environmental - kopykitab · 2018. 10. 1. · 4.10 soil erosion 91 4.11 types of water erosion 94...
TRANSCRIPT
ENVIRONMENTALBIOTECHNOLOGYBasic Concepts and Applications
ENVIRONMENTALBIOTECHNOLOGYBasic Concepts and Applications
I.K. International Pvt. Ltd.New Delhi • Mumbai • Bangalore
Indu Shekhar ThakurAssociate Professor
School of Environmental SciencesJNU, New Delhi
Published by
I.K. International Pvt. Ltd.
S-25, Green Park Extension
Uphaar Cinema Market
New Delhi 110 016 (India)
E-mail: [email protected]
Branch Offices:
A-6, Royal Industrial Estate, Naigaum Cross Road
Wadala, Mumbai 400 031 (India)
E-mail: [email protected]
G-4 “Embassy Centre”, 11 Crescent Road
Kumara Park East, Bangalore 560 001 (India)
E-mail: [email protected]
ISBN 81-88237-52-3
© 2006 I.K. International Pvt. Ltd.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrievalsystem, without written permission from the publisher.
Published by Krishan Makhijani for I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., S-25, Green Park Extension,Uphaar Cinema Market, New Delhi 110 016. Printed by Rekha Printers Pvt. Ltd., OkhlaIndustrial Area, Phase II, New Delhi 110 020.
Preface
Environmental biotechnology is a vast and rapidly growing field with increasingrelevance for sustainable development through environmental protection andproduction of biomaterials. It has revolutionized the understanding of basic lifesustaining processes, identification and exploitation of biomolecules, and its usein dealing with environmental problems. Biotechnological approaches can beapplied to assess and maintain the well-being of the ecosystem, transform pollut-ants into harmless substances, generate biodegradable material from renewablesources, and develop environmentally safe manufacturing and disposal processes.
This book deals with an overview of the evolution of environment as also itsbasic components i.e. atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, andthe role of biophysical factors in ecosystem processes. Environmental perturba-tion in the form of air, water and soil pollution and global environmental problemsdue to natural and human activities are also dealt with in this book. The enormousamount of natural and xenobiotic compounds are added to the environment everyday and there are possibilities of identifying technology not only for removal oftoxic xenobiotic compounds from the environment but also the conversion andproduction of valuable products. Basic degradation methods of natural andxenobiotic compounds are also covered in the book. Important biotechnologicalprinciples and processes for production of valuable products are a special featureof the book.
The book is based on the postgraduate syllabus of EnvironmentalBiotechnology/Environmental Sciences as per the UGC guidelines. It will also behelpful for the students of B.Sc. (Environmental Biotechnology) as part of theenvironmental science or bioscience programme, and postgraduate studentsopting for Biotechnology-related biodegradation and waste treatment course.
Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to my students at Jawaharlal NehruUniversity, New Delhi, for their help and support during the preparation of thisbook. Due credit also goes to my family members for their continuous encourage-ment.
Author
Contents
Preface v
1. Introduction 11.1 Background 1
1.2 Environmental Biotechnology 2
1.3 History of Environmental Biotechnology 2
1.4 Environmental Chemistry 3
1.5 Natural Chemical Compounds 6
1.6 Atmospheric Pollutants 7
1.7 Water Contamination 7
1.8 Solid Wastes 8
1.9 Hazardous Wastes 9
1.10 Why do we need Biotechnology? 9
1.11 Microbial Interactions in the Ecosystem 10
1.12 Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering 11
1.13 Novel Biocatalysts and Biomaterials 13
1.14 Lignocellulosic Residues 14
1.15 Biofuel and Fossil Fuels 14
1.16 Biomining and Bioleaching 15
1.17 Bioremediation 15
1.18 Biosensors in Bioprocessing 17
2. Environment and Ecosystem Processes 192.1 Origin of Earth 19
2.2 The Atmosphere 22
2.3 Origin of Life 23
2.4 Chemistry of Life 24
2.5 Energy Transfer Devices of Life 28
2.6 Sources of Variation 28
2.7 Organization of Life 28
2.8 Ecosystems 30
2.9 Major Ecosystems 37
2.10 Biological Magnification 39
2.11 Microbial association with Pollutants 39
3. Environmental Resources: Air, Water and Soil 413.1 The Atmosphere: Air as Resource 42
3.2 Characteristics of Atmospheric Gases 43
3.3 Sun Heats the Earth 44
3.4 Atmospheric Circulation 46
3.5 Air Masses 51
3.6 Hydrosphere-water Resource 53
3.7 Lithosphere: The Soil as Resource 59
4. Environmental Perturbation: Air, Water and Soil Pollution 67
4.1 Sources of Pollution 67
4.2 Air Pollution 68
4.3 Sources of Air Pollution 70
4.4 Classification of Air Pollutants 70
4.5 Air Pollution Monitoring 74
4.6 Water Pollution 76
4.7 Eutrophication 83
4.8 Water Quality: Pollutant Monitoring 84
4.9 Soil and Solid Waste Pollution 85
4.10 Soil Erosion 91
4.11 Types of Water Erosion 94
4.12 Wind Erosion 95
4.13 Erosion by Sun 95
4.14 Salination 96
5. Global Environmental Problems: Atmosphere and Environmental Issues 975.1 The Greenhouse Effect 97
5.2 Ozone Depletion 103
5.3 Ultraviolet Radiation 111
5.4 Acid Rain 112
6. Structural and Functional Dynamics of Microbial Life 1176.1 Microbial Diversity 117
6.2 Microbial Activity and Growth 124
6.3 Microbial Community Profiling 125
6.4 Molecular Basis of Microbial Community Profiling 128
6.5 Limitations of Genetic Fingerprint Techniques 133
6.6 Biosensors 134
6.7 Bioreporter 138
6.8 Microchips 140
6.9 Microscopy in Environmental Application 143
viii u Contents
7. Air Pollution and Its Control 1457.1 Indoor Air Pollution Control 145
7.2 Outdoor Air Pollution Control 146
7.3 Particulate Emission Control 146
7.4 Control of Gaseous Emissions 153
7.5 Control of Pollutant from Vehicles 173
8. Water Pollution and Its Control 1758.1 Primary Treatment 175
8.2 Secondary Treatment 180
8.3 Tertiary or Alternative Treatment 198
9. Solid Waste and Soil Pollution Management 2109.1 Waste Monitoring 211
9.2 Management of Solid Waste 212
9.3 Treatment and Disposal of Non-Hazardous Solid Waste 214
9.4 Medical Solid Waste Management 217
9.5 Processing and Disposal of Medical Wastes 218
9.6 Evaluation of the Medical Waste Management System 219
9.7 General Remedial Measures for Medical Waste Management 220
9.8 Hazardous Waste Management 221
9.9 Hazardous Waste Treatment Process 221
9.10 Soil Pollution 223
9.11 Soil Erosion 224
9.12 Soil Conservation 224
9.13 Early Control of Erosion 226
9.14 Potential Emergency Control Methods 227
9.15 Objectives of Emergency Control Measures 229
10. Degradation of Lignocellulose Compounds 23310.1 Structure of Lignocellulose 234
10.2 Microorganisms in Lignocellulose Degradation 236
10.3 Degradation of Lignocellulose 236
10.4 Modular Structure of Cellulases and Xylanases 245
10.5 Directed Evolution of Enzyme Catalysts 246
10.6 The Cellulose Binding Domains of Cellulases 247
10.7 Prospects of Bioconversion and Bioutilisation of Effluent 249
10.8 Prospects of Genetic Engineering in Bioconversion 253
10.9 Solid State Fermentation 255
10.10 Downstream Processing 259
11. Degradation of Xenobiotic Compounds 26111.1 Xenobiotic Compounds in the Environment 261
11.2 Persistent Compounds 263
Contents u ix
11.3 Chemical Properties Influencing Biodegradability 263
11.4 Developing the Microorganism 264
11.5 In Vivo Recruitment of Microorganism for Biodegradation 266
11.6 Degradation Mechanisms 266
11.7 Genetics and Evolution for Biodegradation 267
11.8 Biodegradation of Xenobiotic Compounds 268
11.9 Characteristics of Aerobic Microorganisms for Degradation of Organic
Pollutants 269
11.10 Degradation of Xenobiotic Compounds 270
11.11 Conclusion 288
12. Bioabsorption of Metals 28912.1 Heavy Metals 290
12.2 Microorganisms and Metal Absorption 290
12.3 Limitations of Bioabsorption 293
12.4 Mechanisms of Bacterial Metal Resistance 294
12.5 Factors Effecting Bioabsorption 296
12.6 Bioreactors and Bioabsorption 297
12.7 Phytoremediation 299
12.8 Mechanism of Bioabsorption and Bioaccumulation in Specific Metals 302
13. Bioremediation 30913.1 Microorganisms in Bioremediation 311
13.2 Bioremediation by Microorganisms 313
13.3 Bioremediation Technologies 314
13.4 Measuring Bioremediation in the Field 317
13.5 Bioremediation Processes and Technologies 319
13.6 Monitoring the Efficacy of Bioremediation 321
14. Biofertilizers and Biopesticides 32414.1 Biofertilisers in Agroecosystem 325
14.2 Pesticides 326
14.3 Biopesticides 326
14.4 Advantages of Biopesticides 327
14.5 Genetic Transformation 328
14.6 Advantages of Biopesticides 328
14.7 Microbial and Antimicrobial Pesticides 329
14.8 Characteristics of Pesticides 329
15. Composting 335
15.1 Composting 335
15.2 Types of Composting 336
15.3 Materials for Composting 337
15.4 Composting Process 337
15.5 Physicochemical Characteristics of the Environment 338
x u Contents
15.6 Decomposition Stages in Composting 339
15.7 Composting Systems 340
15.8 Methods for Composting 342
15.9 Vermicomposting 343
16. Bio-Polymers and Bio-Plastics 34716.1 Bio-Polymers and Bio-Plastics 349
16.2 Types of Bio-Polymers 351
16.3 Preparation of Bio-Polymers and Bio-Plastics 352
16.4 Properties and Practical Applications of PHA 356
16.5 Economics of PHA Production 357
16.6 The Dark Side of Bio-Plastics 358
16.7 Sustainable Development and Biopolymers and Bio-Plastics 358
17. Bioleaching 35917.1 History 359
17.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioleaching 360
17.3 Microorganisms used 360
17.4 Biochemistry 361
17.5 Extraction from Mixture 362
17.6 Types of Bioleaching 363
17.7 Methods for Bioleaching 363
17.8 Metal Precipitation 365
18. Biomethanation 36718.1 Anaerobic Treatment for Biogas Generation 367
18.2 Microbiology and Biochemistry 368
18.3 Interactions between the Various Microbial Groups 369
18.4 Factors Affecting Biogas Production 370
18.5 Problems in Biomethanation 372
18.6 Operational Stability of Biomethanation Technology (BT) 372
18.7 Design of Digester and Distribution of Anaerobic Microorganisms 373
18.8 Kinetics of Anaerobic Fermentation 373
18.9 Use of Spent Slurry 374
18.10 Biomethanation Process in Industries 374
18.11 Prospects and Potential of Biomethanation Technology from MSW 374
18.12 Merits of Biomethanation Process from MSW 375
18.13 Biomass Gasification 375
19. Biofuel and Biodiesel 377
19.1 Advantages of Biodiesel 377
19.2 Evaluation of the Toxicity of Biofuel 379
19.3 Preparation of Biodiesel or Biofuel 380
19.4 Production of Biofuel 380
Contents u xi
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