ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTIONENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

By Mr.C.R.Girish,By Mr.C.R.Girish,Dept of Chemical Engg, MITDept of Chemical Engg, MIT

POLLUTIONPOLLUTION

Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our Pollution is the effect of undesirable changes in our surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, surroundings that have harmful effects on plants, animals and human beings. animals and human beings.

When only When only short-term economic gains short-term economic gains are made at the are made at the cost of the cost of the long-term ecological benefits long-term ecological benefits for humanity. for humanity.

No natural phenomenon has led to greater ecological No natural phenomenon has led to greater ecological changes than have been made by mankind…!!!!!changes than have been made by mankind…!!!!!

Pollutants that enter water have the ability to spread to distant Pollutants that enter water have the ability to spread to distant places especially in the marine ecosystem. From an ecological places especially in the marine ecosystem. From an ecological perspective pollutants, classified as follows: perspective pollutants, classified as follows:

Degradable or non-persistent pollutantsDegradable or non-persistent pollutants: These can be rapidly : These can be rapidly broken down by natural processes. Eg..?????broken down by natural processes. Eg..?????Eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc.Eg: domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, etc.

Slowly degradable or persistent pollutantsSlowly degradable or persistent pollutants: Remain in the : Remain in the environment for many years in an unchanged condition and take environment for many years in an unchanged condition and take decades or longer to degrade. Eg..?????decades or longer to degrade. Eg..?????Eg: DDT and some kinds of plastics.Eg: DDT and some kinds of plastics.

Non-degradable pollutantsNon-degradable pollutants: : Cannot be degraded by natural Cannot be degraded by natural processes. Once they are released into the environment they are processes. Once they are released into the environment they are difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate. Eg..?????difficult to eradicate and continue to accumulate. Eg..?????Eg: Toxic elements like lead or mercury.Eg: Toxic elements like lead or mercury.

AIR POLLUTIONAIR POLLUTION

Air PollutionAir Pollution AirAir

– Necessary for ExistenceNecessary for Existence– Colorless, odorless mixture of gasesColorless, odorless mixture of gases– Quality of air varies in different environmentsQuality of air varies in different environments

Urban vs. RuralUrban vs. Rural

– Emission of Particulate matter from:Emission of Particulate matter from: Anthropogenic (Man-made) Sources (Industry)Anthropogenic (Man-made) Sources (Industry) Natural Sources (Volcanoes, Forest Fires, Pollen)Natural Sources (Volcanoes, Forest Fires, Pollen)

Composition of AirComposition of Air

– Nitrogen (NNitrogen (N22)) 78.1%(v/v)78.1%(v/v)

– Oxygen (OOxygen (O22)) 21.0%(v/v)21.0%(v/v)

– Carbon Dioxide (COCarbon Dioxide (CO22))

– Argon (Ar)Argon (Ar)

– Water (HWater (H22O)O)

– Other trace componentsOther trace components

Pollutants include Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous substances solid, liquid or gaseous substances present in greater than natural abundance produced due present in greater than natural abundance produced due to human activity, which have a detrimental effect on to human activity, which have a detrimental effect on our environment. our environment.

An average human requires about An average human requires about 12 kg of air each day12 kg of air each day, , which is which is nearly 12 to 15 times greaternearly 12 to 15 times greater than the amount than the amount of food we eat. of food we eat.

Thus even a small concentration of pollutants in the air Thus even a small concentration of pollutants in the air becomes more significant in comparison to the similar becomes more significant in comparison to the similar levels present in food. levels present in food.

What is Air Pollution?What is Air Pollution?

Presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the Presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in quantities that are harmful to human health and the air in quantities that are harmful to human health and the environment. environment.

Air may get polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes, Air may get polluted by natural causes such as volcanoes, which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or by which release ash, dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest fires that are occasionally naturally caused by forest fires that are occasionally naturally caused by lightning. lightning.

However, unlike pollutants from human activity, naturally However, unlike pollutants from human activity, naturally occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a occurring pollutants tend to remain in the atmosphere for a short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric short time and do not lead to permanent atmospheric change. change.

Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are produced both by natural events (for example, dust storms and volcanic produced both by natural events (for example, dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities (emission from vehicles, industries, eruptions) and human activities (emission from vehicles, industries, etc.). These are called etc.). These are called Primary PollutantsPrimary Pollutants. .

5 primary pollutants - 90 % of the global air pollution.5 primary pollutants - 90 % of the global air pollution.– Carbon oxides (CO & COCarbon oxides (CO & CO22), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds ), nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds

(mostly hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter. (mostly hydrocarbons) and suspended particulate matter.

Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere when certain chemical reactions take place among the primary pollutants are called reactions take place among the primary pollutants are called Secondary PollutantsSecondary Pollutants. Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc. . Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, etc.

ParticulatesParticulates are small pieces of solid material (for example, are small pieces of solid material (for example, smoke particles from fires, bits of asbestos, dust particles and smoke particles from fires, bits of asbestos, dust particles and ash from industries) dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects ash from industries) dispersed into the atmosphere. The effects of particulates range from soot to the of particulates range from soot to the carcinogenic effects carcinogenic effects of of asbestos, dust particles and ash from industrial plants that are asbestos, dust particles and ash from industrial plants that are dispersed into the atmosphere. Repeated exposure to dispersed into the atmosphere. Repeated exposure to particulates can cause them to accumulate in the lungs and particulates can cause them to accumulate in the lungs and interfere with the ability of the lungs to exchange gases. interfere with the ability of the lungs to exchange gases.

LeadLead is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored is a major air pollutant that remains largely unmonitored and is emitted by vehicles. High lead levels have been reported and is emitted by vehicles. High lead levels have been reported in the ambient air in metropolitan cities. in the ambient air in metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol Leaded petrol is the is the primary source of airborne lead emissions in Indian cities. primary source of airborne lead emissions in Indian cities.

NATURAL SOURCES OF AIR NATURAL SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTIONPOLLUTION

Natural Fires - SmokeNatural Fires - Smoke Volcanoes - Ash and acidic componentsVolcanoes - Ash and acidic components Sea Spray - Sea Spray - Vegetation - Volatile organic compounds Vegetation - Volatile organic compounds Bacterial Metabolism - MethaneBacterial Metabolism - Methane DustDust

– PollenPollen

Viruses and BacteriaViruses and Bacteria

Air pollution sources and effectsAir pollution sources and effects

Source type refers to natural and anthropogenic Source type refers to natural and anthropogenic sources as well as to additional sub classifications sources as well as to additional sub classifications within each group. within each group.

Source typeSource type CategoryCategory Important SourcesImportant Sources Typical PollutantsTypical Pollutants

CombustionCombustion Stationary Stationary Power plants, industrialPower plants, industrialboilers, diesel boilers, diesel

generators,generators,municipal or industrialmunicipal or industrialincineration, refuse incineration, refuse

burningburning

Oxides of sulphur, NOOxides of sulphur, NOXX, CO, , CO,

smoke, flyash, trace metal smoke, flyash, trace metal oxides.oxides.

MobileMobile Motor vehicles, air craftMotor vehicles, air craft CO, hydrocarbons, OCO, hydrocarbons, OXX, SO, SO

22

particlesparticles

RoastingRoastingand heatingand heatingprocessprocess

Nonferrous Nonferrous metallurgical metallurgical

Roasting smelting andRoasting smelting andrefining operationsrefining operations

Dust, Smoke, metal fumes (Cu, Dust, Smoke, metal fumes (Cu, Pb and Zn) oxides of sulphurPb and Zn) oxides of sulphur

FerrousFerrousmetallurgicalmetallurgical

Materials handling, oreMaterials handling, oresintering and pelletising,sintering and pelletising,coke, ovens blast coke, ovens blast

furnace,furnace,Steel furnacesSteel furnaces

Smoke, fumes, CO, Odours, HSmoke, fumes, CO, Odours, H22S,S,

organic vapour, fluoridesorganic vapour, fluorides

NonmetallicNonmetallicmineralsminerals

Crushed stone, gravel,Crushed stone, gravel,and sand processing,and sand processing,cement, glass, cement, glass,

refractories and refractories and ceramics mfr,ceramics mfr,

coal cleaningcoal cleaning

Mineral and organic particulates,Mineral and organic particulates,SOSO

22,NO,NOXX dust fumes dust fumes

Classification of anthropogenic air pollution sourcesClassification of anthropogenic air pollution sources

Chemicals,Chemicals,Petroleum, Petroleum, pulp and pulp and paperpaper

Petroleum Petroleum refiningrefining

Boilers, process heaters, catalyst Boilers, process heaters, catalyst regenerators, flares, reactors, regenerators, flares, reactors, storage tanks, compressor storage tanks, compressor enginesengines

Oxides of sulphur Oxides of sulphur hydrocarbons, NOhydrocarbons, NO

XX, particulate , particulate

matter, CO, aldehydes ammonia, matter, CO, aldehydes ammonia, odoursodours

Inorganic Inorganic chemicalschemicals

Sulphuric acid plants, fertilizer Sulphuric acid plants, fertilizer manufacture, nitric acid and manufacture, nitric acid and ammonia plants, phosphoric acid ammonia plants, phosphoric acid manufacturemanufacture

SOSO22, HF, H, HF, H

22S, NOS, NOXX, NH, NH

33, ,

particulate matter, Hparticulate matter, H33POPO

44, etc.,, etc.,

Organic Organic chemicalschemicals

Plastics, paint and varnish Plastics, paint and varnish manufacture, synthetic rubber, manufacture, synthetic rubber, rayon, insecticide, soap and rayon, insecticide, soap and detergent manufacture, detergent manufacture, methanol, phenol, etc.,methanol, phenol, etc.,

Particulate matter, Particulate matter, odours,SOodours,SO

22,CO,organic ,CO,organic

intermediates, product gases intermediates, product gases and vapours, solvent vapours, and vapours, solvent vapours, etc.,etc.,

Pulp and Pulp and paper (Kraft paper (Kraft process)process)

Digester blow system, pulp Digester blow system, pulp washers, recovery furnace, washers, recovery furnace, evaporators, oxidation towersevaporators, oxidation towers

Particulate matter, odorous Particulate matter, odorous sulphur compounds (Hsulphur compounds (H

22S, S,

methyl mercaptan, dimethyl methyl mercaptan, dimethyl sulphide) and SOsulphide) and SO

22 (sulphite (sulphite

process)process)

Food and Food and AgricultureAgriculture

Food Food processing processing

Drying, preserving, packagingDrying, preserving, packaging Vapours, odours, dustVapours, odours, dust

Crop spraying Crop spraying and dustingand dusting

Pest and weed controlPest and weed control Organic phosphates, Organic phosphates, chlorinated HC, arsenic, leadchlorinated HC, arsenic, lead

Field burningField burning Refuse burningRefuse burning Smoke, flyash and sootSmoke, flyash and soot

Types of ParticulatesTypes of Particulates

TermTerm MeaningMeaning ExamplesExamples

AerosolAerosol General term for particulates suspended in General term for particulates suspended in air air

Sprays from Sprays from pressurized canspressurized cans

MistMist Aerosol consisting of liquid dropletsAerosol consisting of liquid droplets Sulfuric acid mistSulfuric acid mist

DustDust Aerosol consisting of solid particles that Aerosol consisting of solid particles that are blown into the air or are produced from are blown into the air or are produced from larger particles by grinding them downlarger particles by grinding them down

Dust stormDust storm

SmokeSmoke Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a mixture of solid and liquid particles mixture of solid and liquid particles produced by chemical reactions such as produced by chemical reactions such as firefire

Cigarette smoke, Cigarette smoke, smoke from a burning smoke from a burning garbage garbage

FumeFume Generally means the same as smoke but often Generally means the same as smoke but often applies specifically to aerosols produced by applies specifically to aerosols produced by condensation of hot vapors of metals.condensation of hot vapors of metals.

Zinc/lead fumesZinc/lead fumes

PlumePlume Geometrical shape or form of the smoke coming Geometrical shape or form of the smoke coming out a chimneyout a chimney

FogFog Aerosol consisting of water dropletsAerosol consisting of water droplets

SmogSmog Term used to describe a mixture of smoke and Term used to describe a mixture of smoke and fogfog

Major toxic metals and their effectsMajor toxic metals and their effectsElementElement SourcesSources Health effectsHealth effects

LeadLead Auto exhaust (from gasoline), Auto exhaust (from gasoline), paints, storage batteries, pipespaints, storage batteries, pipes

Neurotoxin, affects blood Neurotoxin, affects blood system, behavioral disorders, system, behavioral disorders, deathdeath

CadmiumCadmium Coal, zinc mining, incineration Coal, zinc mining, incineration of plastic containers, refining of plastic containers, refining of metals, tobacco smokeof metals, tobacco smoke

Cardiovascular disease and Cardiovascular disease and hypertension, interference hypertension, interference with zinc and copper with zinc and copper metabolism, kidney damagesmetabolism, kidney damages

NickelNickel Combustion of coal, diesel and Combustion of coal, diesel and residual oils, tobacco smoke, residual oils, tobacco smoke, chemicals and catalysts, steel chemicals and catalysts, steel and non ferrous alloys and non ferrous alloys manufacturemanufacture

Respiratory symptoms, lung Respiratory symptoms, lung cancer (as nickel carbonyl)cancer (as nickel carbonyl)

MercuryMercury Combustion of fossil fuels, Combustion of fossil fuels, evaporation from ore mining, evaporation from ore mining, exhausts from metal smelters, exhausts from metal smelters, chloralkali cells, paints, chloralkali cells, paints, pharmaceuticalspharmaceuticals

Nerve and brain damage, Nerve and brain damage, kidney damagekidney damage

EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTIONEFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

Human HealthHuman Health– EPA estimates each year 50,000 people die EPA estimates each year 50,000 people die

prematurely from illnesses related to air prematurely from illnesses related to air pollution.pollution.

Human HealthHuman Health

BronchitisBronchitis– Persistent inflammation of airways in the lung Persistent inflammation of airways in the lung

that causes mucus build-up and muscle spasm, that causes mucus build-up and muscle spasm, constricting airways.constricting airways. Can lead to emphysema - irreversible chronic Can lead to emphysema - irreversible chronic

obstructive lung disease in which airways become obstructive lung disease in which airways become permanently constricted and alveoli are damaged or permanently constricted and alveoli are damaged or destroyed.destroyed.

Plant PathologyPlant Pathology

Chemical pollutants can directly damage Chemical pollutants can directly damage plants, or can cause indirect damage by plants, or can cause indirect damage by disrupting normal growth and development disrupting normal growth and development patterns.patterns.

Acid DepositionAcid Deposition

pH and Atmospheric AciditypH and Atmospheric Acidity– Unpolluted rain generally has pH of 5.6.Unpolluted rain generally has pH of 5.6.

Carbonic acid from atmospheric COCarbonic acid from atmospheric CO22. . – In industrialized areas, anthropogenic acids in the air often In industrialized areas, anthropogenic acids in the air often

outweigh natural sources of acid.outweigh natural sources of acid.

Acid DepositionAcid Deposition

Forest DamageForest Damage– Air pollution and depositions of atmospheric Air pollution and depositions of atmospheric

acids are believed to be important causes of acids are believed to be important causes of forest destruction in many areas.forest destruction in many areas.

Buildings and MonumentsBuildings and Monuments– Limestone and marble are destroyed by air Limestone and marble are destroyed by air

pollution at an alarming rate.pollution at an alarming rate.– Corroding steel in reinforced concrete weakens Corroding steel in reinforced concrete weakens

buildings, roads, and bridgesbuildings, roads, and bridges..

Effects of Air Pollution on the StratosphereEffects of Air Pollution on the Stratosphere

The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amounts of ozone, which The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amounts of ozone, which works as an effective screen for ultraviolet light. This region called the works as an effective screen for ultraviolet light. This region called the ozone layer extends up to 60 kms above the surface of the earth. ozone layer extends up to 60 kms above the surface of the earth.

Though the ozone is present upto 60 kms its greatest density remains in Though the ozone is present upto 60 kms its greatest density remains in the region between 20 to 25 kms. The ozone layer does not consist of the region between 20 to 25 kms. The ozone layer does not consist of solely ozone but a mixture of other common atmospheric gases. In the solely ozone but a mixture of other common atmospheric gases. In the most dense ozone layer there will be only one ozone molecule in 100,000 most dense ozone layer there will be only one ozone molecule in 100,000 gas molecules. Therefore even small changes in the ozone concentration gas molecules. Therefore even small changes in the ozone concentration can produce dramatic effects of life on earth. can produce dramatic effects of life on earth.

The total amount of ozone in a ‘column’ of air from the earth’s surface The total amount of ozone in a ‘column’ of air from the earth’s surface upto an altitude of 50 km is the total column ozone. This is recorded in upto an altitude of 50 km is the total column ozone. This is recorded in Dobson Units (DU), a measure of the thickness of the ozone layer by an Dobson Units (DU), a measure of the thickness of the ozone layer by an equivalent layer of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and pressure at equivalent layer of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and pressure at sea level. This means that 100 DU=1mm of pure ozone gas at normal sea level. This means that 100 DU=1mm of pure ozone gas at normal temperature and pressure at sea leveltemperature and pressure at sea level. .

Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms instead of two. It is Ozone is a form of oxygen with three atoms instead of two. It is produced naturally from the photodissociation of oxygen gas molecules produced naturally from the photodissociation of oxygen gas molecules in the atmosphere. The ozone thus formed is constantly broken down by in the atmosphere. The ozone thus formed is constantly broken down by naturally occurring processes that maintain its balance in the ozone naturally occurring processes that maintain its balance in the ozone layer. layer.

In the absence of pollutants the creation and breakdown of ozone are In the absence of pollutants the creation and breakdown of ozone are purely governed by natural forces, but the presence of certain pollutants purely governed by natural forces, but the presence of certain pollutants can accelerate the breakdown of ozone. can accelerate the breakdown of ozone.

HALONSHALONS are similar in structure to the CFCs but contain are similar in structure to the CFCs but contain brominebromine atoms atoms instead of chlorine. They are more dangerous to the ozone layer than instead of chlorine. They are more dangerous to the ozone layer than CFCs. Halons are used as fire extinguishing agents as they do not pose CFCs. Halons are used as fire extinguishing agents as they do not pose a harm to people and equipment exposed to them during fire fighting. a harm to people and equipment exposed to them during fire fighting.

The CFCs and the halons migrate into the upper atmosphere after they The CFCs and the halons migrate into the upper atmosphere after they are released. As they are heavier than air they have to be carried by air are released. As they are heavier than air they have to be carried by air currents up to just above the lower atmosphere and then they slowly currents up to just above the lower atmosphere and then they slowly diffuse into the upper atmosphere. This is a slow process and can take diffuse into the upper atmosphere. This is a slow process and can take as long as five to fifteen years.as long as five to fifteen years.

Ozone Depletion-What Does it Do?Ozone Depletion-What Does it Do?

Changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind.Changes in the ozone layer have serious implications for mankind.

Effects on human health: Effects on human health: Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and Sunburn, cataract, aging of the skin and skin cancer are caused by increased ultra-violet radiation. It weakens skin cancer are caused by increased ultra-violet radiation. It weakens the immune system by suppressing the resistance of the whole body to the immune system by suppressing the resistance of the whole body to certain infections like measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases certain infections like measles, chicken pox and other viral diseases that elicit rash and parasitic diseases such as malaria introduced that elicit rash and parasitic diseases such as malaria introduced through the skin.through the skin.

Food production: Food production: Ultra violet radiation affects the ability of plants to Ultra violet radiation affects the ability of plants to capture light energy during the process of photosynthesis. This capture light energy during the process of photosynthesis. This reduces the nutrient content and the growth of plants. This is seen reduces the nutrient content and the growth of plants. This is seen especially in legumes and cabbage. Plant and animal planktons are especially in legumes and cabbage. Plant and animal planktons are damaged by ultra- violet radiation. In zooplanktons (microscopic damaged by ultra- violet radiation. In zooplanktons (microscopic animals) the breeding period is shortened by changes in radiation. As animals) the breeding period is shortened by changes in radiation. As planktons form the basis of the marine food chain a change in their planktons form the basis of the marine food chain a change in their number and species composition influences fish and shell fish number and species composition influences fish and shell fish production.production.

Effect on MaterialsEffect on Materials: :

Increased UV radiation damages paints and fabrics, causing them to Increased UV radiation damages paints and fabrics, causing them to fade faster.fade faster.

Effect on Climate: Effect on Climate:

Atmospheric changes induced by pollution contribute to global warming, Atmospheric changes induced by pollution contribute to global warming, a phenomenon which is caused due to the increase in concentration of a phenomenon which is caused due to the increase in concentration of certain gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane and CFCs. certain gases like carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, methane and CFCs. Observations of the earth have shown beyond doubt that atmospheric Observations of the earth have shown beyond doubt that atmospheric constituents such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen constituents such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides and Chloro Fluro Carbons trap heat in the form of infra-red oxides and Chloro Fluro Carbons trap heat in the form of infra-red radiation near the earth’s surface. This is known as the radiation near the earth’s surface. This is known as the ‘Greenhouse ‘Greenhouse Effect’. Effect’.

Green House EffectGreen House Effect

AIR POLLUTION CONTROLAIR POLLUTION CONTROL

Reducing ProductionReducing Production– Particulate RemovalParticulate Removal

Remove particles physically by trapping them in a Remove particles physically by trapping them in a porous mesh which allows air to pass through but porous mesh which allows air to pass through but holds back solids.holds back solids.

– Sulfur RemovalSulfur Removal Switch from soft coal with a high sulfur content to low Switch from soft coal with a high sulfur content to low

sulfur coal.sulfur coal.

Air Pollution ControlAir Pollution Control

Nitrogen OxidesNitrogen Oxides– Best method is to prevent creation.Best method is to prevent creation.

Staged BurnersStaged Burners Selective CatalystsSelective Catalysts

Emission control equipment Emission control equipment may be classified into two may be classified into two general types: general types: – particulate control type, and particulate control type, and

– gases and odours control type.gases and odours control type.

The basic mechanisms of removing particulate matter from The basic mechanisms of removing particulate matter from gas streams may be classified as: gas streams may be classified as:

(1) Gravitational settling (1) Gravitational settling (2) Centrifugal impaction (2) Centrifugal impaction (3) Inertial impaction (3) Inertial impaction (4) Direct interception (4) Direct interception (5) Diffusion (5) Diffusion (6) Electro static precipitation.(6) Electro static precipitation.

Equipment presently available, which make use of one Equipment presently available, which make use of one or more of the above mechanisms, fall into the following or more of the above mechanisms, fall into the following five broad categories: five broad categories:

Gravitational settling chambersGravitational settling chambers Cyclone separatorsCyclone separators Fabric filtersFabric filters Electrostatic precipitatorsElectrostatic precipitators Wet collectors (scrubbers)Wet collectors (scrubbers)

Gravitational Settling ChambersGravitational Settling Chambers

Generally used to remove large, abrasive particles (usually Generally used to remove large, abrasive particles (usually > 50 > 50 m) from gas streams. They offer low pressure drop m) from gas streams. They offer low pressure drop and require simple maintenance, but their efficiencies are and require simple maintenance, but their efficiencies are quite low for particles smaller than 50 quite low for particles smaller than 50 m. m.

Settling chambers use the force of gravity to remove solid particles. The gas stream enters a chamber where the velocity of the gas is reduced. Large particles drop out of the gas and are recollected in hoppers.

Cyclone SeparatorsCyclone Separators

The general principle of inertia separation is that the The general principle of inertia separation is that the particulate-laden gas is forced to change direction. As gas particulate-laden gas is forced to change direction. As gas changes direction, the inertia of the particles causes them changes direction, the inertia of the particles causes them to continue in the original direction and be separated from to continue in the original direction and be separated from the gas stream.the gas stream.

Cyclone separators utilize a centrifugal force generated by Cyclone separators utilize a centrifugal force generated by a spinning gas stream to separate the particulate matter a spinning gas stream to separate the particulate matter from the carrier gas. The centrifugal force on particles in a from the carrier gas. The centrifugal force on particles in a spinning gas stream is much greater than gravityspinning gas stream is much greater than gravity

Cyclones are effective in the removal of much smaller Cyclones are effective in the removal of much smaller particles than gravitational settling chambers, and require particles than gravitational settling chambers, and require much less space to handle the same gas volumes much less space to handle the same gas volumes

COLLECTED FLY ASH

CLEANED GAS OUT

GAS IN

Cyclone Separators

Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP) Removal of flyash from electric utility boiler emissions. Removal of flyash from electric utility boiler emissions. The dust-laden gas is passed between oppositely charged The dust-laden gas is passed between oppositely charged

conductors and it becomes ionized as the voltage applied conductors and it becomes ionized as the voltage applied between the conductors is sufficiently large (30,000 to 60,000 between the conductors is sufficiently large (30,000 to 60,000 volts dependent on electrode spacing).volts dependent on electrode spacing).

As the dust-laden gas is passed through these highly charged As the dust-laden gas is passed through these highly charged electrodes, both negative and positives ions are formed, the electrodes, both negative and positives ions are formed, the latter being as high as 80%. The ionized gas is further passed latter being as high as 80%. The ionized gas is further passed through the collecting unit, which consists of a set of vertical through the collecting unit, which consists of a set of vertical metal plates. Alternate plates are positively charged and metal plates. Alternate plates are positively charged and earthed.earthed.

The dust removed from the plates with the help of shaking The dust removed from the plates with the help of shaking motion is collected in the dust hoppersmotion is collected in the dust hoppers..

As the alternate plates are grounded, high intensity As the alternate plates are grounded, high intensity electrostatic field exists between the plates. When the electrostatic field exists between the plates. When the charged dust particles are passed between the plates. charged dust particles are passed between the plates. The deposited dust particles are removed from the The deposited dust particles are removed from the plates by giving the shaking motion to the plates with the plates by giving the shaking motion to the plates with the help of cam driven by external meanshelp of cam driven by external means

Electrostatic precipitatorElectrostatic precipitator

1. Smoke particles pick up a negative charge. 2. Smoke particles are attracted to the collecting plates. 3. Collecting plates are knocked to remove the smoke particles.

Wet ScrubbersWet Scrubbers Wet precipitations the principal mechanisms by which Wet precipitations the principal mechanisms by which

atmospheric particles are removed by nature. This idea atmospheric particles are removed by nature. This idea has been exploited by industry to develop a variety of has been exploited by industry to develop a variety of liquid scrubbing equipment. liquid scrubbing equipment.

Wet collectors have a number of advantageous over dry Wet collectors have a number of advantageous over dry collectors, such as simultaneous removal of particles collectors, such as simultaneous removal of particles and gaseous pollutants but suffer from the problems of and gaseous pollutants but suffer from the problems of corrosion and liquid waste disposal.corrosion and liquid waste disposal.

CLEAN GAS OUT

WATER IN

MIST ELIMINATOR

SPRAYS

DIRTY GAS IN

SLURRY OUT

CLEAN AIR LEGISLATIONCLEAN AIR LEGISLATION

Clean Air Act (1963) - First national air Clean Air Act (1963) - First national air pollution control.pollution control.

Clean Air Act (1970) rewrote original.Clean Air Act (1970) rewrote original.– Identified critical pollutants.Identified critical pollutants.– Established ambient air quality standards.Established ambient air quality standards.

Primary Standards - Human healthPrimary Standards - Human health Secondary Standards - Materials, environment, Secondary Standards - Materials, environment,

aesthetic and comfort.aesthetic and comfort.

Amended in 1977Amended in 1977

Clean Air ActClean Air Act

Revision (1990) - Included provision for:Revision (1990) - Included provision for:– Acid RainAcid Rain– Urban SmogUrban Smog– Toxic Air PollutantsToxic Air Pollutants– Ozone ProtectionOzone Protection– Marketing Pollution RightsMarketing Pollution Rights– Volatile Organic CompoundsVolatile Organic Compounds– Ambient OzoneAmbient Ozone– NoNoxx Emissions Emissions

Revision (1997) - Stricter standardsRevision (1997) - Stricter standards

Assessing Air QualityAssessing Air Quality

EPA developed the Air Quality Index (AQI)EPA developed the Air Quality Index (AQI) Definition of AQI: There are six categoriesDefinition of AQI: There are six categories

– 0 - 500 - 50 GoodGood– 51 – 10051 – 100 ModerateModerate– 101 - 150101 - 150 Unhealthy for Sensitive GroupsUnhealthy for Sensitive Groups– 151 - 200151 - 200 UnhealthyUnhealthy– 201 - 250201 - 250 Very UnhealthyVery Unhealthy– 251 - 300251 - 300 HazardousHazardous

Assessing Air QualityAssessing Air Quality

So AQI of 100 is the level EPA has set to So AQI of 100 is the level EPA has set to protect public healthprotect public health– Example: A carbon monoxide concentration of 9 Example: A carbon monoxide concentration of 9

ppm would result in an AQI of 100 for COppm would result in an AQI of 100 for CO

Air Quality - ParticulatesAir Quality - Particulates

Another quality index for particulates is called Another quality index for particulates is called a particulate matter index (PM index)a particulate matter index (PM index)– PMPM1010 index index: total concentration of all particles : total concentration of all particles << 10 10

µm diaµm dia

– PMPM2.52.5 index index: total concentration of all particles : total concentration of all particles <<

2.5 µm dia2.5 µm dia

Units of PM index: µg/mUnits of PM index: µg/m33

– That is, micrograms of particulate matter per cubic That is, micrograms of particulate matter per cubic meter of airmeter of air

– Remember, one cubic meter air = 1000 liters airRemember, one cubic meter air = 1000 liters air

WATER POLLUTIONWATER POLLUTION

Water PollutionWater Pollution

Water is the essential element that makes life on earth possible. Water is the essential element that makes life on earth possible.

Without water there would be no life. Without water there would be no life.

We usually take water for granted. It flows from our taps when they We usually take water for granted. It flows from our taps when they are turned on. Most of us are able to bathe when we want to, swim are turned on. Most of us are able to bathe when we want to, swim when we choose and water our gardens. Like good health, we when we choose and water our gardens. Like good health, we ignore water when we have it.ignore water when we have it.

Although 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water only a tiny Although 71% of the earth’s surface is covered by water only a tiny fraction of this water is available to us as fresh water. fraction of this water is available to us as fresh water.

About 97% of the total water available on earth is found in oceans About 97% of the total water available on earth is found in oceans and is too salty for drinking or irrigation. The remaining 3% is fresh and is too salty for drinking or irrigation. The remaining 3% is fresh water. Of this 2.997% is locked in ice caps or glaciers. water. Of this 2.997% is locked in ice caps or glaciers.

Thus only 0.003% of the earth’ total volume of water is easily Thus only 0.003% of the earth’ total volume of water is easily available to us as soil moisture, groundwater, water vapour and available to us as soil moisture, groundwater, water vapour and water in lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands.water in lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands.

In short if the world’s water supply were only 100 litres our usable In short if the world’s water supply were only 100 litres our usable supply of fresh water would be only about 0.003 litres (one-half supply of fresh water would be only about 0.003 litres (one-half teaspoon). This makes water a very precious resource. teaspoon). This makes water a very precious resource.

The future wars in our world may well be fought over water. The future wars in our world may well be fought over water.

By the middle of this century, almost By the middle of this century, almost twice as many people twice as many people will be will be trying to share the same amount of fresh water the earth has today. trying to share the same amount of fresh water the earth has today.

As freshwater becomes more scarce access to water resources will As freshwater becomes more scarce access to water resources will be a major factor in determining the economic growth of several be a major factor in determining the economic growth of several countries around the world.countries around the world.

Water Availability on the Planet Water Availability on the Planet

Water that is found in streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands and artificial Water that is found in streams, rivers, lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs is called reservoirs is called surface water. surface water.

Water that percolates into the ground and fills the pores in soil Water that percolates into the ground and fills the pores in soil and rock is called and rock is called groundwater. groundwater.

Porous water-saturated layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through Porous water-saturated layers of sand, gravel or bedrock through which ground water flows are called which ground water flows are called aquifersaquifers. Most aquifers are . Most aquifers are replenished naturally by rainfall that percolates downward through replenished naturally by rainfall that percolates downward through the soil and rock. This process is called the soil and rock. This process is called natural recharge. natural recharge.

If the withdrawal rate of an aquifer exceeds its natural recharge If the withdrawal rate of an aquifer exceeds its natural recharge rate, the water table is lowered. rate, the water table is lowered.

Any pollutant that is discharged onto the land above is also Any pollutant that is discharged onto the land above is also pulled into the aquifer and pollutes the groundwater resulting in pulled into the aquifer and pollutes the groundwater resulting in polluted water in the nearby wells.polluted water in the nearby wells.

India receives most of her rainfall during the months of June to India receives most of her rainfall during the months of June to September due to the seasonal winds and the temperature September due to the seasonal winds and the temperature differences between the land and the sea. These winds blow from differences between the land and the sea. These winds blow from the opposite directions in the different seasons. the opposite directions in the different seasons.

They blow into India from the surrounding oceans during the They blow into India from the surrounding oceans during the summer season and blow out from the subcontinent to the summer season and blow out from the subcontinent to the oceans during the winter. oceans during the winter.

The monsoon in India is usually reasonably stable but varies The monsoon in India is usually reasonably stable but varies geographically. In some years the commencement of the rains geographically. In some years the commencement of the rains may be delayed considerably over the entire country or a part of may be delayed considerably over the entire country or a part of it. The rains may also terminate earlier than usual. They may be it. The rains may also terminate earlier than usual. They may be heavier than usual over one part than over another. heavier than usual over one part than over another.

Sources of Water PollutionSources of Water Pollution

Causes of Water PollutionCauses of Water Pollution

There are several classes of common water pollutants.There are several classes of common water pollutants.

These are disease-causing agents (pathogens) which include These are disease-causing agents (pathogens) which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter water bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter water from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes. from domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes.

Human wastes contain concentrated populations of coliform Human wastes contain concentrated populations of coliform bacteria such as bacteria such as Escherichia coliEscherichia coli and and Streptococcus faecalisStreptococcus faecalis. . These bacteria normally grow in the large intestine of humans These bacteria normally grow in the large intestine of humans where they are responsible for some food digestion and for the where they are responsible for some food digestion and for the production of vitamin K. These bacteria are not harmful in low production of vitamin K. These bacteria are not harmful in low numbers. numbers.

Large amounts of human waste in water, increases the number of Large amounts of human waste in water, increases the number of these bacteria which cause gastrointestinal diseases.these bacteria which cause gastrointestinal diseases.

Another category of water pollutants is Another category of water pollutants is oxygen-depleting wastesoxygen-depleting wastes. . These are organic wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic These are organic wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic (oxygen requiring) bacteria. Large populations of bacteria use up (oxygen requiring) bacteria. Large populations of bacteria use up the oxygen present in water to degrade these wastes. In the process the oxygen present in water to degrade these wastes. In the process this this degrades water quality.degrades water quality.

The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of organic matter is called the organic matter is called the biological oxygen demand (BOD). biological oxygen demand (BOD).

The amount of BOD in the water is an The amount of BOD in the water is an indicator of the level of indicator of the level of pollution. pollution. If too much organic matter is added to the water all the If too much organic matter is added to the water all the available oxygen is used up. This causes fish and other forms of available oxygen is used up. This causes fish and other forms of oxygen dependent aquatic life to die. oxygen dependent aquatic life to die.

Anaerobic bacteria Anaerobic bacteria (those that do not require oxygen) begin to break (those that do not require oxygen) begin to break down the wastes. Their anaerobic respiration produces chemicals down the wastes. Their anaerobic respiration produces chemicals that have a foul odour and an unpleasant taste that is harmful to that have a foul odour and an unpleasant taste that is harmful to human health.human health.

Inorganic plant nutrientsInorganic plant nutrients. These are water soluble nitrates and . These are water soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic phosphates that cause excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants. plants. The excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants due to The excessive growth of algae and aquatic plants due to added nutrients is called eutrophicationadded nutrients is called eutrophication. They may interfere with . They may interfere with the use of the water by clogging water intake pipes, changing the the use of the water by clogging water intake pipes, changing the taste and odour of water and cause a buildup of organic matter. As taste and odour of water and cause a buildup of organic matter. As the organic matter decays, oxygen levels decrease and fish and the organic matter decays, oxygen levels decrease and fish and other aquatic species die.other aquatic species die.

The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is often many times The quantity of fertilizers applied in a field is often many times more than is actually required by the plants. The chemicals in more than is actually required by the plants. The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides pollute soil and water. While excess fertilizers and pesticides pollute soil and water. While excess fertilizers cause eutrophication, pesticides cause fertilizers cause eutrophication, pesticides cause bioaccumulation bioaccumulation and biomagnification.and biomagnification. Pesticides which enter water bodies are Pesticides which enter water bodies are introduced into the introduced into the aquatic food chainaquatic food chain. They are then absorbed by . They are then absorbed by the phytoplanktons and aquatic plants. These plants are eaten by the phytoplanktons and aquatic plants. These plants are eaten by the herbivorous fish which are in turn eaten by the carnivorous fish the herbivorous fish which are in turn eaten by the carnivorous fish which are in turn eaten by the water birds. At each link in the food which are in turn eaten by the water birds. At each link in the food chain these chemicals which do not pass out of the body are chain these chemicals which do not pass out of the body are accumulated and increasingly concentrated resulting in accumulated and increasingly concentrated resulting in biomagnification of these harmful substancesbiomagnification of these harmful substances..

One of the effects of accumulation of high levels of pesticides One of the effects of accumulation of high levels of pesticides such as DDT is that birds lay eggs with shells that are much such as DDT is that birds lay eggs with shells that are much thinner than normal. This results in the premature breaking of thinner than normal. This results in the premature breaking of these eggs, killing the chicks inside. Birds of prey such as hawks, these eggs, killing the chicks inside. Birds of prey such as hawks, eagles and other fish eating birds are affected by such pollution. eagles and other fish eating birds are affected by such pollution. Although DDT has been banned in India for agricultural use and Although DDT has been banned in India for agricultural use and is to be used only for malaria eradication, it is still used in the is to be used only for malaria eradication, it is still used in the fields as it is cheap.fields as it is cheap.

A fourth class of water pollutants is A fourth class of water pollutants is inorganic inorganic chemicals which are acids, salts and compounds of chemicals which are acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as mercury and lead. toxic metals such as mercury and lead. High levels of High levels of these chemicals can make the water unfit to drink, these chemicals can make the water unfit to drink, harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields harm fish and other aquatic life, reduce crop yields and accelerate corrosion of equipment that use this and accelerate corrosion of equipment that use this water.water.

Another cause of water pollution is a variety of Another cause of water pollution is a variety of organic chemicals, which include oil, gasoline, organic chemicals, which include oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergent and plastics, pesticides, cleaning solvents, detergent and many other chemicals. These are harmful to aquatic many other chemicals. These are harmful to aquatic life and human health. They get into the water directly life and human health. They get into the water directly from industrial activity either from improper handling from industrial activity either from improper handling of the chemicals in industries and more often from of the chemicals in industries and more often from improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes.improper and illegal disposal of chemical wastes.

Radioactive SubstancesRadioactive Substances

Very little is known about the threshold of radiation damage Very little is known about the threshold of radiation damage to aquatic environment to aquatic environment from wastes of uranium and from wastes of uranium and thorium mining and refining, thorium mining and refining, from nuclear power plants, from nuclear power plants, and from industrial use of radioactive materials. The and from industrial use of radioactive materials. The refining of uranium ore is an important source of refining of uranium ore is an important source of radioactive waste producing radionuclides of radium, radioactive waste producing radionuclides of radium, bismuth, etc. bismuth, etc. Radium is the most significant Radium is the most significant waste product waste product and is considered to be hazard in drinking water. and is considered to be hazard in drinking water.

Water supplies must not contain more than 3 Pico curies Water supplies must not contain more than 3 Pico curies per litre of radium-226, nor more than 10 Pico curies per per litre of radium-226, nor more than 10 Pico curies per litre of strontium-90litre of strontium-90

Certain marine organisms have the capacity for Certain marine organisms have the capacity for accumulating radionuclides from water. This accumulating radionuclides from water. This “biomagnifications” may cause objectionable radioactivity “biomagnifications” may cause objectionable radioactivity in living organisms, although the radiation level in water in living organisms, although the radiation level in water may be low enough to be considered safe. may be low enough to be considered safe. Phytoplankton and fish may concentrate metal Phytoplankton and fish may concentrate metal radionuclides by factors of 10radionuclides by factors of 1022 to 10 to 1055..

Radioactive substances can enter humans with food and Radioactive substances can enter humans with food and water, and get accumulated in blood and certain vital water, and get accumulated in blood and certain vital organs like the thyroid gland, the liver and bone and organs like the thyroid gland, the liver and bone and muscular tissues. At present some low and medium level muscular tissues. At present some low and medium level wastes are sealed in containers and dumped into the wastes are sealed in containers and dumped into the ocean. If there is any damage to, or leakage from the ocean. If there is any damage to, or leakage from the containers, the nuclear wastes could escape and enter containers, the nuclear wastes could escape and enter the marine system. Then storms and ocean currents and the marine system. Then storms and ocean currents and eventually reach coastal waters could circulate them.eventually reach coastal waters could circulate them.

Thermal DischargesThermal Discharges

Power plants and industry use large quantities of water for Power plants and industry use large quantities of water for cooling purposes. Used coolant water is usually discharged cooling purposes. Used coolant water is usually discharged directly into water bodies. This could result in increase in directly into water bodies. This could result in increase in temperature of the water bodies with deleterious temperature of the water bodies with deleterious consequences for aquatic inhabitants.consequences for aquatic inhabitants.

An increase in water temperature decrease the oxygen An increase in water temperature decrease the oxygen saturation percentage, and at the same time accelerates saturation percentage, and at the same time accelerates the lowering of DO levels. This is because the hot water the lowering of DO levels. This is because the hot water tends to form a separate layer above the cool water due to tends to form a separate layer above the cool water due to density differences between the two. The hot layer, which density differences between the two. The hot layer, which itself holds less oxygen than the cooler layer as it is denied itself holds less oxygen than the cooler layer as it is denied contact with the atmosphere. The DO level falls rapidly due contact with the atmosphere. The DO level falls rapidly due to normal biological functions in the lower layer and may to normal biological functions in the lower layer and may lead to anaerobic conditions.lead to anaerobic conditions.

OilOil Oil is an important commodity involved in some way or Oil is an important commodity involved in some way or

other in virtually every activity of contemporary life. other in virtually every activity of contemporary life. Therefore, there is obvious concern about its polluting Therefore, there is obvious concern about its polluting effects. Oil and oil wastes enter rivers and other water effects. Oil and oil wastes enter rivers and other water bodies from several sources like industrial effluents, oil bodies from several sources like industrial effluents, oil refineries and storage tanks, automobile waste oil, and refineries and storage tanks, automobile waste oil, and petrochemical plants.petrochemical plants.

Since oil is virtually insoluble in water, it floats and spreads Since oil is virtually insoluble in water, it floats and spreads rapidly into a thin layer. The lighter, low molecular weight rapidly into a thin layer. The lighter, low molecular weight elements, which are more toxic to organisms, soon elements, which are more toxic to organisms, soon evaporate and others are degraded biologically but only at evaporate and others are degraded biologically but only at slow rate. At sea, oil slicks are responsible for the deaths of slow rate. At sea, oil slicks are responsible for the deaths of many birds. The oil penetrates the bird feathers thereby many birds. The oil penetrates the bird feathers thereby affecting their insulation and buoyancy. Thus the birds affecting their insulation and buoyancy. Thus the birds become colder and more susceptible to diseases, and become colder and more susceptible to diseases, and experience difficulty in floating and flying.experience difficulty in floating and flying.

The State of India’s RiversThe State of India’s Rivers

India has always had a tradition of worshipping rivers. Most of the India has always had a tradition of worshipping rivers. Most of the rivers in India are named after gods, goddesses or saints. However a rivers in India are named after gods, goddesses or saints. However a large majority of the Indian population including those who worship the large majority of the Indian population including those who worship the rivers do not think twice before polluting a river. rivers do not think twice before polluting a river.

Urbanization, industrialization, excess withdrawal of water, agricultural Urbanization, industrialization, excess withdrawal of water, agricultural run-off, improper agricultural practices and various religious and social run-off, improper agricultural practices and various religious and social practices all contribute to river pollution in India. practices all contribute to river pollution in India.

Every single river in India be it the Ganga, Yamuna, Cauvery or the Every single river in India be it the Ganga, Yamuna, Cauvery or the Krishna have their own share of problems due to pollution. Waters from Krishna have their own share of problems due to pollution. Waters from the Ganga and the Yamuna are drawn for irrigation through the the Ganga and the Yamuna are drawn for irrigation through the network of canals as soon as these rivers reach the plains reducing the network of canals as soon as these rivers reach the plains reducing the amount of water that flows downstream. amount of water that flows downstream.

What flows in the river is water from small nalas, and streams that carry What flows in the river is water from small nalas, and streams that carry with them sewage and industrial effluents. The residual freshwater, is with them sewage and industrial effluents. The residual freshwater, is unable to dilute the pollutants and the rivers turn into stinking sewers. unable to dilute the pollutants and the rivers turn into stinking sewers.

In spite of data from scientifically competent studies conducted by the In spite of data from scientifically competent studies conducted by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB),Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), the Government has not been the Government has not been able to tackle this issue. Sewage and municipal effluents account for able to tackle this issue. Sewage and municipal effluents account for 75% of the pollution load in rivers while the remaining 25% is from 75% of the pollution load in rivers while the remaining 25% is from industrial effluents and non-point pollution sources. industrial effluents and non-point pollution sources.

In 1985, India launched the In 1985, India launched the Ganga Action plan (GAP) Ganga Action plan (GAP) the largest ever the largest ever river clean-up operation in the country. The plan has been criticized for, river clean-up operation in the country. The plan has been criticized for, overspending and slow progress. The GAP Phase II in 1991 included overspending and slow progress. The GAP Phase II in 1991 included cleaning operations for the tributaries of the Ganga, ie; the Yamuna, cleaning operations for the tributaries of the Ganga, ie; the Yamuna, Gomti and the Damodar. Gomti and the Damodar.

Thus the Thus the Yamuna Action Plan (YAP), Gomti Action Plan and the Yamuna Action Plan (YAP), Gomti Action Plan and the Damodar Action plan Damodar Action plan were added.were added.

In 1995 the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) was launched. In 1995 the National River Conservation Plan (NRCP) was launched. Under this all the rivers in India were taken up for clean-up operations. In Under this all the rivers in India were taken up for clean-up operations. In most of these plans, attempts have been made to tap drains, divert most of these plans, attempts have been made to tap drains, divert sewage to sewage treatment plants before letting out the sewage into the sewage to sewage treatment plants before letting out the sewage into the rivers. rivers.

The biggest drawback The biggest drawback of these river cleaning programs was that they of these river cleaning programs was that they failed to pin responsibilities as to who would pay for running the treatment failed to pin responsibilities as to who would pay for running the treatment facilities in the long run. With the power supply being erratic and these facilities in the long run. With the power supply being erratic and these plants being heavily dependent on power, most of these facilities lie plants being heavily dependent on power, most of these facilities lie underutilized. Moreover the problem of river pollution due to agricultural underutilized. Moreover the problem of river pollution due to agricultural runoff has not been addressed in these programs. runoff has not been addressed in these programs.

NRCP is scheduled to be completed by March 2005. The approved cost NRCP is scheduled to be completed by March 2005. The approved cost for the plan is Rs. 772.08 crores covering 18 rivers in 10 states including for the plan is Rs. 772.08 crores covering 18 rivers in 10 states including 46 towns. 46 towns. The cost is borne entirely by the Central Government and the The cost is borne entirely by the Central Government and the Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal agency that co-Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal agency that co-ordinates and monitors the plan. ordinates and monitors the plan.

Under this plan the major activities include treating the pollution load from Under this plan the major activities include treating the pollution load from sewer systems of towns and cities, setting up of Sewage treatment sewer systems of towns and cities, setting up of Sewage treatment plants, electric crematoria, low cost sanitation facilities, riverfront plants, electric crematoria, low cost sanitation facilities, riverfront development, afforestation and solid waste management.development, afforestation and solid waste management.

Control Measures for Preventing WaterControl Measures for Preventing WaterPollutionPollution

While the foremost necessity is prevention, setting up effluent While the foremost necessity is prevention, setting up effluent treatment plants and treating waste through these can reduce the treatment plants and treating waste through these can reduce the pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent can be pollution load in the recipient water. The treated effluent can be reused for either gardening or cooling purposes wherever possible. reused for either gardening or cooling purposes wherever possible.

A few years ago a new technology called the A few years ago a new technology called the Root Zone Process Root Zone Process has been developed by Thermax.has been developed by Thermax. This system involves running This system involves running contaminated water through the root zones of specially designed contaminated water through the root zones of specially designed reed bedsreed beds. .

The reeds, which are essentially wetland plants have the capacity The reeds, which are essentially wetland plants have the capacity to absorb oxygen from the surrounding air through their stomatal to absorb oxygen from the surrounding air through their stomatal openings. openings.

The oxygen is pushed through the porous stem of the reeds into The oxygen is pushed through the porous stem of the reeds into the hollow roots where it enters the root zone and creates the hollow roots where it enters the root zone and creates conditions suitable for the growth of numerous bacteria and fungi. conditions suitable for the growth of numerous bacteria and fungi. These micro-organisms oxidize impurities in the wastewaters, so These micro-organisms oxidize impurities in the wastewaters, so that the water which finally comes out is clean.that the water which finally comes out is clean.

Marine PollutionMarine Pollution

Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to Marine pollution can be defined as the introduction of substances to the marine environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in the marine environment directly or indirectly by man resulting in adverse effects such as hazards to human health, obstruction of adverse effects such as hazards to human health, obstruction of marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water. While the marine activities and lowering the quality of sea water. While the causes of marine pollution may be similar to that of general water causes of marine pollution may be similar to that of general water pollution there are some very specific causes that pollute marine pollution there are some very specific causes that pollute marine waters.waters.

The most obvious inputs of waste is through pipes directly discharging The most obvious inputs of waste is through pipes directly discharging wastes into the sea. Very often municipal waste and sewage from wastes into the sea. Very often municipal waste and sewage from residences and hotels in coastal towns are directly discharged into the residences and hotels in coastal towns are directly discharged into the sea.sea.

Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture which are washed off the Pesticides and fertilizers from agriculture which are washed off the land by rain, enter water courses and eventually reach the sea.land by rain, enter water courses and eventually reach the sea.

Petroleum and oils washed off from the roads normally enter the Petroleum and oils washed off from the roads normally enter the sewage system but stormwater overflows carry these materials into sewage system but stormwater overflows carry these materials into rivers and eventually into the seas.rivers and eventually into the seas.

Ships carry many toxic substances such as oil, liquefied natural gas, Ships carry many toxic substances such as oil, liquefied natural gas, pesticides, industrial chemicals, etc. in huge quantities sometimes to pesticides, industrial chemicals, etc. in huge quantities sometimes to the capacity of 350,000 tonnes. Ship accidents and accidental spillages the capacity of 350,000 tonnes. Ship accidents and accidental spillages at sea therefore can be very damaging to the marine environment. at sea therefore can be very damaging to the marine environment. Shipping channels in estuaries and at the entrances to ports often Shipping channels in estuaries and at the entrances to ports often require frequent dredging to keep them open. This dredged material require frequent dredging to keep them open. This dredged material that may contain heavy metals and other contaminants are often that may contain heavy metals and other contaminants are often dumped out to sea. dumped out to sea.

Offshore oil exploration and extraction also pollute the seawater to a Offshore oil exploration and extraction also pollute the seawater to a large extent.large extent.

Exxon ValdezExxon Valdez oil spilloil spill

Occurred in the Prince William Sound, Alaska, in 1989. Occurred in the Prince William Sound, Alaska, in 1989.

One of the world's largest oil spills in terms of volume releasedOne of the world's largest oil spills in terms of volume released

Prince William Sound's remote location (accessible only by helicopter Prince William Sound's remote location (accessible only by helicopter and boat) made response efforts difficultand boat) made response efforts difficult

The region was a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirdsThe region was a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds

The vessel spilled 10.8 million U.S. gallons (about 40 million litres) of The vessel spilled 10.8 million U.S. gallons (about 40 million litres) of crude oil into the sea, and the oil eventually covered 11,000 square crude oil into the sea, and the oil eventually covered 11,000 square miles (28,000 kmmiles (28,000 km22) of ocean.) of ocean.

Control Measures for Oil PollutionControl Measures for Oil Pollution

Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches is a time Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches is a time consuming labour intensive process. consuming labour intensive process.

The natural process of emulsification of oil in the water can be The natural process of emulsification of oil in the water can be accelerated through the use of accelerated through the use of chemical dispersants which can be chemical dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil. sprayed on the oil. A variety of A variety of slick-lickersslick-lickers in which a continuous belt in which a continuous belt of absorbent material dips through the oil slick and is passed through of absorbent material dips through the oil slick and is passed through rollers to extract the oil have been designed. rollers to extract the oil have been designed.

Rocks, harbour walls can be cleaned with high pressure steam or Rocks, harbour walls can be cleaned with high pressure steam or dispersants after which the surface must be hosed down.dispersants after which the surface must be hosed down.

Thermal PollutionThermal PollutionSourcesSources The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called a The discharge of warm water into a river is usually called a thermal thermal

pollution. pollution.

It occurs when an industry removes water from a source, uses the water It occurs when an industry removes water from a source, uses the water for cooling purposes and then returns the heated water to its source. for cooling purposes and then returns the heated water to its source.

Power plants heat water to convert it into steam, to drive the turbines Power plants heat water to convert it into steam, to drive the turbines that generate electricity. that generate electricity.

For efficient functioning of the steam turbines, the steam is condensed For efficient functioning of the steam turbines, the steam is condensed into water after it leaves the turbines. This condensation is done by into water after it leaves the turbines. This condensation is done by taking water from a water body to absorb the heat. taking water from a water body to absorb the heat.

This heated water, which is at least 15This heated water, which is at least 15ooC higher than the normal is C higher than the normal is discharged back into the water body.discharged back into the water body.

EffectsEffects

The warmer temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and The warmer temperature decreases the solubility of oxygen and increases the metabolism of fish. This changes the ecological balance increases the metabolism of fish. This changes the ecological balance of the river. of the river.

Within certain limits thermal additions can promote the growth of certain Within certain limits thermal additions can promote the growth of certain fish and the fish catch may be high in the vicinity of a power plant. fish and the fish catch may be high in the vicinity of a power plant.

However sudden changes in temperature caused by periodic plant However sudden changes in temperature caused by periodic plant shutdowns both planned and unintentional can change result in death shutdowns both planned and unintentional can change result in death of these fish that are acclimatized to living in warmer waters.of these fish that are acclimatized to living in warmer waters.

Tropical marine animals are generally unable to withstand a Tropical marine animals are generally unable to withstand a temperature increase of 2 to 3temperature increase of 2 to 300C and most sponges, mollusks and C and most sponges, mollusks and crustaceans are eliminated at temperatures above 37crustaceans are eliminated at temperatures above 3700C. C.

This results in a change in the diversity of fauna as only those species This results in a change in the diversity of fauna as only those species that can live in warmer water survive.that can live in warmer water survive.

Control MeasuresControl Measures Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water through Thermal pollution can be controlled by passing the heated water through

a cooling pond or a cooling tower after it leaves the condenser. a cooling pond or a cooling tower after it leaves the condenser.

The heat is dissipated into the air and the water can then be discharged The heat is dissipated into the air and the water can then be discharged into the river or pumped back to the plant for reuse as cooling water. into the river or pumped back to the plant for reuse as cooling water.

There are several ways in which thermal pollution can be reduced. One There are several ways in which thermal pollution can be reduced. One method is to construct a large shallow pond. Hot water is pumped into method is to construct a large shallow pond. Hot water is pumped into one end of the pond and cooler water is removed from the other end. The one end of the pond and cooler water is removed from the other end. The heat gets dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere. heat gets dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere.

A second method is to use a cooling tower. These structures take up A second method is to use a cooling tower. These structures take up less land area than the ponds. Here most of the heat transfer occurs less land area than the ponds. Here most of the heat transfer occurs through evaporation. Here warm waters coming from the condenser is through evaporation. Here warm waters coming from the condenser is sprayed downward over vertical sheets or baffles where the water flows sprayed downward over vertical sheets or baffles where the water flows in thin films. in thin films.

Cool air enters the tower through the water inlet that encircles the base Cool air enters the tower through the water inlet that encircles the base of the tower and rises upwards causing evaporative cooling. of the tower and rises upwards causing evaporative cooling.

A natural draft is maintained because of the density difference between A natural draft is maintained because of the density difference between the cool air outside and the warmer air inside the tower. The waste heat the cool air outside and the warmer air inside the tower. The waste heat is dissipated into the atmosphere about 100 m above the base of the is dissipated into the atmosphere about 100 m above the base of the tower. tower.

The cooled water is collected at the floor of the tower and recycled back The cooled water is collected at the floor of the tower and recycled back to the power plant condensers. to the power plant condensers.

The disadvantage in both these methods is however that large amounts The disadvantage in both these methods is however that large amounts of water are lost by evaporation.of water are lost by evaporation.

Noise PollutionNoise Pollution

Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water but Noise may not seem as harmful as the contamination of air or water but it is a pollution problem that affects human health and can contribute to it is a pollution problem that affects human health and can contribute to a general deterioration of environmental quality. a general deterioration of environmental quality.

Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound. Noise is undesirable and unwanted sound.

Not all sound is noise. Not all sound is noise.

What may be considered as music to one person may be noise to What may be considered as music to one person may be noise to another. another.

It is not a substance that can accumulate in the environment like most It is not a substance that can accumulate in the environment like most other pollutants. other pollutants.

Sound is measured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’.Sound is measured in a unit called the ‘Decibel’.

Measurement of noise levelsMeasurement of noise levels

It is measured in decibels.It is measured in decibels.

Also in Noise exposure index (NEI)Also in Noise exposure index (NEI)

NEI = t / TNEI = t / T

Where t is total time of exposure at a particular noise Where t is total time of exposure at a particular noise level.level.

T is total time of exposure permitted at that level.T is total time of exposure permitted at that level.

Effects of Noise Pollution on Physical HealthEffects of Noise Pollution on Physical Health

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage to the ear and the temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a to the ear and the temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a temporary threshold shift (TTS). temporary threshold shift (TTS).

People suffering from this condition are unable to detect weak sounds. People suffering from this condition are unable to detect weak sounds. However hearing ability is usually recovered within a month of However hearing ability is usually recovered within a month of exposure. exposure.

In Maharashtra people living in close vicinity of Ganesh mandals that In Maharashtra people living in close vicinity of Ganesh mandals that play blaring music for ten days of the Ganesh festival are usually play blaring music for ten days of the Ganesh festival are usually known to suffer from this phenomenon.known to suffer from this phenomenon.

Permanent loss, usually called Permanent loss, usually called noise induced permanent threshold shift noise induced permanent threshold shift (NIPTS)(NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no recovery. recovery.

Below a sound level of Below a sound level of 80 dBA 80 dBA hearing loss does not occur at all. hearing loss does not occur at all. However temporary effects are noticed at sound levels between However temporary effects are noticed at sound levels between 80 and 80 and 130 dBA. 130 dBA.

About 50 percent of the people exposed to 95 dBA sound levels at work About 50 percent of the people exposed to 95 dBA sound levels at work will develop NIPTS and most people exposed to more than 105 dBA will will develop NIPTS and most people exposed to more than 105 dBA will experience permanent hearing loss to some degree.experience permanent hearing loss to some degree.

A sound level of 150 dBA A sound level of 150 dBA or more can physically rupture the human or more can physically rupture the human eardrum.eardrum.

The degree of hearing loss depends on the duration as well as the The degree of hearing loss depends on the duration as well as the intensity of the noise. For example, 1hour of exposure to a 100 dBA intensity of the noise. For example, 1hour of exposure to a 100 dBA sound level can produce a TTS that may last for about one day. However sound level can produce a TTS that may last for about one day. However in factories with noisy machinery workers are subjected to high sound in factories with noisy machinery workers are subjected to high sound levels for several hours a day. levels for several hours a day.

Ambient Noise Levels dB

Zone Day-time Night-time

Silent Zone 50 40

Residential Zone 55 45

Commercial Zone 65 55

Industrial Zone 70 70

Noise Control TechniquesNoise Control Techniques

There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlledcontrolled::

Reduce noise at the source, block the path of noise, increase the path Reduce noise at the source, block the path of noise, increase the path length and protect the recipient. length and protect the recipient.

In general, the best control method is to reduce noise levels at the In general, the best control method is to reduce noise levels at the source.source.

Source reduction can be done by Source reduction can be done by effectively muffling vehicles and effectively muffling vehicles and machinerymachinery to reduce the noise. In industries noise reduction can be done to reduce the noise. In industries noise reduction can be done by using rigid sealed enclosures around machinery lined with acoustic by using rigid sealed enclosures around machinery lined with acoustic absorbing material. Isolating machines and their enclosures from the absorbing material. Isolating machines and their enclosures from the floor using special spring mounts or absorbent mounts and pads and floor using special spring mounts or absorbent mounts and pads and using flexible couplings for interior pipelines also contribute to reducing using flexible couplings for interior pipelines also contribute to reducing noise pollution at the source.noise pollution at the source.

However one of the best methods of noise source reduction is regular and However one of the best methods of noise source reduction is regular and thorough maintenance of operating machinerythorough maintenance of operating machinery. Noise levels at . Noise levels at construction sites can be controlled using proper construction planning construction sites can be controlled using proper construction planning and scheduling techniques. Locating noisy air compressors and other and scheduling techniques. Locating noisy air compressors and other equipment away from the site boundary along with creation of temporary equipment away from the site boundary along with creation of temporary barriers to physically block the noise can help contribute to reducing noise barriers to physically block the noise can help contribute to reducing noise pollution. pollution.

Most of the Most of the vehicular noisevehicular noise comes from movement of the vehicle tires on comes from movement of the vehicle tires on the pavement and wind resistance. However poorly maintained vehicles the pavement and wind resistance. However poorly maintained vehicles can add to the noise levels.can add to the noise levels.

Traffic volume and speedTraffic volume and speed also have significant effects on the overall also have significant effects on the overall sound. For example doubling the speed increases the sound levels by sound. For example doubling the speed increases the sound levels by about 9 dBA and doubling the traffic volume (number of vehicles per hour) about 9 dBA and doubling the traffic volume (number of vehicles per hour) increases sound levels by about 3 dBA. A smooth flow of traffic also increases sound levels by about 3 dBA. A smooth flow of traffic also causes less noise than does a stop-and-go traffic pattern. Proper highway causes less noise than does a stop-and-go traffic pattern. Proper highway planning and design are essential for controlling traffic noise.planning and design are essential for controlling traffic noise.

Establishing lower speed limits for highways that pass through Establishing lower speed limits for highways that pass through residential areas, limiting traffic volume and providing alternative routes residential areas, limiting traffic volume and providing alternative routes for truck traffic are effective noise control measures.for truck traffic are effective noise control measures.

The path of traffic noise can also be blocked by construction of vertical The path of traffic noise can also be blocked by construction of vertical barriers alongside the highway. barriers alongside the highway.

Planting of trees around houses can also act as effective noise barriers. Planting of trees around houses can also act as effective noise barriers.

In industries different types of absorptive material can be used to In industries different types of absorptive material can be used to control interior noise. Highly absorptive interior finish material for walls, control interior noise. Highly absorptive interior finish material for walls, ceilings and floors can decrease indoor noise levels significantly. ceilings and floors can decrease indoor noise levels significantly.

Sound levels drop significantly with increasing distance from the noise Sound levels drop significantly with increasing distance from the noise source. Increasing the path length between the source and the recipient source. Increasing the path length between the source and the recipient offers a passive means of control. offers a passive means of control.

Municipal land-use ordinances pertaining to the location of airports make Municipal land-use ordinances pertaining to the location of airports make use of the attenuating effect of distance on sound levels. Use of earplugs use of the attenuating effect of distance on sound levels. Use of earplugs and earmuffs can protect individuals effectively from excessive noise and earmuffs can protect individuals effectively from excessive noise levels. Specially designed earmuffs can reduce the sound level reaching levels. Specially designed earmuffs can reduce the sound level reaching the eardrum by as much as 40 dBA. the eardrum by as much as 40 dBA.

However very often workers tend not to wear them on a regular basis However very often workers tend not to wear them on a regular basis despite company requirements for their use.despite company requirements for their use.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT:

Classification of Solid WasteClassification of Solid WasteUrban waste: Includes domestic, muncipal and industrial Urban waste: Includes domestic, muncipal and industrial

waste produtswaste produtsMineral waste: Includes waste from mining and mineral Mineral waste: Includes waste from mining and mineral

processing.processing.Agricultural waste: Includes waste from farming, animals and Agricultural waste: Includes waste from farming, animals and

crops.crops.

Industrial waste classified into process and non process Industrial waste classified into process and non process waste.waste.

Process waste: complex and specific to industries.Process waste: complex and specific to industries. Rubber tyre industry generates rubber wasteRubber tyre industry generates rubber waste Plastic producing firm plastic waste.Plastic producing firm plastic waste.Non process waste: Includes packaging, office and cafeteria Non process waste: Includes packaging, office and cafeteria

wastes similar to domestic and commercial wastes.wastes similar to domestic and commercial wastes.

Characteristics of Municipal Solid Characteristics of Municipal Solid WasteWaste

Solid wastes are grouped or classified in several different ways. These Solid wastes are grouped or classified in several different ways. These different classifications are necessary to address the complex challenges of different classifications are necessary to address the complex challenges of solid waste management in an effective manner. solid waste management in an effective manner.

The term The term municipal solid waste (MSW)municipal solid waste (MSW) is generally used to describe most of is generally used to describe most of the non-hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that requires the non-hazardous solid waste from a city, town or village that requires routine collection and transport to a processing or disposal site. routine collection and transport to a processing or disposal site.

Sources of MSW include private homes, commercial establishments and Sources of MSW include private homes, commercial establishments and institutions as well as industrial facilities. institutions as well as industrial facilities.

However MSW does not include wastes from industrial processes, However MSW does not include wastes from industrial processes, construction and demolition debris, sewage sludge, mining wastes or construction and demolition debris, sewage sludge, mining wastes or agricultural wastes. agricultural wastes.

Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of materials. It can contain food Municipal solid waste contains a wide variety of materials. It can contain food waste such as vegetable and meat material, left over food, egg shells, etc waste such as vegetable and meat material, left over food, egg shells, etc which is classified as which is classified as wet garbagewet garbage as well as paper, plastic, tetrapacks, as well as paper, plastic, tetrapacks, plastic cans, newspaper, glass bottles, cardboard boxes, aluminum foil, metal plastic cans, newspaper, glass bottles, cardboard boxes, aluminum foil, metal items, wood pieces, etc. which is classified as items, wood pieces, etc. which is classified as dry garbagedry garbage..

Control Measures of Urban and Control Measures of Urban and IndustrialIndustrialWastesWastes

An integrated waste management strategy includes three main An integrated waste management strategy includes three main components:components:

1. Source reduction1. Source reduction

2. Recycling2. Recycling

3. Disposal3. Disposal

Source reduction Source reduction is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. is one of the fundamental ways to reduce waste. This can be done by using less material when making a product, reuse This can be done by using less material when making a product, reuse of products on site, designing products or packaging to reduce their of products on site, designing products or packaging to reduce their quantity. On an individual level we can reduce the use of unnecessary quantity. On an individual level we can reduce the use of unnecessary items while shopping, buy items with minimal packaging, avoid buying items while shopping, buy items with minimal packaging, avoid buying disposable items and also avoid asking for plastic carry bags.disposable items and also avoid asking for plastic carry bags.

Recycling Recycling is reusing some components of the waste that may have is reusing some components of the waste that may have some economic value. Recycling has readily visible benefits such as some economic value. Recycling has readily visible benefits such as conservation of resources reduction in energy used during manufacture conservation of resources reduction in energy used during manufacture and reducing pollution levels. Some materials such as and reducing pollution levels. Some materials such as aluminum and aluminum and steelsteel can be recycled many times. can be recycled many times. Metal, paper, glass and plasticsMetal, paper, glass and plastics are are recyclable. recyclable. Mining of new aluminumMining of new aluminum is expensive and hence recycled is expensive and hence recycled aluminum has a strong market and plays a significant role in the aluminum has a strong market and plays a significant role in the aluminum industry.aluminum industry.

Paper recyclingPaper recycling can also help preserve forests as it takes about 17 trees can also help preserve forests as it takes about 17 trees to make one ton of paper. to make one ton of paper.

Crushed glassCrushed glass (cullet) reduces the energy required to manufacture new (cullet) reduces the energy required to manufacture new glass by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature requirement of the glass by 50 percent. Cullet lowers the temperature requirement of the glassmaking process thus conserving energy and reducing air pollution. glassmaking process thus conserving energy and reducing air pollution.

However even if recycling is a viable alternative, it presents several However even if recycling is a viable alternative, it presents several problems. The problems associated with recycling are either technical or problems. The problems associated with recycling are either technical or economical.economical.

PlasticsPlastics are difficult to recycle because of the different types of polymer are difficult to recycle because of the different types of polymer resins used in their production. Since each type has its own chemical resins used in their production. Since each type has its own chemical makeup different plastics cannot be recycled together. Thus separation makeup different plastics cannot be recycled together. Thus separation of different plastics before recycling is necessary. of different plastics before recycling is necessary.

Similarly in Similarly in recycled paperrecycled paper the fibers are weakened and it is difficult to the fibers are weakened and it is difficult to control the colour of the recycled product. Recycled paper is banned for control the colour of the recycled product. Recycled paper is banned for use in food containers to prevent the possibility of contamination. It very use in food containers to prevent the possibility of contamination. It very often costs less to transport raw paper pulp than scrap paper. often costs less to transport raw paper pulp than scrap paper. Collection, sorting and transport account for about 90 percent of the Collection, sorting and transport account for about 90 percent of the cost of paper recycling. cost of paper recycling.

The processes of pulping, deinking and screening wastepaper are The processes of pulping, deinking and screening wastepaper are generally more expensive than making paper from virgin wood or generally more expensive than making paper from virgin wood or cellulose fibers. cellulose fibers.

Very often thus recycled paper is more expensive than virgin paper. Very often thus recycled paper is more expensive than virgin paper. However as technology improves the cost will come down.However as technology improves the cost will come down.

Disposal Disposal of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill of solid waste is done most commonly through a sanitary landfill or through incineration. or through incineration.

A A modern sanitary landfillmodern sanitary landfill is a depression in an impermeable soil layer that is a depression in an impermeable soil layer that is lined with an impermeable membrane. is lined with an impermeable membrane.

The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that The three key characteristics of a municipal sanitary landfill that distinguish it from an open dump aredistinguish it from an open dump are::

Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a Solid waste is placed in a suitably selected and prepared landfill site in a carefully prescribed manner.carefully prescribed manner.

The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy The waste material is spread out and compacted with appropriate heavy machinery.machinery.

The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil.The waste is covered each day with a layer of compacted soil.

• The problem with older landfills are associated with groundwater The problem with older landfills are associated with groundwater pollution. pollution.

• Pollutants seeping out from the bottom of a sanitary landfill (leachates) Pollutants seeping out from the bottom of a sanitary landfill (leachates) very often percolate down to the groundwater aquifer no matter how very often percolate down to the groundwater aquifer no matter how thick the underlying soil layer.thick the underlying soil layer.

Today it is essential to have suitable bottom liners and leachate collection Today it is essential to have suitable bottom liners and leachate collection systems along with the installation of monitoring systems to detect systems along with the installation of monitoring systems to detect groundwater pollution. groundwater pollution.

The organic material in the buried solid waste will decompose due to the The organic material in the buried solid waste will decompose due to the action of microorganisms.action of microorganisms.

At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen that was At first the waste decomposes aerobically until the oxygen that was present in the freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms. present in the freshly placed fill is used up by the aerobic microorganisms.

The anerobes take over producing methane which is poisonous and The anerobes take over producing methane which is poisonous and highly explosive when mixed with air in concentrations between 5 and 15 highly explosive when mixed with air in concentrations between 5 and 15 percent. The movement of gas can be controlled by providing percent. The movement of gas can be controlled by providing impermeable barriers in the landfill. A venting system to collect the impermeable barriers in the landfill. A venting system to collect the blocked gas and vent it to the surface where it can be safely diluted and blocked gas and vent it to the surface where it can be safely diluted and dispersed into the atmosphere is thus a necessary component of the dispersed into the atmosphere is thus a necessary component of the design of sanitary landfills. design of sanitary landfills.

Even though landfilling is an economic alternative for solid waste Even though landfilling is an economic alternative for solid waste disposal, it has become increasingly difficult to find suitable disposal, it has become increasingly difficult to find suitable landfilling landfilling sitessites that are within economic hauling distance and very often citizens that are within economic hauling distance and very often citizens do not want landfills in their vicinity. do not want landfills in their vicinity.

Another reason is that no matter how well engineered the design and Another reason is that no matter how well engineered the design and operation may be, there is always the danger of some environmental operation may be, there is always the danger of some environmental damage in the form of leakage of leachates.damage in the form of leakage of leachates.

Incineration Incineration is the process of burning municipal solid waste in a is the process of burning municipal solid waste in a properly designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating properly designed furnace under suitable temperature and operating conditions. conditions.

Incineration is a chemical process in which the combustible portion of Incineration is a chemical process in which the combustible portion of the waste is combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water, the waste is combined with oxygen forming carbon dioxide and water, which are released into the atmosphere. This chemical reaction called which are released into the atmosphere. This chemical reaction called oxidation results in the release of heat. oxidation results in the release of heat.

For complete oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate For complete oxidation the waste must be mixed with appropriate volumes of air at a temperature of about 815volumes of air at a temperature of about 815oo C for about one hour. C for about one hour.

Incineration can reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90 percent Incineration can reduce the municipal solid waste by about 90 percent in volume and 75 percent in weight. The risks of incineration however in volume and 75 percent in weight. The risks of incineration however involve airquality problems and toxicity and disposal of the fly and involve airquality problems and toxicity and disposal of the fly and bottom ash produced during the incineration process. bottom ash produced during the incineration process.

Fly ashFly ash consists of finely divided particulate matter, including cinders, consists of finely divided particulate matter, including cinders, mineral dust and soot. Most of the incinerator ash is bottom ash while mineral dust and soot. Most of the incinerator ash is bottom ash while the remainder is fly ash. the remainder is fly ash.

The possible presence of heavy metals in incinerator ash can be The possible presence of heavy metals in incinerator ash can be harmful. Thus toxic products and materials containing heavy metals harmful. Thus toxic products and materials containing heavy metals (for example batteries and plastics) should be segregated. (for example batteries and plastics) should be segregated.

Thus extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical Thus extensive air pollution control equipment and high-level technical supervision and skilled employees for proper operation and supervision and skilled employees for proper operation and maintenance is required. maintenance is required.

Thus while sanitary landfills and incinerators have their own Thus while sanitary landfills and incinerators have their own advantages and disadvantages, the most effective method of solid advantages and disadvantages, the most effective method of solid waste management is source reduction and recycling.waste management is source reduction and recycling.

Vermi – CompostingVermi – Composting

Nature has perfect solutions for managing the waste it creates, if left Nature has perfect solutions for managing the waste it creates, if left undisturbed. undisturbed.

The biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear the waste material The biogeochemical cycles are designed to clear the waste material produced by animals and plants. We can mimic the same methods that produced by animals and plants. We can mimic the same methods that are present in nature. are present in nature.

All dead and dry leaves and twigs decompose and are broken down by All dead and dry leaves and twigs decompose and are broken down by organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken down by organisms such as worms and insects, and is finally broken down by bacteria and fungi, to form a dark rich soil-like material called bacteria and fungi, to form a dark rich soil-like material called compost.compost.

These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which These organisms in the soil use the organic material as food, which provides them with nutrients for their growth and activities. These provides them with nutrients for their growth and activities. These nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again by trees and other nutrients are returned to the soil to be used again by trees and other plants. plants.

This process recycles nutrients in nature. This soil can be used as a This process recycles nutrients in nature. This soil can be used as a manure for farms and gardens.manure for farms and gardens.

Steps for Vermi-Compost

• Dig a pit about half a meter square, one meter deep.

• Line it with straw or dried leaves and grass.

• Organize the disposal of organic waste into the pit as and when generated.

• Introduce a culture of worms that is now produced commercially.

• Ensure that the contents are covered with a sprinkling of dried leaves and soil everyday.

• Water the pit once or twice a week to keep it moist.

• Turn over the contents of the pit over 15 days.

• In about 45 days the waste will be decomposed by the action of the microorganisms.

• The soil derived is fertile and rich in nutrients.

Hazardous WastesHazardous Wastes

Modern society produces large quantities of hazardous waste which are Modern society produces large quantities of hazardous waste which are generated by chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries, generated by chemical manufacturing companies, petroleum refineries, paper mills, smelters and other industries. paper mills, smelters and other industries.

Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harm to humans or the Hazardous wastes are those that can cause harm to humans or the environment. environment.

Wastes are normally classified as hazardous waste when they cause or Wastes are normally classified as hazardous waste when they cause or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness or pose a serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness or pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed environment when improperly treated, stored, transported or disposed of.of.

Characteristics of Hazardous WastesCharacteristics of Hazardous Wastes

A waste is classified as a hazardous waste if it exhibits any of the four A waste is classified as a hazardous waste if it exhibits any of the four primary characteristics based on the physical or chemical properties of primary characteristics based on the physical or chemical properties of toxicity, reactivity, ignitability and corrosivity. In addition to this waste toxicity, reactivity, ignitability and corrosivity. In addition to this waste products that are either infectious or radioactive are also classified as products that are either infectious or radioactive are also classified as hazardous hazardous

Toxic wastesToxic wastes are those substances that are poisonous even in very small are those substances that are poisonous even in very small or trace amounts. Some may have an acute or immediate effect on humans or trace amounts. Some may have an acute or immediate effect on humans or animals causing death or violent illness. Others may have a chronic or or animals causing death or violent illness. Others may have a chronic or long term effect slowly causing irreparable harm to exposed persons. Acute long term effect slowly causing irreparable harm to exposed persons. Acute toxicity is readily apparent because organisms respond to the toxin shortly toxicity is readily apparent because organisms respond to the toxin shortly after being exposed. Chronic toxicity is much more difficult to determine after being exposed. Chronic toxicity is much more difficult to determine because the effects may not be seen for years. Certain toxic wastes are because the effects may not be seen for years. Certain toxic wastes are known to be carcinogenic, causing cancer and others may be mutagenic known to be carcinogenic, causing cancer and others may be mutagenic causing biological changes in the children of exposed people and animals.causing biological changes in the children of exposed people and animals.

Reactive wastesReactive wastes are those that have a tendency to react vigorously with are those that have a tendency to react vigorously with air or water, are unstable to shock or heat, generate toxic gases or explode air or water, are unstable to shock or heat, generate toxic gases or explode during routine management. For example, gunpowder, nitroglycerine, etc. during routine management. For example, gunpowder, nitroglycerine, etc.

Ignitable wastesIgnitable wastes are those that burn at relatively low temperatures are those that burn at relatively low temperatures (less than 60(less than 6000C) and are capable of spontaneous combustion during C) and are capable of spontaneous combustion during storage, transport or disposal. For example, gasoline, paint thinners, storage, transport or disposal. For example, gasoline, paint thinners, and alcohol.and alcohol.

Corrosive wastesCorrosive wastes are those that destroy materials and living tissue by are those that destroy materials and living tissue by chemical reaction. For example, acids and bases.chemical reaction. For example, acids and bases.

Infectious wastesInfectious wastes include human tissue from surgery, used bandages include human tissue from surgery, used bandages and hypodermic needles, microbiological materials, etc.and hypodermic needles, microbiological materials, etc.

Radioactive wasteRadioactive waste is basically an output from the nuclear power plants is basically an output from the nuclear power plants and can persist in the environment for thousands of years before it and can persist in the environment for thousands of years before it decays appreciably.decays appreciably.

Environmental Problems and Health Risks Caused By Environmental Problems and Health Risks Caused By Hazardous WastesHazardous Wastes

As most of the hazardous wastes are disposed of on or in land the As most of the hazardous wastes are disposed of on or in land the most serious environmental effect is most serious environmental effect is contaminated groundwatercontaminated groundwater. .

Once groundwater is polluted with hazardous wastes it is very often Once groundwater is polluted with hazardous wastes it is very often not possible to reverse the damage. Pesticides are used increasingly not possible to reverse the damage. Pesticides are used increasingly to protect and increase food production. to protect and increase food production.

They form residues in the soil which are washed into streams which They form residues in the soil which are washed into streams which then carry them forwards. The residues may persist in the soil or in then carry them forwards. The residues may persist in the soil or in the bottom of lakes and rivers. Exposure can occur through ingestion, the bottom of lakes and rivers. Exposure can occur through ingestion, inhalation and skin contact resulting in acute or chronic poisoning. inhalation and skin contact resulting in acute or chronic poisoning.

Today we have an alternative to the excess use of pesticides through Today we have an alternative to the excess use of pesticides through the use of the use of Integrated Pest Management (IPM).Integrated Pest Management (IPM). The IPM system uses The IPM system uses a wide variety of plants and insects to create a more natural process. a wide variety of plants and insects to create a more natural process.

The natural balance between climate, soil and insect populations can The natural balance between climate, soil and insect populations can help to prevent an insect from overpopulating an area and destroying a help to prevent an insect from overpopulating an area and destroying a particular crop. particular crop.

Lead, mercury and arsenicLead, mercury and arsenic are hazardous substances which are often are hazardous substances which are often referred to as referred to as heavy metalsheavy metals. Lead is an abundant heavy metal and is . Lead is an abundant heavy metal and is relatively easy to obtain. It is used in relatively easy to obtain. It is used in batteries, fuelbatteries, fuel, pesticides, paints, , pesticides, paints, pipes and other places where resistance to corrosion is required. Most pipes and other places where resistance to corrosion is required. Most of the lead taken up by people and wildlife is stored in bones. of the lead taken up by people and wildlife is stored in bones.

Lead can affect red blood cells by reducing their ability to carry oxygen Lead can affect red blood cells by reducing their ability to carry oxygen and shortening their life span. Lead may also damage nerve tissue and shortening their life span. Lead may also damage nerve tissue which can result in brain disease. which can result in brain disease.

Mercury occurs in several different forms. Mercury is used in the Mercury occurs in several different forms. Mercury is used in the production of chlorine. It is also used as a catalyst in the production of production of chlorine. It is also used as a catalyst in the production of some plastics. Industrial processes such as the production of chlorine some plastics. Industrial processes such as the production of chlorine and plastics are responsible for most of the environmental damage and plastics are responsible for most of the environmental damage resulting from mercury. Our body has a limited ability to eliminateresulting from mercury. Our body has a limited ability to eliminate mercury.mercury.

In the food web mercury becomes more concentrated as it is taken up In the food web mercury becomes more concentrated as it is taken up by various organisms. In an aquatic environment, mercury can be by various organisms. In an aquatic environment, mercury can be absorbed by the plankton which are then consumed by fish. In absorbed by the plankton which are then consumed by fish. In addition, fish take up mercury through their gills and by eating other addition, fish take up mercury through their gills and by eating other fish contaminated with mercury. fish contaminated with mercury.

Generally older the fish greater is the mercury concentration in its Generally older the fish greater is the mercury concentration in its body. Birds that eat the fish concentrate even more mercury in their body. Birds that eat the fish concentrate even more mercury in their bodies. bodies.

It is a cumulative poison ( it builds up in the body over long periods of It is a cumulative poison ( it builds up in the body over long periods of time) and is known to cause brain damage.time) and is known to cause brain damage.

Thousands of chemicals are used in industry everyday. Thousands of chemicals are used in industry everyday.

When used incorrectly or inappropriately they can become health When used incorrectly or inappropriately they can become health hazards. hazards. PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls)PCBs (Polychlorinated biphenyls) are resistant to fire and do are resistant to fire and do not conduct electricity very well which makes them excellent materials not conduct electricity very well which makes them excellent materials for several industrial purposes. Rainwater can wash PCBs out of for several industrial purposes. Rainwater can wash PCBs out of disposal areas in dumps and landfills thus contaminating water. PCBs disposal areas in dumps and landfills thus contaminating water. PCBs do not break down very rapidly in the environment and thus retain their do not break down very rapidly in the environment and thus retain their toxic characteristics. toxic characteristics.

They cause long term exposure problems to both humans and wildlife. They cause long term exposure problems to both humans and wildlife. PCBs are concentrated in the kidneys and liver and thus cause PCBs are concentrated in the kidneys and liver and thus cause damage. They cause reproductive failure in birds and mammals.damage. They cause reproductive failure in birds and mammals.

Vinyl chloride is a chemical that is widely used in the manufacture of Vinyl chloride is a chemical that is widely used in the manufacture of plastic. Usually people are only exposed to high levels of vinyl chloride plastic. Usually people are only exposed to high levels of vinyl chloride if they work with it or near it but exposure can also occur from vinyl if they work with it or near it but exposure can also occur from vinyl chloride gas leaks. After a long continuous exposure (one to three chloride gas leaks. After a long continuous exposure (one to three years) in humans, vinyl chloride can cause deafness, vision problems, years) in humans, vinyl chloride can cause deafness, vision problems, circulation disorders and bone deformities.circulation disorders and bone deformities.

Vinyl chloride can also cause birth defects. It is essential to substitute Vinyl chloride can also cause birth defects. It is essential to substitute the use of PCBs and vinyl chloride with chemicals that are less toxic. the use of PCBs and vinyl chloride with chemicals that are less toxic. Polyvinyl chloride use can be lowered by reducing our use of plastics. Polyvinyl chloride use can be lowered by reducing our use of plastics.

Thus by reducing waste, encouraging recycling and using products that Thus by reducing waste, encouraging recycling and using products that are well made and durable we can greatly reduce our consumption of are well made and durable we can greatly reduce our consumption of these chemicals thus curtailing our exposure to these substances. these chemicals thus curtailing our exposure to these substances.

We may not realize it but many household chemicals can be quite toxic We may not realize it but many household chemicals can be quite toxic to humans as well as wildlife.to humans as well as wildlife.

Most of the dangerous substances in our homes are found in various Most of the dangerous substances in our homes are found in various kinds of cleaners, solvents and products used in automotive care. kinds of cleaners, solvents and products used in automotive care.

When these products are used incorrectly they have the potential to be When these products are used incorrectly they have the potential to be harmful.harmful.