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1 E N V I R O N M E N T D E P A R T M E N T

ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS

FOR COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT

Victor V. Klemas Richard G. Gantt Hassan Hassan

Nadine Patience Oliver P. Weatherbee

MARCH 1995

ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE DNELOPMENT VICE PRESIDENCY THE WORLD BANK

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Printed in the United States of America First printing March 1995

This findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this publication are entirely those of the authors and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to its Board of Executive Directors or the governments they represent.

Victor V. Klemas is Professor of Marine Studies and Director of the Center for Remote Sensing, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware. Richard G. Gantt is Research Associate at the Center for Remote Sensing, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware. Hassan Hassan is Senior Environmental Specialist at the World Bank. Nadine Patience is Research Assistant at the Center for Remote Sensing, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware. Oliver Weatherbee is Research Assistant in the College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware.

Copies of this report can be requested by writing W. Environment Department, ENVLW Division

The World Bank, Room S5-143 1818 H Street, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20433, USA

CONTENTS

Foreword v Acronyms and Abbreviations vii Executive Summary ix

1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 INDICATORS FOR POTENTIAL COASTAL CHANGE AND DEGRADATION 7 Coastal Change and Degradation Indicators 7 Water Salinity, Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen

Content 8 Freshwater Discharge to Coastal Waters 9 Rapid Changes in Vegetal Biomass and Primary

Productivity 9 Changes in Plant and Animal Communities in Coastal Waters

and Surrounding Wetlands 9 Increased Suspended Sediment Concentration in Waters 10 High Concentration of Toxic Materials 10 Eutrophication of Coastal Waters 11 Bleaching or Death of Coral Reefs 12 Coastal Erosion 12 Changes in Areal Extent and Type of Plant Community 12 Changes in Wetland Structure 13 Changes in Wetland Hydrologic Conditions 13 Water Quality Models 14 Conclusions 14

3 INVENTORY AND MONITORING: SHIP AND FIELD TECHNIQUES 16 Monitoring of Coastal Waters Properties 16 Pollution Monitoring Methods 19 Sampling of Living Marine Resources 2 1 Plankton Sampling 22 Benthos Sampling 23 Monitoring of Wetlands Condition 24 Wetland Vegetation 24 Wetland Habitat Quality 25 Wetland Hydrology 25 Monitoring of Sea Level 26

iii

Contents

Coastal Upland and Watershed Surveys 27 Conclusions 27

4 REMOTE SENSING O F PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES O F COASTAL WATERS, ESTUARIES AND WETLANDS 29 Introduction 29 Mapping Coastal Wetlands and Land Use 35 Monitoring Wetland Health and Condition Indicators 39 Remote Sensing of Coastal Features, Water Properties

and Dynamics 40 Overview 40 Coastal Erosion and Geomorphology 42 Water Depth and Bathymetry 42 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation and Bottom Features 44 Water Color and Turbidity 44 Oil Slicks and Laser Fluorosensing 46 Sea-surface Temperature 47 Water Salinity 47 Ocean Waves and Surface Winds 48 Summary and Conclusions 48

5 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT 53 Introduction 53 Applications of Environmental Information Systems for

Coastal Zone Management 54 Linkages to Land Illformation Systems 55 General Implementation Considerations 58 Design and Planning 58 Organizational Structure 60 Data Considerations 61 Case Studies 65 Land Use and Coastal Planning: Baja California, Mexico 65 Oil Spill Response Planning: United Arab Emirates 66 Watershed Management: West Africa 67 Summary 69

6 RECOMMENDATIONS 71

APPENDIXES 79 1 : GPS Systems 79 2: Major GIs Companies 81 3: Sources of Remotely Sensed Data 83

REFERENCES 95

FOREWORD

To a considerable extent, effective coastal zone management depends on the collection and analysis of data on the physical and biological properties of coastal resources. Such data can then help predict and assess changes at the local, national, regional and, perhaps, global scale. The requisite data sets are generated by a compilation of field- based inventory and monitoring techniques as well as the larger-scale information provided by satellite and aircraft sensing systems. However, these seemingly discrete sets have to be integrated and analyzed to provide the detinition and direction of coastal zone management activities. Such integration and analysis may be achieved through the adoption of a geographical information systems (GIs) approach. This can be used in establishing an environmental information system (EIS) to aid policymakers and natural resources managers address such issues as overexploitation of fisheries resources, degradation of coastal and marine ecosystems and potential loss of natural habitats.

The World Bank hopes that by providing this technical overview of the environmental monitoring requirements, available measurement and sensing techniques, and practical data management strategies for developing environmental information systems in coastal zones, it will assist ongoing efforts in promoting environmentally sustainable development of coastal dnd marine resources.

Colin Rees Chief

Land, Water and Natural Habitats Division

ADEOS AOL AVHRR AVNIR

BOPS C-CAP COP CTD

czcs DDT

DO EiS EPA FWS GEK GIs GLOSS GPS HAT HRV IBI ICI ICZM I1 IMO IOC IR LIDAR LIS LMR MSS NAPP N1R NOAA NRC

Advanced Earth Observing Satellite (Japanese) Airborne Oceanographic Lidar Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (NOAA) Advanced Visible and Near-Infrared Radiometer (On ADEOS) Bio-Optical Profiling System Coastwatch-Change Analysis Program (NOAA) Coastal Ocean Program (NOAA) Conductivity/Temperature/Density probe or Covertype Diversity Coastal Zone Color Scanner (NOAA) 1,1,1 -trichloro-2,2-bis(p-chloropheny1)ethane based pesticide Dissolved Oxygen Environmental Information System Environmental Protection Agency (U.S.) Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S.) Geomagnetic Electrokinetograph Geographic Information System Global Sea-Level Observing System Global Positioning System Habitat Assessment Technique High Resolution Visible sensor (SPOT) Index of Biotic Integrity Invertebrate Community Index Integrated Coastal Zone Management Infrared Index International Maritime Organization Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (UNESCO) Infrared Light Detection And Ranging sensor Land Information System Living Marine Resources Multispectral Scanner (Landsat) Net Aerial Primary Productivity Near Infrared National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (U.S.) National Research Council (U.S.)

vii

Acronyms and Abbreviations

NWI National Wetlands Inventory (U.S.) OCTS Ocean Color and Temperature Sensor (On ADEOS) PCBs Polychlorinated-Biphenyl based pesticides PHC petroleum hydrocarbon products PVC Polyvinyl-Chloride SAR Synthetic Aperture Radar SAV Submerged Aquatic Vegetation SeaWiFS Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-View Sensor SLAR Side Looking Airborne Radar SPOT Systeme pour l'obsewation de la terre SST Sea Surface Temperature TM Thematic Mapper (Landsat) USGS United States Geological Survey UW Underwater VI Vegetation Index XBT Expendable Bathythermograph

viii

The coastal zone consists of the waters that extend inland to the limit of tidal action and seaward to the junction of the continental shelf and slope and the lands that are affected by marine processes such as tides, winds and waves. It plays a vital role in nutrient assimilation, geochemical cycling, water storage, and sediment stabilization and sustains the majority of neighboring marine finfish and shellfish resources. Unfortunately, these coastal areas are under severe threat: wetlands are being destroyed by dredge and fill operations and impoundments; estuarine and coastal waters are being contaminated by pollution and subjected to eutrophication due to the increasing concentration of people, commerce and industry either in or adjacent to this zone; and fisheries are being exhausted. At worst, these assaults may lead to a collapse of cclilstal ecosystems and their natural resources, and it is urgent that coastal states develop standardized and rapid procedures for better monitoring of these trends so that effective management can be introduced.

How a monitoring strategy for the coastal zone is developed depends on the investigator's objectives. A general program encompasses the monitoring of physical, chemical and biological properties of the water column; study of marine processes, such as tides, circulation patterns, etc.; and assessment of living marine resources and their habitat, including the surrounding wetlands and the uplands that can have an impact on water quality. In light of this, the objectives of this report are to provide a detailed technical overview of the environmental monitoring requirements and available measurement and sensing techniques and to recommend practical data management strategies for developing an environmental information system for marine and coastal resource management. The target audience is senior technical professionals and experts in developing countries and World Bank staff. The study first provides background information on

Executive Summary

coastal environmental change and degradation indicators and a description of classical and modern techniques for detecting these environmental indicators-such as ship sampling of water quality and satellite remote sensing of mangrove loss and biomass degradation. An overview is provided on ways of using GIs to prepare a baseline data set and to monitor changes from this baseline. Finally, a strategy is recommended for implementing an EIS for coastal zone management in developing countries, including how to address anticipated problems.

Indicators of change and disturbance for coastal zone management (CZM) include: (a) the physical character is tics of water such as salinity, temperature and amount of dissolved oxygen; (b) quality and quantity of freshwater discharge to coastal waters; (c) rapid changes in biomass and primary production; (d) eutrophication; (e) high concentration of toxic materials; (f) increased suspended sediment concentrations; (g) bleaching of coral reefs; (h) rapid changes in plant and animal community composition; (i) changes in the areal extent and type of the plant community; (1) changes in wetland structure and its hydrologic conditions; and (k) coastal erosion. Vertebrates, invertebrates and plant communities, when analyzed in conjunction with selecled abiotic parameters, serve as ecological indicators of change. The sources of the disturbances are often distant from the affected coastai areas, but they can cause direct effects such as loss of plant and ani~llals or indirect losses through changes in habitat. Managers in developing countries will have to identify the most serious concerns arising from local problems and select the appropriate indicators for assessment.

Compared with the open ocean, lagoons and estuaries are very small and undergo rapid changes due to tidal effects. Consequently, information requirements for coastal features differ significantly from those for open ocean investigations since both spatial and temporal resolution requirements become more demanding closer to the coast. For instance, coastal currents and ocean-dumped waste plumes on the continental shelf need to be tracked about every four hours with 50-meter resolution, while studies of the movements of tidal-induced estuarine fronts and pollution plumes require observations every half-hour with about 10-meter resolution. On the other hand, it

Executive Summary

suffices to map coastal wetlands and land use about once every three years with a resolution of 10-20 meters.

Ship and field data provide relatively accurate point samples for a variety of parameters. The bio-optical profiling system allows rapid sampling of optical, physical, and biological properties of the waters. Pollutant levels in seafood supplies and in coastal environments can be monitored by periodic sampling of indicator organisms such as mussels and oysters. Plankton and benthos sampling requires simple equipment, but supportive knowledge of the different plant and animal species and monitoring of vertebrate communities can evaluate habitat quality. Wetland hydrology is difficult to assess accurately because of the high costs and long timc frame required for evaluation, but it can be approached with varying levels of generality and quantification. Coastal erosion, bleaching of coral reefs, wetland biomass and primary productivity, plant community composition, and wetland structure, areal extent and type are some of the indicators that can be assessed more efficiently by remote sensing.

Moored ships can provide relatively accurate point data of a wide variety of desired variables and obtain vertical measurement information, including samples, from a range of depths in the water column. Buoys are utilized to provide both 1o:lg-time series data at selected locations and information as a function of depth in the water column. Shipboard collected data complement the limited depth sampling capabilities of remote sensors, yet remote sensing technologies provide the synoptic and large-scale views that place ship field data into a broader context. In most cases, a combination of remote sensing and the more conventional shipboard data collection techniques is recommended to assess the coastal zone.

Coastal applications of remote sensing require a wide aqsortment of sensors. For instance, to map land use and coastal vegetation is relatively easy with both film cameras and multispectral scanners. On the other hand, sea surface temperatures can be determined reliably only with thermal infrared radiometers or scanners.

Many remote sensing techniques are too complex or costly or are unavailable for use in developing countries. Aerial

Executive Summary

photography, satellite digital imagery and radar are usually the most available, most appropriate, and least complex and costly techniques for use in developing countries. Aircraft can provide frequent overflights at good spatial resolution. New sensor packages small enough to fit on single-engine or two-engine aircraft are being developed and can operate at a tenth of the costs. Deployed in conjunction with satellite sensors such as Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR), these airborne sensors should be able to observe tidal, seasonal and annual variations and spatial distribution of phytoplankton blooms, sediment plumes, estuarine fronts, circulation patterns, and other estuarine phenomena.

Once identified and collected, information on the various environmental indicators used in monitoring the coastal zone must be systematically organized and presented in an accessible and appropriate format for analysis by planners and decisionmakers. The inclusion of temporally dependent data and the desire to provide for long-term monitoring also requires that the integration of these data be easily maintained and updated. One of the powerful tools currently used in resource management for the storage, retrieval, and analysis of environmental data referenced by geographic location is the Geographic Informatioil System (GIs) and Environmental Information System (EIS). Both are dependent upon the establishment of an accurate a id standardized georeference coordinate system, such as is provided by Global Positioning System (GPS).

The contents of an EIS typically iilclude a wide range of data that may be referenced spatially and temporally. For coastal zone management, dala layers should not be limited to observable environmei~tal parameters only, but include information on the impact of human activities and programs on natural resources.

Data may represent rapidly changing phenomena or may be derived from disparate sources involving some uncertainty, and their comparability and reliability may therefore be limited. The importance of data integration capabilities and spatial analysis tools in an EIS cannot be overstated. Few applications are possible solely with data retrieval and display tools; most

xii

Executiva Summary

demand the capacity to link diverse data together using spatial keys.

In practice, the uses of environmental information systems range from automated cartography to support of policy formulation and management. They serve to underpin routine operations such as making inventories and monitoring change and also to support policy reviews and the overall long-term planning process. A coinprehensive coastal EIS can aid policymakers and regulators in addressing such management issues as the overexploitation of fisheries resources, the degradation of coastal and marine ecosystems, declining water quality, and the potential loss of endangered marine species and coastal wildlife. While the effective management and resolution of these problems is primarily dependent on policy decisions and enforcement, an EIS system can be instrumental in the decisioninaking process and formulation of suitable regulations and zoning laws.

An EIS that integrates traditional cadastral data with environmental parameters can be very effective in protecting and ensuring the continued benefits of a rich coastal zone. This goal can be achieved through such measures as: (a) control of industrial development to minimize environmental impacts on critical habitats and water quality standards; (b) identification of mangrove and other important coastal habitats for the purpose of protection and restoration; (c) targeting of enforcement and education efforts in areas with high numbers of illegal fishing incidents and known overexploitation; and (d) monitoring of coastal land use and targeting of erosion control efforts in order to restore or maintain water quality and protect valuable coastal ecosystems. Above all, a successful EIS should be able to help in the formulation of solutions to the continued problems of competing land and sea uses that are economically vital-but often mutually disadvantageous-to much of the developing world.

xiii

1 INTRODUCTION

Many of the major population centers of developing countries that border on oceans and seas are located in the coastal regions. In fact, well over half of the world's population lives either on the coasts or in adjacent coastal lowland areas. These coastal lands and waters also contain substantial amounts of the countries' agricultural, mineral, and living resources, so that coastal degradation problems such as erosion, decreased water quality, and the destruction of living resources are major concerns.

The objective of this report is to provide a detailed technical overview of the environmental monitoring requirements, available measurement and sensing techniques, and recommend practical data management strategies for developing an environmental information system for marine and coastal resource management. The target audience are World Bank task managers and senior technical professionals and experts in developing countries. Some readers may find this report quite "technical." We tried to satisfy both the scientific users, who require more technical detail, as well as resource managers, who prefer to get a broader overview of the proposed strategies, techniques, instruments and methodologies. Since some readers may not wish to read the report in its entirety, we have provided an executive summary and a conclusion section at the end of each chapter summarizing the main points presented in that chapter.

There is no single, precise definition of "the coastal zone." A standard definition used in the coastal zone management (CZM) field is:

The coastal zone is that area of coastal waters and adjacent shoreland wherein the activities and uses in each interact with and/or influence the other.

Another definition, similar to the first, comes from one of the first books on coastal management, The Water's Edge: Critical Problem of the Coastal Zone:

. . .[the coastal zone is] the band of dry land and adjacent ocean space (water and submerged land) in which terrestrial processes and land uses directly affect oceanic processes and uses and vice versa.

Finally, there is the definition of integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) provided by Knecht (1993):

ICZM is a dynamic and continuous process of administrating the use, development and protection of the coastal zone and its resources towards common objectives of national and local authorities and the aspiration of different resource user groups.

The extent of habitats and resources, economic activities, types of management and government control in the management of marine and coastal resources is shown in Figure 1.1. Federal and state governments exert considerable control over the coastal region extending from the wetlands/uplands boundary to the edge of the continental margin. This area includes wetlands, shorelines, estuaries, bays and coastal waters containing mangroves, seagrasses, coral reefs, shellfish, finfish, and other valuable marine resources.

All definitions seek to include coastal waters, marine and estuarine (and nearshore waters of large lakes and inland seas), and some portion of the land along the coast in which human activities and natural processes both affect and are affected by those in the waters. ?'he extent of land area included varies, because its limits are determined not only by ecological and geological characteristics but also by some concept of what is politically and administratively manageable. Thus while one might include the entire land area of watersheds that drain to the sea, and the entire water area out to the continental shelf, in practice the coastal zone is a relatively narrow band of water and land along the shoreline. Its natural features include beaches, wetlands, estuaries, lagoons, coral reefs, and dunes. Manmade features include ports, commercial fisheries and aquacultural operations, industries, recreational and tourist developments, archaeological

Introduction

Figure 1 . I of Habitats/Resources, Economic Activities, Types of Management and Government Control in the Management of Marine and Coastal Resources and Environments

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Introduction

sites and, above all, some of the largest and most densely populated urban areas in the world (Wood 1992).

Wetlands, mangrove forests, and coral reefs all produce materials that nourish shellfish and finfish of the nearshore environment. These are the basis of commercial, subsistence, and sport fisheries. All these communities also serve as nursery areas for many kinds of fish and shellfish. These biological communities also afford protection from many kinds of natural disasters. Coral reefs diminish effects of surf, surge, or tsunamis; mangroves reduce coastal erosion and can reduce floods and to some extent high winds; coastal wetlands also retard erosion and ameliorate flooding. Wetlands and mangroves process and remove, recycle, or immobilize pollutants such as sewage and excess sediments, unless they are overtaxed by excessive levels of pollution. Mangrove forests provide a sustainable source of wood for use in shelter, fuel, household wares, or tools; or for pulp chips, charcoal, and tannin. The leaves and extractives have a number of traditional functions (such as herbal medicinal use) in coastal cultures. Mangrove forests and wetlands also support terrestrial wildlife, either for conservation or, when animals are abundant, as a source of food or products for trade. These areas are also extensively used by apiarists in many parts of the world. Coral reefs are important tourist attractions. They are also a source of shells and corals for commercial sale (although overharvesting should be avoided).

The usefulness of coastal regions as residential, recreational, or tourist areas, and their functions of providing fish, croplands, and healthful waters for coastal peoples has been decreased in many countries as a result of random development. Typical problems include erosiotl caused by dredging and inappropriate site selection for other marine organisms; and sewage and industrial waste contamination of waters and beaches used for recreation or tourism. Also, insufficient marine engineering capabilities can result in inadequate construction of industrial structures, drilling rigs, and other installations to resist currents, surf, and storms; excessive silt deposition in improperly designed harbors; or the flooding or washing out of land fill areas because of inadequately anticipated geological and hydrological factors (NRC 1982).

In many of the more densely populated nations, the effects of natural disasters on inhabitants of coastal flatlands are being

Introduction

exacerbated by coastal migrations and related development activities. As population pressure increase rates of migration into exposed flatlands, coastal people become even more susceptible to natural hazards such as floods, typhoons, earthquakes, or tidal waves. This is especially true when land reclamation projects encourage settlement in dangerously low-lying areas, or when land-clearing and other construction activities damage protective vegetation, reefs, or geomorphological barriers. A particularly disastrous example of the loss of life and physical destruction that can resul'i from settlement in unprotected coastal lowlands has occurred in Bangladesh in recent years, where many thousands of lives have been lost in catastrophic coastal floods.

In most tropical coastal regions, fuel-gathering or land- clearance will involve the destruction of mangrove stands that could under proper management provide renewable production of wood and wood products, and that stabilize shorelines and provide nursery grounds for fish and shrimp. In higher latitudes where mangrovt5 do not grow, other forms of wetland vegetation serve equiva1e:lt functions, retarding erosion and recycling nutrients into marine food chains. The filling of wetlands and their use as waste dumps is reducing the productive capacities of fish stocks that support artisanal, recreational, and commercial fisheries.

In coral-growing latitudes, reef destruction by mining, dredging, or sewage and silt run-off diminishes coral-associated fish stocks and removes natural protective barriers. Planners and developers have to make decisions involving multiple costs, benefits, and "trade-offs" in almost every coastal development situation. Underexploited coastal resources in many developing countries include living resources such as the many species of fish and shellfish that are not harvested for lack of appropriate processiilg capabilities or market development, and mineral resources, from the very valuable coastal petroleum resources of some nations to the abundant and often not sufficiently appreciated nearshore materials such as industrial minerals and construction aggregates. Other promising coastal development opportunities not yet fully explored in many countries include mariculture (aquaculture using saltwater animals and plants), innovative ocean energy sources, uses of waste effluents for energy or fertilizer production, or even the encouragement of varied international business operations to establish regional offices or headquarters in

Introduction

some of the particularly attractive locations available in coastal locations (NRC 1982).

The impact of rapid and generally unplanned coastal development has created problems for industrialized coastal countries for decades. While total solutions to all of these problems have certainly not been found, considerable progress has been made in finding solutions to a number of specific problems. Substantial technical improvements have been made, for example, in the approaches to the design and siting of coastal structures, in efficient sanitary engineering methods, and methods for predicting and avoiding problems caused by adjacent siting of potentially conflicting facilities (such as industrial plants and tourist hotels).

As development activities proceed in the less industrialized nations, they are experiencing many of the same difficulties. A basic consideration is that the need for development in those countries is an urgent priority. Coastal management is a process that attempts to maximize long-term benefits by means of an analysis of the impacts ,nd benefits of potentially conflicting uses of coastal resources. In leveloping countries, economic and social costs and benefits will be considered as important or more important than the enviro~lmental issues, which have been a major concern for coastal programs in developed countries. However, due to factors such as potential human health hazards and the economic benefits to be derived from preventing the degradation of valuable resources, assessments of coastal environmental factors will still be of great practical importance in developing countries. It is the intent of this report to review and recommend cost- effective techniques for assessing these key coastal environmental factors.

2 INDICATORS FOR POTENTIAL COASTAL CHANGE AND DEGRADATION

An ecosystem is considered healthy when its inherent potential is realized, its condition is stable, its capacity for self-repair when perturbed is preserved, and minimal external support for management is needed. Development of a monitoring strategy for the coastal zone depends on the investigator's objectives. Is the purpose of the study to detect an improvement or decline in the condition of coastal ecosystems? Is the reason for monitoring related t~ a specific concern or function, such as water quality, species diversity, productivity, etc.? Is the purpose of the study to evaluate the success of a restoration project? The investigator's objectives will determine the amount of time and funds required for a monitoring program, and also, the indicators of coastal change and degradation to assess. This chapter suggests potential indicators of change and degradation for use in coastal zone management.

2.2 Coastal Change and Degradation Indicators

A general coastal zone monitoring program encompasses the indicators described below; however, for developing countries, managers will need to identify the issues specific to that country, and select the appropriate indicators to assess. For instance, in a case study of coastal management in countries of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the most serious issues of concern were (a) overexploitation of fishery resources; (b) degradation of coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass areas, algal beds and beaches; (c) pollution and decline of water quality; (d) coastal erosion and sedimentation; and (e) endangered marine species and coastal wildlife (Thia-Eng and Pauly 1989). Another example is the case study of Bacuit Bay, Palawan in the Philippines where the major issues included soil erosion, sedimentation, destruction of coral reefs and the decrease in the fish population. Some indicators, suggested in this chapter, relate to the living marine

lndicators for Potential Coastal Change and Degradation

resources, while others relate to their habitats, such as estuarine and coastal waters and the surrounding wetlands. They are summarized in Table 2.1 with the suggested technology for the assessment of each.

Table 2.1 Key lndicators of Change and Degradation and Suggested Technologies for the ~ s s e s s m e n t of Each

I I ( Indicator I Suggested Technologies I

Freshwater discharge Ship Sampling

Temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen

Ship Sampling

Rapid changes in plant and animal I Field Sampling community composition Remote Sensinga I Rapid changes in biomass and primary productivity

Field Sampling Remote Sensinga

I Changes in wetland structure I Aerial Photo I Changes in areal extent and type

- -

I Changes in wetland hydroli,gic conditioJ Field S a t & l ~ ~ l

Remote Sensinga

I I Remote Sensinga I

I

Increased concentrations of toxic materials ShipIField Sampling Biomagnifiers

Increased conce~ltratio~ls of suspended sediments

Ship Sampling Remote sensinga I

Eutrophication (illcreased phytoplankton chlorophyll-a concentration)

Bleaching of coral reefs

a. Remote sensing includes satellite and aerial photo techniques (visible, infrared and radar bands).

Ship Sampling Remote Sensinga

Aerial Photo Ship Observations

Coastal erosion

Water Salinity, Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen Content Salinity and temperature create different kinds of environments for marine organisms. Changes in salinity and temperature patterns can identify the presence of large-scale turbulence and currents and can affect the distribution of certain groups of organisms, particularly fish.

Aerial Photo

Indicators for Potential Coastal Change and Degradation

The amount of dissolved oxygen in the water is critical because it determines the distribution of organisms. It is influenced by the temperature, salinity, and pressure of the water; when the temperature and salinity are high, the ability of the water to hold oxygen decreases, limiting these areas to organisms that can tolerate extremes (Duxbury and Duxbury 1984).

Fresh water Discharge to Coastal Waters Freshwater discharge is another important parameter of estuarine and coastal waters. Too much freshwater can lower salinity enough to close nursery areas or kill certain species (e.g. oyster). Whereas, too little freshwater can decrease flushing, increase contaminant concentrations and lead to bioaccumulation (pollutant concentration in the tissues of aquatic animals), physiological or reproductive dysfunction, mortality and/or the contamination of fishery products (Klemas, Thomas, and Zaitzeff 1987). Water diversion projects such as dams and drainage for reclamation purposes create changes in the freshwater/saltwater balance such as changes in salinity and in the delivery schedules of freshwater to coastal systems (NRC 1982).

Rapid Changes in Vegetal Biomass and Primary Productivity The most commonly used and accepted parameter for evaluating an ecosystem condition is vegetal biomass and/or net primary productivity. Both terms refer to the dry weight of plants, expressed as grams dry weight per square meter (gdw/m2) for the biomass and usually as gdw/m2 per year for the productivity. A good indicator of coastal water productivity is the phytoplankton cl~lorophyll concentration (microscopic plant forms of plankton, i.e., organisms that are passively drifting or weakly swimming). Rapid changes in biomass and primary production are the signs of illness or profound disease in the ecosystem (Schaeffer, Herricks, and Kerster 1988). Change can include both accumulation and loss of biomass. The accumulation of biomass reflects the inability of the ecosystem to reach a new stable state.

Changes in Plant and Animal Communities in Coastal Waters and Surrounding Wetlands Vegetation community composition and abundance are important parameters in wetland health assessment because they reflect habitat suitability for wildlife and fish, ecological productivity, water chemistry, and landscape aesthetics (Brooks and Hughes 1988). Because of their immobility, plants are reliable indicators


of certain types of stress, such as changes in hydrology and nutrient/pollutant loadings (Leibowitz and Brown 1990). The composition and density of herbaceous communities and the forest understory will respond readily to short-term impacts; whereas, trees and shrubs are better indicators of long-term disturbance.

Monitoring vertebrate communities can be an effective way to evaluate changing environments (Brooks and others 1990; Root 1990). Vertebrates are readily observable, and their presence represents an integration of the environmental features over relatively large areas (Brooks and Hughes 1988). Birds are broadly used to assess habitat quality, because relatively to other taxa, they are easily identified and occur in nearly every habitat type. They are sensitive to cumulative negative effects on the environment, that may be detected by the absence or reduction of certain specific species. Mammals tend to be more sedentary than birds, but are often more difficult to detect. Invertebrates and amphibians can be used as indicators of water quality (Lenat 1988; Campbell and Christman 1982).

In coastal waters, changes in phytoplankton species composition and cell size, and in the distribution and areal coverage of the submerged aquatic vegetation such as seagrasses and macroalgae can result in major changes in the marine food web on which local populations depend.

Increased Suspended Sediment Concentrbtion in Waters Increased sediment concentrations will contribute to coastal erosion, affect sunlight penetration and marine productivity. Sediments are of exceptional importance to the routes and fates of nutrients and other chemical substances, because they trap and concentrate toxic materials by adsorption. Increased concentrations of suspended sediments in coastal waters can be created by activities that alter upland cover and water infiltration characteristics, such as clear-cutting, highway construction, or other construction activities in coastal watersheds.

High Concentration of Toxic Materias Demographic and industrial growth tends to create pollution problems in all coastal countries, particularly in those with high population densities near the sea. Dumping solid waste and liquid pollutants into coastal waters are inexpensive solutions to industrial and domestic waste problems. (Water circulation is of great


importance, because it carries wastes and accumulated debris). In some specific cases, nontoxic organic wastes, such as domestic sewage or agricultural effluents, will change the aquatic system but will have no negative effects. In certain instances, it might even slightly increase the local productivity of marine organisms (NRC 1982). However, in most cases when pollutant levels become too high, harmful effects appear. Toxic substances contaminate seafoods and waters, producing human and animal health problems, and affecting seafood markets.

Earth-moving activities associated with farming may result in the exposure of buried pyritic soil to air leading to toxic levels of acidity in groundwater, ponds, streams, and nearshore marine waters (NRC 1982). The high levels of acid are toxic to many plants and to some animals, especially the more sedentary aquatic and intertidal species (species living in the area of the shore between mean high water and mean low water).

Toxaphene is a pesticide widely used in developing countries, that has been identified as carcinogen (NRC 1982). Chlorinated hydrocarbons (including DDT, PCBs, toxaphene and mirex), some petroleun; carbons (PHCs), and certain heavy metals such as mercury, are of particular concern because they are "biomagnified" (accumulated in the tissues) in marine food webs. Thus, organisms at the higher trophic levels, including humans, are particularly vulnerable (NRC 1982).

Eutrophication of Coastal Waters Eutrophication (over-enrichment of nutrient and organic matter) is another form of pollution caused by human activities, that has serious effects on the productivity and environmental quality of coastal waters. It frequently results in intense blooms of a few species of phytoplankton and larger plants. These plants, which are not usually present in large numbers, are either not consumed at all by the aquatic animal populations, or not enough to prevent the accumulation of decaying plant matter. This creates problems of light perietration, putrefaction and depleted oxygen levels that affect the organisms at the higher levels in the food webs (NRC 1982; Klemas, Thomas, and Zaitzeff 1987). Corals and certain fish that are dependent upon clear water are specially sensitive to eutrophication. The bloom in some areas consists of " red-tide" phytoplankton, dinoflagellates (class of plankton organisms


possessing characteristics of both plants and animals) that produce substances toxic to human and marine animals (NRC 1982).

Bleaching or Death of Coral Reefs Coral reefs are subjected to extreme levels of disruption because of the increasing number of tourists and fishermen, and the high levels of organic wastes, toxic chemicals and erosional sediments. When coral reefs die their surfaces become white. This produces a visual phenomena called bleaching (Stoffle and Halmo 1991). Although the cause of coral bleaching is poorly understood, it appears to be a response to stresses from high or low water temperatures, high fluxes of visible and ultraviolet radiation, prolonged aerial exposure, freshwater dilution, high sedimentation, eutrophication due to plant nutrients and fertilizers in runoff from land, and other types of pollution (Glynn 1991). It takes many years or decades for a new coral to grow enough to support a community of fish and other organisms. In contrast to coral reefs, wetlands and mangrove (shrubs and trees with exposed roots that grow in dense thickets or forests along tidal estuaries and on mudding coasts) systems will often renew themselves quickly if their sites are protected.

Coastal Erosion Coastal erosion caused by man is a critical problem in many developing countries. It results in substantial losses of agricultural land, undermining of urban structures, and the stripping away of sand beaches down to the rock or gravel substrate (NRC 1982). Principal factors responsible for increased erosion include devegetation, inappropriate site selection or design of groins, dams, or harbor breakwaters, and dynamiting of off-shore coral reefs that had been providing protection from waves and storm surges. Destruction of coastal vegetation for land clearing, is a major cause of erosion. In the absence of soil-retaining mangroves and other plants, the natural impact of rains, streams, and groundwater transport will rapidly remove the essential nutrients and eventually the land itself from cleared areas (NRC 1982).

Changes in Areal Extent and Type of Plant Community Many functional attributes of wetlands are related directly to their areal extent and type (salt marsh, mangrove swamp, etc.). These two parameters are important indicators of wetland sustainability, which is defined as its resistance to changes in structure and function over long periods of time (Leibowitz and others 1991). In


coastal waters, changes in phytoplankton species composition and cell size, and in the distribution and areal coverage of the submerged aquatic vegetation such as seagrasses and macroalgae can result in major changes in the marine food web on which local populations depend.

Changes in Wetland Structure Landscape structure is an important factor that affects ecological functions. The architectural qualities of structure and the arrangement of structural elements in the landscape particularly influence faunal diversity and abundance. The impact of separateness is related to dispersal ability of the species. Habitat fragmentation may progress with little effect on a population until the critical pathways of connectivity are disrupted; then, a slight change near a critical threshold can have dramatic consequences for the persistence of the population.

Changes in Wetland Hydrologic Conditions Hydrology is the primary and critical force that creates and modifies wetlands, thus it is a good parameter of wetland condition. Disturbances of wetland hydrology are commonly associated with human activities on the landscape. If hydrologic conditio~~r change even slightly, the biota (living organisms) may respond with massive changes in species richness and ecosystem productivity. The critical hydrologic features of a wetland to consider are (Kusler 1987):

The sources of wetland water (direct precipitation, groundwater, surface water), because its salinity and snergy profile determines the vegetation and fauna (animals). The way the water is discharged from the wetland (primarily through evaporation and transpiration would make the wetland very sensitive to concentrations of sediment and nutrients). The water depth that determines vegetated vs. open water areas of a wetland and its vegetation type and that is critical for certain plant and animal use. The velocity of the water entering and passing through a wetland that determines some of its functions, such as flood conveyance, flood storage, sediment transport and trapping, and pollution control.

Indicators for Po ten tiel Coas tat Change and Degrade tion

The fluctuations in water sources, velocities, sediment loadings, etc. that determine many wetland characteristics and functions. The dissolved or suspended materials content in water, that determine the long-term shape, size, depth, and even location of a wetland and its long-term functions. The turbidity and temperature that influence vegetation and fauna, affecting habitat values.

Water Quality Models

The data that are required for the development and application of water quality models are discussed by Thomann (in Klemas, Thomas, and Zaitzeff 1987), in two estuarine problem contexts: eutrophication and the fate of toxic substances, that may accumulate in certain compartments such as fish, sediment, and water column. For eutrophication models, he uses the phytoplankton chlorophyll-a concentration as a measure of eutrophication. Other important parameters in the model include the phytoplankton growth and death rates, which depend upon the available nutricnt concentrations (nitrogen, phosphorus.. .), the water flow rate and temperature. Information on the various nutrient forms (inorganiclorganic, dissolvedlparticulate, etc.) is also needed. In certain cases, it is necessary to obtain data on other physical and chemical properties, such as the alkalinity, sediment phosphorus release, etc.

The second modeling framework Thomann (in Klemas, Thomas, and Zaitzeff 1987) used for water quality models is the distribution in space and time of chemicals that may be potentially toxic The i~teraction of the chemical with the solids dynamics of the chi ary is taken into account in the equations. The chemicals in both dissolved and particulate forms in the water column and sediment must be analyzed. The control of point- and nonpoint-source pollutants implies the discrimination of toxic or pathogenic materials, and identification of their sources, trajectory, dilution, dispersal and fate.

Conclusions

Indicators of change and disturbance that can be used for coastal zone management include (a) water physical characteristics such as salinity, temperature and amount of dissolved oxygen; (b)


freshwater discharge to coastal waters; (c) rapid changes in biomass and primary production; (d) eutrophication; (e) high concentration of toxic materials; (f) increased suspended sediment concentrations; (g) bleaching of coral reefs; (h) rapid changes in plant and animal community composition; (i) changes in the areal extent and type of the plant community; (j) changes in wetland structure, and its hydrologic conditions; and (k)coastal erosion (Table 2.1). Vertebrates, invertebrates, and plant communities, when analyzed in conjunction with selected abiotic parameters, serve as ecological indicators of change. The sources of the disturbances are often distant from affected coastal areas. They can cause direct mortalities of plants and animals or indirect losses through changes in habitat. Attempts to achieve short-term gains by exploiting living resources at a rapid rate, may result in unexpected long-term losses of resources, such as fish that are normally supplied with nutrition and shelter by coral reefs, or fish, shrimp, and benthic shellfish dependent on the rich coastal waters associated with mangroves (NRC 1982).

Managers for the developing countries will have to identify the most serious issues of concern arising from local problems and select the appropriate indicators to assess.

3 INVENTORY AND MONITORING: SHIP AND FIELD TECHNIQUES

Ships, the classical oceanographic sampling platform, can provide relatively accurate point data of a wide variety of desired variables and can obtain vertical measurement information, including samples, from a range of depths in the water column. Moored buoys are utilized to provide long time series data at selected locations and to provide information as a function of depth in the water column. Drifting buoys can cover larger areas but give a moving reference view of the ocean rather than the more traditional fixed-point observations. Ships complement the limited depth sampling of remote sensors, and remote sensing provides the synoptic and large-scale view that places ship and field data into a broader context. In most cases, a combination of remote sensing and the more conveiltional techniques is recommended for collecting data and assessing the coastal zone.

The purpose of this chapter is to outline the common ship and field techniques used in assessing coastal waters and their surrounding wetlands, and give references concerning these techniques. It covers the classical methods of monitoring water properties and of plankton and benthos sampling; suggesting an efficient pollution-monitoring technique and providing an overview of the assessment of certain wetland condition parameters, such as plant communities, habitat quality, and hydrology.

Monitoring of Coastal Waters Properties

Water samples are taken with water bottles that turn over and close at the sampling depth 'iverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming 1970). Analysis of these water samples is usually done in the laboratory. Information on the vertical structure of the water column can be obtained with a bio-optical profiling system (BOPS) (Smith, Booth and Star 1984) designed specifically to permit rapid sampling of

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Inventory and Monitoring: Ship and Field Techniques

optical, physical, and biological properties simultaneously with the collection of discrete water samples from a rosette.

Three types of temperature-measuring devices are used in oceanographic work (Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming 1970). Accurate thermometers of the standard type are employed for measuring the surface temperature when a sample of the surface water is taken with a bucket and for determining the subsurface temperatures when the water sample is taken with a thermally insulated sampling bottle. The thermometers used for measuring temperatures at subsurface levels are of the reversing type (see Figure 3.la,b) and are generally mounted upon water-sampling bottles so that temperatures and the water sample for salinity and other chemical and physical tests are obtained at the same level. The third type are temperature-measuring instruments that give a continuous record, such as thermographs. A high degree of accuracy is necessary in temperature measurements because of the relatively large effects that temperature has upon the density and other physical properties. Subsurface temperatures must be accurate to within less than 0.05"C. The temperature can be obtained using several methods (Smith and others 1987): along-track continuous monitoring of water flowing through the ship's seawater system; periodic vertical data from expendable bathytl~ermographs (XBTs, that obtain a record of temperature as a function of depth); with a conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) sensor (Figure 3.2); a .i with the bio-optical profiling system (Smith and others 1987).

Salinity can be determined with a salinometer from the density of a water sample at a given temperature or by measuring either the electrical conductivity or the refractive index, both of which depend upon the salinity (Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming 1970). Dissolved oxygen is usually measured by the Winkler method (Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming 1970). Carbon dioxide is determined from the pH of the water. Sediments are sampled with dredges, grabs, corers and by drilling (Duxbury and Duxbury 1984).

1;;iferent methods ;have been used to detect, measure and estimate ocean currents: drift bottles, drift cards, current meters (see Figure 3.3), the "dynamic method," etc. (For more details, see Austin 1979 and Duxbury and Duxbury 1984.)


Quick water quality measurements might be done down to a depth of 150 meters using Multiparameter Water Quality Monitoring Instruments. However, because these instruments are flexible, they might not be optimized to give accurate measures of each variable.

Pollution Monitoring Methods

Accurate measurement of toxic contaminants in waters, specially those that are dangerous at low levels, requires relatively expensive equipment and very sensitive analytical capabilities. Techniques include atomic absorption spectrophotometry, gas chromatography, and mass spectrometry. These methods are beset by difficulties with sample contamination, surrounding material interferences, and detection limits. Further, maintenance personnel must be available for routine and emergency services. These factors may pose major problems in a developing country and

Figure 3.2 A conductivity -temperature-depth sensor, or CTD,

below a rosette of water bottles. The water bottles are tripped by signal from the ship

when the electronically relayed CTD data indicate an interesting water structure or when water samples

are required to calibrate the CTD (Duxbury and Duxbury 1984).


Figure 3.3 An internally recording Aanderaa current meter.

me vane orients the meter to the current while the rotor determines current speed (a). Inside the protection case (b and c)

the instrument records :oded information from its external sensors. The speed and direction of the current, water temperature, pressure,

and conductivity of the water are recorded on magnetic tape (b). A clock (c) controls the frequency at which these data are recorded. The magnetic tape is retrieved when the current meter is picked up

from its taut wire mooring (Duxbury and Duxbury 1984).


should be considered before analytical equipment is purchased. A more efficient monitoring method is the use of biological indicators called "biomagnifiers" . These indicators are aquatic animals that concentrate chemicals in their tissues at higher, and thus mere easily detectable, concentrations than those found in waters. The periodic analysis of tissue samples of exceptionally good "biomagnifiers" such as mussels or oysters is relatively inexpensive. Where local analytical capabilities are limited, it may be possible for tissue samples to be shipped frozen to laboratories in other regions. The International Mussel Watch Program has been under way for several years in developing countries throughout the world.

In establishing a biological monitoring program for marine pollutants, two approaches are needed: one to monitor pollutants levels in seafood organisms important in the diet of local populations, and one to monitor long-term changes in pollutant levels in the environment. Since concentrations of pollutants in organisms can vary substantially within and among populations, it is important to use large samples. Trace metals exist naturally in the environment and in plant and animal tissues; so estimates of the normal, uncontaminated range of concentrations must be established for each organism before the degree of pollution can be assessed. The analyst must also be able to identify the original organic pollutant before its metabolization by the organism, and to distinguish between biosynthesized hydrocarbons and chemically related ones assimilated from petroleum pollution sources.

Sampling of Living Marine Resources

Biological investigations consist essentially of two parts: descriptive and analytical. The descriptive part is concerned chiefly with the kinds of organisms present and their phylogenetic (the evolutionary history of a group of organisms) relationships, and with establishing their geographic and bathymetric (related to depth) distribution. The analytical part is concerned above all with the factors operative in the development and distribution of the populations (Sverdrup, Johnson, and Fleming 1970). Numerous samples need to be collected in various areas and seasons in order to acquire a true picture of the members of the population (their distributicm, 1 ife cycles and interrelations).


Plankton Sampling A fine mesh conic net (see Figures 3.4 and 3.5) is used to sample the plankton (passively drifting or weakly swimming organisms). It can be either towed or dropped straight down from a stationary vessel. Water volume is measured by a flow meter placed at the mouth of the net. Raising and lowering the net, as it is being towed, result in an averaged sample over both distance and depth. The vessel speed must be great enough to catch organisms but low enough to let the water pass through the net. After a specific sampling time or volume, the net is retrieved, rinsed carefully, and its contents collected. Plankton may also be sampled by using a water bottle to collect a water sample at a known depth. The organisms are identified using a microscope and their concentrations are measured with an electronic particle counter. Phytoplankton abundance is quantified by dissolving the chlorophyll pigment and measuring its concentration. Shipboard chlorophyll measurements from ships are described by Smith and others (1987).

Figure 3.4 A plankton net. The twin nets are used to take duplicate samples. Note the flow meter in each net (Duxbury and Duxbury 1984);.


Figure 3.5 Gear for biological collection: (a) Peterson grab. (b) dredge, (c) beam-

trawl, and (d) otter-trawl (Duxbury and Duxbury 1984).

Benthos Sampling Temporal population studies are made of organisms living on or in the ocean bottom by first establishing a transect line (the sampling sites are located along the line) and returning to the same place season after season. Surface counts of individuals are made on rocky shores; on sandy shores, trenches paralleling the transect line are dug to reveal the populations living below.

Information on subtidal species (species of the benthic zone from the low tide line to the seaward edge of the continental shelf) can be obtained with a bottom dredge dragged over the seafloor by a slowly moving ship. The approximate size of the area sampled is calculated using a measuring wheel, attached to the dredge frame. Soft sea bottoms are sampled with a box corer or a bottom grab that can be designed to penetrate to a specific depth and to take a sample with a specific surface area. The sediment is washed through a series of mesh screens of different sizes, and the organisms are collected and counted. Many samples need to be taken in order to determine the community structure of any single area of the sea-floor.

Inventory and Monitoring: Ship and FieM Techniques

Bottom communities can be sampled by scuba-divers in depths to approximately 35 meters. The species are identified within a frame of a specific area, and individuals of each type counted. If the bottom is not disturbed, it is possible to return to the same plot and check it again. Other methods of observing the sea bottom without disturbing it include underwater photography and television that are operated remotely from a ship or from a submersible.

Monitoring of Wetlands Condition

Some indicators of wetland condition, such as wetland extent and type, habitat structure, and the plant biomass/productivity, can be studied primarily by means of remote sensing; while others such as vegetation, hydrology, and habitat quality still require the use of more conventional techniques (Patience and Klemas 1993). Suggested techniques for monitoring condition indicators are shown in Table 2.1.

Wetland Vegetation Plant communities are colnlnonly described by their floristics (species list), vertical suucture (I ife form, layers), and horizontal arrangement (coverage, density) (Leibowitz and others 1991). Permanent trallsects, usually oriented parallel to certain ecological gradients, are established in each major plant community of the wetland, allowing change detection over time. Aerial photography can bc used to identify and delineate these major vegetation types. The number and length of transects will depend on the shape, orientation, hydrologic gradients, and interspersion of plant communities. Sampling points are marked on the ground with iron rods or other suitable markers and located on the map. Different kinds of sampling methods for study site selection are discussed in Shimwell (1971): subjective samples, partially random samples, regularly spaced samples in a checkerboard arrangement, contiguous study sites in a belt arrangement, etc. The size and number of sites to select can be based on the added species approach (Whittaker 1975). Sampling methods differ with the type of community studied (e.g., herbaceous communities, shrubs, and trees). See Leibowitz and others (1991) for suggested sampling methods of wetland plant communities. Five measures of community composition are commonly used to compare vegetation communities (Nickerson, Dobberteen, and Jarman 1989): (a) number of species and (b) total stem count per plot (calculated directly from the raw data); and (c) plant diversity, (d) species

Inventory and Monitoring: Ship and Field Techn@ues

richness, and (e) species evenness (derived from the first two measures).

Wetland Habitat Quality Monitoring vertebrate communities is an effective way to evaluate habitat quality. Birds are good candidates, because they are easily identified and occur in nearly every habitat type. Different indices of habitat quality based on birds have been developed. The Habitat Assessment Technique (HAT) developed by Cable, Brack, and Holmes (1989) is quick, simple, inexpensive, and can be used to screen large numbers of wetlands. Measures of species diversity and rarity are used to assess the quality of the wetland. HAT requires minimal field time, since the only environmental variable of interest is wetland-dependent bird species.

Methodologies to sample fish vary with the habitat type and species expected (Brooks and Hughes 1988). Seines (a kind of large net designed for fish) suffice in shallow waters with little woody debris. Backpack electrofishers are often more effective when woody debris make seining impractical. In waters too deep for wading or in those with dense macrophyte beds, experimental gill nets (multiple mesh sizes) and minnow traps or grabs should be used.

Wetland Hydrology 1 Iydrology is the primary and critical force that creates and modifies wetlands; unfortunately, wetland hydrology and its changes wer time are not adequately understood. Site-specific and quantitatilre data are essential for the assessment, but they are missing because of the high costs and the long time frame required for evaluation. Detailed hydrologic budgets for different wetland types must be calculated for a period long enough to include a range from relatively wet to relatively dry years. Studies on both reference sites and disturbed wetlands are needed to calculate flux rates under a variety of environmental conditions before threshold values associated with disturbance can be determined.

Wetland hydrology assessment typically includes the study of water flow (precipitation, ground water, surface water) into, through, and out of the wetland, the characteristics of this flow, and its i: teraction with the wetland. Wetland hydrology can be approack.-1 with varying levels of generality and quantification (Kusler i987): general, unquantified evaluations based on wetland


origin and type, location in the watershed, the topography of the surrounding land, or site-specific quantitative evaluations based on flood and stream flow data, topographic maps, aerial photography, superficial field surveys, and hydrologic monitoring.

Water depth, water velocity, and changes in surface level are some of the important parameters to analyze. Depth can be directly measured in a field survey with a stadia rod or similar device. However, it is often difficult to decide what is "bottom" when the substrate includes many feet of unconsolidated organics (Kusler 1987). "Guesstimates" of water velocity can be made based on the overall characteristics of the wetland and the acljacent water body. Relatively high velocities may be expected for coastal wetlands impacted by hurricane waves. The organic content and size of materials in the soils can also give some information about water velocity: deep organic soils imply low velocities, whereas mineral soils, particularly those containing small rocks, imply higher velocities (Kusler 1987). More accurate values of water velocity can be obtained using continuous recorders attached to weirs or flumes (Leibowitz and others 1991). Weirs are devices used to determine the quantity of water flowing over it. A flume is a channel placed in a stream of water to measure the volume or rate of flow. Groundwater fluxes determination is more complex, because of the difficulty of defining flow-system boundaries, dynamics of recharge and discllarge, hydraulic gradients, and permtdbility distributioil (Winter 1981).

Field observations and aerial photography can be used in conjunction to define the maximum and minimum reaches of surface waters in and around wetlands. Continuous water-level recorders are desirable, but are more expensive to install and maintain than staff gauges that are read at periodic intervals (Leibowitz and others 1991). Other similar devices can be used, such as iron rods or PVC (plastic) wells. The wells must be placed at strategic stations along transects established for plant and animal sampling. Slotted PVC pipes allow measurements of water level above the surface during wet periods, and below the surface during dry periods (Leibowitz and others 1991).

Monitoring of Sea Level

Despite the lack of agreement on the threat of man-induced global warming, there is no doubt that the sea level has been rising. This


will eventually have significant environmental and economic implications for coastal countries. Data on the sea level has been collected by almost all nations in the world, mainly due to its importance for shipping activities. A global scientific sea level monitoring network (GLOSS) exists and functions very well. (A good description of GLOSS is presented in GLOSS 1993.)

Coastal Upland and Watershed Surveys

Monitoring adjacent upland cover is necessary because it can significantly affect water quality and consequently the critical habitats of living marine resources (Klemas and others 1993). Field surveys and observations of the coastal uplands may also provide important information for any management decisions. While remote sensing (satellite and aerial based) can provide topographic information concerning landcover, land-use distinctio:!~ can often be difficult (e.g., commercial vs. industrial). Such cadastral information should be integrated into a coastal zone management program in order to avoid potential conflicts between such competing uses as industrial development and tourism. Information on land development is also important in understanding related changes in associated wetland areas.

Data collection on land use can often be obtained through the analysis of local zoning maps. These maps are generally the result of property or cadastral surveys using field measurements by transits and/or theodolites. If such maps do not exist, then, a survey could be undertaken combining high resolution photogrammetry with in situ field survey observations.

Conclusions

Ship and field data provide relatively accurate point samples of a variety of parameters. The bio-optical profiling system allows rapid sampling of optical, physical, and biological properties of the waters. The monitoring of pollutant levels in seafood supplies and in coastal environments can be most efficiently done by periodic sampling of indicator organisms such as mussels and oysters. Plankton and benthos sampling requires simple equipment, but a good knowledge of the different plant and animal species. Monitoring vertebrate communities is an effective way to evaluate habitat quality. Wetland hydrology is difficult to assess accurately, because cf the high costs and long time frame required for


evaluation, but it can be approached with varying levels of generality and quantification. Coastal erosion, bleaching of coral reefs, wetland biomass and primary productivity, plant community composition, and wetland structure, areal extent and type, are some of the indicators that can be more efficiently assessed by remote sensing. The effectiveness of coastal zone resources management depends on the ability to collect and analyze data on a regional and eventually global scale. With the synoptic view that satellite and aircraft sensors provide, it is possible to quantitatively extrapolate the data in space and time, and place them into a broader context.

4 REMOTE SENSING OF PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPER'TIES OF COASTAL WATERS, ESTUARIES AND WETLANDS

Introduction

Estuaries are highly productive, producing large quantities of animal and plant biomass each year. They are sites of in-shore fisheries and spawning or nursery grounds for many species of pelagic finfish. They shelter many plants and invertebrates of ecological and economic significance. Estuaries also provide ports, industrial and residential sites, and recreational attractions. Needless to say, estuarine shorelines are usually the first to be populated when agricultural, urban, and industrial development occurs. To determine the impact of such development on the "health" of estuarine systems, many studies 'are being conducted requiring extensive monitoring of a wide range of physical, geological, chemical, and biological properties of the water column, benthos, and surrounding wetlands. Most of these studies employ ship and field data and make very little use of remotely sensed data.

Many coastal and estuarine phenomena vary too rapidly in space and time for observation by conventional ship or field techniques. In some cases, remote sensors provide the capability of making the large-scale synoptic observations necessary for monitoring such phenomena. Investigators have shown that the selective application of remote sensing technology and Environmental Information Systems enables one to quantify the presence and change in distribution of a variety of coastal ecosystems and to determine the physical effects of currents, temperatures and pollutants on these ecosystems and coastal geomorphology over wide spatial and temporal limits.

Remote Sensing of Physical and Biological Properties

In developing countries, cost and availability may preclude the use of some of the more advanced remote sensing techniques-for example, airborne lasers and high resolution satellite imagery. However, there are many other applications such as aerial photography of mangrove losses, coastal erosion or coastal pollution dispersion and satellite monitoring of deforestation, coastal productivity or flooding that have proven successful and cost-effective in countries such as Brazil, Ecuador, and Kenya (Aguiar 199 1 ; Mertes, Smith, and Adams 1993; Terchunian and others 1986). Considering the high cost of ship time and field data collection, in some instances remote sensing may be the only affordable choice for large coastal regions. This is particularly true for developing countries that have regional remote sensing centers and infrastructure already in place.

Compared with the open ocean, lagoons and estuaries are very small and undergo rapid changes due to tidal effects, Consequently, observatlp )n requirements for coastal features differ significantly from those for open ocean investigations since both spatial and temporal resolution requirements become more demanding as one moves closer to the coast. This is illustrated in Figure 4.1, which compares the sensor spatial and temporal resolution requirements that are needed to meet various coastal and open ocean applications. For instance, the meanders of coastal currents and ocean-dumped wastc plumes on the continental shelf need to be tapdated about every four hours with 50-meter resolution; while studies of the movements of tidal-induced estuarine fronts and pollution plumes require still more precision with one-half hourly observations at about 10-meter resolution. On the other hand, it suft'i~ :s to map coastal wetlands and land use about once every three years with a resolution of 10-20 meters.

Coastal applications of remote sensing require a wide assortment of sensors, including film cameras for beach erosion and vegetation mapping, multispectral scanners for wetlands biomass and estuarine productivity studies, thermal infrared scanners for mapping surface water temperatures and currents, synthetic apel:ure radar for wave studies, and microwave radiometers for salinity measurements. The most popular instruments used in ocean remote sensing are defined in Table 4.1. Table 4.2 summarizes the ability of each sensor to detect key environmental features from aircraft or satellites. Note that land use, coastal vegetation, :a surface temperature, surface winds and


wave spectra are easy to detect if proper sensors are used. On the other hand, chiorophy 11 concentration, suspended sediment concentration, water salinity or pollutants are much more difficult to measure unless ample field measurements accompany the remotely sensed data.

Some sensors may be effective for detecting coastal features, but may not be available to developing countries or be too expensive to use. Table 4.3 compares the relative cost, complexity and availability of remote sensors for coastal inventories and monitoring projects. As shown, for small coastal areas aerial photography is least expensive, requires the least training since it is not complex, and is readily available. On the other hand, satellite multispectral scanner (MSS) data can be expensive, unless provided by special arrangement with SPOT or EOSAT, the companies controlling the data acquisition and sale. Also the analysis of digital MSS data requires more training. Other sensors, such as microwave radiometers and laser fluorosensors are not readily available to developing countries and require extensive training for data interpretation and use. The availability of low-cost microcomputers with user-friendly software is enabling more developing countries to speed up the preparation of thematic inventories and the analysis of satellite data, including NOAAIAVHRR, LANDSAT and SPOT imagery, that are useful for estuarine investigations (Table 4.3). However, to meet both spatial and temporal resolution requirements, data from several satellites need to be combined with aircraft and ship data in a cost- effective way. This chapter provides an overview of practical remote sensing techniques for monitoring and mapping the natural resources of wetlands, estuaries and coastal waters including the use of aircraft mounted sensor systems for monitoring estuaries (Hilton 1984).


Table 4.1 Spaceborne Ocean-sensing Techniques

Altimeter a pencil beam microwave radar that measures the distance between the spacecraft and the Earth. Measurements yield the topography and roughness of the sea surface from which the surface current and average wave height can be estimated.

Color Scanner - a radiometer that mcssures the intensity of radiation reflected (Multispectral Scanner) from within the sea in the visible and near-infrared bands in

a broad swath beneath the spacecraft. Measurements yield ocean color, from which chlorophyll pigment concentration, and diffuse attenuation coefficient, and other bio-optical properties can be estimated.

Infrared Radiometer - a radiometer that measures the intensity of radiation emitted from the sea in the infrared band in a broad swath beneath the spacecraft. Mzasurzments yield estimates of sea surface temperature.

Microwave Radiometer - a radiometer that measures the intensity of radiation emitted from the sea surface in the microwave band in a broad swath beneath the spacecraft. Measurements yield microwave brightness temperatures, from which wind speed, water vapor, rain rate, sea surface temperature, and i'ce cover can be estimated.

a microwave radar that measures the roughness of the sea surface in a broad swath on either side of the spacecraft with a spatial resolution of 50 kilometers. Measurements yield the amplitude of short surface waves that are approximately in equilibrium with the local wind and from which the surface wind velocity can be estimated.

Synthetic Aperture Radar - a microwave imaging radar that electronically synthesizes the equivalent of an antenna large enough to achieve a spatial resolution of 25 meters. Measurements yield information on features (swell, internal waves, rain, current boundaries, and so on) that modulate the amplitude of the short surface waves; they also yield information on the position and character of sea ice from which, with successive views, the velocity of sea ice floes can be estimated.

32

Table 4.2 Performance of Remote Sensors for Estuarine and Coastal Studies

Veg.& Biomaae Coamt- Bottom Sump. Sump. Chloro- Curr. Plat- Land & Veg. line Feat. Depth sed. Sed. phyll Oil Surf. Water Circ. Wave Surf.

Seneor form Use Streem Eromion sAV Profilem Ptrne. Concen, Concen. S1.kke Temp. Sal. Ptrns. Spectra Wha0

Film Cameras A 5 2 5 4 3 4 3 3 4 0 0 3 3 2 S 4 2 4 3 2 4 3 2 3 0 0 3 2 1

Hultimpectral A 5 4 5 4 3 5 4 4 5 0 1 3 3 2 Scanners S 4 3 4 3 3 4 4 3 3 0 1 3 2 1

Thermal IR A 3 3 2 0 0 2 1 0 4 5 2 4 0 2 Scanners S 2 2 1 0 0 2 1 0 3 5 0 4 0 1

Laeer A 0 0 3 3 4 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 5 2 Prof ilers S 0 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0

Laser A 1 0 1 ' 0 1 2 3 4 4 1 2 1 0 0 Fluoroeensors S 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 0

Hicrowave A 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 4 4 4 3 3 4 Radlometere S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 3 2 3 4

Imaging Radar A 4 2 4 0 1 2 0 0 4 2 2 3 4 3 (SAR or SLAR) S 3 1 3 0 1 1 0 0 3 1 1 2 3 2

Altimeter A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 0 4 5 4 (Radar) S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 4 4 4

Scatterometer A 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 1 1 2 2 5 (Radar ) S 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 5

CODAR (Radar) G 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 4 3

UW Camera G 0 0 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 0 0 1 0 0

0 Ratinq Plat f orrn - -.- 5 = Operational A = Aircraft (Medium or Low Altitude) 4 = Functional, Not Yet Operational S = Spacecraft (Satellite) 3 = Demonstrated Potential, Field Testa Required G = Ground (Boat or Field) 2 = Potential Utility, Reeearch Needed 1 = Limited Utility 0 = Not Applicable V. Klemae/X.-H. Yan (6/30/93) *

Remote Sensing of Physical and Biological Properfr'es

Table 4.3 Cost, Complexity, and Availability of Remote Sensor Data for Estuarine and Coastal Studies

Sensor Platform Cost Corn~lexitv Availabilitv

Film Cameras A L L H S L L M

Multispectral A H M M Scanners S M M H

Thermal IR Scanners

Laser Pro filers

Laser A H H L Fluorosensors S -

Microwave A H H L Radiometers S M H M

Imaging Radar A H M M (SAR or SLAR) S M M M

Altimeter (Radar)

Scatterometer A - - - (Radar) S M H M

CODAR (Radar) G M H L

RADS (Acoustic) G M H M

UW Camera G M M H

Platform A = Aircraft (Medium or Low Altitude) L = Low S = Spacecraft (Satellite) M = Medium G = Ground (Boat or Field) H = High

Cost = Cost to purchase data or rent equipment. Complexity = Difficulty of acquiring, analyzing data and training personnel. Availability = Availability of data or equipment.


Mapping Coastal Wetlands and Land Use

Remote sensing, primarily using aerial photographs, is a widely established and accepted method in mapping and inventorying of tidal wetlands. Wetland habitats are recognized and the boundaries with non-wetlands are drawn primarily on the basis of interpreted vegetative cover as well as on identification of open water, beach, rocky shores, etc. Mapping by remote detection enjoys considerable advantages in speed, flexibility, and cost per area mapped over conventional techniques (Tables 4.2 and 4.3).

Operational inventories of wetland or mangrove boundaries rely primarily on identification of plant species or associations. It is usually assumed that designated "wetland" vegetation will not be found to any significant degree outside the tidally inundated zone, and therefore that their presence is indicative of an intertidal wetland. In some states, the transition from one species or growth form to another is identified with a particular tidal datum-MHW, for instance. However, although tidal inundation certainly is a controlling factor in marsh plant zonation, attempts to correlate particular species unambiguously with a specific tidal plane have usually been unsuccessful. Species and associations of plants retain their relative vertical relationships from place to place, but their exact position with regard to a tidal datum is highly site specific (Fornes and Reimold 1973; Lagna 1975). Nevertheless, in practice, it is vegetation that is usually used to delineate wetlands because of the difficulties inherent in applying elevation criteria. Some discrepancies with legal definitions of public vs. private jurisdiction may have to be resolved with on-site investigations, but, as it is the wetland ecosystem that is being managed, biological criteria ultimately seem less arbitrary than those based solely on elevation.

Most wetland or mangrove inventories are based on aerial photography supplemented by field work and other data sources (Terchunian and others 1986). The identification and mapping of vegetation have been among the most persistent and well-developed applications of remote sensing for many years. For the most part, vegetation is easily distinguished from other types of cover on the basis of its unique spectral reflectance characteristics. The importance of pigments in photosynthetic function results in visible color being a useful diagnostic characteristic of the condition of vegetation as well as discriminating it from non-vegetated surfaces.

Remote Sensing of Physical and Biologicel Properties

In addition, reflectance in the near-infrared portion of the spectrum can be related to indicators of the physiological status of vegetation as well as aiding in discriminating of plant species and associations.

Most common film and filter combinations, including panchromatic, can be used to delineate wetlands from uplands as the distinction is often based on obvious textural and topographic differences between wetland plants and upland trees, shrubs, crops, or fill. Stereoscopic viewing is frequently used to discriminate breaks in slope and sharp changes in elevation or canopy height occurring at wetland boundaries. The presence of more subtle boundaries and the desire to differentiate species associations within the wetlands have led to a general preference for the high spectral information content of color-infrared photography. Sensing in the infrared regions of the spectrum also aids in the delineation of the wetlandlwater boundary due to high contrast between vegetation and highly absorptive water. Atmospheric haze effects encountered at shorter visible wavelengths are also reduced. As with any other remote sensing application, no realistic inventory can be performed without field work for establishing interpretation criteria and validating Fqal results. Direct identification of plant species is, of course, ,~ossible only in situ: interpretation of photographs can extrapolate only the investigator's personal knowledge of the species present and their patterns of occurrence.

An extensive commercial capability for aerial mapping is present in many parts of the world. The scale of photography is easily adjusted to the scale, format, cost, and accuracy requirements of particular mapping tasks. When wetland boundaries must be related to holdings of individual property owne s, a large mapping scale of 1:2400 has been used. Smaller scale,- ranging from 1 200,000 to 1:500,000 have also been employed in state inventories. Planimetric precision of the final product can be selected based on inventory requirements. Boundaries can be interpreted and displayed on the original aerial photography-an efficient method when map accuracy is not necessary. When conformance with map accuracy standards is required, photo-interpreted boundaries can be plotted on a standard cartographic base, or photogrammetric techniques can be used to correct for photographic distortions and the boundaries are drawn on the photos themselves. Use of the photographs as a representational base has several advantages whether or not map


accuracy is desired. The photos often show relationships of buildings, vegetation, and other landmarks that may not be present on standard maps. In many cases, the interpretive criteria applied for positioning a particular boundary are obvious from the photograph, simplifying resolution of disputed designations. The positions of changing shorelines are usually more up-to-date on recent photography than on available maps. Perhaps most important, a photograph has a compelling and easily grasped impact as evidence, particularly for the layman, even when a map might depict the same relationships. As a result, many inventory programs have used a photo-based final product.

Inventories of tidal wetlands are often of interest for reasons other than statutory boundary delineation. The magnitudes of many important wetland functions are directly related to the local extent of the tide marsh ecosystem. As a result, many inventories of wetlands have been performed as a guide to the extent and character of the resource and its impact on adjacent estuarine waters. In most cases, requirements for planimetric accuracy are not as stringent as when statutory boundaries are desired. The result is that the investigator has greater freedom in choosing the scale of the final product and thus may use imaging systems at higher altitudes or with less spatial resolution, with accompanying reductions in cost. The "National Wetlands Inventory" conducted by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is based on aerial photography, producing both a digital data base and maps at 1 : 100,000. This inventory also identifies shallow open water habitats by bottom type and geomorphic setting (estuarine, riverine lacustrine, etc.).

Satellite imagery including MSS, TM, and SPOT have been used successfully to map a variety of types of wetlands (Hardisky, Gross, and Klemas 1986; Klemas, Thomas, and Zaitzeff 1987). Use of satellite imagery for mapping wetlands promises several advantages over conventional aerial photography, including timeliness, synopticity , and reduced costs. While aerial photography is the best choice for construction of detailed habitat classification maps, satellite imagery is better suited and less costly for rapid, repeated observations over broad regions (Klemas, Thomas, and Zaitzeff 1987). Both aircraft and satellite remote sensors have been used to map mangrove ecosystems (Terchunian and others 1986). When aerial photography is used in conjunction with TM or SPOT imagery, submerged aquatic vegetation and


other habitats in selected areas can be mapped. This combination should be most effective for accomplishing stated objectives at minimal cost. Table 4.2 summarizes the ability of various sensors to detect or map coastal features. As noted above, Table 4.2 confirms that coastal vegetation and land use can be mapped effectively with film cameras and multispectral scanners mounted on board either aircraft or satellites (Table 4.2).

Cost is normally the overriding consideration in choosing an inventory methodology once minimum standards of scale and accuracy have been established. In fact, inventory standards are rarely determined a priori, but are "traded off" with cost considerations in planning the inventory process. In many states, for example, the MHW line or some datum referenced to MHW would be the preferred boundary for wetlands mapping. The expense associated with mapping this datum, however, has led to alternative definitions based on vegetation-definitions compatible with less-costly remote sensing methods.

Comparative costs for inventory techniques are difficult to obtain for a general case (Table 4.2). A general idea of relative costs can be gained from figures cited in the literature (Note: All dollar figures are discounted to 1985 U.S. dollars assuming an annual inflation rate of 5 percent from the date of the referenced study.) The U .S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has estimated its costs for an in-the-field inventory of a cordgrass marsh at US$26.90/ha (Butera 1983). A large-scale (1 :2400) wetlands inventory based on 1 : 12,000 color and color-infrared photography was conducted in Delaware for US$3.40/ha (Bartlett 1987). Smaller-scale vegetation inventories in the midwestern United States used high altitude aerial photography to produce 1:24,000 and 1:250,000 scale maps for US$0.4l/ha and US$0.04/ha1 respectively (Eastwood and others 1977). Butera (1983) computed costs of US$O.O5/ha for a LANDSAT-MSS inventory of 3,900 square kilometers of wetlands in Florida. Imagery was interpreted through digital processing of the MSS data. The efficiency of semiautomated interpretation is such that as larger areas are inventoried, incremental LANDSAT-MSS costs fall to US$O.Ol/ha or less (Eastwood and others 1977; Gaydos 1978). Figures for specific projects will, of course, vary from those cited, and these figures should be used for comparative purposes only.


The most precipitous drop in unit cost occurs in the transition from conventional field surveys to large-scale (low-altitude) remote mapping. There are also large reductions in cost related to decreasing the scale of a remote sensing inventory. Use of LANDSAT data becomes cost-advantageous for inventories of large areas (> 10,000 square kilometers) if the loss of spatial resolution and classification accuracy can be tolerated.

There can be little doubt about the reliability and cost- effectiveness of aerial photographic wetland inventories. Savings of an order of magnitude or more in time and expense over conventional surveys can be achieved without significant loss of accuracy. The utility of orbital sensors is restricted, primarily by spatial resolution, to inventories of large areas at small scales or, perhaps, to rapid updating of existing maps.

Monitoring Wetland Health and Condition Indicators

As explained in Chapter 2, important indicators of wetlands condition for both management and research interests are biomass ;[id primary production. Both terms refer to the dry weight of plants, expressed as grams dry weight per square meter (gdw/m2) per year for the productivity. Primary production in tidal wetlands is commonly assessed through periodic measurement of biomass, usually by harvesting of measured quadrants of vegetation. Typically, vegetation within a 0.25 to 1.0 square meters quadrant is harvested and returned to the laboratory for sorting into live and dead fractions, drying, and weighing. This process requires significant manpower in the field and lab. Hardisky and others (1984) estimate 0.33 man-days per sample was required for travel, sampling, and lab work during an assessment in Delaware narshes. As a result, productivity measurements tend to be available only intermittently for local management purposes, and not at all for regional and global scale assessment.

Several studies have indicated that biomass information can be acquired through remote sensor measurements (Hardisky and others 1984; Bartlett 1987; Jensen 1980). The most promising technique uses a difference or ratio of upwelled radiance measurements in two spectral bands (one infrared, the other in the "red" wavelength region) as an indicator of the amount of live vegetation present in the canopy (Tucker and others 1981). The method is based on the high contrast in reflectance between


vegetation and soil in the infrared and between live and dead vegetation in the "red" wavelength region.

A number of routines have been developed for processing satellite biomass data. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) has become especially important. Because green plants absorb red light for photosynthesis and, owing to leaf structure, scatter and reflect large proportions of infrared light, healthy plants have low reflectance in the red part of the spectrum and high reflectance in the infrared part. The NDVI is based on a fundamental relationship that is calculated as

NDVI = (Near infrared) -(red) (Near infrared) +(red)

The NDVI represents the relative quantity and quality of photosynthetically active biomass. Spatial analysis of the NDVI over time indicates changes in vegetation conditions. Vegetated areas display high values of NDVI, in contrast to clouds, rock, and bare soil with low values, and water and snow with negative values. NDVI data and wetlands have proved very useful in regional and global studies of drought, desert locust control, and wetlands biomass and condition. The requirements of this technique for accurate measurement of spectral radiance effectively excludes aerial photography as a quantitative tool, but is well suited to existing multispectral scanners. The processing steps for digital analysis of multispectral scanner data are essentially the same, whether it is an inventory of cover types or a spectroradiometric estimate of biomass that is desired. Thus, costs for biomass assessment would add only a small amount to resources required for wetland inventories using scanner data.

Remote Sensing of Coastal Features, Water Properties and Dynamics

0 vervie w Remote sensing offers a unique opportunity to observe and monitor entire estuaries synoptically and compare them to other estuaries. However, due to the tidal influences and small scale surface and subsurface features that need to be detected, estuaries place severe


temporal and spatial resolution requirements on sensing systems as compared to open ocean or land applications (Figure 4.1).

Passive remote sensing systems sense either reflected solar radiation or radiated thermal infrared/microwave energy. The incident solar radiation visible wavelengths are attenuated exponentially by water, whereas the passage of thermal infrared ones is limited to a very thin surface layer of water. Only reflected radiation from the surface layers is sensed unattenuated, but as the sensor "looks" at deeper layers of the water column, the signal-to- noise ratio of the sensed light decreases in an exponential manner. In the open ocean, where scattering and absorption effects are of the same order of magnitude, the penetration depth of detectable visible light may exceed 50 meters. Coastal and estuarine waters are more turbid and contain complicated mixtures of dissolved organic and particulate inorganic substances. The increased scattering by suspended matter results in Secchi depths of less than one meter in many of the world's bays and estuaries. (A Secchi depth is the depth at which a white disc becomes invisible to the naked eye.) As one moves from the open ocean into coastal waters, the light attenuation in the water column increases and the wavelength of optimum penetration shifts from the blue-green to the green and, eventually, to the red as one enters Chesapeake Bay, for example. While the high turbidity makes the discrimination of specific substances in the water more difficult, turbidity patterns reflect more light and can be detected by LANDSAT TM bands despite their low radiometric sensitivity.

The dynamic range of water radiance is about an order of magnitude smaller than that of land targets. Furthermore, in coastal studies one frequently needs to distinguish water masses having only small differences in particulate or dissolved substance content and, therefore, must be able to discern small differences in the spectra of backscattered light. As a result, more radiometric sensitivity is required for coastal water studies than those of land. The dynamic ranges of MSS, AVHRR, TM and SPOT are compared in Table 4.3. Obviously, AVHRR is designed to be more sensitive to small radiance variations from different water types than is LANDSAT MSS, TM or SPOT.

The ability of various remote sensing systems to chart ocean surface features (e.g., fronts, currents, and slicks) and substances in the water column (e.g., chlorophyll and suspended sediments)


are shown in Table 4.1. Using digital enhancement techniques, LANDSAT-MSS and NOAAJAVHRR have been used effectively to study sediment patterns, estuarine circulation, frontal dynamics, and ocean-dumped waste dispersion (Klemas 1980). The suspended sediments and wastes frequently act as natural tracers, enabling even LANDSAT MSS to detect the patterns (Table 4.1). This type of data is available to developing countries (Table 4.2). Good examples of multi-level observations of estuarine circulation properties are offered by Klemas and others (1977) in Delaware Bay, and by Gagliardini and others (1984) in the La Plata River estuary. Aircraft and ground-based radar techniques have been developed for measuring currents (Schuchman and others 1979). Of particular interest to estuarine studies is the CODAR system, a mobile coastal radar unit that can map variable surface currents in real time at distances up to 70 kilometers using water wave scatter (Barrick, Evans, and Weber 1977). Currents can also be measured using dyes and drogues tracked from shore or from aircraft (Klemas and others 1974, 1977). There are also photogrammetric methods for surveying tidal currents (Keller 1963).

Coastal Erosion and Geomorphology Coastal erosion and coastal geomorphology have been studied effectively using aircraft film cameras and LANDSAT imagery (Dolan 1973; Stafford and Langfelder 197 1). The advantage of aircraft photography is that it provides the high resolution required for accurate measurement of beach erosion and accretion. LANDS AT-MSS imagery, however, can provide a geologic overview of an entire coastline, including underwater features (see Table 4.1). Bathymetric maps have been successfully prepared by extracting water attenuation and bottom reflectance values from digitally processed LANDSAT-MSS data (Philpot 1989). These techniques and measurements are suitable for developing countries because, as shown in Table 4.2, the equipment is available, the techniques are not too complex and the cost reasonable.

Water Depth and Bath ymetry Water depth can also be measured by relating it to the time difference between laser pulse arrivals from the water surface and the bottom. Such laser profiles use green wavelengths that penetrate reasonably clear waters (Hoge, Swift, and Frederick 1980; Guenther 1989). A major 1 imitation of laser depth profiling systems is the laser beam's inability to penetrate turbid water and


Figure 4.1 Spatial and Temporal Resolution Requirements for Coastal Studies

TEMPORAL RESOLUTION (days)


reach bottom. For instance, the turbidities of most bays and estuaries are such that less than half the total area could be mapped with the most powerful laser profiler available. However, development of the Airborne Oceanographic Lidar (AOL) system has shown that a single instrument package containing a scanning laser fluorimeter can meet a wide range of applications in spite of severe turbidity conditions (Hoge, Swift, and Frederick 1980). Visible images of water bodies from aircraft or satellites can help provide relative depth profiles that may then be calibrated with airborne laser profilers.

Submerged Aquatic Vegetation and Bottom Features As shown in Table 4.2, submerged aquatic vegetation (e.g., seagrasses) is usually mapped with airborne color cameras (Ferguson and Wood 1990). LANDSAT-TM and SPOT have been also used but with limited success due to the high turbidity of coastal waters (Ackleson and Klemas 1987). Since most optical wavelengths do not penetrate from tile surface to the bottom of turbid estuaries, in order to map bottom features reliably, one frequently must turn to underwater television cameras, film cameras or sonar systems operated from boats (Rhoads 1987). Television and film cameras have been used successfully to study bottom ripple formation, current-induced sediment movement, subme.rged aquatic vegetation (SAV) and other features, including wrechcd ships (Smith 1984). Echo sounders and side scan sonar have been deployed to study bottom geologic features, search for lost equipment, and track schools of fish and ocean-dumped waste penetration of the thermocline (Proni and others 1976; Appel 1987). Most of these techniques are not complex, nor very costly and readily available to developing countries (Table 4.3).

Water Color and Turbidity Estuarine waters typically contain high concentrations of dissolved and suspended materials that arise from or have an impact on biological activity in the water. These substances may also, in some cases, be used as tracers to study circulation patterns in the estuary. Many of these materials are optically active and have an influence on the spectral and angular distribution of the light in the water column. As a result, combining measurements of the spectral characteristics of the light within the water column and above its surface may be used to determine the concentrations of various materials in the water. Ideally, this should be done with remote measurements of the reflected light, so that the rapid, large-scale


sampling capabilities provided by aircraft or satellite sensors can be utilized. However, in order to interpret these remote measurements, more information about the optical properties of each of the important water constituents is needed. This information must be obtained via in situ measurements.

In order to measure the concentrations and total amounts of key optical constituents such as phytoplankton pigments, dissolved organic compounds, sediment and detrital matter, accurate biological and chemical analyses on water samples as well as in situ measurements of light profiles in the water column must be made. Such measurements may be performed by lowering a visible band underwater radiometer (e.g . , LICOR 1800-UW) from shipboard and recording a narrow-band (10 nm) irradiance spectrum at a series of depths in the water column. The optical measurements allow determination of wavelength-specific attenuation and backscatter coefficients as well as calculation of surface and below-surface reflectance. By combining the optical parameters with the biological and chemical data it is possible to characterize a water mass in terms of its spectral signature and to pinpoint the constituents comprising it (Wang, Lyzenga, and Klemas 1993).

DISSOLVED AND SUSPENDED SUBSTANCES. An optical measure of water color and turbidity can be obtained with remote sensing to indicate the presence of a variety of pollutants. However, to be detectable, pollutants must in some way affect color or turbidity. Dissolved colored materials increase the absorption of light in water and decrease the remotely sensed signal, whereas suspended materials increase the backscatter of light and increase the sensed signal strength. Most studies that obtained good correlation between remotely sensed radiance with sea truth (e.g. concentration) data from ships have included a calibration of the radiance values based on water sample analyses for sediment concentration, particle size distribution and composition (Harrington, Shiebe, and Nix 1992; Ritchie, Cooper, and Yongqing 1987; Mertes, Smith, and Adams 1993). Considerable progress is being made in the development of optical models of the water column to discriminate organic from inorganic suspended matter, to map substances having varying concentrations (layers) as a function of depth, to eliminate the effects of bottom reflections, and to improve atmospheric corrections (Robinson 1983; Philpot and Ackleson 1981; Wilson and Austin 1978;


Stumpf 1987). The same discussion applies to mapping pollutant concentrations in coastal waters (Whitlock and others 1981). To map pollutant concentrations, good ground measurements are required and fairly sophisticated data analysis techniques may have to be used with multispectral scanner data (Klemas and Philpot 1981).

SUSPENDED SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION. Suspended sediment concentrations are of interest to marine geologists and biologists since sediment relates to coastal erosion1 siltation, and affects sunlight penetration and marine productivity. With appropriate ground data, suspended sediment concentrations have been mapped from aircraft and satellites (Curran and Novo 1988; Ritchie, Cooper, and Yongqing 1987; Klemas and others 1977). One of the major problems in calculating suspended sediment concentration from a measured radiant flux is the difference in absorption and scattering of light in the atmosphere from one observation time to the next. Another major problem is that a backscattered flux may represent a mix of water color, bottom reflectance, turbidity produced by plankton, and turbidity caused by suspended sediment. In many cases, however, a change in flux is caused simply by a change in the concentration of only one constituent in the water column.

CHLOROPHYLL CONCENTRATION. Chlorophyll concentration strongly influences ocean color and is a good indicator of coastal productivity (Wilson and Austin 1978). Despite difficult atmospheric corrections, chlorophyll-a concentrations have been mapped with considerable accuracy (Gordon and Clark 1980; Stumpf and Tyler 1988; Hoge and Swift 1986; Harding, Itweire, and Esaias 1992). In turbid coastal waters, it is more difficult to map chlorophyll concentrations using passive techniques. Water masses dominated by dissolved carbon, particulate carbon and inorganic sediment have been differentiated employing aircraft with multispectral scanners. However, as shown in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, these techniques are still being developed and cannot be considered operational.

Oil Slicks and Laser Fluorosensing Chlorophyll and other pigments have also been detected in turbid coastal waters using laser fluorosensing techniques. Chlorophyll concentrations and dispersed oil can be determined using low- altitude airborne lasers operating in the fluorosensing mode (Hoge


and Swift 1983; O'Neil, Buja-Bijunas, and Bayner 1980). Oil slicks that have not been emulsified and mixed in the water column can be mapped with film cameras, multispectral scanners, and thermal infrared and microwave devices (Catoe 1972; U.S. Coast Guard 1992). In the visible region, oil has a higher index of refraction than background water; in the thermal infrared and microwave bands, oil's emissivity differs from that of water and thus is detectable with radiometry. Radar can detect oil slicks, as a film of oil over the sea surface will dampen small surface waves and cause the sea surface to be less reflective and emissive at radar wavelengths. However, only microwave devices and laser fluorosensors currently offer hope for remotely measuring oil slick thickness. For quantitative fluorosensing, laser techniques are not yet proven reliable and are not available in developing countries (Tables 4.2 and 4.3).

Sea-surface Temperature Thermal infrared scanners have been very effective for mapping ocean surface temperatures with about f 1°C accuracy and for studying the circulations of coastal surface currents (Legeckis 1986; Smith and others 1987). Thermal infrared scanners on NOAA satellites, together with multispectral scanners such as the AVHRR and TM, have been used to study coastal upwelling and estuarine properties (Gagliardini and others 1984; Lathrop and Lillesand 1987). Productive coastal upwelling events are accompanied by drops in temperature and chlorophyll-induced color changes detectable by AVHRR (Tables 4.1 and 4.2).

Water Salinity Large area measurements of ocean salinity are of considerable value to oceanographers investigating the coastal zone. Such data are useful in determini~g the estuarine impact of river flooding for shellfish-bed health monitoring and in detecting coastal water masses where mixing of different bodies of water have occurred that could affect fish distribution. Changes in salinity and temperature patterns can also indicate the presence of large scale turbulence and currents. Needless to say, the data are also useful in refining circulation and pollution models in bay areas. However, salinity is one of the most difficult properties to sense remotely (Tables 4- 1 and 4-2). L-band microwave radiometers employed from low-altitude aircraft have been able to map salinity with an accuracy of less than one part per thousand at 2S°C, which is sufficient for estuarine studies where large salinity gradients can

Remote Sensing of Pb ysical and Biological Properties

be found. Open-ocean salinity sensing requirements are more stringent by at least one order of magnitude. One of the principal needs for higher accuracies for open-ocean salinity measurements relates to the measurement of mass density (as inferred from simultaneous temperature and salinity measurements). This parameter is critical in identifying regions of upwelling and circulation patterns (Swift and McIntosh 1983; Le Vine and others 1989).

Ocean Waves and Surface Winds Coastal wave conditions and wave spectra are best obtained using laser profilers from aircraft, radar mappers (SAR) and radar altimeters (Moore 1985; Vesecky and Stewart 1982; Schule, Simpson, and DeLeonibus 1971). As shown in Tables 4.2 and 4.3, imagers such as synthetic aperture radar or film cameras are particularly effective for wave studies if the data is analyzed using Fourier analysis techniques. Since surface winds induce capillary waves that influence microwave emission and reflectance, microwave sensors, particularly radar scatterometers provide effective wind velocity measurement techniques (Jones and others 1981).

Summary and Conclusions

This chapter has reviewed the most commonly used remote sensing techniques for identifying, inventorying and monitoring the biological, geological, and physical properties of coastal zones. The spatial and temporal resolution requirements are shown in Figure 4.1. Please note, that in order to simplify the figure, we used circles of equal sizes even though in real life the circles would be replaced by ellipses having different sizes. Therefore, Figure 4.1 is just a rough approximation of coastal resolution requirements. Nonetheless, Figure 4.1 clearly shows the increase in spatial and temporal resolution needed as one moves from the open ocean into coastal or estuarine waters. For instance, one can map the Gulf Stream and its meanders or rings no less frequently than once every three days at 1 kilometer resolution. Estuarine fronts and pollution plumes sometimes need to be tracked at one hour intervals at 10 meter resolution. On the other hand, wetlands habitat and coastal land use studies also require 10 meter resolution but need not be mapped more frequently than every three years.


As shown in Table 4.4, LANDSAT MSS, TM and SPOT sensors have good spatial resolution (80, 30, and 20 meters, respectively) but their temporal coverage is poor and their spectral bands are not ideal for measuring concentrations of suspended or dissolved substances in the water column. These sensors are, however, suitable for mapping suspended sediment and flow patterns. NOAA satellites with AVHRR sensors provide daily coverage and are quite effective for tracking the dynamics of phytoplankton blooms, turbidity maxima, Gulf Stream rings, etc. However, AVHRR has a spatial resolution of only 1.1 kilometers (Table 4.3) and its spectral bands are not ideal for mapping sediment or chlorophyll concentration (Lillesand and Kiefer 1987). Finally, satellite color scanners like the Nimbus 7 CZCS (no longer active) are effective for open ocean chlorophyll mapping, but are ineffective in coastal or estuarine waters because their bands cannot handle the wide dynamic range of the radiance being backscattered from turbid water. CZCS also had insufficient spatial resolution (0.8 kilometers) for estuarine studies. This will to some extent be true of the new SeaWiFS ocean color sensor to be launched into polar orbit in 1993. The Japanese ADEOS satellite will have the ability to measure ocean color and temperature with OCTS with a 700 meter resolutioil and smaller coastal features with AVNIR at 16 meter resolution in four spectral bands and at 8 meters in panchromatic. However, this satellite will not be launched before the spring of 1996.

The ability of various remote sensors on aircraft and satellites to detect key coastal features is shown in Table 4.2. For instance, to map land use and coastal vegetation is relatively easy with both film cameras and multispectral scanners. Sea surface temperatures can be determined reliably only with thermal infrared radiometers or scanners. On the other hand, there is no reliable way to map water salinity since even the microwave radiometer approach is still highly experimental. Similarly, Table 4.3 illustrates the cost, complexity and availability of key remote sensing techniques. Note that about half of the techniques shown woi~ld be too complex, costly or unavailable for use in developing countries. Aerial photography, satellite digital imagery and radar are the most available, least complex and least costly techniques for use in developing countries.


Table 4.4 Summary of Spatial Resolution of Selected Remote Sensing Devices

Satellite t: Launch 1 1972 - 1978 1 1984 - 7 1981 - 1984 2 1975 - 1982 2 1985 - 8 1983 - 1985 3 1978 - 1983 9 1984-1991 4 1982 - 4 1982 - 10 1986 - 5 1984 - 5 1984 - 11 1988 -

12 1990 -

Orbit:repeat 1-3: 18 days 26 days 2 Per &Y height 900km 832km 8 3 3 h

4,s; 16 days 4,5: 16 days 705km 70Skm

Spzctral Bands Band 4 0.5-0.6 Band 1 0.45-0.53 Band 1 0.50-0.59 (urn) Band 5 0.6-0.7 Sand 2 0.52-0.60 Band 2 0.61-0.68

Eand 6 0.7-0.8 Band 3 0.63-0.63 Band 3 0.79-0.89 Band 7 0.8-1.1 Band 4 0.76-0.90 MultispectralMode

Band 5 1.55-1.75 (color infrared) Band 6 10.4-12.4 Band 1 0.510.73 Band 7 2.08-2.35 Panchromatic Mod

(black and white)

Band 1 0.58-0.68 Band 2 0.72-1.10 Band 3 3.55-3.93 Band 4 10.5-1 1.3 Band 5 11.5-12.5 NOAA 7, 9. 11 Band 5 = Band 4 NOAA 6, 8, 10

Inclination 8 1

IFOV at nadir (m) 76 x 76 (resolution) Mission 1-3

80 X 80 Mission 4.5

Swath width @In)

Pixels per line

Bits per pixel 6

30 X 30 20x20.M-mode 1 . lkmxl . lkm Band 1-6 10 x 10, P-mode

120 x 120 Band 7

13750 Linear array 2218 (CCD) Scanner

3000 M-mode 6000 P-mode

8 8 hi-mode 8 8 M-mode 6 P-mode 6 P-mode

MSS: MuItiSpectraI Scanner TM: Thematic Mapper HRV: High Resolution Visible AVHRR: Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer IFOV: Instantaneous Field of View


Aircraft can provide frequent overflights at good spatial resolution, but large four-engine aircraft used in the past are too expensive to be flown repeatedly. Therefore new sensor packages are being developed that will be small enough to fit on single-engine or two- engine aircraft at a ten-time reduction in operating cost (Table 4.5). A typical sensor package will include a small multispectral camera (e.g., solid state video camera) for water color measurements from which chlorophyll, suspended sediment and dissolved organic concentrations will be estimated. A PRT-5 thermal infrared radiometer will be used to measure surface temperature and a microwave radiometer, which is presently being reduced in size, will be used to measure water salinity. Deployed in conjunction with satellite sensors such as AVHRR, these airborne sensors should be able to observe tidal, seasonal, annual variations and spatial distributions of phytoplankton blooms, sediment plumes, estuarine fronts, circulation patterns, and other estuarine phenomena. A list of sources of remotely sensed data is provided in Appendix 1.


Table 4.5 Small Aircraft Instrument Package

Characteristic Instrument

Water Color Suspended sediment Chlorophyl Dissolved organics Fronts and plumes Phytoplankton blooms Turbidity maxima Etc.

Water Su@ace Temperature

Water Salinity

Suvace Features Oil slicks Organic slicks Fronts Currents, waves Etc.

Multispectral Imaging Camera Xybion solid state videocamera (6 spectral bands)

Spectroradiometer Spectron Spectrometer ODAS (3 band radiometer)

Thermal IR Radiometer Barnes PRT-5

Microwave Radiometer University of Massachusetts Design (Cal Swift)

Airborne Radar S AR

5 ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Introduction

Once identified and collected, the information concerning the various environmental indicators used in monitoring the coastal zone must be systematically organized and presented in a manner accessible and amenable to analysis by planners and decision makers. The inclusion of temporally dependent data and the desire to provide for long-term monitoring also requires that the integration of these data be easily maintained and updated. One of the most powerful tools currently used in resource management for the storage, retrieval, and analysis of environmental data referenced by geographic location is the Geographic Information System (GIs) or, in this case, Environmental Information System (EIS) .

Geographic or Environmental Information Systems are typically defined as a complete computer hardware and software package that can support the capture, storage, retrieval, manipulation, and display of geographically referenced data. These systems can capture spatial information from traditional sources such as maps and tables of georeferenced point attribute data as well as newer digital data such as that resulting from remote sensing and computer cartography. A GIs can accept geographic information of various scales and projections and internally transform these different layers to a standard scale and projection thus allowing for spatial analyses that are too tedious and time- consuming to be done manually (Pheng 1989).

It is not within the scope of this document to describe all aspects of such information systems but a general review of this subject and its applicability to the developing world can be found in the World Bank's special publication Natural Resource and Environmental Information for Decisionmaking (Hassan and

Environmental In forma tion S ys tems for Resource Management

Hutchinson 1992). This chapter will discuss the usefulness of an EIS and also some of the necessary considerations that must be made in the planning and implementation of an EIS for the effective management of the coastal zone. Appendix 2 provides a list of major GIs software packages including inexpensive commercial systems such as IDRISI and public domain offerings such as MOSS and GRASS.

Applications of Envir~nmental Information Systems for Coastal Zone Management

An example of the type of spatial manipulation and database query that an EIS of this type would allow is presented in Figure (5.1). The example is of a coastal EIS incorporating a time series of some of the data layers used in coastal resource monitoring.

While the previous chapters have outlined the many variables and parameters that can be used to accurately monitor and assess the condition of coastal resources, the primary goal of a successful EIS is to aid in the identification and resolution of immediate management concerns.

Some of the most serious management issues identified by ASEAN policymakers, administrators and scientists who participated in a recent policy workshop on coastal area management include (Thia-Eng and Pauly 1989):

Overexploitation of fisheries resources Degradation of coastal and marine ecosystems and habitats Declining water quality and pollution Endangered marine species and coastal wildlife.

While the effecthe management and resolution of these problems is primarily dependent upon policy decisions and enforcement, an EIS system can be instrumental in the decision making process and formulation of suitable regulations and zoning laws.

Many of these issues can be addressed through the establishment of the following guidelines with the aid of an EIS:

Environmental Information Systems for Resource Management

Control of industrial development is important in maintaining environmental quality. The siting of coastal industries should have minimal impact on critical habitats and should result in the maintenance of acceptable water quality standards. Zoning should include industries, ports and shipping facilities and take into account expected effluent output, dominant currentlwater mixing patterns, and the location, direction, and distance to important coastal resources and fishing grounds.

Mangrove and other important coastal habitats should be protected and the conversion and utilization of these resources for aquaculture and other purposes strictly controlled. The mapping and assessment of coral reef condition can be used in the establishment of marine reserves. Potential sites for mangrove reforestation and artificial reef projects should be identified.

The inclusion of geographically referenced fisheries capture and population data can help to identify areas of overc.rploitation and declining resources. Cataloging known incidents of illegal fishing methods can also help to better allocate enforcement and education resources.

Coastal erosion and sedimentation is detrimental to fisheries and water quality. Initial management and preventative measures should be focused in areas where valuable coastal ecosystems are at risk. Land use restriction should be established for those areas that have high erosion potentials.

Linkages to Land Information Systems The ability of an EIS to combine and perform complex spatial analysis utilizing the various data layers discussed in previous chapters can help achieve these stated goals. Integral to the success of this E13, however, is the inclusion of information pertaining not only to those specific coastal resources of interest but also to the land cover and land use of the surrounding uplands.

The importance of this type of information is reflected in the current efforts of the U.S. to develop a national coastal resources database. As pointed out in Chapter 2, current projections for

population growth in the coastal zone suggest accelerating losses of wetlands as competition for limited space and resources

Environmental In forma tion S ys tems for Resource Management

intensify and waste loads increase (U. S . Congress 1989). Agencies responsible for coastal management must be kept current on the extent and status of wetlands and adjacent uplands. Researchers need frequent information including quantification of wetland area, location, rate, and cause of loss (Kean and others 1988). Management decisions can then be proactive and based on fact rather than supposition of the effects of coastal development on coastal wetlands and wet!and-dependent fisheries.

To provide more frequent information on wetland changes in the United States, NOAA has initiated a cooperative statelfederal effort to monitor coastal wetland and adjacent upland cover and determine changes in the coastal region of the North American continent every two to five years. Areas of significant change, such as those affected by oil spills and hurricanes, will be monitored annually. The program is called the NOAA Coastwatch Change Analysis Project (C-CAP) (Dobson and Bright 1991). Synoptic data collection via remote sensing (from satellites and aircraft) and cther techniques will be used to establish a thematic coastal wetlands data biise, and from this, agencies will be able to monitor the changes, or update the data where needed. The first monitoring cycle will ci~cument status and change (retroactively). The data base, which will increase with each subsequent cycle, will be an invaluable resource for research; for evaluating the effectiveness of local, state, and federal wetland management strategies; and for the construction of predictive models.

The digital data base furnished by the C-CAP program is designed to be integrated with other thematic data within a geographical information system to thus enable the United States to link development in its coastal region to the ecological and economic productivity of the coastal zonelcoastal ocean. A case in point is the objective of the NOAAINational Marine Fisheries Service, to better define the abundance, distribution and health of living marine resources {LMR). The rationale for a comprehensive GIs to include C-CAP is that changes in land use and cover affect critical habitats in the coastal zone required by LMR for spawning, feeding and survival as explained in Chapter 2. To sustain the coastal zonelcoastal ocean system's productivity, C-CAP is developing a comprehensive, nationally standardized, information system for land cover and habitat change in the coastal regions of the United States. The system will emphasize a geographic approach including the use of GIs, ground-based data, and


remotely sensed data. Data from TM, other satellite sensors, and aerial photography will be interpreted, classified, and digitized into machine manipulatable form to be compatible with GIs. The derived products will include: spatially registered digital images, hardcopy maps, and tabular summaries. Land cover change should then be detectable in a pixel by pixel comparison with images from different time periods. The resulting information will enhance conceptual and predictive models and support coastal resource policy development.

To satisfy the needs of the C-CAP program, a coastal classification system has been designed that is hierarchical, respects ecological relationships, improves detection by remote sensors, is usable with GIs and is compatible with other data bases, e.g., the U.S. National Wetland Inventory (NWI) (Klemas and others 1993; Wilen 1990). Although the system emphasizes coastal wetlands and deepwater habitats (Table 5.1), uplands categories are included because of their impact on coastal wetlands via run-cff and in other ways. Where the wetlands and deepwater portions of the proposed classification scheme rely heavily on classes defined by Cowardin and others (1979), the uplands definitioua resemble the USGS Land UseILand Cover Classification System (Anderson and others 1976). Crosswalks between C-CAP and other data bases have been preserved, making this coastal classification system compatible with the systems used by various U. S. and U .N. agencies.

The classification system developed for NOAAIC-CAP was designed to be easily integrated into a GIs framework and while this classification system emphasizes the various wetlands habitats, it also provides for a good hierarchical classification of the upland areas of the coastal zone. However, in order to provide for the adequate management and regulation needed to protect and maintai~ .hreatened coastal resources, the inclusion of traditional cadastral information such as zoning, land ownership, infrastructure, and population and socio-economic census data is needed. The integration of tliis data that is traditionally limited to Land Information Systems (LIS) adds to the dimensionality and usefulness of the coastal information system and increases the ability of the analyst and decision-maker to understand potential relationships existing within the coastal environment.


Table 5.1 C-CAP Coastal Land Cover Classification System

1.0 Upland 1.1 Developed Landa

1 . 1 1 High Intensity 1.12 Low Intensity

1.2 Cultivated Landa 1.21 Orchards/groves/nurseries 1.22 Vines/bushes 1.23 Cropland

1.3 Grasslanda 1.3 1 Unmanaged 1.32 Managed

1.4 Woody Land (Scrub-ShrubIFore~t)~ 1.4 1 Deciduous 1.42 Evergreen 1.43 Mixed

1.5 Bare Landa 1.6 Tundra 1.7 SnowIIce

1.71 Perennial snowlice 1.72 Glacier

a. Indicates the classes that ('-CAP is committed to including in its database.

General Implementation Considerations

Design and Planning More geographic information systems have failed due to poor initial system design and planning than from any other cause. A successful implementation of GIs technology in the developing world requires the introduction, development, modification, and control of the technology to be in the hands of the local people who understand the social, economic, and political context of the situation (Taylor 1991). This understanding as well as a knowledge of the technical capabilities of a GIs may result in configurations and solutions quite different from those already successful in the developed nations.

Hassan and Hutchinson (1992) provide a good outline for the development of GIs capabilities. Specifically they discuss Antenucci's (1991) seventeen separate steps for the implementation methodology that they grouped by five planning stages as follows: identification and conceptualization, planning and design,

Envjronmental Information Systems for Resource Management

Table 5.2 Antenucci's 17 Steps for Implementation of GIs Technology

Identijication and Conceptualization Step 1 : Requirement Analysis Step 2: Feasibility Evaluation

Planning and Design Step 3: Implementation Plan Step 4: System Design Step 5: Database Design

Procurement and Development Step 6: System Acquisition Step 7: Database Acquisition Step 8: Organization, Staffing, and Training Step 9: Operating Procedure Step 10: Site Preparation

Installation and Operation Step 1 1 : System Installation Step 12: Pilot Project Step 13: Data Conversion Step 14: Applications Development Step 15: Conversion to Automated Operations

Review and Audit Step 16: System Review Step 17: System Expansion

Note: See Hassan and Hutchinson (1992) for summary. Source: Antenucci 199 1.

procurement and development, installation and operation, and review and audit (Table 5.2).

The system design and planning should also include but not be limited to the following strategic choices (De Man 1988; Michener and Haddad 1992):

Who has project responsibility, i.e. inter- or intra-agency? What level of system performance is needed in terms of

detail, coverage, accuracy, reliability, and temporal requirements?

What will be the basis for geocoding: topographic areas, administrative areas, or arbitrary grid cells?

What is the best organizational structure of the system: centralized, decentralized, or mixed?

What information and data are needed to achieve the stated objectives?


What existing data/resources can be integrated into the system?

What are the equipment (hardware and software) and personnel (e.g. training) requirements? See Hassan and Hutchinson (1 992) for a detailed discussion of this topic.

The initial design stage not only determines the control and function of the resultant system, but should also be a key factor in the planning and imp1eme:ltation of any subsequent data acquisition programs.

A needs assessment should be a prerequisite to any GIs ilnplementation and is essential in avoiding the problems associated with projects that are not driven by the perceived needs of the end users. This situation is often seen in terms of the dichotomous, " technology-push " versus "user-pull " approaches.

Organizational Structure Traditionally, coastal resources have simply been considered in terms of their immediate apparent economic value. Mangroves for timber, estuaries for aql laculture, bays for port siting, beaches for recreation, and the cc~stal waters and coral reefs for capture fisheries. As such, thcy have fallen under the jurisdiction of various government institutions, e.g., mangroves under forestry, coastal waters and coral reefs under fisheries, beaches under district councils, etc. (Pheng 1989).

While the establishment of an independent institution to oversee coastal zone management issues should be given jurisdiction over these resources, the need to include a substantial amount of ancillary uplands data across the fields of forestry, agriculture, and municipal planning still requires a great deal of inter-agency cooperatioil.

The introduction of GIs technology to developing nations has been characterized by either centralized, " top-down" or a decentralized , "bottom-up " approaches (Taylor 199 1). The decision concerning the organizational framework of the project is a crucial one and has important implications for many other aspects of the system design including the resulting spatial resolution and volume of data.


Typically, the top-down approach involves the implementatio~i of a comprehensive centralized national database. An advantage to this approach is that it is at this level that the resources (funding. manpower, organization, etc.) are more likely to be available for the creation and operation of the information system. A common impediment to successful, centralized GIs projects in developing nations, however, is the lack of cooperation between the different organizations involved. Because of the scale of operations and necessary expertise needed for the creation of an accurate database, it has been argued that GISs are an integrating technology that, in order to be successful, require a considerable degree of organizational and institutional integration (Taylor 199 1 ).

In cases for which local resources are sufficient, a more decentralized approach implemented regionally, can often avoid some of the institutional and political impediments and also provide for higher spatial and temporal resolutions than may be practical at the national level. In most cases, however, the optimal solution will be a combination of these two approaches incorporating national control with regional implementation. In the iliitial phase of implementation, it is usually wise to begin with a pilot prvJect in a single region, thus allowing for some experimentation.

Data Considerations Edralin (1990) and Harper and Manheim (1989) estimated that 80 percent of the cost of implementing GIs in developing countries is attributable to database development. To ensure the value of this investment, important decisions concerning the various data and data sources must be made prior to the implementation of the EIS.

In implementing an EIS system, those data layers most important in addressing the immediate management needs should be given priority. However, emphasis should also be given to identifying data resources that can be easily and rapidly integrated into the system, e.g., any existing relevant digital data.

Other data considerations deal with the georeferencing, spatial resolution, data accuracy, structure, and storage.

DATA STANDARD AND COORDINATE SYSTEM. The planning and implementation of data collection should include the requirement of a standardized means of spatial registration. While


the specifics of the chosen coordinate system can vary depending upon existing local standards, the successful integration of the data into an information system requires a common means of reference. Typically, the coordinate system used in the registration of data sets in a GIs is determined by an approved base map. However, in many parts of the world, no accurate base map exists and the subsequent positional surveys may be required for the accurate registration of the required data layers.

One possible means for the acquisition of coordinate information is the use of recent Global Positioning System (GPS) technology that can provide accurate two and three dimensional positional data. GPS systems are rapidly dropping in price due to the increasing number of uses in the maritime and aircraft industry. For survey and GIs uses, systems are available for anywhere from US$1 ,135 to US$14,500 with accuracies ranging from 1 to 40 meters SEP (Spherical Error Probability) (Appendix 3). While single units can be used autonomously, they will be subject to Selective Availability (SA) induced errors limiting accuracies to approximately 100 meters. The U. S . government has maintained SA since the Persian Gulf War. Errors resulting from SA can be avoided through the use of differential corrections that are achieved through the combined use of a roving GPS receiver and an established base station receiver at a known location. The differential corrections are achieved through post-processing software, broadcast corrections, or real time conimunication between the base station and the remote team. One base station can serve many remote units as long as they are within a specified distance (typically 150-300 kilometers).

To ensure the spatial accuracy of the integration of the various data sets it is necessary to not only agree upon the coordinate system but also on the map projection upon which that system shall be based.

SPATIAL RESOLUTION. Spatial resolution, while one of the most important aspects of a GIs, is probably one of the least understood. Most people may consider spatial resolution in terms of map scale and the user's need for detail, but the effect of combining data of different resolutions must also be examined.

The scale of the EIS is a topic that must be addressed early in the planning stages because of its effect on data volume and


computational requirements. A careful estimate of data volumes is therefore essential before committing to any particular hardwarelsoftware configuration. The increasingly modular nature of computer designs and the decreasing cost of data storage peripherals, however, should allow for a system to be open-ended in terms of increasing storage capacities as needed.

An important factor to be considered when determining the resolution of the EIS is the organizational structure to be utilized. In general, centralized top-down systems tend to be of a coarser resolution than regional or decentralized implementations due to maintenance and storage considerations inherent to a high volume, high resolution database.

While overall scale is a fairly simple matter, another important aspect of spatial resolution involves data registration. The accuracy of any analysis can only be as accurate as the sampling accuracy of the coarsest data layer. For example, if an analyst wishes to study the correlation between phytoplankton density (ocean color) derived from TM imagery and sea surface temperature (SST) obtained i';om AVHRR data, any derived relationships must be considered in terms of the 1 kilometer resolution of the AVHRR data rather than the 30 meter resolution of TM. While such differences in spatial resolution are difficult to avoid in the creation of a comprehensive database, important information can still be obtained from such disparate sources as long as the role of spatial resolution is understood and factored into the decisionmaking process.

ACCURACY. Data accuracy is another major issue in the development and utilization of a GIs. While many of the errors involved in the acquisition and determination of the individual data layers have already been discussed, these errors and any variations in data quality are amplified when analyzed in relation to other data. Typically, the accuracy of the resultant analysis can be estimated as the multiplicative product of the accuracies of the individual data layers (Jensen 1986). It therefore becomes extremely important to maintain adequate documentation defining the source and lineage of the data and an assessment of the accuracy and quality of that data.

DATA STRUCTURE. There are basically two different methods for digitally representing spatial data: raster and vector format. In

hvironmen tal In forma tion Systems for Resource Management

the vector model, the basic geographic unit corresponds to a line such as a contour, area boundary, or river. A series of x,y point locations along the line are recorded as components of a single data record. Spatially homogenous areas can be represented by enclosed polygons corresponding to the outer boundary and point data can be considered as lines with zero length and a single x,y coordinate.

Raster data can be described as a matrix or grid of descriptor data with the basic geographic unit being an individual cell within that matrix. The most common form of raster data is that produced by satellite remote sensors. While this data format provides for the good representation of continuous, spatially heterogeneous features, the resulting data volumes can be quite large depending on the desired resolution. However, spatial analysis of raster data is considerably easier and less time consuming than the analysis of vector data.

While data derived from remote sensing is typically in the raster format, data frc.::~ in-situ sources usually have no areal component but can instead be considered as point data. Although many of these data car he aggregated as samples within a raster framework (e. g . current measurements, water chemical and salinity measurements), other point locations, such as those identifying effluent discharges or sunken features, cannot be similarly treated.

Hassan and Hutchinson (1992) describe many of the different GIs software packages available based on both of these data formats. However, the increasing ability of current technology to handle and integrate bo~ii data types is an important step forward.

DATA INPUT AND STORAGE. Even for small areas and relatively coarse spatial resolutions, digital geographic data can quickly accumulate. The total volume of data required for the specified application is one of the primary concerns in determining the computer hardware and GIs software environment that is needed (Peuquet and Marble 1991).

While data derived from digital remote sensing instruments are easily transferred and input into a GIs system, ancillary data, archived spatial data and hardcopy maps must be converted to a digital format prior to their inclusion as a data layer. The transfer

Environmen tal In forma tion Systems for Resource Management

of analog data to digital form represents one of the most time consuming and costly steps in the creation and operation of a GIs.

Typically this encoding activity involves the manual digitization of this data through the use of a digitizer. Errors resulting from this transformation can result from both the actual digitization process and from the human operator as well (Chrisman 1991; Peuquet and Boyle 1984).

While automatic and scan digitizing may be used to substantially increase the rate of map encoding, the process is usually limited by the quality and complexity of the available map documents. While scan digitizing can often retain greater cartographic accuracies than manual digitizing, the cost of the instrumentation is significantly greater (Peuquet and Marble 199 1).

Case Studies

Land Use and Coastal Planning: Baja California, Mexico The increased development on Mexico's Baja California coastal zone has resulted in environmental degradation and increased reliance on limited coastal resources. Along the coastal zone of this area, a diversity of economic activities (tourism, industry, fishing, commerce, etc.) have imposed excessive demands on coastal space and resources as well as causing such negative environmental impacts as water pollution and severe coastal erosion.

In order to aid in the management of the coast's resources, the implementation of a system for land capability analysis and coastal land use planning was undertaken (Fuentes and Almada 199 1). The intention of this project is to use land use planning to prevent conflicti~~g land use practices in the coastal zone and to facilitate the establishment of conservation areas needed to sustain environmental productivity and stability.

Land capability analysis involves the classification of an area into environmental units that can be assessed in terms of varying land use practices. The response ratings of the different environmental units under different land uses contribute the basic elements for decision making process under the CZM for this region.


The response ratings of these environmental units are derived through an EIS that incorporates data from published scientific studies, aerial photography, thematic maps of geology, hydrology, topography, vegetation, and land use. Also included in this database is data from bathimetric and sediment transport studies. The environmental units themselves are defined based on geology, vegetation, slope, hydrology, and present land use.

Currently this EIS is being used to evaluate the environmental units for potential development of tourism, urbanization, aquaculture, conservation, and recreation uses. This evaluation is performed with the understanding that adequate land use planning aims to maximize the land use suitability of an area while also minimizing the resultant impact.

Oil Spill Response Planning: United Arab Emirates On January 24 1991, approximately 4 million gallons of crude oil were released into the Persian Gulf as a result of the Gulf crisis. The threat posed by this spill and the continued likelihood of other accidental oil spills in the Gulf, prompted the government of the United Arab Emirates to endorse the development of a GIs based ESI database to aid in oil spill response planning (Jensen and others 1993).

Environmental sensitivity index mapping is a cartographic technique developed to assist spill response coordinators in evaluating the potential impact of oil along a shoreline and to aid in the allocation of resources during and after a spill. The shoreline sensitivity index identifies ten or more types of coastal environments each having varying degrees of sensitivity to spilled pollutants and distinct recommendations for emergency response and cleanup. The types of shorelines and coastal ecosystems are ordinally ranked based on known oil interactions that have been observed over the past twenty years (RPI International 1987). The environmental sensitivity codes utilized for the ESI mapping of the United Arab Emirates coastline are presented in Table 5.3.

Also included in the ESI maps is information on oil sensitive wildlife and access-protection features. While much of this information is contained on the traditional ESI hardcopy maps, it was felt that better use of this information would result from its incorporation into a GIs that could then be actively queried.


Table 5.3 ESI Ranks and Corresponding Shoreline Types for the UAE ESI Mapping

Type of Shoreline ESI Rank

Near vertical structures, natural beach rock Exposed wavecut platform Fine grained beach or dredged bank Mediumlcoarse grain, mixed sandlgravel beach Gravel beaches, rip rap, tetrapods Mixed sediment tidal flats Mud-covered beach rock Beach rock reef, coral reef Sheltered tidal tlats (fine sedimentlsand) Sheltered algal mats Mangrove

Note: Lower rank indicates lower sensitivity.

By using a GIs approach, the completed ESI database (Figure 5.2) could then incorporate an oil spill trajectory model that predicts where the oil will impact the shoreline based on such information as currents, wind patterns, type of oil, etc.

When an oil spill occurs, the trajectory model predicts the "endpoints" of where the oil will impact the coastline. The shoreline enviroilmental sensitivity index information for the specified geographic region is then extracted and a number of important decisions can be made. For example, an experienced oil- spill response coordinator querying the database can determine (a) the location of the most environmentally sensitive shoreline about to be oiled; (b) which of the most environmentally sensitive shoreline occupies the greatest amount of area (for example, it may be more :mportant to save a 2 square kilometer tidal flat than a 200 mertl stretch of algal mat); (c) the optimum placement of a finite number of available booms and skimmers to protect the greatest amount of environmentally sensitive coastline; and (d) determination of the best access route for the oil spill response crews to use for deploying the booms and skimmers. Proper use of this system should allow oil-spill personnel to optimize the allocation of oil-spill control and protection resources.

Watershed Management: West Africa Cape Verde, the westernmost state in the Sahel region of West Africa, suffers from a prolonged dry season, limited soil moisture,


and cases of severe erosion that adversely affects coastal productivity. As a result, the coastal republic of Cape Verde has implemented an extensive program of soil conservation, water supply, and reforestation projects and to coordinate these efforts, small watersheds of 100-400 square kilometers are being analyzed for the development of a microcomputer-based GIS specifically adapted to the region's 'eeds (Rosenfeld 1992). Although limited in scope, the Cape Verde Watershed Information System provides appropriate technology to a developing nation trying to maximize the use of its limited resources.

One of the design guidelines of the project was to devise an ongoing system for collecting data concerning land use, population distribution, and water supply and forest projects in the managed basins. Other requirements of the system included the support of map, field and remotely sensed data, and the ability for both map and tabular analysis. The system had to be maintainable by local specialists and be useful to engineers and construction teams for project siting and design.

Initially, satellite i~l~agery was to provide the principle source of data for the characterization of the watersheds. Poor viewing conditions (dust, haze, and cloud cover) and the desire for higher spatial resolutions, however, resulted in a shift to the use of aerial photography instead. In order to maintain the self-sufficient nature of the system, a special camera package and mounting system were subsequently designed for use with the various aircraft maintained by the national airline, Transportes Aeriea de Cabo Verde (TACV). The package used a 70-millimeter Hasselblad camera and a vertically mounted Sony 8-millimeter camcorder attached to a specially designed door-mounting device. This door mount allows the system to be adapted to different aircraft without the need for any permanent modification to the airframe.

The aerial photography collected by this system provides critical information on such characteristics as new roads, dam sites, villages, forested areas and many other features including topography (derived from 1 :20,000 scale stereo pairs). Other data was obtained from field surveys that added information concerning soils, geologic characteristics, and stream stability. Accumulated climatological reports and agricultural surveys were also input into the system.


The Cape Verde Watershed Information System is microcomputer based (PC-AT) and incorporates a clever integration of inexpensive commercial software. AutoCAD software (Autodesk, Sausalito, California) is used for the capture and output of digitized data; SURFER (Golden Software, Golden, Colorado) is used to construct digital elevation, groundwater, and climate models; dBase I11 (Borland, Scotts Valley, California) provides data base management for analyzing tabular data; IDRISI ( Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts), used for spatial analysis and mapping tasks, is the primary digital image processing and geographic information system software. A package called AutoTOOLS (Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon) manages the exchange of files between these different software tools.

Rosenfeld (1 992) illustrates how the different software packages are integrated through an example of the construction of a topographic data layer. Contour data are digitized using AutoCAD that yields a vector format data file. SURFER interpolates and transforms the vector file into a raster grid format that is thcn transformed by AutoTOOLs into an IDRISI raster image file. IDRISI can then use the image file to create other data layers such as slope and aspect coverages.

The completed database for a given watershed is used to aid in such tasks as the identification of sites with high erosion susceptibility, locating alternative sites for check dams (water retaining structures), and allocating resources for agricultural and erosion control education and extension projects.

Summary

The contents of an EIS typically include a wide range of data that may be referenced spatially, in two or three dimensions, and temporally. For coastal zone management, data layers should not be limited to only observable environmental parameters, but also include information that reflects human activities and programs in their impact on natural resources. Information concerning the physical, man-made infrastructure and cadastral data can be used to assess the relationship of land use and ownership to the use of resources.


Data may represent rapidly changing phenomena and/or be derived from disparate sources involving some uncertainty and thereby limiting their comparability and reliability. The importance of data integration capabilities and spatial analysis tools in an EIS cannot be overstated. Few applications are possible solely with data retrieval and display tools; most demand the capacity to link diverse data together using spatial keys (Siderelis 1991).

In practice, the uses of environmental information systems range from automated cartography to support of policy formulation and management. They serve to underpin routine operations such as making inventories and monitoring change, and also support policy reviews and the overall long-term planning process.

Depending on the biological and economic importance of their coastal zones and the financial support available to manage them, different countries have adopted somewhat different strategies for managing their coastal resources. However, based on our review of such programs in developing countries (Brazil, Ecuador, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand, etc.) and our own involvement in developing a strategy and techniques for managing coastal resources in the United States (NODC 1992), we find there are some basic steps that need to be implemented if a CZM program is to be successful and efficient (Aguiar 1991; Guerrero 1989; Fuentes and Almada 1991; Pheng 1989; and Retief 1991). A s~lccessfirl strategy must resolve conflicts between incompatible lmd uses in an optimum way as well as facilitate the designation of conservation areas that preserve the environment and the productivity of its natural systems. An mcient strategy must make appropriate use of new technologies, including remote sensing and environmental Geographic Information Systems, while still maintaining a required number of older techniques that have proven cost-effective over the years, such as aerial photography or boat surveys.

The following are typical problems faced by coastal resource managers trying to develop and use EIS in developing countries. Each problem is followed by a recommended solution that should improve the efficiency and success of EIS use for coastal zone management.

1. A variety of national and local agencies are usually involved in the management of different portions and uses of the coastal zone. This can lead to unresolved conflicts and misuses of coastal resources.

Recommendations

A single government agency should be empowered to coordinate and control CZM efforts, providing national control while allowing for regional implementation.

2. Environmental and economic data for CZM is usually collected by various agencies, using different data formats, data types, classification systems, storage media, etc. This leads to major incompatibility between data sources and their interpretation.

A single national or regional agency must be charged with coordinating coastal data collection, analysis and interpretation. This agency should prescribe data formats, quality control procedures, and ensure that all necessary data is collected.

3. Regional, national and local agencies frequently use different systems for classifying coastal land cover. This leads to incompatible data bases and inability to exchange data between agencies and data bases.

A single, user-friendly coastal land cover classification system should be adopted for CZM. We recommend the system described in Klemas and others (1993) that is displayed in Table 5.1. This system emphasizes wetlands, water and submerged ecosystems and those uplands that environmentally impact on the coastal habitat. The system is hierarchical, reflects ecological relationships, facilitates the use of remote sensors and is usable with GIs. It has been successfully tested in several demonstration projects in the U.S. and can be adapted to tropical countries (Dobson and Bright 1991).

4. In some countries different government agencies use different definitions of the coastal zone. This leads to confusion, misinterpretation and unnecessary conflict.

The coordinating government agency should develop a clear definition of the country's coastal zone, including boundaries for a primary zone of wetlands, estuaries, bays, and coastal waters, that need to be

Recommendations

protected as well as a secondary zone of uplands that directly impacts on the quality of the wetlands, estuaries, bays, etc. by means of pollution run-off due to different land uses. Examples of coastal zone definitions are presented in the Introduction in Chapter 1.

5 . Indicators of change and disturbance that can be used for coastal zone management include (a) physical water characteristics such as salinity, temperature and amount of dissolved oxygen; (b) freshwater discharge to coastal waters; (c) rapid changes in biomass and primary production; (d) eutrophication; (e) high concentration of toxic materials; (f) increased suspended sediment concentrations; (g) bleaching of coral reefs; (h) rapid changes in plant and animal community composition; (i) changes in the areal extent and type of the plant community; (j) changes in wetland structure, and its hydrologic conditions; and (k) coastal erosion.

Resource managers in developing countries will have to identify the most serious issues of concern arising from local problems and select the appropriate indicators to assess.

6. Two types of environmental data are required for CZM: data on the present status of coastal resources and environment (baseline) and data on how rapidly resources and the environment are changing with time (trend analysis).

All required coastal data should be examined to determine availability and to select time periods for setting up a baseline and for analyzing environmental trends.

7. It is too costly and unnecessary to perform a trend analysis on all parameters contained in a CZM master data base.

A few key indicators of environmental quality should be selected for performing trend analysis for coastal wetlands, uplands and waterlsubmerged habitat. The areal extent and biomass of mangrove swamps are good indicators of habitat loss and degradation. In the

Recommendations

water column, one can select a water quality indicator, such as turbidity or dissolved oxygen. Coastal change and degradation indicators are discussed in Chapter 2. Ship and field techniques for measuring some of the key indicators are described in Chapter 3 and Table 2.1.

8. The establishment of environmental trends in the coastal zone requires a long-term data base and techniques for accurately assessing changes.

Change analysis techniques for monitoring trends in coastal land coverluse and habitat conditions have recently been developed (Dobson and others 1993) for the NOAA Coastwatch Change Analysis Program (C-CAP) . We recommend that these change analysis techniques be used with digitized coastal land coverlhabitat data. Aerial photo and other non- digitized data can be interpreted for trends using well-known, standard techniques (Chapter 5).

9. Most maps and data bases of coastal land cover (mangroves, adjacent land cover, etc.) are inaccurate and outdated. Field surveys are too slow for mapping coastal land cover.

Aerial and satellite remote sensing techniques should be seriously considered for coastal land cover and land use baseline development. The trade-off between satellite and aircraft data will depend on size of area mapped, resolution required, and classification system used. Remote sensing techni.ques for monitoring coastal resources are discussed in Chapter 4.

10. There are a multitude of remote sensing techniques available, but ma1.y of them are too expensive and too complex for use in developing countries.

Remote sensors should be combined with classical techniques, such as aerial photography, and shiplfield data to obtain the most cost-effective data acquisition approach (Tables 4.1 and 4.2). For instance,

Recommendations

inangrove losses and degradation have been mapped in developing countries (Costa Rica, Ecuador, Brazil, etc.) successfully using radar and color photography from satellites and aircraft.

11. Remote sensors are not always reliable in detecting and monitoring coastal parameters needed for CZM applications.

A very small number of environmental health indicators should be selected in such a way that they be detectable from an appropriate satellite or aircraft. LANDSAT TM, SPOT, COSMOS, and ADEOSIAVNIR provide sensors that can detect such key indicators as mangrove areal extent and biomass production (see Tables 4.2,4.3 and Chapter 4). If the coastal area is small or requires finer resolution, aircraft photography can be used. Both digital or film data can be used to establish a baseline and determine changes from this baseline over time. A carefully planned ground data collection system is also a requirement for verifying remotely sensed data (see Appendix 1 for list of sources of remotely sensed data).

12. h'uch of the coastal zone data in developing countries has not been digitized and is available in the form of maps, aerial photos, data tables, etc. To digitize all this data for the CZM master daia base would be too costly.

Data should be digitized selectively for only those parameters that are important for determining environmental trends and making CZM decisions. Help should be requested from the international agencies in digitizing this data and incentives must be provided to local users who are willing to digitize the data.

13. Even if a comprehensive CZM master data base is set up, the undigested, raw data by itself may not provide the information needed by coastal zone managers.

A GIs approach should be used to analyze the coastal data to obtain answers to resource development,

conservation and environmental degradation problems. GIs can help select optimum areas for selective development, areas in need of environmental protection, and areas of maximum environmental degradation. For instance, GIs can determine the suitability of coastal areas for shrimp pond development with minimum damage to the coastal environment (e.g . , mangroves) (Chapter 5 and Appendix 2).

14. Any large project such as the establishment of a comprehensive coastal EIS will fail if it does not follow the "user-pull" model of technology transfer.

The implementation of a full scale EIS should be preceded by a pilot project that is used to determine the true user goals and needs. This pilot project should be used to evaluate various organizational structures and technical issues (resolution, sampling strategy, data types, etc.).

15. The contents of an EIS typically include a wide range of data that may be references spatially, in two or three dimensions, and temporally. Data may also represent rapidly changing phenomem andlor be derived from disparate sources involving some uncertainty and thereby limiting their comparability and reliability.

Data integration capabilities and spatial analysis tools must be included in an EIS design. Few applications are possible solely with data retrieval and display tools. Data layers should not be limited to only observable environmental parameters, but also include information that reflects human activities and their impact on natural resources.

16. Some developing countries do not have properly trained personnel to develop, manage and maintain a coastal digital data base including data from aircraft and satellite remote sensors.

With support from the United Nations, World Bank, and others, specialists from developing countries

should be sent for training to U.S., European, and other centers that specialize in GIs and remote sensing training. Training assignments should last more than two months but less than one year and should include hands-on computer and field experience.

APPENDIX 1 : GPS SYSTEMS

a. Accuracy as predicted by manufacturer, typically as Spherical Error Probability (SEP). Autonomous accuracies without Selective Availability (SA). Differential mode requires the use of two units with one acting as a base station. b. The number of channels determines the number of satellites that can be tracked at one time. Three channels are used for the estimation of horizontal position only; a fourth channel is needed to obtain elevation. Five or more channels are neccessary to provide for the continuous data collection as satellites leave the field of view and also differential corrections are easier with more channels.

Unit

Magellan 5000DX

Magellan 5000DX + Differential Beacon Reciever

Magellan Nav 5000 Pro

Trimble Pathfinder Basic

Trimble Pathfinder Basic Plus

Ashtech Dimension

Ashtech Ranger

Major GPS System Manufacturers:

Magellan Systems Corporation 960 Overland Court San Dimas, CA 91773 Tel: (909) 394-5000 Fax: (909) 394-7050

Autonomous ~ c c u r a c ~ ~

15m

15m

12m

12-40m

12-40111

25m

25m

Differential ~ c c u r a c ~ ~

NA

5-10m

3-5m

1 -5m

1-5m

1-3m

1 -3m

Receiver channelsb

3

3

5

3

6

12

12

Cost per Unit

$1,135.00

$1,630.00

$3,750.00

$3,950.00

$6,750.00

$9,980.00

$14,500.00

Appendix 9: GPS Systems

Trimble Navigation P. 0. Box 3642 Sunnyvale, CA 94088 Tel: (408) 481-6083 Fax: (408) 991-7744

Ashtech Inc. 1170 Kifer Rd. Sunnyvale, CA 90486 Tel: (800) 229-2400 Fax: (408) 524-1500

APPENDIX 2: MAJOR GIs COMPANIES

ALLYMAP (PC) Allyson Lawless (Pty) Ltd. P 0 Box 73285 Fairland 2 195 South Africa

ARCJINFO (PC and WS) ES RI 380 New York Street Redlands, CA 92373 U.S.

ATLASGIS (PC) Strategic Mapping, Inc. 4030 Moorpark Ave., Suite 250 Sari Jose, CA 951 17 11 9.

CARIS Universal Systems Ltd. 270 Rookwood Avenue P.O. Box 3391, Station B Fredricton, New Bmnswick Canada E3A 5H2

GENAMAP (WS) Genasys I1 Pty. Ltd. 13th Level 33 Berry St. N. Sydney, NSW 2060 Australia

Genasys Ltd. Fircroft Way, Edenbridge Kent TN8 6HA. U.K.

Genasys 2629 Redwing Rd., Suite 330 Fort Collins, CO 80526 U.S.

GRASS (WS) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratories Champaign, Illinois U.S.

IDRISI (PC) Clark University Graduate School of Geography 950 Main St. Worcester, MA 01610 U.S.

LASER-SCAN (PC) Laser-Scan Ltd. Cambridge Science Park Milton Rd., Cambridge CB4 4FY, U.K.

MAPINFO (PC and WS) MapInfo Corporation One Global View Troy, NY 12 180 U.S.

MOSS (PC and WS) Bureau of Land Management Service Center Denver Federal Center Denver, CO 80225-40047 u.s

PAMAP (PC and WS) Pamap Technologies Corp . 30 1 -3440 Douglas St . Victoria, B.C. V8X 223 Canada

Appendix 2: Major GIs Companies

Suite 700-20 10 Corporate Ridge, Suite 700 McLean, VA 22 102 U.S.

PW (PC) Spatial Information Systems 6907 Sprouse court Springfield, VA 22 153 U.S.

REGIS (PC and WS) Computer Foundation (Pty) Ltd Private Bag 7398 Hennopsmeer 0046 South Africa

SMALLWORLD Smallworld Systems Brunswick House 6 1-69 Newmarket Road Cambridge, U.K.

SPANS (PC) Tydac Technologies 1655 North Fort Myer Dr., Suite 320 Arlington, VA 22209 U.S.

PC - PC based sofnvare WS - Workstation based

APPENDIX 3: SOURCES OF REMOTELY SENSED DATA

The following information is extracted from Cracknell 1990.

Intemah'onal LANDSAT data distribution centres

Argentina Cornision Nacional de lnvestigaciones Espaciales Centro de Procesarniento Avenue Dorrego 4010 1425 Buenos Aires Tel. Buenos Aires 7225 108 Tlx. 1751 1 Lanba

Australia Australia Landsat Station 22-36 Oatley Court PO Box 28 B e l c o ~ e n ACT 26 16 Tel. 062151541 1 I'lx. 61510

Brazil INPE-DGI Caixa Postal 01 Cachoeira Paulista-Cep 12,630 Sao Paulo Tel. Sao Paulo 61 1507 Tlx. 122 160 INPE

Canada Canada Centre for Remote Sensing User Assistance and Marketing C ,lit 7 17 Belfast Road Ottawa Ontario KIA OY7 Tel. Ottawa 995 12 10 Tlx. 0533777

China Academia Sinica Landsat Ground Station Beijing Tel. Beijing 28486 1 Tlx. 210222 ACHI

European Space Agency ESA-ESRIN Earthnet User Services Via Galileo Galilei 00044 Frascati Italy Tel. Rome 940 1360 or Rome 940 1 1 Tlx. 610637 ESRIN (Data collected at Fucino,

Kiruna, and Masapalornas are ordered through ESA-ESRIN.)

India National Remote Sensing Agency Department of Space Balanager 500037 Hyderabad Andhra Pradesh Tel. 262572-77 Tlx. 01 55-522, 0155-6522

Appendix 3: Sources of Remotely Sensed Data

Indonesia Indonesian National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lapan) JL Permuda Persil No. 1 PO Box 3048 Jakarta Tlx. 49175 LAPAN

Japan Remote Sensing Technology Center of Japan(Kestec) Uni-Roppongi Bldg 7-15-17 Roppongi Minato-ku Tokyo 106 Tel. Tokyo 403 1761 Tlx. 022426780 RESTEC

Pakistan Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (Suparco) 43-1 IP-6 Pecks PO Box 3125 Karachi-Az Tlx. 25720 SPACE

Saudi Arabia King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology PO Box 6086 Riyadh 11442 Tlx. 201590 Sancst Space

South Africa National Institute for Telecommunications Research Attn: Satellite Remote Sensing Center PO Box 37 18 Johannesburg 2000 Tel. 012126527 1, 01 11642 4693 Tlx. 3-21005

Thailand Remote Sensing Division National Research Council of Thailand 196 Phahonyothin Road Bangkhen Bangkok 10900 Tel. Bangkok 579 01 16 Tlx. 82213 NARECOU Telegram. NRC Bangkok

UK Environmental Remote Sensing Unit British Aerospace (Space Systems) FPC 311, Box 5 Filton, Bristol BS12 7QW Tel. 0272 3668321366416 Tlx. 449452

USA Earth Observation Satellite Company (EOSAT) C/O Eros Data Center Sioux Falls SD 57198 Tel. 60515942291, 8001367280 1 Tlx. 910-668-03 10 EDCSFL

Reception and distribution of SPOT data

Australia NATMAP Division of National Mapping PO Box 3 1 Belconnen ACT 2616

Brazil Institute de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE) C.P. S15 Sao JosC dos Carnpos 12200 Sao Paulo


Canada Canada Center for Remote Sensing 2464 Sheffield Road Ottawa Ottawa KIA OY7

China Space Science and Technology Center Chinese Academy of Science Beijing

India National Remote Sensing Agency Department of Space Balanager H yderabad 500037

Japan NASDA 2-4- 1 , Hamamatsu-Cho Minato-Ku Tokyo 105

Pakistan SUPARCO PO Box 3125 Karachi

Saudi Arabia King Abdulaziz City for

Science and Technology PO Box 6086 Riyadh 1 1442

SPOT data distributors

Argentina Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Espaciales Centro de Teleobservaci6n Av. del Libertador 15 13 Vincente Lopez 1638 Buenos Aires

Austria Beckel Satellitenbilddaten Marie-Louisen Strasse 4820 Bad Ischl

Belgium Services de a1 Programmation de la Politique Scientitique 8 rue de la Science 1040 Bruxelles

Bolivia Centro de Investigacibn y Aplicacicin de Sensores Remotos Casilla de correo 2729 La Paz

Brazil Sensor a Avenida Sernambetiba NR 4446 Rio de Janeiro CEP 22600


Canada DIGIM 1100 Blvd Dorchester West Montreal Quebec H3B 4P3

Chile Servicio AerofotograrnCtrico de la Fuerza Aerea Casilla 67 correo 10s cerillos Santiago

Denmark Plancenter Fyn AIS Overgade 32 5000 Odense C

E ~ Y pt Remote Sensing Center 101 Kasr EL Eini Street Cairo

Finland National Board of Survey Pasilan Virastukeskus Opastinsilta 12 00521 Helsinki 52

France SPOT Image 18 Avenue Edouard-Belin 3 1055 Toulouse CCdex France

Germany Deutsche Forchungs-und Versuchanstalt f i r Luft-uild Raumfahrt Oberpfaffenh~t'en 803 1 Wessling

Ireland Remote Sensing Geological and Environmental Services Environmental Resources Analysis Ltd. 187 Pearse Street Dublin 2

Israel Interdisciplinary Center for Technological Analysis and Forecasting Ramat-Aviv Tel-Aviv 69978

Italy Telespazio DCpartement Commercial Via Alberto Bergamini 50 00 159 Rome

Japan Remote Sensing Technology Center Uni Roppongi Bldg 7-15-17 Roppongi Minato-ku Tokyo 106

Malawi Geoservices Ltd PO Box 30305 Lilongwe 3

Malaysia Terra Control Technologies Sdn. Bhd Godown 3, Banguman Nupro Jalan Brickfield 50470 Kuala Lumpur

Hungary Foldmeresi Intezet Guszev v. 19 105 1 Budapest

Appendix 3: Sources' of Remotely Sensed Data

Mexico Instituto Nacional de Estadistica Geografia e lnformatica San Antonio Abad 124 Mexico 8 DF

Nepal National Remote Sensing Center PO Box 3103 Kathmandu

Netherlands National Lucht en Ruimtevaarlaboratorium PO Box 90502 BM Amsterdam 1006

Nigeria Danz Surveys and Consultants 24 Oyekan Road Lagos

Norway Fjellanger Wideroe AIS PO Box 2916 7001 Trondheim

Peru Oficina Nacional de Evaluacidn de Recursos Naturales 355 calle 17 Urb El Palomar San Isidro Lima

Philippines Natural Resources Management Center PO Box AC Quezon City 493

Poland Geokart 214 rue Jasna 00950 Warsaw

Portugal Geometr a1 Ave Cons. Barjona De Freitas 20-A 1500 Lisbon

South Africa Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Foundation for Research Development PO Box 395 0001 Pretoria

Spain Instituto Geografico Nacional General Ibanez de Ibero 3 Madrid 3

Sweden Satimage PO Box 816 98128 Kiruna

Switzerland Bundesamt f i r Landestopographie Seftigenstr. 264 3084 Wabern

Taiwan Center for Space and Remote Sensing Research National Central University 320 Chung-Li

Thailand National Research Council 196, Phahonyothin Road 10900 Bangkok


United Kingdom Nigel Press Associates Ltd. Edenbr idge Kent TN8 6HS

United Kingdom National Remote Sensing Centre Space Department Royal Aerospace Establishment Farnborough Hants GU14 6TD

USA SPOT Image Corp. 1897 Preston White Drive Reston VA 22091

Venezuela Fundacicin Instituto de Ingeneiria (C.P.D.I.) Edo Mirando Apartado 40200 1040 Caracas A

Yugoslavia Rudarski Institute Beogl ~d Remote Sensing Department Batajnicki put 2 1 108 1 Zemun

Points of contact for data from other satellites

US Environmental Satellites Satellite Data Services Division NOAAIEDISINCC World Weathe,: Building, Room 100 Washington, DC 20233 USA Tel. 30176381 11

NASA Experimental Satellites National Space Science Data Center NASAIGoddard Space Flight Center Code 60 1 Greenbelt, NID 2077 1 US A Tel. 30 13446695

US Defense Meteorological Satellite Space Science & Engineering Center DMSP Archive University of Wisconsin 1225 West Dayton Street Madison, WI 53706 USA Tel. 6082625335

The prime international data distribution center for manned satellite sensor data (other than Space Shuttle)

US Department of Commerce NOAA National Earth Satellite Service EROS Data Center Sioux Falls SD 57198 US A

Spacelab data European Space Agency 8-10 Rue Mario Nikis 75738 Paris 15 France


European (Meteosat) Satellite Data Meteorological Data Management Department European Space Operations Center Robert-Boschstrasse 5 6100 Darmstadt Germany Tel. 061518861

Japanese Satellites Data Processing Department Meteorological Satellite Center 3-235 Nakayoto Kiyose Tokyo 180 Tel. 03042493 1 1

Indian Meteorological Satellite INSAT I-B Director General Indian Meteorological Department Mausam Bhauan Lodi Road New Delhi

GMS Data Mr. M. Koga Japan Weather Association Kaiji Center Bldg. No. 4-5, Koojimachi Chiyoda-Ku Tokyo 102 Japan Tel. 31230 0381 Tlx. 232 4863 JWAWNJ

National points of contact for Earthnet

Austria Dr. E. Mondre Austrian Space & Solar Agency Garnisongasse 7 1090 Vienna Tel . Vienna 438 1770 Tlx. 1 165060 ASSA

Belgium J . Theatre Institute Gkographique National 13 Abbaye de la Cambre 1051 Brussels Tel. Brussels 6486480 Tlx. 24367 IGNGI

Denmark Prof. P. Gudmansen Electromagnetic Institute DTH Building 348 2800 Lyngby Tel. Lyngby 88 1444 Tlx. 37529 DTHDIA

Finland Mr. J . Paavilainen National Board of Survey Pasila Office Centre Postilokero 84 00521 Helsinki 52 Tlx. 125254 MAP


France Mr. G. Bonne GDTA Centre Spatiale de Toulouse 18 Avenue Edouard Belin 3 1055 Toulouse Tel. Toulouse 27428 1 Tlx. 531081 CNEST B

Germany H. Engel DFVLR Hauptabteilung Raumflugbetrieb 803 1 Oberpfaffenhofen Tel. 08 153128740 Tlx. 52742-03 SOC

Hungary Dr. E. Csato Institute of Geodesy, Cartography and Remote Sensing Guszev u. 19 105 1 Budapest Tlx. 224964

Ireland Dr. B. O'Donncll National Board for Sciellce & Technology Shelbourne House Shelbourne Road Dublin 4 Tel. 6833 1 1 Tlx. 30327 NBST

Italy Mr. Maranese Telespazio Via Bergamini 50 001 58 Rome Tel. 49872523 Tlx. 610654 TSPZRO

Netherlands Dr. F. Van der Laan NLR-NPOC National Aerospace Laboratory PO Box 153 8300 AD Emmeloord Tlx. 11118 NLR AA

Norway Mr. Rolf-Terje Enoksen Tromsd Telemetry Station PO Box 387 900 1 Troms6 Tel. TromsQ 84817 Tlx. 64025 SPACE

Poland Prof B. Ney Glowny Urzad Geodezji i Kartografii ul. Jasna 214 Skr. Pt. 145 00950 Warsaw Tlx. 8 12770 GEOK

Romania Dr. Constantin Teodorescu The Romanian Commission for Space Activities 15 Constantin Mille St Bucharest Tlx. 1 1575 ICST

Spain Mr. R. Barco INTA Pintor Rosales 34 Madrid 8 Tel. Madrid 2479800 Tlx. 23495 INVES


Sweden Mrs. I. Kuukasjarvi SATIMAGE PO Box 8 16 S-98 1 28 Kiruna Tel. Kiruna 12140 Tlx. 8761 SATIMA

Switzerland Mr. Ch. Eidenbenz Bundesamt fiir Landestopographie Seftigenstrasse 264 3084 Wabern Tel. Berne 5491 11 Tlx. 33385 LATOP

United Kingdom Mr. M. Hammond National Remote Sensing Center Royal Aircraft Establishment Farnborough Hants. GU4 6TD Tel. Farnborough 24461 Tlx. 858442 PE MOD

AVHRR data distributors in Europe

Denmark Mr. T. Rye Nielsen Meteorological Institute Observatory for Space Research Rudeskov 3460 Birkeroed

France Dr. Pascal Brunel Centre de MCtkorologie Spatiale BP 147 22302 Lannion CCdex

Germany Dip1.-Met. M. Eckhardt Freie Universik Berlin Institut fiir Meteorologie Dietrich-Schafer-Web 6-10 1000 Berlin 41

Germany Mr. K. Reigniger DFVLR Oberpfaffenhofen 803 1 Wessling

Norway Mr. Rolf-Terje Enoksen Tromsd Telemetry Station PO Box 387 9001 Tromsd

United Kingdom Mr. M. Boswell RAE Lasharn Lasham Airfield Nr Alton Hampshire

United Kingdom Mr. P.E. Baylis Dept. of Electrical Engineering and Electronics Dundee University Dundee DD1 4HN


Countries without a Local Distributor should enquire and order via:

Ms. Carla Fonti Earthnet Programme Office ESRIN Via Galileo Galilei 00044 Frascati Italy Tel. Rome 940 12 18 Tlx. 616468 EURIME

Australian sources of remotely sensed data

Australian LANDSAT Station PO Box 28 Belconnen ACT 2616 Tel. 0621515411 Tlx. 61510

Australian LANDSAT Station CSIRO Compound Health Road Alice Springs NT 5750 Tel. 0891523353 Tlx. 81386

New South Wales Lands Department Map Sales 22-23 Bridge Street Sydney NSW 2000 Tel. 02120579 Cable. LANDEP SYDNEY

Sunmap Aerial Photography Section Department of Mapping and Surveying 1 1 th Floor, Watkins Place 288 Edwards Street Brisbane Qsld 4000 Tel, 071277784 Tlx. 41412

Central Map Agency Department of Lands and Surveys Cathedral Avenue Perth WA 6000 Tel. 091323 1349 Tlx. 93784

Mapland Department of Lands 12 Pirie Street Adelaide SA 5000 Tel. 0812272675 Tlx. 82827

Map Sales Dept. of Conservation, Forest and Lands 25 Spring Street Melbourne Vic. 3000 Tel 03165 13024 Tlx. 57250


Tasmanian Government Publications Centre 134 Macquarie Street Hobart Tas. 7000 Tel. 021303382 Tlx. 57250

Survey Mapping Division Department of Lands and Housing Moonta House Mitchell Street Darwin NT 5790 Tel. 0891897572 Tlx. 85453

Technical and Field Surveys 250 Pacific Highways Crows Nest NS W 2065 Tel. 0214383700 Tlx. 21822

Sources of aerial photographj~ in the United Kingdom and the LISA

Government sources in the United Kingdom

Air Photo Unit Department of Environment 6th Floor Prince Consort House Albert Embankment London SEl 7TS

Central Register of Air Photographs for Wales Welsh Office Cathays Park Cardiff CFl 3NQ

The Air Photographs Officer Central Register of Air Photography Scottish Development Department New St Andrews House St James' Centre Edinburgh EH 1 3SZ

Deputy Keeper of Records Public Record Office of Northern Ireland 66 Balmoral Avenue Belfast 9

Ordnance Survey Air Photo Cover Group Romsey Road Maybush Southampton SO9 4DH

Clyde Surveys Reform Road Maidenhead Berks SR6 8BU

Commercial sources in the United Kingdom

Meridian Air Maps Ltd Marlborough Road Lancing Sussex BN 15 8TT

Hunting Surveys Ltd Elstree Way Boreharn Wood Herts WD6 1SB

BKS Surveys Ltd Ballycairn Road Coleraine Co. Londonderry BT5 1 3HZ


University of Cambridge Committee for Aerial Photography Mond Building Free School Lane Cambridge CB2 3RF

Government sources in the USA:

Aerial Photography Field Office ASCS-USDA PO Box 30010 Salt Lake City, UT 84125

United States Geological Survey Aerial Photography EROS Data Center Sioux Falls, SD 57198

Commercial sources in the USA:

There are a large number of relevant companies operating throughout the USA. For details refer to the academic and trade journals and local directories.

National Cartographic Information Center US Geologic Survey 507 National Center Reston, VA 22092

REFERENCES

Ackleson, S .G., and V. Klemas. 1987. Remote sensing of submerged aquatic vegetation in lower Chesapeake Bay: A comparison of Landsat MSS to TM imagery, Remote Sens. Environ. 22:235-248.

Aguiar de Azevedo, L.H. 1991. Remote sensing and the coastal management in Brazil, Coastal Zone '91. Proc. of the Symposium on Coastal and Ocean Management, Vol. 1. New York: ASCE.

Anderson, J.R., E.E. Hardy, J.T. Roach, and R.E. Witrner. 1976. A Land Use and Land Cover Classification System for Use with Remote Sensor Data, U.S . Geological Survey Professional Paper 964. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Antenucci, J. C . , and others. 199 1 . Geographic Information Systems: A Guide to the Technology. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Macmillan.

Appel, G.F. 1987. Remote acoustic doppler sensing (RADS). In V. Klemas, J.P. Thomas, and J.B. Zaitzeff, eds., Remote Sensing of Esruaries. Proc. of a Workshop. Washington, D.C. : U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA, and U. S . Government Printing Office.

Austin, R.H. 1979. Methods of detecting, measuring and estimating ocean currents, CSIRO Division of Fisheries and Oceanography, Information Service, Sheet No. 16-1.

Barrick, D.E., M.E. Evans, and B.L. Weber. 1977. Ocean surface currents mapped by radar. Science 198: 138-144.

Bartlett, D.S. 1987. Remote sensing of tidal wetlands. In V. Klemas, J.P. Thomas, and J.B. Zaitzeff, eds., Remote Sensing of Estuaries. Proc. of a Workshop. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Commerce, NOAA, and U.S . Government Printing Office.

Biggs R.B., and L.E. Cronin. 1981. Special characteristics of estuaries, In B.J. Neilson and L.E. Cronin, eds., Estuaries and Nutrients. The Humana Press.

Brooks, R.P., and R.M. Hughes. 1988. Guidelines for assessing the biotic communities of freshwater wetlands. In J.A. Kusler, M. L. Quammen, and G. Brooks, eds., Mitigation of Impacts and tosses, Proc. National Wetland Symposium. Berne, New York: Association of State Wetland Managers, Technical Report No. 3.

Brooks, R.P., D.E. Arnold, E.D. Bellis, C.S. Keemer, and M.J. Croonquist. 1990. A methodology for biological monitoring of cumulative impacts on wetland, stream, and riparian components of watersheds. In J.A. Kusler and G. Brooks, eds., Proceedings International Symposium: Wetlands and River Corridor

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