanArlington, Va., 4-5 December 1995). Population Feed Itself?" Scientific American, March 1994,

30. Klaus M. Leisinger, Sociopolitical Effects of New 18; Alex F. McCalla, "Agriculture and Food Needs toBiotechnologies in Developing Countries, Food, Agriculture, 2025: Why Should We Be Concerned?" (Consultativeand the Environment Discussion Paper 2 (Washington, Group on Intemational Agricultural Research, Sir JohnD.C.: Intemational Food Policy Research Institute, 1995). Crawford Memorial Lecture, Washington, D.C., 27

31. Crosson, in Population and Food in the Early October 1994).Twenty-First Century, 157. 34. D. L. Plucknett and D. L. Winkelmann,

32. Peter A. Oram and Behjat Hojjati, in Population "Technology for Sustainable Agriculture," Scientificand Food in the Early Twenty-First Century, 167. American, September 1995, 182-86.

CHAPTER 2

Bioengineering Technology

P lant scientists can now transfer genes into long been exploited by plant breeders.many crop plants and achieve stable inter- Biotechnology provides new tools to the breedergenerational expression of new traits. to expand plant capacity. In the past crop breed-

"Promoters" (deoxyribonucleic acid [DNA] se- ers were generally limited to transferring genesquences that control the expression of genes, for from one crop variety to another. In some casesexample) can be associated with transferred genes they were able to transfer useful genes to a vari-to ensure expression in particular plant tissues or ety from a closely related crop species or aat particular growth stages. Transformation can related native plant. Genetic engineering nowbe achieved with greater efficiency and more rou- gives plant breeders the power to transfer genestinely in some dicots (for example, tomatoes, to crop varieties independent of the gene's ori-potatoes) than in some monocots (for example, gin. Thus bacterial and even animal genes can berice and wheat), but with determined effort nearly used to improve a crop variety.all plants can or will be modified by genetic engi- Bacillius thuringiensis (Bt), a bacterium thatneering. produces an insect toxin particularly effective

against lepidoptera (such as caterpillars andGene Transformation moths), has been applied to crops by gardeners

for decades. It is also effective against mosqui-Genetic transformation and other modern crop toes and certain beetles. Transformation ofbreeding techniques have been used to achieve tomato and tobacco plants with the gene thatfour broad goals: to change product characteris- produces Bt toxin was one of the first demon-tics, improve plant resistance to pests and strations of how biotechnology can be used topathogens, increase output, and improve the enhance a plant's ability to resist damage fromnutritional value of foods. insects.3 Transgenic cotton that expresses Bt

Genetic modification to alter product charac- toxin at a level providing protection against cot-teristics is illustrated by the Flavr SarvTm tomato, ton bollworm has been developed, and a largeone of the first genetically engineered plants to number of Bt-transformed crops, including cornreceive approval from bthe U.S. Food and Drug and rice, are currently being field tested.4 OtherAdministration and to be made available for gen- strategies to prevent insect damage includeeral consumption by the public; the fruit ripening using protein coding genes of plant origin, suchcharacteristics of this variety were modified to as lectins, amylase inhibitors, protease inhibi-provide a longer shelf life.' Biotechnology has also tors, and cholesterol oxidase, that retard insectbeen used to change the proportion of fatty acids growth.5

in soybeans, modify the composition of canola oil, Genes that confer resistance to viral diseasesand change the starch content of potatoes.2 have been derived from the viruses themselves,

Natural variability in the capacity of plants most notably with coat protein mediated resis-to resist damage from insects and diseases has tance (CP-MR). Following extensive field evalu-

11


ation, a yellow squash with CP-MR resistance to cular marker techniques with exotic names suchtwo plant viruses was approved for commercial as restriction fragment length polymorphismproduction in the United States.6 Practical resis- (RFLP), random amplified polymorphic DNAtance to fungal and bacterial pathogens has been (RAPD), and microsatellites. These techniquesmore elusive, although genes encoding enzymes allow scientists to follow genes from one gener-that degrade fungal cell walls or inhibit fungal ation to the next, adding to the tools at the dis-growth are being evaluated. More recently, nat- posal of plant breeders. In particular, theural genes for resistance to pathogens have been techniques enable plant breeders to combine sev-cloned, modified, and shown to function when eral resistance genes, each of which may havetransferred to susceptible plants.7 different modes of action, leading to longer-act-

While protecting plants against insects and ing or more durable resistance againstpathogens promises to increase crop yield by sav- pathogens. Marking also makes it possible foring a higher percentage of present yield, several the breeder to combine several genes, each ofstrategies seek to increase the potential crop yield. which may individually provide only a weaklyThese strategies include exploiting hybrid vigor, expressed desirable trait but in combinationdelaying plant senescence, and inducing plants to have higher activity.flower earlier and to increase starch production.

Several strategies to produce hybrid seeds in Ongoing Researchnew ways will likely contribute to increasingyield potential. Cytoplasmic male sterility was Research continues to improve the efficiencywidely used long before the age of biotechnol- and reduce the costs of developing transgenicogy, but strategies to exploit male sterility crops and using genetic markers. As thisrequire biological manipulations that can only research succeeds, it will be applied to differentbe carried out using tools from molecular biol- plants and genes.ogy; several of these strategies are well By far the greatest proportion of currentadvanced.8 Some of the strategies entail sup- research in crop biotechnology is being con-pressing pollen formation by changing the tem- ducted in industrial countries on the crops ofperature or day length. Delayed senescence or economic interest in those countries. Plant"stay-green" traits enable a plant to continue biotechnology research in the fifteen countries ofproducing food beyond the period when a non- the European Union is probably a fair reflectiontransformed plant would, thereby potentially of current global research in plant biotechnol-producing a higher yield.9 Potatoes that produce ogy. Almost 2,000 projects are under way, 1,300higher starch content than nontransformed con- of them actually using plants (as opposed totrol potatoes have been developed.' 0 plant pathogens, theoretical work, and the like).

Plants have been modified to produce a About 210 of the projects using plants are onrange of lipids, carbohydrates, pharmaceutical wheat, barley, and other cereals; 150 of the pro-polypeptides, and industrial enzymes, leading jects are on the potato; 125 are on oilseed rape;to the hope that plants can be used in place of and about 90 are on maize.13

microbial fermentation." One of the more ambi- The worldwide record of field trials reflectstious of such applications is the production of the focus of research activities, and the recordvaccines against animal and human diseases. shows that work on cereals was started some-The hepatitis B surface antigen has been what later than work on other plants. Some 1,024expressed in tobacco, and the feasibility of using field trials were conducted worldwide throughthe purified product to elicit an immune 1993; 88 percent of those trials were inresponse in mice has been demonstrated. 12 Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD) countries, with 38 per-Gene Markers cent in the United States, 13 percent in France,

and 12 percent in Canada. Belgium, theFar-reaching possibilities for identifying genes Netherlands, and the United Kingdom eachhave been made possible through various mole- hosted about 5 percent of the total number of

Bioengineering Technology 13

field trials. Argentina, Chile, China, and Mexico techniques can be used to develop easy-to-useled in numbers of trials in developing countries, kits that can alert the farmer to the presence ofbut none had more than 2 percent of the total.14 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) from the Tungro

The largest number of field trials was con- virus in rice plants. Such knowledge canducted on the potato (19 percent). Oilseed rape decrease the frustration and money spent onaccounted for 18 percent of the field trials, while solving the wrong problem.tobacco, tomatoes, and maize each accountedfor about 12 percent. There were more than ten Current Effortstrials each on alfalfa, cantaloupe, cotton, flax,sugar beet, soybean, and poplar. Nine tests were Most biotechnology research in industrial coun-done on rice, and fewer than nine on wheat, tries is being conducted on human health issuessorghum, millet, cassava, and sugarcane, the rather than on agriculture. Government spend-crops that, aside from maize, provide most of the ing for biotechnology research in the Unitedfood to most of the world's people, who live in States is about $3.3 billion a year, with $2.9 bil-the developing countries. lion going to health issues and $190 million to

Herbicide tolerance has been the most agricultural issues."7 It is estimated that betweenwidely tested genetically engineered trait, 1985 and 1994 $260 million was contributed inaccounting for 40 percent of the field trials for the form of grants to agricultural biotechnologyagronomically useful transgenes. Twenty-two in the developing world; another $150 millionpercent of tests were conducted on ten different was contributed in the form of loans. An aver-types of modified product quality, including age of perhaps $50 million a year has been con-delayed ripening, modified processing charac- tributed in more recent years.18 At least a thirdters, starch metabolism, and modified oil con- and perhaps half of these funds have been usedtent.15 About 40 percent of field trials in to establish organizations designed to help bringdeveloping countries were for virus resistance. the benefits of biotechnology to developingTwenty-five percent of the trials were for crops countries.modified for herbicide resistance, and another Maize is the focus of much crop biotechnol-25 percent were for insect resistance, with the ogy work in the United States. Most of this workbalance for product quality, fungal resistance, or on maize is directed toward making it betteragromatic traits.16 suited for production or more capable of resist-

Although much of the biotechnology ing the depredations of the pests in industrialresearch in agriculture has focused on bioengi- countries. The International Wheat and Maizeneering (that is, gene transfer), the techniques of Improvement Center sponsors the largest inter-biotechnology extend beyond this approach. national effort directed at identifying traits ofThe techniques involved in tissue culture have maize that could be improved using biotechnol-been advanced and refined over the past decade. ogy, but the center spends barely $2 million aThese techniques can be used to regenerate year on those efforts.plants from single cells and have proven espe- There are, at present, only four coherent,cially useful in producing disease-free plants coordinated programs directed specifically atthat can be propagated and distributed to farm- enhancing biotechnology research on crops iners. The use of these plants has resulted in sig- developing countries, one supported by thenificant yield improvements in crops as diverse U.S. Agency for International Developmentas potato and sugarcane. (USAID), one by the Dutch government, one by

Another use for biotechnology is in develop- the Rockefeller Foundation, and one by theing diagnostic techniques. Too often, poorly per- McKnight Foundation.forming crops have observable symptoms that The USAID-supported project, Agriculturalare so general that the farmer cannot determine Biotechnology for Sustainable Productivitythe specific cause. For example, Tungro disease (ABSP), is headquartered at Michigan Statein rice produces symptoms that match those of University and implemented by a consortium ofcertain nutrient deficiencies. Biotechnology U.S. universities and private companies. It is tar-


geted at five crop/pest complexes: the potato About two hundred senior scientists andand the potato tuber moth, the sweet potato and three hundred trainee scientists are participat-the sweet potato weevil, maize and the stem ing in the program. The scientists are spreadborer, the tomato and the tomato yellow leaf throughout all the major rice-producing coun-virus, and cucurbits and several viruses. The tries of Asia and a number of industrial coun-ABSP is an outgrowth of an earlier USAID-sup- tries. Researchers from the group transformedported project on improving tissue culture tech- rice in 1988, a first for any cereal. Transformedniques for crops. It builds on the network of rice has been field-tested in the United States. Ascientists associated with that earlier project and significant number of lines transformed withdraws on other scientists as well. agronomically useful traits now exist and are

The cassava biotechnology network, spon- being developed for field tests. RFLP maps, thatsored by the Netherlands Directorate General is "road maps" that allow breeders to followfor International Cooperation, held its first genes, are being used to assist breeding, andmeeting in August 1992. Its goals include using some rice varieties developed by advanced tech-the tools of biotechnology to modify cassava to niques not requiring genetic engineering arebetter meet the needs of small-scale cassava pro- now being grown by Chinese farmers.ducers, processors, and consumers. More than The McKnight Foundation recently estab-125 scientists from 28 countries participated in lished its Collaborative Crop Research Program,the first network meeting. Funding to date has which links researchers in less developed coun-been about $2 million. An important initial tries with U.S. plant scientists in order toactivity is a study of farmers' needs for technical strengthen research in selected countries and tochange in cassava. The study will be based on a focus the work of U.S. scientists on food needsfield survey of cassava producers in several loca- in the developing world. The program is beingtions in Africa. funded at $12 to $15 million for the first six years.

Another important initiative, the Inter- While crop engineering is not the sole researchnational Laboratory of Tropical Agricultural tool supported by the program, it plays anBiotechnology, is being developed at the Scripps extremely important role.Institute in La Jolla, California. It is jointly Early in the effort to apply bioengineering toadministered by the institute and by L'Institut crop improvement, there was great hope placedfrancais de recherche scientifique pour le in the potential to engineer the capacity for nitro-developpement en coop6ration (ORSTOM), a gen fixation into crops without it. After theFrench governmental development agency. investment of millions of dollars in public andFunding for research in the control of diseases of venture capital and many years of research, itrice, cassava, and tomato through applications has become apparent that the genetic machineryof biotechnology is provided in grants from involved in nitrogen fixation by legumes isORSTOM, the Rockefeller Foundation, the extremely complex and beyond our currentABSP, and USAID. Most of the research is car- capacity for gene transfer and expression. Atried out by fellows, students, and other trainees some point in the future nitrogen fixation mayfrom developing countries. be transferred to crops such as corn and rice, but

The Rockefeller Foundation began to sup- such an achievement must be seen as a far-offport rice biotechnology in the developing world goal.in 1984. The foundation's program has two It is unlikely that the budgets of these fourobjectives: (1) to create biotechnology applicable focused crop biotechnology efforts, takento rice to produce improved rice varieties suited together, come to more than $20 million annu-to developing country needs and (2) to ensure ally. Total agricultural biotechnology research inthat scientists in developing countries know the developing world may not greatly exceedhow to use biotechnology techniques and are $50 million annually.'9 Brazil, China, Egypt,capable of adapting the techniques to their own India, and a few other countries have a reason-objectives. Approximately $50 million in grants able base for biotechnology, but most develop-have been made through the program. ing countries will find it difficult to develop

Bioengineering Technologty 15

useful biotechnology products without sharply links between biotechnologists and plant breed-directed assistance. Little attention will be paid ers; the ability of scientists to identify the con-to crops of importance in the developing world straints and the genes that overcome them; theor to the pests, diseases, and stresses that afflict ability of scientists to get those genes into goodthem unless the crops are also important to the crop varieties; and the success of plant scientistsmore advanced countries. That is, while the and others in crafting meaningful biosafetygains in fundamental knowledge that apply to regulations.all organisms will be available, the programs It is likely that efforts to improve the ricemay not produce applications in the form of yield in Asia through biotechnology will resulttransformation techniques, probes, gene pro- in a production increase of 10 to 25 percent overmoters, and the like. the next ten years. The increase will come from

improved hybrid rice systems in China; in otherPotential Contributions of Transgenic Crops Asian countries it will come from rice varieties

transformed with genes for resistance to pestsTransgenic crops have the potential to con- and diseases. These transformed rice varietiestribute to increased production and food quality, will raise average yields by preventing cropenvironmental well-being, and human health. damage, not by increasing yield potential. The

reason is simple: few strategies are being pur-Potential Applications to Improved Production sued to directly raise yield potential because fewand Food Quality strategies have been conceived. The use of

hybrid rice is one exception. Potential ways toHow will the developments of molecular biology raise yield potential revolve around increasingcontribute to solving the food production prob- "sink" size and "source" capacity. Adding tolems in developing countries in the years ahead? sink size involves increasing the number ofContributions may come through two different grains or the average grain size; increasingpaths: (1) research in molecular biology directed source capacity means improving the capacity ofspecifically at food needs in the developing world the plant to fill these grains with carbohydrate.or (2) "spillover" innovations directed at issues in Both improvements are desired, but there areindustrial countries but also beneficial to food only a few investigators thinking about howproduction in developing countries. biotechnology might help to achieve these

The preceding section shows that the improvements, especially in rice crops. Whileresources directed at food crop production in there is a community of scientists working todeveloping countries are small, especially when understand basic plant biochemistry, includingcompared with those directed at crops in the photosynthesis, this work as yet offers no hintsindustrial world. Still, some important contribu- about which genes can be manipulated totions should come from the resources being advantage using the tools of molecular biologyapplied to developing countries. Training of sci- and genetic engineering.entists in developing countries under various Maize yields in developing countries may beprograms means that there is a small cadre of affected by biotechnology if genes useful in trop-plant molecular biologists in a number of devel- ical countries are discovered in the course of theoping countries. The Rockefeller Foundation's great amount of research on maize under way insupport for rice biotechnology should begin to the United States. Although most of the maizepay off in two to five years in the form of new research is being carried out by private firms,varieties available to some Asian farmers. In some discoveries may be made available forChina varieties produced through anther cul- applications in developing countries either at noture, a form of biotechnology, are now being cost or at low enough cost to make them com-grown on thousands of hectares by farmers in mercially feasible. Biotechnology applicationsrural areas near Shanghai. The speed with which beneficial to cassava are further in the future, asvarieties get into farmers' hands depends are those on the smallholder banana and otherlargely on national conditions-the closeness of crops of importance in the developing world.


Herbicide resistance is potentially the sim- Drought is a major problem for nearly all cropplest of traits to incorporate into a plant, because plants, and the prospect of a "drought resistanceapplication of the herbicide is an ideal way to gene" has excited many scientists. However, plantselect a modified individual cell. A population scientists recognize that many traits contribute toof cells exposed to DNA that confers herbicide drought tolerance or resistance: long, thick roots;resistance can quickly be screened. A number of thick, waxy leaves; the ability to produce viabledifferent herbicides are available, and there is a pollen when under drought stress; the ability tostrong self-interest on the part of herbicide man- recover from a dry period; and others. Some ofufacturers to encourage farmers to use herbi- these traits can undoubtedly be controlled genet-cides. Thus a number of pressures are at work to ically, but little progress has been made thus far inensure that transgenic crops with herbicide identifying the genes that control them. Salt toler-resistance are produced. Given that weeds cur- ance is often discussed along with drought toler-rently constrain crop yields in developing coun- ance because salt conditions and drought causetries, crop yields may rise if herbicide use plants to react in similar ways. Unfortunately,increases. In addition, proper regulatory activi- some of the genes that confer drought toleranceties may lead to increased use of herbicides that may be useless for salty conditions and vice versa.are less damaging to the environment (biode- Some early workers held that fusing cells of plantsgradable herbicides, for example). In impover- tolerant to drought with nontolerant plants wouldished countries cash-poor farmers typically do result in a useful combination, but that has notnot have access to such herbicides, especially been demonstrated despite considerable effort.the expensive ones such as glyphosphate, for The possibility of increasing the starch contentwhich resistance is being engineered. Thus her- of crops through genetic manipulation that mod-bicide resistance may not benefit the average ifies the biosynthetic pathways of the plant isfarmer in impoverished countries unless the enticing. Some success has been demonstrated incost of herbicides is reduced. It should be noted the case of the potato. This success holds out thethat prices are decreasing as patent protection is hope that it may be possible to achieve the goal oflost. a significant increase in production potential in

Prospects for incorporating pest and disease the potato and other root and tuber crops such asresistance into developing country crops are cassava, yams, and sweet potatoes.20

more favorable than prospects for increasing Prospects for achieving this goal mayyields. Pest and insect problems are much sim- depend on two factors: (1) the extent to whichpler to address, and much of the effort in biotech- there are alternative metabolic routes to thenology is focused on these problems. Many of the same product and (2) the extent to which controlgenes that resolve insect and disease problems in of plant metabolism is shared among the com-temperate crops may also be effective in tropical ponent reactions of individual pathways. 2 1crops. If they are, problems related to gaining "There may well be short pathways in plantaccess to the genes and transforming plants with metabolism where control is dominated by onethem will remain, because most of the genes have or two steps, but the current evidence suggestsassociated intellectual property rights. In one that this is not so for the longer pathways. Thiscase Monsanto made available to Mexico, with- conclusion has far-reaching effects on our abilityout cost, the genes that confer resistance to to manipulate plant metabolism."2 2

important potato viruses and trained Mexicanscientists in plant transformation and other skills Potential Applications to Environmental Problemsneeded to make use of the genes. The trans-formed potatoes are now being field-tested in Genetic engineering holds out the possibilityMexico. Monsanto has also worked with USAID that plants can be designed to improve humanand KARI to develop and donate a similar virus welfare in ways other than by improving cropcontrol technology to Kenya and Indonesia for properties or yields. For example, a biodegrad-virus control in the sweet potato. These cases are, able plastic can be made from the bacterial stor-however, exceptional. age product polyhydroxbutyrate, and the

Bioengineering Technology 17

bacterial enzymes required to convert acetyl- duction of insoluble aggregates of the desired

CoA to polyhydroxbutyrate have been material that require resolubization before use.

expressed in the model plant Arabidopsis Plant production of such proteins would avoid

thaliana. This accomplishment demonstrates the the capital investment and would in most cases

possibility of developing a plant that can accu- produce soluble materials. However, the cost

mulate appreciable amounts of polyhydroxbu- involved in extracting and purifying proteins

tyrate. 2 3 The optimization of such a process in a from plants may be significant and may offsetplant that will produce the substance in com- lower production costs, although the economics

mercial quantities has not yet been achieved. of purifying proteins from plant biomass has notAt present 80 percent of potato starch is been evaluated extensively. 2 8 This disadvantage

chemically modified after harvest. If starch can to some extent be offset by expressing the

modification could be tailored in the plant, costs protein in the seed at a high level. 2 9

might be lower, and the waste disposal prob- Plants can potentially be used as the produc-

lems associated with chemical modification ers of edible vaccines. The hepatitis B surfacewould be reduced. 2 4 antigen has been expressed in tobacco, and the

The observation that certain plants can grow feasibility of oral immunization using transgenicin soils containing high levels of heavy metals potatoes has been demonstrated. 3 0 The chal-

such as nickel or zinc without apparent damage lenges involved in the design of specific vaccinessuggests the possibility of deliberately removing indude optimizing the expression of the anti-

toxic substances using plants. Plants with the genic proteins, stabilizing the expression of pro-ability to remove such substances (hyperaccu- teins in the post-harvest process, and enhancingmulators) typically accumulate only a single ele- the oral immunogenicity of some antigens. 3 '

ment and grow slowly. In addition, most have There are even greater challenges to developing

not been cultivated, so their seeds and produc- effective protocols for immunization.tion techniques are poorly understood. One way

around these limitations might be to genetically Notesengineer crop plants to hyperaccumulate toxicsubstances. Some increased metal tolerance has 1. R. G. Fray and D. Grierson, "Molecular Genetics ofbeen obtained in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. 2 5 Tomato Fruit Ripening," Trends in Genetics 9 (1993):

438-43.The use of plants for decontamination of soil, 2. T. A. Voelker, and others, Science 257 (1992): 72-74;water, and air is still at a early stage of research D. M. Strak, K. P. Timmerman, G. F. Barry, J. Preiss, and

and development. "No soil has been success- G. M. Kishore, Science 258 (1992): 287-92.fully decontaminated yet by either phytoextrac- 3. F. J. Perlak and D. A. Fishoff, "Advancedtion or phytodegradation." 2 6 Engineered Pesticides," in Advanced Engineered Pesticides,

ed., Leo Kim (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993),199-211.4. F. J. Perlak and others, "Insect Resistant Cotton

Potential Applications to Human Health Problems Plants," BiodTechnology 8 (1990): 939-43; see alsowww.aphis.usda.gov/bbep/bp, a U.S. Department of

As a result of biotechnology, compounds that Agriculture site which provides biotechnology fieldwere previously available only in limited qtuan- test information.tities or from exotic plant species or other organ- 5. D. M. Shah, C. M. T. Rommens, and R. N. Beachy,

isms can nwResistance to Diseases and Insects in Transgenicsms can now be produced i domestcated Plants: Progress and Applications to Agriculture,"

crops. It has already proved feasible to produce Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): 362-68.carbohydrates, fatty acids, high-value pharma- 6. Shah, Rommens, and Beachy, "Resistance toceutical polypeptides, industrial enzymes, and Diseases and Insects in Transgenic Plants: Progress andbiodegradable plastics. 2 7 Production of proteins Applications to Agriculture,"and peptides has been demonstrated and it has 7. W. Y. Song, G. L. Wang, and P. Ronald, "A

and ptehbed ottReceptor Kinase-Like Protein Encoded by the Ricebeen shown that plants have several potential Disease Resistence Gene," Science 270 (1995): 180406.

advantages over microbial fermentation sys- 8. M. E. Williams, "Genetic Engineering fortems. Bacterial fermentation requires significant Pollination Control," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995):capital investment and often results in the pro- 344-49.


9. S. Gan and R. M. Amasino, " Inhibition of Leaf 19. Brenner and Komen, "Intemational Initiatives inSenescence by Autoregulated Production of Biotechnology for Developing Country Agriculture:Cytokinin," Science 270 (1995): 1986-88. Promises and Problems."

10. D. M. Stark, K. P. Timmerman, and G. F. Barry, 20. Stark, Timmerman, and Barry, "Regulation of the"Regulation of the Amount of Starch in Plant Tissues Amount of Starch in Plant Tissues by ADP Glucoseby ADP Glucose Pyrophosphorylase," Science 258 Pyrophosphorylase."(1992): 287-92. 21. Tom ap Rees, "Prospects of Manipulating Plant

11. 0. J. M. Goddijn and Jan Pen, "Plants as Metabolism," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): 375-78.Bioreactors," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): 379-87. 22. Brenner and Komen, "International Initiatives in

12. Y. Thonavala and others, in Proceedings of the Biotechnology for Developing Country Agriculture:National Academy of Sciences, USA 92 (1995): 3358-61. Promises and Problems."

13. L. P. Meredith Lloyd-Evans and Peter Barfoot, 23. Y. Poirier, Y. Nawrath, and C. Somerville,"EU Boasts Good Science Base and Economic Prospects "Production of Polyhydroxyalkanoates, A Family offor Crop Biotechnology," Genetic Engineering News 16 Biodegradable Plastics and Elastomers, in Bacteria and(1996). For a description of field testing being carried on Plants," Bio/Technology 13 (1995): 142-50.in the United States, see A. A. Snow and P. M. Palma, 24. Goddijn and Pen, "Plants as Bioreactors.""Commercialization of Transgenic Plants: Potential 25. R. B. Meagher and others, Abstract of the 14thEcological Risks," BioScience 47 (February 1997): 86-96. Annual Symposium on Current Topics in Plant

14. P. J. Dale, "R&D Regulation and Field Trailling of Biochemistry, Physiology, and Molecular BiologyTransgenic Crops," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995): (University of Missouri, 1995), 29-30.398-403. 26. Scott D. Cunningham, William R. Berti, and

15. Dale, "R&D Regulation and Field Trailling of Jianwei W. Huang, "Phytoremediation of Con-Transgenic Crops." taminated Soils," Trends in Biotechnology 13 (1995):

16. A. F. Krattinger, Biosafety for Sustainable 393-97.Agriculture (Ithaca, N.Y.: Stockholm Environmental 27. Goddijn and Pen, "Plants as Bioreactors."Institute and International Service for the Acquisition 28. Goddijn and Pen, "Plants as Bioreactors."of Agri-Biotechnological Applications, 1994). 29. E. Krebbers and J. van de Kerckhove,

17. Office of the President, Budget of the United States "Production of Peptides in Plant Seeds," Trends in(Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, Biotechnology 8 (1990): 1-3.1992). 30. T. A. Haq, H. S. Mason, and C. J. Amtzen, "Oral

18. Carliene Brenner and John Komen, "International Immunization with a Recombinant Bacterial AntigenInitiatives in Biotechnology for Developing Country Produced in Transgenic Plants," Science 268 (1995):Agriculture: Promises and Problems," in Organisation 714-16.for Economic Co-operation and Development Technical 31. Hugh S. Mason and Charles J. Arntzen,Paper 100 (Organisation for Economic Co-operation "Transgenic Plants as Vaccine Production Systems,"and Development Center, 1994). Trends in Biotechnology 3 (1995): 388-92.

CHAPTER 3

- .i Xt " =-. .. -- i. ' ; ' =c r . . r =

Possible Problems

A 11 new technologies must be assessed in wide ranges in nature and can be recognized asterms of benefits and costs. This section a result of their distinctive characteristics. The

,Aloutlines a number of potential costs or characteristics of corn, wheat, and many otherproblems that may be associated with develop- crops were enhanced during the course of theiring and using the new tools of biotechnology in evolution as a result of hybridization withdeveloping countries. Some of the problems related species or weedy or cultivated strainsassociated with biotechnology for crop improve- that were nearby; those related, infertile, andment are not new. Indeed, some of the problems sometimes weedy strains have also beenthat were faced thirty years ago during the Green enhanced genetically, in some instances follow-Revolution must be addressed once again to ing hybridization with the cultivated crop tosafeguard the use of agricultural biotechnology. which they are related.The new tools of biotechnology give us more In view of these well-known principles, stud-power to make positive or negative impacts on ied for well over fifty years, it is clear that anythe environment than was the case with conven- gene that exists in a cultivated crop or plant, irre-tional plant breeding technologies used during spective of how it got there, can be transferredthe Green Revolution. Thus it is essential that we following hybridization to its wild or semido-review critically the potential problems that have mesticated relatives. The transfer would occurbeen raised by scientists and environmentalists.' selectively if the gene or genes being transferredOur intention here is to present a balanced enhanced the competitive abilities of the relatedreview of current knowledge concerning risks strains, and the weedy properties of some kindsand problems. of plants might be enhanced in particular

instances as a result of this process. If so, thoseGene Flow in Plants: Crops Becoming new strains might need special attention in con-Weeds trolling such plants, just as the many thousands

of weedy strains of various plants that haveIn most groups of plants related species regu- developed over the history of cultivation needlarly form hybrids, and the transfer of genes control.between the differentiated populations that Because most crops, such as corn and cotton,such hybridization makes possible is a regular are highly domesticated, it is unlikely that anysource of enhancement for the populations single gene transfer would enable them toinvolved. Thus all white oaks and all black oaks become pernicious weeds. Of greater concern is(the two major subdivisions of the genus, the potential for less domesticated, self-seedingincluding all but a few of the North American crops (alfalfa, for example) and commercial treespecies) are capable of forming fertile hybrids. varieties (pines, for example) to become prob-Some of the species and distinct races that have lems. These plants already have the capacity toevolved following such hybridization occupy survive on their own, and transgenes could

19

20 Bioengineerinig of Crops

enhance their fitness in the wild. For example, a less sustainable. Therefore, it is important topine tree engineered for resistance to seed-feed- consider such gene transfer before investing ining insects might gain a significant advantage specific biotechnology projects. Weeds canthrough decreased seed destruction, potentially evolve resistance to some herbicides withoutallowing it to outcompete other indigenous gene transfer, but the process takes much longer.species. If this happened, forest communities For example, herbicides such as glyphosatecould be disrupted. (Round-Up) from Monsanto are difficult for

plants to resist with their normally inheritedGene Flow in Plants: From Transgenic Crops genes. (It should be noted, however, that theto Wild Plants intensive use of glyphosate has led to weed

resistance in Australia.)Crop varieties are often capable of breeding withthe wild species from which they were derived. Development of New Viruses from Virus-When the two plant types occur in the same Containing Transgenic Cropsplace, it is possible for transgenes, like othergenes in the domesticated plant, to move into Viral diseases are extremely destructive tothe wild plants. In some cases these crop rela- plant productivity, especially in the tropics.tives are serious weeds (wild rices and Johnson Consequently, the genetic modification ofgrass, for example). If a wild plant's fitness was plants to resist viruses has been an importantenhanced by a transgene, or any other gene, that objective of conventional breeding. Over thegave it protection from naturally occurring dis- past decade biotechnology has made possibleeases or pests, the plant could become a worse the more rapid and precise production of indi-pest, or it could shift the ecological balance in a vidual strains resistant to particular viruses asnatural plant community. Wild relatives of crops a result of the ability to move particular genessuffer from diseases and insect attack, but there into specific crop strains. One of the goals ofare few studies that enable us to predict whether genetic engineering has been to identify novelthe development of resistance to pests in wild virus-resistant genes that can be rapidly trans-plants would result in significant ecological ferred to many types of crops, thus easing theproblems. Weeds often evolve resistance to dis- problems of the plant breeder and meeting theeases by natural evolutionary processes. needs of the farmer. As has always been theHowever, in some cases, gene transfer from case with such efforts, the major challenge is tocrops could speed up this process by hundreds find virus-resistant genes that cannot be over-of years. come easily by the action of natural selection of

Wild rices are especially important weeds in the virus. Now, however, we have the potentialdirect-seeded rice (direct seeding of rice is an to react more efficiently to this challenge thanagricultural practice that is becoming more before.widely used in Asia). It has been shown that One potential advantage of genetic engi-genes are often naturally transferred between neering is that it may make possible the trans-domesticated rice and weedy wild rices. If a her- fer of multiple genes for disease resistance thatbicide tolerance gene was engineered into a rice affect the disease organism by different mecha-cultivar, it would be possible to control the wild nisms. In many cases such a transfer wouldrice in commercial rice fields with the herbicide make adaptation by the disease organism moreuntil the wild rice acquired the herbicide toler- difficult. Engineering multiple genes for diseaseance gene from the cultivar. Once the wild rice resistance into crops requires advanced techni-obtained this gene, the herbicide would become cal effort, and the benefits of such an effort willuseless. The wild rice would not become a worse only be seen years after the varieties are com-weed than it was before genetic engineering as a mercialized. Therefore, it is important thatresult of acquiring the herbicide tolerance gene. genetic engineers be given a mandate toHowever, this natural gene transfer would make develop genes that will protect crops forthe investment in the engineering effort much extended periods of time.

Possible Problems 21

Pathogen-Derived Resistance * Virus-resistant plants may have a competi-tive advantage in the field, and outcrossing

To date the most widely applied genetic engi- with weed species may confer increasedneering technology for controlling plant viruses competition and weediness. As indicatedhas been the use of genes derived from the plant above, we lack data on how important thisviruses themselves. When transferred to plants, problem can be.a set of genes called viral coat protein genes * The presence of transgenic viral sequences ininhibit replication of the virus. (Other virus- large crops would increase the likelihood ofderived genes can have a similar impact when creating novel viruses because of recombina-they are transferred to plants in an appropriate tion between the transgenes and othermanner.) viruses that infect the plant. While it is

Transgenes encoding a variety of viral genes known that many crops are simultaneouslyhave been tested in transgenic plants over the infected by multiple plant viruses, there arepast ten years with a range of effects. Plants few examples of confirmed genetic recombi-that produce viral coat proteins have been nation between different viruses. And, whiletested the most widely, and some of these there is evidence of recombination betweenplants have received approval for commercial like viruses or virus strains, there is no evi-sale in the United States and China. In 1995 the dence that this recombination would occurU.S. Department of Agriculture proposed a with greater frequency in transgenic plantsrule that would substitute a notification than in typical situations of virus infection. Inrequirement for the permit requirement now in conclusion there is little evidence for the con-effect for most field tests of selected genetically tention that virus recombination will causeengineered crops. If this rule is formalized, ecological problems.researchers will only have to notify the depart- * Virus coat proteins produced by transgenicment, not obtain a permit, before field-testing crops could combine with natural virusescertain genetically engineered plants, includ- and produce more harmful strains. It hasing those that express viral coat protein genes. been concluded that while such an occur-Some have found this proposed rule contro- rence is theoretically possible, the risk of it isversial.2 The U.S. Environmental Protection too low to be considered in assessing theAgency also ruled that coat proteins are not impacts of transgenic crops.pesticidal and are safe for environmental * Virus genes other than coat protein genesrelease. The U.S. Food and Drug Admin- could elicit greater safety concerns. Genesistration has approved for sale and consump- encoding ribonucleic acids (RNAs) that dotion foods derived from transgenic plants that not produce proteins yet provide resistancecontain viral coat proteins. are likely to receive approval because there is

no scientific expectation of risk. However, itConcerns about Release of Plants Containing is unclear whether or not other genes willGenes Encoding Viral Sequences receive approval. Viral genes that have the

capacity to decrease infection by one virusAs research and development of plants that but increase the chance of infection byexhibit pathogen-derived resistance moved another virus will probably not receivefrom the lab to the field, several concerns were approval unless they are mutated and madevoiced about the release of plants that encode to act only in a protective manner.viral sequences, including the following:

* Virus proteins may trigger allergic reactions Effects of Plant-Produced Insecticidesif included in foods. This concern has been on Unintended Targetslargely abandoned, in part because manyfoods are infected with plant viruses and In terms of plant-produced insecticides the onlyhave been consumed for many years without insecticidal compounds that are currently com-known deleterious effects. mercialized are proteins that are naturally pro-


duced by Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). These pro- Will the Gene Being Transferred Serve anteins are highly specific in their toxic effects. Important Function in the TargetedOne group of these proteins affects only certain Geographical Area?species of caterpillars (lepidoptera), while othersaffect only a restricted set of beetle species. The pests of a specific crop, such as cotton orNone of these proteins has been shown to have corn, vary from one geographical region toa significantly disruptive effect on predators of another. For example, the caterpillars of twopest species (beneficial insects). The proteins insect species, the cotton bollworm and the bud-degrade rapidly when exposed to sunlight and worm, are major pests to the cotton grown in thehave been shown to degrade even when pro- southern United States. A variety of cottontected by being inside crop residues. Monsanto developed by Monsanto contains a specific pro-presented data to the Environmental Protection tein derived from Bacillus thuringiensis that isAgency that confirm the safety of the protein. highly toxic to these two closely related pests. InStudies with enzymes from the human diges- Central America the major insect pest speciestive system indicated that these Bt proteins are that affect cotton are the fall armyworm and thequickly digested and are unlikely to cause boll weevil. Since the toxins in the cotton devel-harmful effects. oped by Monsanto have no impact on these

pests, investing in the transfer of these seeds toEcosystem Damage Central America would be futile. Instead, it

would be better to invest resources in findingUnfortunately little is known about the flow of more appropriate genes that would truly controlgenetic information from plants to microorgan- Central American cotton pests.3

isms, making it difficult to assess the risk of A number of companies have engineeredgenes spreading from plants to soil organisms. corn varieties that tolerate herbicide sprays. AtIt is a fact that soil organisms, especially bacte- this point the commercial corn varieties that pos-ria, are able to take up DNA from their envi- sess herbicide tolerance are developed by cross-ronment and that DNA can persist when bound ing a parent corn line that contains the transgeneto soil particles. Although one can speculate for herbicide resistance with another line thatabout a gene-flow situation in which plant DNA does not contain the gene. Therefore, all of theis released from plant material, bound to soil commercially sold corn seeds contain one copyparticles, and subsequently taken up by soil of the herbicide-resistance gene and are resistantbacteria, such a scenario is highly unlikely. Any to the herbicide. In the United States farmerspotential risks of such a transfer can be elimi- buy hybrid corn seed every year and plant itnated by making transgenes that bacteria are only once so that all of their plants are tolerantunable to use (those with introns, for example). of the herbicide spray. While this system worksIt is even more speculative to consider the pos- well in the United States and other similarsible transfer of genes to soil-dwelling funguses economies, it will not work well in agricultural(molds), since gene transfer to funguses is gen- settings in most developing countries unlesserally much more difficult than gene transfer to changes are made. For example, in El Salvadorbacteria. many farmers buy hybrid corn seed only once

every three years, because it is very expensive.Assessing the Cost-Benefit Ratio The first year they plant the commercial seed,of Genetically Engineered Crops and the next two years they plant the offspring

from the plants. Because of genetic segregationTwo questions that must be addressed before in the offspring, only three-quarters of the corninvesting in a project to engineer a crop cultivar plants in the second and third year have the her-are (1) will the gene being transferred serve an bicide-resistance gene, so the farmer kills half ofimportant function in the targeted geographical the crop by applying the herbicide. It has provenarea and (2) how long will the gene continue to too difficult for seed companies to put the geneserve its function? in both parents of the plant. Clearly, an agricul-

Possible Problems 23

tural plan that works in a developed country corn, cotton, and rice, that produce insecticidalmay not work in a developing country. proteins are planted intensively over wide

It is often said that biotechnology is a trans- areas, the chance for insect adaptation is highferable technology because "the technology is all unless care is taken in developing and deploy-in the seeds." It is important to recognize that the ing the insect-resistant varieties.interface between seed traits and worldwide The U.S. Environmental Protection Agencycrop production is not always simple. As indi- has put restrictions on the sale of cotton contain-cated above, sending herbicide-resistant corn ing Bacillus thuiringiensis to ensure that every U.S.seed to El Salvador without educating farmers farmhas some fields planted withvarieties thatdoabout the problem of using the second genera- not produce the Bt proteins. These restrictions aretion seed could lead to immediate economic an example of the kinds of strategies that can belosses, and it could also lead to rejection of the employed to "conserve resistance." The fieldsnew technology. Similarly, breeding a corn vari- planted with non-Btproducing varieties act asety in the United States and then sending it to refuges for individual pests that are susceptible.West Africa would be useless if the corn was The insects produced in these refuges will materesistant to U.S. pests but not to West African with resistant insects emerging from fields wherepests. It should be noted that corn pests are not the transgenic varieties are planted, diluting theeven the same in all West African countries, so frequency of insects that are resistant to the Bt pro-varieties must be developed by tailoring them to teins and leading to more sustainable resistance.specific problems. Instituting such practices in developing counties

Once a variety is matched with local pest would probably be difficult. Furthermore, theproblems, the technology may be transferable refuge strategy works best if the transgenic vari-simplyby supplying the seed, although doing so ety produces enough Bt protein to kill close to 100does not mean that the seed will provide a sus- percent of the susceptible insects that feed on it. Atainable solution to the pest problem. There is variety developed to kill 100 percent of the pestabundant evidence indicating that pests will individuals of a species that occurs in Mexicanovercome genes for pest and disease resistance, corn may kill only 80 percent of the insects in aregardless of whether the genes have come Nigerian cornfield. Therefore, attempts to buildthrough biotechnology or classical plant breed- one transgenic corn type to fit the needs of a num-ing, unless seeds are used properly. Getting ber of countries may be misguided.farmers to use seeds properly will require edu- Adaptation problems similar to those de-cational efforts. scribed for insects may affect crops engineered

for resistance to disease and tolerance of herbi-How Long Will the Gene Continue to Serve cides. Although there are some types of herbi-Its Function? cides, such as glyphosate (Round-Up), that are

considered "immune" to weed adaptation, it isInsects, disease-causing organisms, and weeds not clear that this immunity will hold up whenare known to adapt to most pesticides and crop there is intensive use of the herbicide.4

varieties that contain resistant genes. In some When investing in biotechnology for cropcases adaptation occurs within one or two protection, it is important to consider the globalyears. Some insect strains have evolved the abil- effectiveness of the protection and how long itity under laboratory and field conditions to tol- will last. The same is true of agriculture in gen-erate high concentrations of the toxins derived eral. Improved strains of any kind of crop orfrom the Bacillus thuringiensis that are produced domestic animal, regardless of how the geneticby transgenic cotton and corn sold commer- modification was attained, must be carefullycially in the United States. Considerable theo- managed to be as productive as possible.retical and empirical research has assessed Integrated systems involving the best and mostwhether certain insect pests will overcome the sustainable practices of soil preparation; theeffects of transgenic crops that produce these most conservative and appropriate use of water,insecticidal proteins. If major crops, such as fertilizers, and pesticides (if pesticides are used);


and the selection of the best and most appropri- oping countries. For example, tissue culture canate strains of a particular crop are the key to be used to produce disease-free plants and tosuccess in agriculture. These practices are help increase the productivity of farms in devel-important to all agricultural systems, and they oping countries. But tissue culture can also beare necessary for improving systems, regardless used to shift the production center for specialtyof the exact methods used to genetically modify agricultural products from developing to indus-the crop strains being grown. trial countries. Vanilla is typically considered a

Investments in new and improved crop tropical product, but recent work with tissue cul-strains must also be judged by their global effec- ture allows its production in the laboratory Iftiveness, irrespective of how the strains were such innovations in tissue culture proliferate, itproduced. The Green Revolution succeeded in is possible that other tropical products will beenhancing productivity in many areas because manufactured in the laboratory as well.of the system of cultivation that was built uparound the new strains of crops, not solely Notesbecause of the properties of those strains. Thedesign of plantings has a great deal to do with 1. A. A. Snow and P. M. Palma, "Commercializationthe longevity of resistance to particular diseases of Transgenic Plants: Potential Ecological Risks,"and pests, but design has not always been care- BioScience 47 (February 1997).2. Personal communication.fully considered in efforts to introduce geneti- 3. N. Strizhov and others, "A Synthetic crylC Gene,cally engineered strains or other novel strains. Encoding a Bacillits Thutringiensis D-Endotoxin, ConfersThe design of plantings may need special atten- Spodoptera Resistance in Alfalfa and Tobacco," intion in developing countries with respect to the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA

particular conditions found there. (forthcoming).As mentioned above, biotechnologies other 4. J. Gressel, "Fewer Constraints Than Proclaimed to

the Evolution of Glyphosate-Resistant Weeds,"thanbioengineering canbe used to improve agri- Resistant Pest Management 8 (1996): 2-5; B. Sindel,culture in developing countries. But use of such "Glyphosate Resistance Discovered in Annualtechnologies can also have drawbacks for devel- Ryegrass," Resistant Pest Management 8 (1996): 5-6.

CHAPTER 4

Conclusions and Recommendations

T he panel's recommendations to the World cultural science community.Bank are based on its members' belief that It is of the greatest importance to the devel-urgent priority must be assigned to the opment of sound agriculture, based on the best

expansion of agriculture and to increased pro- environmental principles, to enhance the capa-duction of food in the developing world. It is bilities of science and scientists in the develop-critically important that increases in food pro- ing world. A specific and urgent need is theduction outpace population growth. Damaging training of developing world scientists inagricultural practices must be replaced with biotechnology methods so that each nation willlower-impact, sustainable activities so that the have a cadre of scientists to assist it in settingglobal capacity to produce food does not and implementing its own policies on biotech-decline. Only by these means will it prove pos- nology research and biosafety.sible to lessen hunger and improve food security The education of farmers can be greatly facil-in the poorest nations in the years ahead. itated with the aid of scientists from their own

Because transgenic technology is so power- nations. These scientists can contribute to the suc-ful, it has the ability to make significant positive cess of newly introduced crop strains and help toor negative changes in agriculture. Transgenic implement early warning systems to identify anycrops are not in principle more injurious to the troubles that arise during the introduction of newenvironment than traditionally bred crops. This crops or new agricultural methods.report has outlined a number of criteria that canbe used to determine whether a specific Research Programsbiotechnology program is likely to enhance ordetract from ecologically sound crop produc- The Bank should identify and support high-qualitytion. Transgenic crops that are developed and research programs whose aim is to exploit thefavor-used wisely can be very helpful, and may prove able potential of genetic engineering for improvingessential, to world food production and agri- the lot of the developing world.cultural sustainability. Biotechnology can cer- As noted earlier in this report, not all of thetainly be an ally to those developing integrated research in progress in the industrial nationspest management (IPM) and integrated crop will, even if successful, prove beneficial to themanagement (ICM) systems. developing world. Research should be planned

The recommendations to the World Bank so that key needs are met. Much of the necessaryfollow. research will need to be done in advanced labo-

ratories in industrial countries in conjunctionSupport of Developing World Science with laboratories in developing countries.

Research priorities should focus on promotingThe Bank should direct attention to the needfor liai- sustainable agriculture and higher yields in theson with and support of the developing world's agri- developing world as well as on decreasing the

25


variation in food production arising from, for to identify any troubles that may arise and to intro-example, environmental stresses. duce improvements in adapting new strains.

Variance in production can result in food As an early warning system helped to iden-shortages with numerous attendant complica- tify troubles, it would also spot unexpected suc-tions. Crops with resistance to insects and dis- cess, so that gains could be exploited andeases, including crops developed by genetic duplicated elsewhere. The system would alsomodification, can decrease production variance provide feedback to speed up and optimize theif the crops are developed and deployed in ways introduction of new plant varieties.that minimize the ability of pests and diseases toovercome the resistance factors in the crop. A Investment in International Agriculturalpoorly conceived strategy for developing and Research Centersdeploying crops can have the opposite effect ifpests or diseases adapt to resistant cultivars. If The Bank should increase its support of research infarmers are taught to depend solely on a crop's biotechnology and related areas at international agri-ability to ward off pests and diseases, the farm- cultural research centers because these centers are iners will not be prepared to use alternative means the best position to ensure that high-quality, envi-of control when pests become adapted to the ronmentally sustainable agricultural products andresistance factors in the crop. processes are developed and transferred to developing

countries.Surveillance and Regulation International agricultural research centers

are well placed to assist in the implementationThe Bank should support the implementation offor- of many of our recommendations. Investment inmal, national regulatory structures in its client biotechnology research at these centers is mar-nations by seeing to it that these structures retain ginally low. Although some of the centers havetheir vigor and effectiveness through the years and healthy but small programs in place, most ofby providing scientific and technical support to the them lack the infrastructure and personnelclient nations as requested. needed to conduct high-quality biotechnology

Effective regulatory structures will prove research. The Bank should determine how bestcritical should problems arise during the intro- to invest in infrastructure and personnel at eachduction of transgenic crops or, indeed, of other site. The Bank should adopt a broad perspectivetools of industrialized agriculture, including on biotechnology research that includes supportchemical inputs, some of which may be for marker-assisted breeding, development ofpromoted in conjunction with genetically engi- transgenic plants, development of molecular-neered herbicide-tolerant crops. These tools can based but farmer-friendly diagnostics, andall pose problems for developing countries. genetic analysis of crop pests and pathogens.Effective, comprehensive regulatory structures Research should emphasize development ofappear to exist in few nations, if any, including agricultural products and processes that arethe United States. To provide the basis for a unlikely to be provided by the private sector,strong national regulatory structure, there must such as those that would alleviate problems spe-be a designated agency with a clear mandate to cific to subsistence farmers. Any increasedprotect the environment and the economy from investment in new agricultural technology mustrisks associated with the uncritical application be accompanied by significant investment inof new methods, including inappropriate new ecological and sociological research to ensurestrains of crops or animals that may pose spe- that new products and processes support safecial risks for the environment. The agency must and sustainable food production.have the technical capacity to develop compe- In implementing Bank support for interna-tent risk assessment and the power to enforce its tional agricultural research centers, two mat-decisions. ters are important. The first is for the Bank to

The Bank should support, in each developing ensure that leaders of research organizationscountry, the deployment of an early warning system are aware of the potential and importance of

Conclusions and Recommendationis 27

supporting biotechnology research. The sec- * Ensuring that adequate energy and waterond is for the Bank to ensure that the recom- become available and that procedures formendations-to focus on liaison and to their efficient use are made known andidentify and support high-quality research- adoptedare adopted in the implementation of a pro- * Ensuring the introduction of modern meansgram of enhanced support for international of controlling pests, including the use of inte-agricultural research centers. Increases in grated pest management systems, safe chem-funding for agricultural biotechnology should icals, and resistant cropsinvolve cooperation with scientists from * Supporting the transition to sustainabledeveloped countries, and any facilities that activities and the reduction of waste and lossmay be built at the centers should match the in all elements of the agriculture enterprisescientific capabilities that are to be maintained * Providing the necessary education to farmersover the long term. so that they can implement the array of new

techniques that are needed (integrated pestThe Agricultural Challenge management, for example)

* Ensuring that the changes in agriculture willThe Bank should continue to give high priority to all provide the employment opportunities thataspects of increasing agricultural productivity in the will be needed in the developing world.developing world while encouraging the necessary The scale and importance of the challengetransition to sustainable methods. that the Bank faces in the agricultural sector are

While genetically engineered crops can play formidable. We have concluded that the Bankan important role in meeting the goal of should establish a permanent technical and sci-improved food security, their contribution alone entific advisory group to deal broadly with thewill not suffice. Their use must be accompanied goal of improving food security while ensuringby numerous other actions, as we have noted in the transition to sustainable agricultural prac-preceding sections of this report. These actions tices. The group should deal with all the ele-include: ments that comprise a successful program and

- Increasing priority on conventional plant provide the required liaison to the scientificbreeding and farming practices communities in the target nations.

APPENDIX

Integrated Intensive Farming Systems

Intensive Farming water so that it can be used in conjunction withother sources of water. Where water is the major

China and India, as well as numerous other constraint, technologies that can help to opti-developing nations, must achieve the triple goals mize income and jobs from every liter of waterof more food, more income, and more liveli- must be chosen and adopted. Maximum empha-hoods from their land and water resources. One sis should be placed on efficient on-farm waterapproach that can be adopted is the integrated use and on the use of techniques such as dripintensive farming systems methodology (IIFS). irrigation to help optimize the benefits from the

The M. S. Swaminathan Research Foundation available water.has designed a bio-village program to convertIIFS from a concept into a field-level reality. By Crop and Pest Managementmaking living organisms both the agents andbeneficiaries of development, the bio-village Integrated nutrient supply (INS) and integratedserves as a model for human-centered develop- pest management (IPM) systems form impor-ment. The pillars of the IIFS methodology follow. tant components of IIFS. The precise composi-

tion of the INS and the IPM systems should beSoil Health Care chosen on the basis of the farming system and

the agro-ecological and soil conditions of theSoil health care is fundamental to sustainable area. Computer-aided extension systemsintensification of agriculture. The HIFS approach should be developed to provide farm familiesaffords the opportunity to include stem-nodu- with timely and precise information on alllating legumes such as Sesbania rostrata in the aspects of land, water, pest, and postharvestfarming system and to incorporate Azolla, or management.blue-green algae, and other sources of symbioticand nonsymbiotic nitrogen fixation. Vermi- Energy Managementculture constitutes an essential component ofIIFS. IIFS farmers maintain a soil health card to Energy is an important and essential input. Inmonitor the impact of farming systems on the addition to the energy-efficient systems ofphysical, chemical, and microbiological compo- land, water, and pest management describednents of soil fertility. above, every effort should be made to harness

biogas, biomass, solar, and wind energies to theWater Harvesting, Conservation, maximum extent possible. Solar and windand Management energy can be used in hybrid combinations

with biogas for farm activities such as pumpingIIFS farm families include in their agronomic water and drying grains and other agriculturalpractices measures to harvest and conserve rain- produce.

29


Postharvest Management Information, Skills, Organization,and Management

IIFS farmers should not only adopt the bestavailable threshing, storage, and processing To succeed, IIFS farms need a meaningful andmeasures, but should also try to produce value- effective information and skill empowermentadded products from every part of the plant or system. Decentralized production systems haveanimal. Postharvest technology assumes partic- to be supported by a few key centralized ser-ular importance in the case of perishable com- vices, such as the supply of seeds, biopesticides,modities such as fruits, vegetables, milk, meat, and diagnostic and control methods for planteggs, fish, and other animal products. A mis- and animal diseases. Ideally, an "informationmatch between production and postharvest shop" should be set up by trained local youth intechnologies adversely affects both producers order to give farm families timely informationand consumers. As this report has noted, grow- on meteorological, management, and marketinging urbanization leads to a diversification of factors. Organization and management are keyfood habits. This diversification will increase elements to success, and depending on the areademand for animal products and processed and farming system, steps have to be taken tofood. Agro-processing industries can be pro- provide to small producers advantages of scalemoted on the basis of an assessment of consumer in processing and marketing. IIFS farming isdemand. Such food-processing industries best developed through participatory researchshould be promoted in villages in order to between scientists and farm families. Thisincrease employment opportunities for rural approach helps to ensure economic viability,youth. environmental sustainability, and social and

Investrnent in sanitary and phyto-sanitary gender equity in IIFS villages. The starting pointmeasures is important to providing quality food is to learn from families who have already devel-for domestic consumers and for export. To assist oped successful HFS procedures.the spread of IIFS, governments should make It should be emphasized that IIFS will suc-major investments in storage facilities, roads, ceed only if centered on humans; a mere tech-communication, and sanitary and phyto-sani- nology-driven program will not work. Thetary measures. essence of IIFS is the symbiotic partnership

between farming families and their naturalChoice of Crops and Other Components resource endowments of land, water, forests,of the Farming System flora, fauna, and sunlight. Without appropriate

public policy support in areas such as landIn IIFS it is important to give careful consi- reform, security of tenure, rural infrastructure,deration to the composition of the farming input and output pricing and marketing, smallsystem. Soil conditions, water availability, farm families will find it difficult to adopt IIFS.agro- climatic features, home needs, and above The eco-technologies and public policy mea-all, marketing opportunities have to determine sures needed to make IIFS a mass movementthe choice of crops, farm animals, and aqua- should receive concurrent attention. The pro-culture systems. Small and large ruminants gram will fail if it is based solely on a techno-have a particular advantage among farm ani- logical quick-fix approach. On the other handmals since they can live largely on crop bio- the IIFS program can trigger an "ever-green rev-mass. IIFS farming has to be based on both olution" if mutually reinforcing packages ofland-saving agriculture and grain-saving ani- technology, training, techno-infrastructure, andmal husbandry. trade are introduced.

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10 Enabling the Safe Use of Biotechnology: Principles and Practice

11 Biodiversity and Agricultural Intensification: Partnersfor Development and Conservation

12 Rural Development: From Vision to Action. A Sector Strategy

13 Integrated Pest Management: Strategies and Policiesfor Effective Implementation

14 Rural Finance: Issues, Design, and Best Practices

15 The Economics of Involuntary Resettlement (forthcoming)

16 Social Assessmentsfor Better Development: Case Studies in Russia and Central Asia

17 Expanding the Measure of Wealth: Indicators of Environmentally Sustainable Development

18 Five Years after Rio: Innovations in Environmental Policy

19 Advancing Sustainable Development: The World Bank and Agenda 21

20 Voices of the Poor: Poverty and Social Capital in Tanzania

21 The Risks and Reconstruction Modelfor Resettling Displaced Populations (forthcoming)

22 A Frameworkfor World Bank Involvement in Post-Conflict Reconstruction (forthcoming)

23 Bioengineering of Crops: Report of the World Bank Panel on Transgenic Crops

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