Energy Policy 30 (2002) 689–698

Environmental impacts of energy utilisation and renewable energypolicies in Turkey

Kamil Kaygusuz*

Department of Chemistry, Karadeniz Technical University, 61080 Trabzon, Turkey

Abstract

This paper extensively concentrates on energy and environmental impacts only. Energy utilisation and its major environmental

impacts are discussed from the standpoint of sustainable development, including anticipated patterns of future energy use and

subsequent environmental issues in Turkey. Several aspects relating to energy utilisation, renewable energy, energy efficiency,

environment and sustainable development are examined from both current and future perspectives. Turkey is an energy-importing

country; more than half of the energy requirement has been supplied by imports. Domestic oil and lignite reserves are limited and

lignites are characterised by high ash, sulphur and moisture content. Due to increasing energy consumption, air pollution is

becoming a great environmental concern for the future of the country. In this regard, renewable energy resources appear to be the

one of the most efficient and effective solutions for sustainable energy development and environmental pollution preventation in

Turkey. Turkey’s geographical location has several advantages for extensive use of most of these renewable energy sources.r 2002

Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

Keywords: Sustainable development; Renewable energy; Environmental impact

1. Introduction

Energy is considered a prime agent in the generationof wealth and also a significant factor in economicdevelopment. The importance of energy in economicdevelopment has been recognised almost universally; thehistorical data attest to a strong relationship betweenthe availability of energy and economic activity. Duringthe past two decades, the risk and reality of environ-mental degradation have become more apparent. Thegrowing evidence of environmental problems is due to acombination of several factors since the environmentalimpact of human activities has grown dramaticallybecause of the sheer increase of world population,consumption, industrial activity, etc. Achieving solu-tions to environmental problems that we face todayrequires long-term potential actions for sustainabledevelopment. In this regard, renewable energy resourcesappear to be the one of the most efficient and effectivesolutions. This is why there is a close connectionbetween renewable energy and sustainable development(Kaygusuz, 2002).

Turkey has dynamic economic development and rapidpopulation growth. It also has macro-economic, andespecially monetary, instability. The net effect of thesefactors is that Turkey’s energy demand has grownrapidly almost every year and is expected to continuegrowing, but the investment necessary to coverthe growing demand has not been forthcoming at thedesired pace. On the other hand, meeting energydemand is of high importance in Turkey. But exploitingthe country’s large energy efficiency potential is alsovital. Air pollution is a significant problem and, as thegovernment’s projections show, carbon emissions couldrise sharply if current trends continue.Turkey, according to 2000 data, produces 27.67Mtoe

(million tons of oil equivalent) per year from its ownprimary sources and consumes 79.46Mtoe a year ofprimary energy (see Table 1). It is expected that by 2020,the primary energy production will be 85Mtoe, whileprimary energy consumption will be 318Mtoe. Based onan evaluation of its fossil fuel reserves, which total2454Mtoe, it is expected that Turkey will be forced toimport energy in increasing proportions. However, thecountry has the potential for 122.3 TWh/year of hydro-power, 1.8Mtoe/year of geothermal power, 50TWh/year of wind power and 32Mtoe/year of biomass

*Fax: +90-462-325-3195.

E-mail address: kaygukm@turk.net (K. Kaygusuz).

0301-4215/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.

PII: S 0 3 0 1 - 4 2 1 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 3 2 - 0

energy, in usable and/or economic quantities. For thisreason, Turkey attaches considerable importance torenewable energies.

2. Energy perspectives

The energy demand of Turkey will be doubledbetween the years 2000 and 2010 and will be fourfoldbetween the years 2000 and 2025. This rapid increase indemand is due to the high economic development rate ofTurkey. The estimated amount of investments for theproduction facilities by the year 2010 is around $45billion. Transmission and distribution facilities willrequire an additional $10 billion investment in the sameperiod. The government has undertaken measures toattract local and foreign private sector for new invest-ments, and also to transfer operational rights of existingunits to private sector for their renewal and efficientoperation (WECTNC, 2000).

Turkey is an energy-importing country; more thanhalf of the energy requirement has been supplied byimports. Oil has the biggest share in total primaryenergy consumption. Due to the diversification efforts ofenergy sources, use of natural gas that was newlyintroduced into Turkish economy, has been growingrapidly. Turkey has large reserves of coal, particularly oflignite. The proven lignite reserves are 8.0 billion tons.The estimated total possible reserves are 30 billion tons.A majority of these lignite mostly situated in Af,sin-Elbistan, Soma and Tun-cbilek are characterised by highash contents in the range of 14–42%, high moisturecontents ranging from 15% to 50% and volatile mattercontents of 16–38%. On the other hand, importantdevelopments have been recorded in primary energy andelectricity consumption during the last 40 years. In thisperiod, primary energy consumption has increased by anaverage of 5.0% and electricity consumption by 10%,annually. Despite high growth rates, primary energy andelectricity consumption are quite below the levels ofOECD countries (MENR, 2001).At the end of 2000, installed capacity and generation

capacity of power plants reached 27,264MW and124,922GW (75% thermal and 25% renewables),respectively. As of 2000, electricity demand amountingto 94 billion kWh was met continuously with a highreserve margin. However, it is crucial to ensure thecontinuity of investments in order to meet electricitydemand continuously and safely in the coming years,which is increasing rapidly. The Ministry of Energy andNatural Resources (MENR) is planning for a very largeincrease in electric generating capacity over the next 20years. As shown in Table 2, the largest growth isplanned for natural-gas fired generation. The MENRhad intended that most of the new power plants wouldbe built by foreign developers on a ‘‘build, operate andtransfer’’ (BOT) basis.The findings of the MENR suggest that the primary

energy demand will be equivalent to 91,030 kilo tons ofoil equivalent (ktoe) in the year 2002, and 314,353 ktoe

Table 1

Primary energy production and consumption of Turkey during 1996–

2000 (ktoe)

Energy production Energy consumption

1997 1998 1999 2000 1997 1998 1999 2000

Hard coal 1347 1678 2729 1769 8495 8160 11286 8149

Lignite 11759 12514 12685 12830 12280 12414 12984 12830

Oil 3630 3230 3056 2925 30515 32083 32916 34893

Natural gas 230 684 662 631 9165 10635 12902 14071

Total fossil 16966 18106 19132 18155 60455 63292 70088 69943

Hydropower 3424 3632 2982 2656 3424 3632 2982 2656

Geothermal 179 256 274 286 179 256 274 286

Solar 80 98 114 120 80 98 114 120

Wood 5512 5512 5293 5081 5512 5512 5293 5081

Waste and dung 1512 1492 1510 1376 1512 1492 1510 1376

Total renewables 10707 10878 10650 9519 10707 10878 10650 9519

Source: MENR (2001).

Table 2

Electric power capacity development in Turkey

2000 2010 2020

Fuel type Installed capacity

(MWe)

Generation

(GWh)

Installed capacity

(MWe)

Generation

(GWh)

Installed capacity

(MWe)

Generation

(GWh)

Coal 7465 38,186 16,106 104,040 26,906 174,235

Natural gas 6756 46,217 18,923 125,549 34,256 225,648

Fuel oil 2124 9531 3246 18,213 8025 49,842

Renewablesa 10,112 30,988 25,102 86,120 30,040

104,110

Nuclear 0 0 2000 14,000 10,000 70,000

Total 26,457 124,922 65,377 347,922 109,227 623,835

aRenewables include hydropower, biomass, solar and geothermal energy.

K. Kaygusuz / Energy Policy 30 (2002) 689–698690

in 2020 in Turkey (Table 3). In line with this trend, in2025 marking the centennial of the country, the primaryenergy consumption will reach 367,780 and407,106 ktoe, 2 years later in 2025. According to theMinistry’s production forecasts, domestic production ofprimary energy will level 31,091 ktoe in 2000 and79,399 ktoe by 2020. The projections foresee domesticgeneration to top 95,946 ktoe in 2025 and 106,507 ktoein 2030. Table 3 gives the findings related to primaryenergy resources and their domestic production plan-ning (MENR, 2001).

3. Environmental impacts of energy utilisation

Turkey has been undergoing major economic changesin the 1990s’ market by rapid overall economic growthand structural changes (privatisation of state enterprises,price liberalisation and integration in the European andglobal economy). However, the share of the informalsector in the Turkish economy remains high. Turkey’spopulation has reached 65 million and remains one ofthe fastest growing from 1990 to 1999 in the OECD.Major migrations from rural areas to urban, industrialand tourist areas continue. In this context, Turkeyconfronts the challenge of ensuring that economicgrowth is associated with environmental and socialprogress, namely that its development is sustainable.Air pollution is becoming a great environmental

concern in Turkey. Air pollution from energy utilisationin the country is due to the combustion of coal, lignite,petroleum, natural gas, wood and agricultural andanimal wastes. On the other hand, owing mainly tothe rapid growth of primary energy consumption andthe increasing use of domestic lignite, SO2 emissions,in particular, have increased rapidly in recent years inTurkey. The major source of SO2 emissions is the powersector, contributing more than 50% of the totalemissions. As given in the literature (SPO, 2000), SO2concentrations in the flue gas of some lignite-fired powerstations are extremely high and differ notably between

power plants, owing to the variation of the sulphurcontent of the fuels. Although the NO2 emissions arelower than SO2 emissions in Turkey, they have likewiseincreased rapidly, following the growth of energyrequirements. Contrary to the development of SO2emissions, a similar upward trend of NO2 emissions hasbeen observed in many European Community countriesas well, resulting mainly from the increased trafficdensity. Also in Turkey, nearly 50% of the total NO2emissions is from the transportation sector, whileo20% is caused by power generation. Per capita NO2emissions are still much lower in Turkey than in theEuropean Community countries, i.e., less than one-thirdof these countries’ average.

3.1. Environmental regulations

At the beginning of the 1970s, the government planshowed that the utilisation of low-grade domesticlignites for electricity generation would make a sig-nificant contribution to the country’s economy. Most ofthese plants were then constructed from 1974 to 1984.However, at that time there were no effective environ-mental regulations. The power plants were designed inorder to keep ground-level pollutant concentrationslower than the limits of some international standards.Model studies were performed considering meteorolo-gical conditions at the site and the power plants. Themost important design parameter in keeping a site freefrom pollution was determined to be a stack height ofabout 300m. Table 4 shows the air pollutant emissionsof the lignite-fired power plants in Turkey. High costsprevented the old power plants from being equippedwith desulphurisation systems. At present, there are fiveflue-gas desulphurisation (FGD) systems in operation in

Table 3

Primary energy production targets of Turkey from 2005 to 2030 (ktoe)

Energy Sources 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

Hardcoal and lignite 21,259 28,522 31,820 39,385 42,732 45,954

Oil and Natural gas 2127 1735 1516 1604 1505 1465

Central heating 495 884 1336 2018 2427 2758

Hydropower 5845 7520 8873 9454 10,002 10,465

Wood and waste 6760 6446 6029 5681 5498 5413

Geothermal 1380 3760 4860 4860 5400 5430

Nuclear 0 3657 9143 18,286 26,988 29,600

Solar 459 907 1508 2294 2845 3268

Wind 250 620 980 1440 1786 2154

Source: MENR (2001).

Table 4

Air pollutant emissions of the lignite-fired power plants (kg/saat)

PM SO2 NOx CO VOC CH4

Yata&gan 263 27,945 4140 207 28 10

Af,sin Elbistan 1518 67,200 19200 960 128 48

Yenik .oy 302 33,600 3360 168 23 8.4

Seyit .omer 1–2–3 1302 18,000 3600 180 24 9.0

Seyit .omer 4 660 7980 1596 80 11 4.0

Soma A 67 937 528 26 4.0 1.3

Soma B 1–2 618 4880 1992 100 13 5.0

Soma B 3–4 329 7470 1992 100 13 5.0

Soma B 5–6 684 12,263 3270 164 22 8.0

Tun,cbilek 1–2 123 1800 360 18 2.4 0.9

Tun,cbilek 3 78 1500 300 15 2.0 0.7

Tun,cbilek 4–5 920 6143 2100 105 14 5.0

-Cay"yrhan 94 1776 1528 76 10 3.8

Kangal 756 16,620 3324 166 22 8.3

Orhaneli 30 5700 1200 60 8.0 3.0

Total 7743 213,813 48490 2424 323 121

Source: SPO (2000).

K. Kaygusuz / Energy Policy 30 (2002) 689–698 691

-Cayırhan (300MW), Orhaneli (210MW), Yata&gan(630MW), Kemerk .oy (630MW) and Yenik .oy(420MW). The authorities have recently become awareof the environmental consequences of fossil-fuel con-sumption and the inadequacy of the standards. Inaddition to the particulate and gaseous material emis-sions, ash deposition and wastewater discharge havebecome environmental problems. The first environmen-tal law for air quality was enacted in 1983.Table 5 summarises the air-quality regulations. It

gives limiting values for particulate matter, NOx andSO2 emissions. The figures are listed for burning solid,liquid and gaseous fuels and new power plants. Water-quality regulations required the installation of waste-water treatment facilities for both old and new powerplants. However, there still remain a number of policyissues to be implemented.

3.2. Air-pollutant emissions

Air pollution from energy utilisation in Turkey isdue to the combustion of fossil fuels and biomassresources. The emission data were calculated byusing standard methods that were given in the Revised1996 IPPC because it was simple to calculate anddoes not require detailed emission data. The IPPCGuidelines were first accepted in 1994 and publishedin 1995. The Kyoto Protocol to the United NationsFramework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) reaffirmed that the Revised 1996 IPCCGuidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventoriesshould be used as ‘‘methodologies for estimatinganthropogenic emissions by sources and removals bysinks of greenhouse gases’’ in calculation of legallybinding targets during the first commitment period(IPCC, 2000). Tables 6–8 show the calculated CO2,CH4, and N2O emissions for the main sectors (energyand cycle, industry, transportation, households andothers) based on the years in Turkey, respectively.Table 9 also shows the total emission estimates with5-year intervals in the country.

4. Renewable energy sources

Turkey has substantial reserves of renewable energysources. Renewable energy production representedabout 9.51Mtoe in 2000, and renewables are the secondlargest domestic energy source after coal. Slightly lessthan two-thirds of this production is supplied bybiomass and animal waste; another one-third is suppliedby hydropower and about 0.5% of the total is producedfrom geothermal, wind and solar sources. On the otherhand, government projections for the near futureindicate a progressive decrease in use of wood, animalwastes and other combustible and renewable energysources. The reasons for this are the expected rise inliving standards as well as limits on deforestation. In thefollowing sections, each renewable energy resource isdiscussed briefly.

Table 5

Air quality limits in Turkey

Air-quality parameter Present limits Probable revision limits

Short term Long term Short term Long term

SO2 (mg/m3) 400 150 250 100

PM10 (mg/m3) 300 150 200 100

NO2 (mg/m3) 300 100 200 80

VOC (mg/m3) 140 — 140 —

CO (mg/m3) 30,000 10,000 10,000 5000

CH4 (mg/m3) 140 — 140 —

Source: SPO (2000).

PM: particulate matter.

mg/m3: micrograms per cubic meter.

Table 6

CO2 emissions in different energy-consuming sectors in Turkey

Energy-consuming sectors CO2 emissions (Gg)

1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

Energy and cycle 20,534 33,698 50,965 61,664 87,975

Industry 20,968 24,876 37,123 41,246 55,463

Transportation 15,965 18,245 25,878 32,460 44,658

Households 14,355 19,568 21,356 23,456 26,876

Others 3818 5876 6143 8456 10,920

Total 75,640 102,263 141,465 167,282 225,892

Gg: giga gram.

Table 7

CH4 emissions in different energy-consuming sectors in Turkey

Energy-consuming sectors CH4 emissions (Gg)

1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

Energy and cycle 0.40 0.51 0.70 0.88 1.23

Industry 1.84 2.41 3.56 3.84 5.32

Transportation 2.30 2.37 3.61 4.82 5.68

Households 114.51 130.24 134.25 118.67 118.96

Others 9.42 12.41 11.32 10.12 9.68

Total 128.47 147.94 153.44 138.33 140.87

Gg: giga gram.

Table 8

N2O emissions in different energy-consuming sectors in Turkey

Energy-consuming sectors N2O emissions (Gg)

1980 1985 1990 1995 1999

Energy and cycle 0.16 0.30 0.41 0.54 0.63

Industry 0.30 0.39 0.53 0.56 0.62

Transportation 0.13 0.16 0.22 0.31 0.40

Households 0.56 0.60 0.64 0.70 0.73

Others 0.93 0.96 1.00 1.04 1.07

Total 2.08 2.41 2.80 3.15 3.45

Gg: giga gram.

K. Kaygusuz / Energy Policy 30 (2002) 689–698692

4.1. Hydropower

There are 436 sites available for hydroelectricplant construction, distributed on 26 main river zones(Table 10). Turkey has a gross annual hydro potential of433 000GWh, which is almost 1% of the world’s totalpotential. Of the total hydropower capacity in Europe,Turkey’s share is about 14%. Almost half of the grosspotential is technically exploitable, and 28%(122,322GWh/year) is economically exploitable. As ofNovember 2000, there were 120 hydro plants inoperation. These have a total installed capacity of11,588MW and an annual average generation capacityof 42,015GWh, amounting to almost 34% of the totalexploitable potential, which at present meets about 35%of the electricity demand. Thirty-four hydroplants withan installed capacity of 3305MW and an annualgeneration capacity of 10,981GWh, which is almost

9% of the total potential, are under construction. On theother hand, Turkey has an enormous task ahead tocomplete its full hydropower development programme.In the future, 329 more hydropower plants will beconstructed, to exploit the remaining potential of69,326GWh/year, bringing the total number of hydroplants to 483 with a total installed capacity of34,592MW. This is foreseen to be accomplished uponthe realisation of a total development of 19,699MW. Infinancial terms, it requires an investment of more thanUS $30 billion (Altınbilek, 2001; Kaygusuz, 2001).The Southeastern Anatolia Project (GAP) is one of

the largest power-generating, irrigation, and develop-ment projects of its kind in the world, covering 3million ha of agricultural land. This is over 10% of thecultivatable land in Turkey; the land to be irrigated ismore than half of the presently irrigated one in Turkey.GAP is an integrated development project; it is expectedto affect the entire structure of the region in itseconomic, social and cultural dimensions through aprocess of transformation to be triggered by agriculturalmodernisation. The GAP project on the Euphrates andTigris rivers encompasses 22 dams and 19 hydroelectricpower plants. Once completed, 27 billion kWh ofelectricity will be generated, irrigating 1.7 million ha(Kaygusuz, 1999).The Atat .urk Dam has been significant in the

completion of the Lower Euphrates Project and eventhe entire GAP project, for it is the water source of thefour projects aimed at the irrigation of 852,781 ha. Thetype of dam is rock packed with 169m high from riverbed and 1664m crest long. Body-packed volume of thedam is 84.5 millionm3. The Atat .urk Dam has eight units

Table 9

Total emission estimates with 5-year intervals in Turkey (Mg/year)

PM SOx NOx VOC CO CH4

1980 4,113,234 1,735,344 342,876 335,567 321,897 128,473

1985 4,465,323 2,123,134 446,786 384,678 895,654 147,942

1990 4,976,456 2,620,105 612,345 427,864 1,443,276 153,441

1995 6,012,112 3,123,344 696,678 413,976 1,584,554 138,334

2000 6,964,224 3,486,623 834,776 443,568 1,786,645 142,873

2005 7,789,677 4,134,543 956,744 465,765 1,986,865 149,673

2010 8,986,687 4,875,789 1,214,762 504,443 2,243,543 154,534

2015 9,345,256 5,668,922 1,764,322 539,543 2,554,567 159,789

2020 10,122,342 6,234,544 2,344,176 591,344 2,943,876 162,356

VOC: volatile organic compounds.

Table 10

Water and energy potential of selected river basins in Turkey

Name of basin Land area (km2) Average rainfall

(mm/year)

Number

of dam

Stored water

(hm3)

Installed

capacity (MW)

Average generation

(GWh)

Susurluk 22,399 711.6 25 3509.3 537.0 1697

Gediz 18,000 603.0 14 3369.4 250.0 425

B.Menderes 24,976 664.3 19 2722.1 214.5 848

B.Akdeniz 20,953 875.8 24 1836.6 674.7 2495

Antalya 19,577 1000.4 15 2885.3 1251.6 4411

Sakarya 58,160 524.7 45 6920.3 1062.5 2362

B.Karadeniz 29,598 811.0 24 2518.8 592.7 2110

Yeil"yrmak 36,114 496.5 45 6301.8 1657.6 6468

K"yz"yl"yrmak 78,180 446.1 82 21,260.0 2007.0 6512

D.Akdeniz 22,048 745.0 11 9121.5 1495.9 5176

Seyhan 20,450 624.0 18 6124.5 1885.6 7117

Ceyhan 21,982 731.6 25 7719.5 1408.7 4634

F"yrat 127,304 540.1 83 112,791.5 9844.8 38939

D.Karadeniz 24,077 1198.2 43 1522.5 3323.1 10,927

-Coruh 19,872 629.4 20 7544.4 3227.4 10,614

Aras 27,548 432.4 20 4084.8 585.2 2291

Dicle 57,614 807.2 36 30,295.0 5081.9 16,876

Total Turkey 779,452 642.6 702 240,763.6 35,309.2 124,568

Source: DSI (2000).

K. Kaygusuz / Energy Policy 30 (2002) 689–698 693

with 300MW installed capacity of each unit, while meanvalue of electrical energy production is 8.5 billion kWh/year. On the other hand, the energy potential ofthe Tigris and Euphrates is estimated as 12,000and 35,000GWh, respectively. These two rivers consti-tute 10% and 30% of the total hydroelectricenergy potential of the country. The GAP region willbe an important electric power producer with 1000MWinstalled capacity from Karakaya Dam, 2400MWinstalled capacity from Atat .urk Dam, and 1360MWinstalled capacity from Keban Dam. The GAP regionwith this capacity will supply 25% of Turkey’s electricityand 85% of its hydroelectric energy (Kaygusuz, 2001;DSI, 2000).

4.2. Biomass

Biomass energy includes fuelwood, agricultural resi-dues, animal wastes, charcoal, and other fuels derivedfrom biological sources, which is used by approximatelyhalf of the world’s population as cooking and/or heatingfuel and it currently accounts for about 14% of worldenergy consumption. Biomass is the main source ofenergy for many developing countries, providing morethan 90% of energy supply in some developing country.Fuelwood and other biomass fuels are handled andcombusted primarily by women, who are largelyresponsible for reproductive chores such as cookingand are often involved in any household industries.Women and children generally have the main respon-sibility for collecting fuel (Kaygusuz and Kaygusuz,2002).Among the renewable energy sources, biomass is

important because its share of total energy consumptionis still high. Since 1980, the contribution of the biomassresources in the total energy consumption dropped from20% to 10% in 1999. Biomass in the forms of fuelwoodand animal wastes is the main fuel for heating andcooking in many urban areas. The total recoverablebioenergy potential is estimated to be about 16.92Mtoeand is given in Table 11. The estimate is based on therecoverable energy potential from the main agriculturalresidues, livestock farming wastes, forestry and wood-processing residues, and municipal wastes.On the other hand, fuelwood is important for rural

area in Turkey as in other developing countries. Abouthalf of the world’s population depends on fuelwoodor other biomass for cooking and other domestic use.In 2000, an estimated 11.5 million steres of fuelwoodwere produced by the State, while from both publicand private sectors, the recorded production wasestimated at about 13.2 million steres from undeclaredproduction. In other words, approximately half ofthe total demand for fuelwood is met by informalcutting in State forests and other sources of fuelwood inagricultural areas.

4.3. Geothermal energy

Turkey is one of the countries with significantpotential in geothermal energy. Data accumulated since1962 show that there may exist about 4500MW ofgeothermal energy usable for electrical power generationin high enthalpy zones. Heating capacity in the countryruns at 820MWt equivalent to 52,000 households. Thesenumbers can be heightened some sevenfold to 2250MWt equal to 350,000 households through a proven andexhaustible potential. Turkey must target 1.3 millionhouseholds equivalent to 7700MWt. Geothermal centralheating, which is less costly than natural gas could befeasible for many regions in the country. In addition31,000MW of geothermal energy potential is estimatedfor direct use in thermal applications. The totalgeothermal energy potential of Turkey is about2268MW in 1998, but the share of geothermal energyproduction, both for electrical and thermal uses is only1200MW. There are 26 geothermal district heatingsystems that exist now in Turkey. Main city geothermaldistrict heating systems are in G .onen, Simav andKır,sehir cities. To date, at least four other geothermalfields with electric-power-generating potential have beendiscovered and studied to varying degrees. These areSeferihisar, Salvatlı, Simav and Dikili-Bergama. Holesdrilled to evaluate these fields found temperatures up to1711C with variable degrees of permeability. TheTurkish geothermists claim to have virtually overcomethe consequences of scaling and corrosion in both highand low temperature wells, so it know that scientificresearch continues. Plans are for generating 125MWe

from Germencik, Kızıldere, ,Canakkale and several ofthe other fields by the year 2000, 150MWe by 2005 and258MWe by 2010 (Merto&glu et al., 2000).

4.4. Solar energy

Turkey lies in a sunny belt between 361 and 421Nlatitudes. The yearly average solar radiation is 3.6 kWh/m2 day and the total yearly radiation period is approxi-mately 2640 h (Table 12) which is sufficient to provideadequate energy for solar heating applications. In spite

Table 11

Total recoverable bioenergy potential in Turkey (1998)

Type of biomass Energy potential (ktoe)

Dry agricultural residue 4560

Moist agricultural residue 250

Animal waste 2350

Forestry and wood processing residues 4300

Municipality wastes and human extra 1300

Firewood 4160

Total bioenergy 16,920

Source: Kaygusuz and Kaygusuz (2002).

K. Kaygusuz / Energy Policy 30 (2002) 689–698694

of this high potential, solar energy technologies are notwidely used now, except for flat-plate solar collectors.They are only used for domestic hot-water production,mostly in the sunny coastal regions. The industry ofsolar water heaters expanded very quickly and todayreaches an annual production of about 200,000m2 ofcollectors. In 2000, about 3.2 millionm2 total solarcollectors were produced and it was predicted that totalsolar energy production was about 0.085Mtoe. InTurkey, solar system for water heating is thermosy-phon-type and consists of two flat-plate solar collectorshaving an absorber area between 3 and 4m2, a storagetank with capacity between 150 and 200 l and a coldwater storage tank, all installed on a suitable frame. Theglobal solar radiation incident on horizontal surface thatbring sunshine hours are measured by all recordingstations in Turkey (WECTNC, 2000)..

Turkey, currently, does not have an organisedcommercial and domestic photovoltaic (PV) program.Electrical Power Resources Survey and DevelopmentAdministration (EIE) launched various demonstrationprojects in order to identify the production technologiesand operation specifications such as manufacturing of a2W solar cell module, a solar cell system of 1600W, asolar cell system of 5 kW connected to the national gridand others of utilisation of solar cells as street light-ening, small scale agricultural irrigation and mobile PVsystem. Global energy strategies and policies are laiddown in periodic 5-year development plans. Govern-ment has no intention in PV production. Potential ofTurkey as a PV market is very large, since the country isvery suitable in terms of solar radiation and largeavailable land for solar farms. There are more than30,000 small residential areas where solar poweredelectricity would likely be more economical than gridsupply. Another potential for PV market is holidayvillages at the long coastal areas. Unfortunately, energydemand in Turkey is so large that utilities areconcentrating on large conventional power plants andpeak load facilities. The newest 5-year development

plan, being prepared, foresees a more ambitiousprogram and estimates approximately 40MWp installedpower by 2010 (MENR, 2001).

4.5. Wind energy

There are a number of regions in Turkey withrelatively high wind speeds (Table 12). These have beenclassified into six wind regions, with a low of about3.5m/s and a high of 5m/s at 10m altitude, correspond-ing to a theoretical power production between 1000 and3000 kWh/m2 year. The most attractive sites are theMarmara Sea region, Mediterranean Coast, Aegean SeaCoast, and the Anatolia inland. Turkey’s first wind farmwas commissioned in 1998, and has a capacity of1.5MW. Capacity is likely to grow rapidly, as planshave been submitted for just under a further 600MW ofindependent facilities. The majority of proposed projectsare located in the -Ce,sme, "Yzmir and -Canakkale regions.Electrical power resources survey and developmentadministration (EIE) carried out wind measurementsat various locations to evaluate wind energy potentialover the country, and has started to compile a wingenergy atlas (in cooperation with other organisations).Approval of independent wind energy projects requiresat least a six months’ history of wind measurements(WECTNC, 2000).

5. Energy efficiency and conservation

In Turkey, per-capita energy consumption (measuredas TPES/population) in 1998 was equal to 1.11 tons ofoil equivalent (toe), much less than the average of5.10 toe for all IEA countries (IEA/OECD, 2000). Butits growth is much faster than the IEA average and isprojected to remain fast in the next two decades as theeconomy develops. Energy intensity (measured as toe/$1000GDP at 1990 prices and exchange rates) in 1998was 0.35 toe, compared with an IEA average of 0.24 toe,

Table 12

Solar and wind energy potential by regions of Turkey

Annual average wind

density (W/m2)

Annual average wind

speed (m/s)

Annual average solar

radiation (kWh/

m2 year)

Sunshine duration

(h/year)

Marmara 51.91 3.29 1168 2409

Southeast Anatolia 29.33 2.69 1460 2993

Aegean 23.47 2.65 1304 2738

Mediterranean 21.36 2.45 1390 2956

Black Sea 21.31 2.38 1120 1971

Central Anatolia 20.14 2.46 1314 2628

East Anatolia 13.19 2.12 1365 2664

Turkey average 25.81 2.57 1303 2623

Source: WECTNC (2000).

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and has increased slowly in the recent years. Ifpurchasing power parities are used, then Turkey’senergy intensity fell well below the IEA average.On the other hand, the government acknowledgesthe need to reduce the energy intensity of GDP andto improve the energy efficiency of the economy.According to the estimates of the MENR, Turkey hasan energy conservation potential equal to 12–14Mtoe/year, or nearly 15–20% of the total consumption in 1998and therefore $3 billion could be saved throughconservation measures in three main end-use sectors(MENR, 2001).The industrial sector accounted for 40% of total final

energy consumption and 54% of electricity consumptionin 2000, while the agriculture, household and servicessectors together accounted for 40% of final energyconsumption and 46% of electricity consumption.Although all the four sectors have an importantpotential for energy conservation, industry has beentargeted as a priority area for energy conservationprogrammes owing to the projected rapid expansion ofindustrial energy demand. On the other hand, thestructure of industry in Turkey is energy intensive.Within the industrial sector, iron and steel manufactur-ing (about 35% of industrial energy use) and cementproduction (about 20%) are by far the largest energyusers. However, the petrochemical industry, the fertiliserindustry, the textile industry, ceramic products andpaper manufacturing as well as sugar production arealso major users. According to the MENR, the potentialfor conservation in these sectors ranges from 20% to40% in the country.A considerable share of the energy-intensive indus-

tries, and some of the most energy-inefficient ones,remains under government control. Industry privatisa-tion, if pursued according to plan, is likely to result inclosure of the oldest and most inefficient operations andin the modernisation for the surviving ones. Theprogressive elimination of energy price subsidies willalso stimulate energy conservation. This process maywell boost the overall energy efficiency of Turkishindustry, and government projections of industrialenergy demand may prove to have been significantlyoverestimated. On the other hand, in a study in 1996, theMENR assessed the potential for energy conservation inindustry at 4.2 million toe (nearly 25% of industrialenergy use for that year) and an approximate cashvalue of $1 billion/year. The total investment requiredto achieve this conservation potential would be closer to$2.4 billion. The payback period for these investmentswould range from a minimum of 1 year to a maximumof 3 years. The measures required to bring about thesesavings would include the adoption of various formsof waste heat recovery, increased use of co-generation ofelectricity and heat/steam, and the use of more efficientboilers.

In the residential/commercial sector, more than 70%of the energy consumed is used for heating. Energy useper unit of building area could be reduced by nearly halfthrough the application to all buildings of the new HeatInsulation Standards on building envelopes, issued in2000 (MENR, 2001). While existing buildings require200–250 kWh/m2, the new standards could bring re-quirements down to 100–150 kWh/m2. At current ratesof building stock turnover, the estimated energyefficiency gains could take several decades to materi-alise. In addition, according to a study carried out in theframework of the World Bank’s ESMAP programme(OECD/IEA, 2001), major efficiency improvements arealso possible in power generation by increasing powerplant size from the existing average of 150–340MW(coal-fired units), by requiring higher efficiency specifi-cations for new plants and by increasing the use of co-generation, especially in industry.Transport energy use can be reduced by improving

the efficiency of transportation technology (e.g., im-proving automobile fuel economy), shifting to lessenergy-intensive transport modes (e.g., substitutionfrom passenger cars to mass transit), improving thequality or changing the mix of fuels used in thetransportation system, and improving the quality ofthe transportation infrastructure. For all modes oftransport, substantial opportunities exist to improvetransportation equipment. The technical savings poten-tial for passenger cars and trucks is estimated at 15–45%for Turkey. In the transport sector, the energy efficiencychanges from 15% to 20% (SIS, 2001).

6. Conclusions

Turkey is an energy-importing country, becausedomestic fossil reserves are limited and insufficient asshown in Table 13. Recently, considerable attention hasbeen focused on the energy resources by the governmentin Turkey. The Turkish government’s investment needsin the energy sector for the period 2002–2015 will bearound US $65 billion and of this, about 82%constitutes total planning investments. A major dilem-ma now faced by Turkey is how to invest in new electricpower capacity, while at the same time adhering toforeign debt ceiling under lending rules set by theInternational Money Fund (IMF). Therefore, Turkeyhas to adopt new long-term energy strategies to reducethe share of fossil fuels and to increase the share ofrenewables in the primary energy consumption.Turkey has a major potential for energy efficiency

improvements. Exploitation of this potential couldreduce environmental emissions and improve securityof supply. The potential for renewables is also sig-nificant. Turkey’s main renewable energy sources arefuelwood and hydropower. The use of fuelwood and

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animal wastes will decline in share and absolute terms asTurkey becomes more prosperous, as has happened inall other IEA countries, because of the convenience ofusing oil, gas or even electrical heating and cookingwhere these options are available. If the use of biomassis to be sustained in future, then measures will at somestage have to be phased in to support it. In this respect,Turkey could benefit from other countries’ experiences.Several issues must be considered in this context.

First, fuelwood must be used in a sustainable manner.Turkey carries out afforestation programmes in defor-ested, arid areas for environmental reasons; these mustnot be jeopardised, and forest exploitation and woodharvesting must occur in a controlled manner. Second,waste incineration for electricity generation should beconsidered as a renewable option in the future, but thisshould be done using appropriate technology to ensurehigh health and environmental standards, in particularwith respect to air emissions. On the other hand, inTurkey’s situation, where government expenditure hasto be tightly controlled, it is of great importance that themost cost-effective resources are developed. Therefore,the government should attempt to develop competitiverenewables first, and base support for renewables, ifnecessary, on cost-effectiveness. The government shouldinvestigate which options are viable without financialsupport. This may be the case for certain hydro projectsand for solar thermal applications. The potential ofthese and other renewable energy sources should beevaluated regularly. For those renewables that needsupport, bidding procedures should be implemented toensure that the most cost-effective renewables aresupported.In recent years, progress has been made in both fields.

New energy efficiency legislation and regulations areunder preparation that will go some way towards usingthis potential. Turkey now has a clear target for windgeneration, and numerous wind projects were submittedunder the BOT programme in recent years. On the other

hand, more efficient energy pricing should be comple-mented by a balanced mix of other measures: manda-tory energy efficiency standards for appliances, motorsand buildings; voluntary agreements; energy labelling;information and training campaigns. Within the limitsof its resources and legal and administrative mandate,the MENR has applied energy efficiency policy effec-tively.In the present study, environmental impacts of energy

utilisation in Turkey have been investigated and twopotential solutions in terms of the use of appropriaterenewable energy technologies and the application ofenergy efficiency programmes are discussed in detail.Overall, the following concluding remarks may bedrawn from this study:

1. There are a number of environmental problems in thecountry that we face today. These problems span acontinuously growing range of pollutants, hazardsand ecosystem degradation over the country. So, allgovernment agencies and other non-governmentalagencies in the country must work together to utilisetheir renewable energy and choose the appropriateapplication in Turkey.

2. The technology of hydropower involved has provenitself over a long period of time and is therefore veryreliable. The actual service of hydroelectric powerplant is extremely long in comparison to other fossil-fired power plants. This makes power very attractivefrom an economic point of view.

3. Growing environmental and social concerns, both onthe part of decision makers and public opinion, havebrought a new perspective to the perception ofrenewable energy sources as a valid alternative inthe long-term, and a useful and practical complementto traditional sources of energy in the short andmedium-term. In this respect, geothermal, solar andwind sources present a considerable opportunity forour country to obtain a significant part of future

Table 13

Fossil fuel reserves, production rates in 1998, and sustainability years

Fuel Reserves (Mton) Production in 1998

Recoverable Total possible (kton/year) Sustainability years

Coal 170 1126 1380 55a

Lignite 7120 8130 12,909 105b

Petroleum 130 130 3385 30c

Natural gas (106m3) 20 20 565 24d

Asphalts 40 75 23 120

Bitumens 830 1490 — —

Uranium (kton) 9.2 9.2 — —

Thorium (kton) — 380 — —

aFuture production as that of 1998, based on the last 15 years.bWith 0.005% increase in future production, based on the last 10 years.cWith 0.004% increase in future production, based on the last 15 years.dWith 0.09% increase in future production, based on the last 10 years.

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energy needs from this sustainable, clean anddomestic sources.

4. Biomass energy (especially fuelwood) presents aconsiderable opportunity for Turkey to obtain asignificant part of our future energy needs from thissustainable energy source, since, at present, moderntechnologies are increasingly being applied to fuel-wood development. Many industrialised countries aredeliberately increasing wood energy use, for environ-mental and socio-economic reasons.

5. Studies for exploration of new oil, coal and naturalgas fields should continue to have a sustaineddevelopment in energy sector. Special importanceshould also be given for the use of most properburning technologies for fossil fuels to reduce green-house gas emissions in the country. Based on this,energy utility owners and sectors should be increaseenergy efficiency and conservations in all the powerplants and fuel-consumed engines and machines.

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