Environmental Design Science Primer

Conceptual Tools

A conceptual tool is a concept used forpatterning thoughts; it is often a metaphor thatorganizes information. For example, themetaphor “Spaceship Earth” organizes ourperceptions about our environment in an entirelydifferent way than just the word “earth.” In thesame way that methods are procedures forpatterning behavior, the conceptual tool is amethod for organizing information, thought andeventually behavior.

The following design science conceptual toolshave been found to be effective for organizingour information environment. The designscientist uses them to elucidate relationshipsamong existing information and to help producenew information. These conceptual tools shouldbe viewed as a set of interrelated concepts to beused as a whole.

1. STARTING WITH WHOLE SYSTEMS

The word synergy means the behavior of wholesystems unpredicted by the behaviors of thesystem’s parts taken separately. Synergydescribes a “law of whole systems” which firstbegan to be understood and accepted bybiologists who recognized that no matter howmuch could be learned about the componentmolecular structures of a cell, there could be noway to predict life. Similarly, no matter howmuch is learned about the individual cells thatmake up an organism, there would be no way ofpredicting the behavior of a human being. It istrue of all systems in nature that each has uniquecharacteristics that cannot be determined onlyfrom the isolation and analysis of itscomponents. In thinking about problems, Fullersaw that analysis (the separating out of parts forstudy) is the basis for all present-day planningand policymaking. It was clear that society hadnot yet understood the significance of the word

synergy. He stated a corollary to this law ofwhole systems which is a fundamentalunderpinning of design science: the knownbehaviors of the whole system and the knownbehaviors of some of its parts makes it possibleto discover or to predict the behavior of theremainder of the system’s parts. By puttingtogether what is known about the whole withwhat is known about some of its parts, it ispossible to progressively understand more aboutunknown parts. Since “problems” are parts oflarger systems, we can solve a single problemonly by understanding its relationship to otherproblems and to the larger environment.

In order to be comprehensive, any problem-solving endeavor should start with the “whole”and work towards the particular. There are manyconceptual “wholes” from which to beginsubdividing: the universe, the Earth, all ofhumanity’s problems, all the variables of aparticular problem, all of the resources of theEarth. Local problems should be viewed in thecontext of global problems for two reasons: firstso that seemingly unpredictable aspects can beunderstood by the behavior of the larger system,and second so that local solutions don’t createproblems elsewhere in the larger system.

2. SYSTEMS AND ENVIRONMENTS

A system is a set of two or more interrelatedelements, which can be subdivided into parts.The human body is a system comprised oforgans, cells, molecules, atoms, etc. Anythingyou can describe is a system because anythingyou can identify is, by nature, composed of aplurality of components. The Earth is a system,you are a system, and I am a system. Everythingwe can perceive is a system. Because theuniverse is the largest system we can describe,anything else we define must be a sub-systemthat divides the universe into two fundamentalparts: the system itself and its environment (therest of the universe).

Environment to each must beAll that is

That isn’t me.And Universe in turn must be

All that isn’t meAnd me.

-Buckminster Fuller

All systems whether ecosystem, techno systems,or social systems, have an environment intowhich they fit. Being able to clearly understandrelationships between a system and itsenvironment is important because systems arealways affected by their environment. Theecologist Howard Odum states this when hesays, “the only way to understand a system is tounderstand the system into which it fits.”

3. UNIVERSE

The word universe is the most comprehensiveand inclusive term in our language. It is a wordwe use to describe everything. Albert Einstein,in his theory of relativity, formulated acomprehensive concept of universe by defining itin terms of energy. He said that universe is theaggregate of all non-simultaneous and partiallyoverlapping energy events. Everything, hetheorized, is energy, and the total energy is equalto that which exists “associated” as Mass timesthat disassociating as radiation – E=MC2. Thisdefinition takes into account the fact thatalthough the universe is the largest possiblesystem, it is not a single instantaneous event andtherefore cannot be unitarily experienced orconceptualized. Fuller became interested in theidea that Einstein’s definition describes only thephysical universe and does not include Einstein’sown thoughts and questions. The theory itself isnot energy but it certainly is part of the universe.If universe is the most inclusive system we canperceive, Fuller felt it important to have anoperational definition which would include bothEinstein’s description of the physical universe

and Einstein’s consciousness manifest in histheory. Fuller stated the following definition.

Universe is the aggregate of allhumanity’s all time consciouslyapprehended and communicated

experiences of the non-simultaneous andpartially overlapping energy events.

This means that our universe can be described asthe aggregate of our experiences. It is importantbecause Fuller’s new definition is not onlyinclusive, it is understandable and useable in oureveryday lives. Because we are inside of ourexperience, our universe is our experience.

To each of us, our universe is the total of ourexperience. As we learn, our experience andtherefore our universe expands. When wecommunicate and share experiences, ourcollective experience expands – ergo: universeis the aggregate of all of our “consciouslyapprehended and communicated experience.”Our collective experience is continuouslyincreasing but always finite, because it is theaggregate of finite experiences (since theexperiences of each individual are finite, theexperiences of all individuals together must befinite). This view of a finite universe serves asan “operational definition” which can bepractically employed. By Fuller’s definition, weare integrally part of universe – participants in itsevolution – not objective outside observers. Thedesign scientist is an individual who seeks toconsciously participate in expanding experience.

If we are going to be able to take care ofhumanity, we must find out how most

economically and satisfactorily toorganize our environment. Humanity

must achieve the success it was designedto be. But we are at the point where

there could be a stillbirth.

Nothing is so critical as birth, andwhether the world survives its birth into

an entirely new world and universerelationship depends on our individual

integrity, not on that of politicalrepresentatives.

You and I are given hunger so that wewill be sure to take on fuel and

regenerate our bodies; we are given adrive to procreate so that humankind willbe regenerated; we are given brains with

which to apprehend, store, and recallinformation. We are also given mindswith which to discover metaphysical

principles. The function of mankind is tothink, to discover and use principles. We

are here to serve as local universeinformation harvesters and as localuniverse problem solvers employinghuman mind’s unique access through

science to some of the generalizedprinciples governing eternally

regenerative universe. We are going tohave to exercise this responsibility within

decades or perish.

- Buckminster Fuller

4. HUMANITY’S FUNCTION IN UNIVERSE

The Law of Conservation of Energy states thatenergy cannot be created or destroyed; it canonly be converted from one form to another. Weknow that the physical energy universe is inconstant transformation and that the two mostgeneral characteristics of this process are“entropy” and “syntropy.”

The physicist Heinrich Boltzman observed thatwhen energy converts from one form to anotheror moves from one place to another in a localsubsystem of universe, some energy is lost fromthat subsystem. A process is entropic when asubsystem of universe is transformed from astate of higher order and complexity to a state oflower order and complexity. Conversely, aprocess is syntropic when a subsystem or set of

subsystems is transformed from a state of lowerorder and complexity to a state of higher orderand complexity.

Fuller points out that entropy and syntropy onlyand always coexist in a finite universe. Thismeans that evolution in a finite but expandinguniverse is characterized by processes in whichenergy is being released as entropic radiation aswell as being syntropically organized as matterand life. For example, in the sun, atomicstructures are being broken down and energiesoutwardly released. On the Earth, randomradiation from the sun is being sorted, collected,and reorganized in new more complex forms.Plants collect the sun’s radiation and transformthat energy, through photosynthesis, into newmolecular structures that in turn become part ofeven more complex living systems. Animals eatplants and utilize that stored energy to growmore complex structures. Thus the evolution oflife seems to be a process of continuouslyorganizing energy. Nothing in nature remainsstatic; systems are always in flux and aretherefore either generally evolving (syntropicallycollecting and organizing themselves) or they areentropically degenerating.

Humanity is part of the evolving syntropicfunction of universe. If, in light of ourexpanding effects on the rent of the Earth, wefail to carry out this syntropic function, webecome responsible for possible breakdowns ofthe ecological integrity of the Earth. The designscientist recognizes that constructive changemeans finding ways of better organizing ourmatter-energy environment to better support life.

5. GENERALIZED PRINCIPLES

Generalized principles are laws of nature. Theword “generalized” means behaviors that holdtrue in every special case experience.

Humans monitor their environment using theirsenses and store the collected information in

their individual brains. As the number ofexperiences increase, patterns become apparentwhich seem to disclose principles common to allthese experiences. Science observes and recordsthese “generalized” behaviors that appear to holdtrue in every special case. When new experiencecontradicts old observations, principles musteither be restated to accommodate thisinformation, or entirely new principles must beformulated.

Newton observed that when objects fall and arepulled toward the center of the Earth, their massis being attracted to this greater mass of theplanet. Further, this attraction could be observedbetween all objects which have mass. As heexperimented, he formulated a principle – theLaw of Mass Attraction – that would describesimilar behaviors in Nature. Examples of otherGeneralized Principles are: Synergy, the SecondLaw of Thermodynamics, and the Law ofConservation of Energy.

Principles (or laws) that have been discovered byscience are potentially useful to the designscientist. For example, science’s progressiveunderstanding of the laws of aerodynamics andchemistry have been permitted the design ofincreasingly better air and space craft – fromKitty Hawk to lunar excursion modules. Alltools and artifacts are special case reductions ofgeneralized laws of nature. The design scientistconsciously employs new scientificbreakthroughs and new integrations of scientificinformation of the law of nature in solvingproblems.

6. SPACESHIP EARTH

Earth is a small automated, spherical spaceshiporbiting rotatively at 66,000 miles per houraround the sun, which in turn is on its owncourse at 6 kilometers per second within thegalactic nebula. With the exceptions of radiationfrom the sun and the gravitational effects of the

moon on oceans and atmosphere, the Earth canbe viewed as a relatively closed system.

The conception of Earth as a spaceship helps usto organize our thinking about ourselves. Themetaphor can help to make us aware that we areinherently linked to the well-being and effectiveoperation of this tiny ship; like astronauts, we areresponsible for the maintenance of the craft thatprotects and supports our lives.

The idea that humanity is responsible for itsaction is fundamental to design science. SinceSpaceship Earth did not come with an operatingmanual, our future depends on our ability andwillingness to employ our know-how indesigning the best possible solutions to theproblems that confront us. The design scientistis aware of this responsibility and acts on it. TheEarth is a “whole “ from which to begin asystematic design science process.

The following diagram describes the functionalrelationships between various processes andtheir interaction with their environment. Theouter circle of the diagram represents theongoing ecological cycles of our biosphere.

The second largest circle represents the variousindustrial/technological processes that can bebroken down for examination. The third circlerepresents the internal biological metabolicfunctions of people. The diagram shows howraw materials and energy are extracted from theEcological Context and converted into usefulforms to provide increased life support servicesfor people, (food, shelter, education, etc.).People, in turn, input their energy and intellectinto running and improving the externalmetabolic system. Human waste is eitherreturned directly to the ecological context or tothe external metabolic system to be furtherprocessed.

7. EXTERNAL METABOLIC SYSTEM

Technology is the primary means by whichhumans provide for their physical needs andadapt to changing environmental conditions.Like other species, human adapt by makinginternal biological changes over long periods oftime in order to accommodate new conditions,but the accelerated use of technology andindustrialization in the last two hundred yearsrepresents an apparently new manifestation ofthe evolutionary process.

In addition to adapting by genetic evolution,humans reorganize their environment itself tobetter support their lives. They take energy andmaterials from the environment and reorganizethem into tools that extend their ability tosurvive. For example, housing provides anexternal skin that permits us to function inclimates where we otherwise could not survive.Computers store information and do manyroutine computing functions that free people’sminds for other more creative tasks.

We can view our collective technological life-support systems as an external metabolic systemthat, like our bodies, takes in needed resources,processes them and utilizes them for itsmaintenance and evolution. Similarly, unutilizedwastes from the external metabolic system arepassed out into its environment. The externalmetabolic system functions to serve the variousindividuals and collective needs of humans justas our internal metabolic systems service the lifesupport needs of the billions of cells which makeup our bodies. External metabolics is an organicprocess and as such provides insight into thecontinuous interdependence of all thecomponents and processes of our technologicaland social systems.

The ecological context is the larger system intowhich the external metabolic system fits. It isthe environment to the external metabolicsystem. “Ecological context” describes the

diversity of processes that constitute the Earth’sbiosphere, other than those that are directlydesigned and manipulated by man (i.e., hydrogenand carbon cycles, animal migrations, weatherpatterns, etc.).

The ecological context can be defined as all ofnature that is not part of humanity’s externalmetabolic system. The ecological context alsoincludes humanity’s own internal metabolicsystems as part of the ecosystems of the planet.Humans existed and exchanged materials withthe other systems long before the development ofsociety’s external metabolic system. Therefore,“people” is included as a subsystem of theecological context in which humanity as abiological species is studied.

Resources are the food of our external metabolicsystem. They are taken into the system (inputs)and used to build, repair, and maintain thesystem as well as produce all the life-supportinggoods and services that are utilized by humanity(outputs) such as food, clothing, shelter,education, transportation, communication,recreation, and health care. All of the servicesand products that support our lives are paid forwith resources. We can subdivide resources intoseveral types:

Renewable resources are energy and materialsthat are continuously replenished by nature at arate the same as or greater than that of the rate ofuse. Wood is an example of a renewableresource. Solar energy is an enormousrenewable energy source since the externalmetabolic system presently takes in less than1/100 of 1% of the solar energy which the Earthreceives each day. All biologicals (animals andplants) are renewable or harvestable resources.These include textiles, forest products, fish andagricultural products.

Even though we have seen that renewableresources by definition are those that can beregenerated by nature at a rate approximating or

greater than our use, renewable resources can bedepleted through our mismanagement or lack ofplanning. Perhaps the most dramatic example ofthis mismanagement of renewable resources isoverharvesting of fish in the oceans. There isevery reason to believe that a massive, sustainedharvest can be yielded by the oceans indefinitely,but only if care is taken to 1) not surpass thecritical limit beyond which the rate ofreproduction is slower than the harvest and 2)not remove an imbalanced harvest. Removinglarge quantities of a single species withoutconsideration of the natural food chains andbalance of nature in the ocean ecosystem willpermanently damage the availability of futuresupplies. Natural ecosystems are so complexthat we may not have the capability to reestablishbalances once they are disrupted.

Non-renewable resources are resources that arereplenished by nature at such a slow rate that, forall practical purposes, we can assume that whenexisting reserves are exhausted, there will be nomore. Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and naturalgas are examples of non-renewable resourcesthat take hundreds of millions of years to replace.If not properly “melted down” and recycled,primary metals and minerals are also non-renewable, because concentrated reserves in theearth are limited. On non-renewable resources:It is important to understand that with intelligentmanagement and recycling, non-renewableresources can be renewed, and withmismanagement, renewable resources canbecome non-renewable.

Human resources can be classified in two ways– Labor and Know-How. Labor is the time andenergy (muscle power) which people invest inthe production of goods and services, and Know-How is intellect which has been learned fromprevious experience and which is used toredesign and improve the system. Theintroduction and widespread use of largemechanical engines and fossil fuels to powerthem has made human labor dramatically less

important as a source of energy. Where oncelabor was the only direct method of doingneeded work, now a single machine can do thework of a thousand men. Automation has furtherdecreased the need for human labor. Yet, as weare becoming obsolete as direct energy sources,the need for the intelligent use of our mindpoweris increasing. Design science is a method bywhich intellect can be reinvested.

Land is also a finite resource that needs to beintelligently planned and managed. Aspopulation grows, our need for space to live,recreate, and cultivate grows. Our impacts onthe Earth also grow with our expansion, socareful planning to minimize our abuse isessential. The way we use land also affects theway we use other resources. For example, urbansprawl means less land for agriculture orrecreation. Food must be transported fartherwhich means more energy is required. Moreenergy is also required because communities usemore for personal transportation, heating andother services.

Wastes are the unused by-products of ourexternal metabolic system. What are normallyreferred to as “wastes” and “pollution” are reallyvaluable resources that are being thrown awaybecause of lack of comprehensive planning anddesign. Wastes can be found in many forms.

Vast quantities of potentially useable energy arelost from our external metabolic system as wasteheat that is released and not collected fromintense industrial processes for reuse.

Materials are lost and dispersed into theatmosphere in the form of air pollution fromsmokestacks. They are also released into theEarth’s water systems as liquid and solid waste.Human resources are wasted through poverty,malnutrition, bureaucracy, job featherbeddingand accidents which prevent this most valuableresource from being re-invested in activities

which could more effectively increase ourwealth.

Life support represents the products andservices that maintain the life needs of peopleand permit survival and exploration under anincreasingly wider range of environmentalconditions. Humanity’s External MetabolicSystem exists to produce these products andservices. Life support can be generallycategorized as:

FoodShelterHealth and Medical CareEducationRecreationTransportationCommunications

8. DOING MORE WITH LESS

Fuller proposed as early as 1936 that humanevolution could be charted by our ability to domore with less. He became interested in the ideathat our growing understanding of systems innature increases our ability to get more usefulunits of life-support for more people with lessinvestment of resources per unit. If ourtechnological systems are a reflection of ourunderstanding of the principles of nature, thenwaste and inefficiency in our use of resources,disregard for our environment, and neglect ofimpoverished populations, are reflections ofignorance.

Because we do not learn less, each timeresources are employed to do a given task,processes can often be designed or redesigned sothat more is accomplished with the same amountof resources. For example, the first telephonewires carried two signals simultaneously. Moreadvances technology enables wires to becomethinner and thinner while carrying more andmore signals until it became possible for wires tobe eliminated altogether. A one-quarter ton

communications satellite now outperforms175,000 tons of transoceanic cable. Thisprinciple of “doing more with less” isfundamental to design science problem-solving.The most important aspect of this “more withless” concept is that it offers a way to take careof all of humanity’s evolving needs withincreasingly less resources per person.

The Earth’s resources, which now adequatelysupport 45 to 55% of humanity, need to beemployed to support 100% of humanity. Theconcept of doing “more with less” also furnishesthe design scientist with a standard by whichstrategies and solutions may be evaluated.

9. WEALTH

Wealth is the capacity of a society to deal withpresent and future contingencies. It is themeasurable degree to which we have rearrangedour environment so that it is able to support asmany lives, for as long as possible, in as manyconditions, at a high standard of living. Allexisting political and economic systems on theEarth assume that the basis of wealth is theaccumulation of capital (physical resources) andthat there are not enough of these resources to goaround. Because traditionally, survival belongedto the “fittest,” competition for these scarceresources often degenerated into war. Neitherpoliticians nor scientists have seriously asked thequestion, “Is it possible to meet the needs of allof humanity without destroying the environmentand without any human profiting at the expenseof another?” Design science is not concernedwith different ways of distributing “not enough.”It is concerned with developing new ways ofproviding enough by doing more with less. Thisapproach brings a new perspective to the debatebetween economists who advocate continuedeconomic growth in the present manner andenvironmentalists who recognize the limits of thebiosphere and who advocate stopping growth.Neither alternative seems acceptable becauseeach means that there will always be “haves” and

“have-nots” in the world or that the Earth mightnot be able to support life in the future.

Design science assumes that real wealth isgenerated not by the quantity of resources thatcan be accumulated, but by the quality of theiruse. The more intelligently we employresources, the more wealth they will yield.Fuller has observed that the only thing we haveidentified in Universe that has no apparent limitsfor growth is our intellect. Therefore, it islogical that the design scientist assumes thatwealth can continuously increase even thoughthe total quantity of physical resources may not.This can occur if we continuously find ways ofbetter and better reinvestment of our know-howto get more with less.

This notion of wealth contradicts the existingeconomic assumption first stated by Adam Smiththat the best way to maximize the total socialwealth is for each individual to maximize his/herown. The design scientist is aware of thefundamental interdependence of humans witheach other and with their environment. Sinceintellect is the basis of wealth, humans whosuffer brain damage from malnutrition decreaseour collective potential wealth because their fullintellectual potential is lost to society; “I ambetter off when you are better off, ‘not,’ I ambetter off when you are worse off.”

Human time is an important resource whichFuller divides into two groups: coerced time,which is the time an individual spends doingthose tasks essential to his/her survival (eating,sleeping, getting food, etc.); and reinvestibletime, which is the time we have free to reinvestin thinking, learning, and designing. The designscientist is concerned with minimizing coercedtime and maximizing the total reinvestible timeof humans by finding ways of meeting the mostessential needs, and by providing effectivealternative ways for people to use theirreinvestible time. In this respect, the concept ofwealth can be used to evaluate the relative merits

of design science strategies or other proposedsolutions to current problems.

10. TRIMTAB

Trimtab is a word taken from the vocabulary ofdesigners and pilots of aircraft and ships. ATrimtab is a device on the trailing edge of anairplane wing or ship’s rudder. It is very smallbut it is responsible for changing the course ofthe airplane or ship because it takes advantage ofthe dynamic principles operating on the vesselby doing the most with least effort. When theTrimtab moves, it creates a low pressure areathat pulls the larger rudder to one side, in turnpulling the trailing end of the ship around andchanging its course. It is, in effect, the rudder ofthe rudder.

Trimtab is an important concept in designscience. It involves using generalized principlesto determine the set of actions that can be takento change the course of a larger system. Indesign science, the Trimtab metaphor is used todescribe an artifact specifically designed andplaced in the environment at such a time and insuch a place where its effects would bemaximized thereby affecting the mostadvantageous change with the least resources,time, and energy invested.

11. MAKE VISIBLE THE INVISIBLE

Making the invisible visible is achieved bygraphically decelerating events which occur toswiftly to be seen or understood, and/or byaccelerating the events which occur too slowlyfor our perception. The following are methodsby which the invisible can be made more visible:Trending is a technique for taking resource data,facts and statistics and plotting them throughtime. This permits the design scientist toperceive patterns of change occurring too rapidlyor too slowly to be evident by direct observation.Hierarchical organizing is the process ofarranging data with respect to its size, shape,

form, magnitude, complexity, or any otherquality it might possess. Location/distributionmapping is a technique for displaying data onmaps to demonstrate the shape, size, patternand/or location of events and their relationship totheir environment. This method permitsrecognition of special relationships that mightnot be found in charts.

The Dymaxion Map is the most accurate type offlat map that can be used for the display ofinformation. If you consider map projections asa form of objective display you can see that adistorted base for geographical data can lead todistorted or erroneous problem definitions.Buckminster Fuller’s Dymaxion Map has twosignificant virtues that distinguish it from allother maps. First, it is the only flat projection ofthe Earth’s surface that has no visible distortion.In comparison to the commonly used Mercaterprojection which distorts the Earth’s surface byas much as 80%, near the poles, the DymaxionProjection has less than 2% distortion. Thismap, when folded along the triangular sections,forms an icosahedronal globe. Second, it is theonly projection that shows the Earth’s landmassas continuous and connected. It provides acomprehensive picture with only minimal breaksin the continental contours.

12. THE DESIGN INITIATIVE

People concerned with the quality of ourenvironment need to maintain a globalperspective while applying the design process toproblems in specific local areas. Solutionsinvolve bringing this holistic perspective to bearon one’s immediate environment. It is one thingto be able to demonstrate that it istechnologically possible to meet the basicphysical needs of humanity, but it is another toplan and take actions that will increase thefreedom and quality of life for oneself andothers.

The ecologist, Aldo Leopold wrote, “ethics isawareness of independence.” Design science isalso based on the assumption that eachindividual is better off when every individual isbetter off, and that it is the responsibility of thosewho understand this principle to act on it.

A traditional course of action taken by peopleinterested in constructive change is politicalreform. People organize themselves to convinceothers of the necessity of change and to electpoliticians to carry out those changes, or toencourage political revolution. The designscientist realizes that change is the norm and thatnature is continually changing our environment.The important question is not whether changeswill have to be made but rather, “when theproblems grow more critical, will there besufficiently developed alternatives to turn to?”For example, the design scientist recognizes thatno matter what energy policy politicians adopt,petroleum reserves will only last 20 to 50 years.Design science, rather than lobbying forrecognition of this fact, seeks to design practicalenergy alternatives. The task of the designscientist is to take the initiative and designalternative solutions, to demonstrate thepracticality and need for them and to place themin the environment where they can be used.

Our present education system trains individualswith skills in design and the scientific method.Professionals in all fields acquire these skills,then open offices and wait for clients to come tothem with jobs. The jobs are tasks that the clientwants done in order to further his own interests.Design scientists do not wait for outside clients,or use their skills in this way. The concept ofdesign initiative means that the individualattempts to obtain the most comprehensiveperspective possible of human problems, todetermine what needs to be done (which no oneelse is doing), to alleviate these problems and toset out to do it. Taking the design initiativemeans creating jobs to be done, not filling jobsthat don’t.

If the design revolution is to excite and interestincreasing numbers of people in taking thedesign initiative it has to be a revolution from theground up. This means that people have to seehow they can learn and participate in designingthe environment in which they live. Unless thishappens, they will most likely remain inactiveuntil crises make change imperative.

In summary, the task of anyone who isconcerned about taking the design initiative isthree-fold:

1 . To educate oneself to the principles andpotentials of environmental change

2. To design specific solutions to problems ofthe environment, human needs andresources, and

3. To communicate and demonstrate to othersthe possibilities of organizing theenvironment in preferred ways.

Bringing about change in the environment doesnot happen overnight. It is often a long processof many experiments and development effortsover a period of time. It requires many peopleworking on many different levels. The processinvolves patience, scrutiny, a sense of humor andan overall perspective of the intentions and needsof specific projects. Taking the design initiativeis your step. The next part of the primer, themethodology section, is intended to help youtake the design initiative. It is a step-by-stepguide to the design science process.

FULLER’S FORTY QUESTIONS

Nothing can be more important to anindividual’s growth than the willingness to askquestions. Not only questions about newexperience, but questions which may encouragechange in our conditioned way of thinking.Fuller formulated this list of 40 questions that hefelt were essential for a comprehensivist tocontinuously try to answer.

What do we mean by universe?Has man a function in universe?What is thinking?What are experiences?What are experiments?What is subjective?What is objective?What is apprehension?What is comprehension?What is positive? Why?What is negative? Why?What is physical?What is metaphysical?What is synergy?What is energy?What is brain?What is intellect?What is science?What is a system?What is consciousness?What is subconsciousness?What is teleology?What is automation?What is a tool?What is industry?What is animate?What is inanimate?What are metabolics?What is wealth?What is intuition?What are esthetics?What is harmonic?What is prosaic?What are the senses?What are mathematics?What is structure?What is differentiation?What is integration?What is integrity?What is truth?

Snowflakes are designs, crystals are designs,music is design, and the electromagnetic

spectrum of which the rainbow colors are butone millionth of its range is design; planets,

stars, galaxies, and their contained behaviorssuch as the periodic regularities of the chemicalelements are all design accomplishments. If aDNA-RNA genetic code programs the design ofroses, elephants, and bees, we will have to askwhat intellect designed the DNA-RNA code as

well as the atoms and molecules that implementthe coded programs.

- Buckminster Fuller

To me the word ‘design’ can mean either aweightless, metaphysical conception or a

physical pattern. I tend to differentiate betweendesign as subjective experience, i.e. designs that

affect me and produce involuntary and oftenunconscious reactions, in contradistinction to the

designs that I undertake in response to stimuli.What I elect to do consciously is objectivedesign. When we say there is a design, it

indicates than an intellect has organized eventsinto discreet and conceptual interpatternings.

- Buckminster Fuller

Methodology

THE DESIGN SCIENCE PLANNINGPROCESS

The design science planning process is a methodby which individuals or small groups can designalternative paths for themselves and society as awhole. By providing a larger vision of change inwhich smaller design projects and initiatives canbe conceived, a design science plan can becomethe basis for developing specific artifacts. Thefollowing section of the primer is a guide to thesteps of this general process for developingalternatives and strategies for environmental andsocial change.

1. CHOOSE PROBLEM SITUATION

Where do you start?

Often the beginning of one thing is the ending ofanother. You begin because you want to beginand even though you are embarking on asystematic plan, you certainly will not end upwhere you think you will because you willchange in the process.

The first step of the design science planningprocess is deciding which directions your groupwill pursue. You should focus on a problemsituation and outline for yourselves an approachto carry you through the entire process. The firsttask is to choose a situation that needs to beresolved and can adequately be dealt with byyour group. The interests, resources, and talentsof the participants, as well as the period of timethe group will have to work together, should helpdetermine the scope of the project. Be carefulnot to pick a project too small to challenge youor too large to handle – given the constraints ofresources and time.

You don’t start out the day with problems allnicely outlined and arranged for you to solve.You start out with a problem situation or to use

Russell Ackoff’s term – a mess. If you acceptgiven prepackaged problems, you will be startingout with hidden, predetermined assumptions thatcan interfere with developing a creative responseto the real problems contained in the situation.The difference between a mess and a problem isthat a mess is something you are aware of in theenvironment and a problem is something youconstruct rationally to assist in understandingand effecting change in the environment.Messes are given; problems you define andconstruct. Problems are your perceptions of whyand how a mess is a mess.There are many approaches a design scienceplanning team can take in choosing a problemsituation. The following are two that have beenused by groups at previous World GameWorkshops. The first is to focus on a specificfunctional area of human life – support needs,such as food or shelter, and to develop a strategyfor meeting these needs at a chosen geographicalscale (from global to individual dwelling). Thesecond approach is to choose a particulargeographical area, such as a neighborhood ornational region, and develop a planning strategyfor that defined region which includes all of thefunctional areas of need.

Examples of functional areas of human needs:

EnergyMaterialsFoodShelterEducationRecreationHealth careLogisticsTransportationCommunications

Examples of geographic scales for focus:

IndividualDwelling unitNeighborhoodCommunityCityState regionStateNational regionNationGlobal regionGlobal

If you choose to work with an area of humanneeds, you define the geographic scale on whichyou want to focus. If you are planning thedevelopment of a specific geographic region,then decide which functional areas, at that level,which you want to consider. It is helpful toremember that, at whatever level you focus,problem solving should move from the generalto the specific. In design science, problemrecognition starts at the global level and worksdown to the local level, thus insuring that allsubsequent strategies or artifacts developedlocally are compatible with global potentials andrestraints.

The next step in both approaches is to developworking definitions of the functional area orareas with which you will be dealing. Afunctional definition describes the designed

operation or role that the system underconsideration plays in the larger system. Eachpart of humanity’s external metabolic systemplays an essential role in the operation of thatsystem just as each part of our internal metabolicsystem plays an essential role in the operationsof our bodies. This role is a specific functionthat needs to be performed in order for the rest ofthe system to work properly – to maintain itselfand to continue to evolve. The functionaldefinition describes the particular function thearea being studied plays in the larger system. Itdescribes what the system does. For example:what do you mean by energy? – The capacity todo work. What role does it perform in thesystem you are defining? – When considering atransportation system, energy is used to powervehicles.

2. DEFINE THE PROBLEMS

What are the problems?

How do you define what is not working?

There is no such thing as a social, political oreconomic problem. There are just problems withsocial, economic and technological components.

- Russell Ackoff

Describing the problem state is the step in theplanning process where you define what iswrong. The problem state description shouldreflect the inadequacies of the present situationand be defined in terms of resolvable factors.For example, if you are considering atransportation system, automobiles could beincluded as problem factors resolvable by design,but people or political ideologies could not.

Recognizing and defining problems is a difficultand critical task. You are familiar with newsreports and analyses of current events in themedia. Usually what we call problems are reallyonly symptoms of problems. Symptoms are thevisible effects of a problem, while the problemsthemselves are usually related to the functionalor structural characteristics of a system.Distinguishing between symptoms and problemsis important in making more accurate definitionsof the problems you want to resolve.

The way you describe the problem depends onthe lenses you use to see and the yardsticks youuse to measure. In this sense, the statement of aproblem is not an objective thing but rather ashared expression of what you determine is notworking in the system you want to change. It isvery common for people to disagree about thenature of a problem because people see situationsdifferently. It is important to discuss thesedifferences and to find common views of theproblems involved.

Everyone brings his or her own frames ofreference to the design science planning process.These perspectives are based on differentpolitical, economic, cultural, psychological,organizational, and religious values andexperiences. It is important to understand whenand how you use these perspectives and to seethe degree to which your own cultural frame ofvalues affects the way you define problems.However useful these frames of reference maybe in organizing your ideas of the problem, youmust take care to see that they do not inhibit,limit, or predetermine the descriptions that youwill develop in the course of stating the problem.

As indicated on the design science planningprocess diagram at the beginning of this section,you should repeat the problem state descriptionstep several times until you are satisfied withyour statement of the problems. In the first runthrough of the problem state step, you willusually generate a list of preliminary questionsand statements of the problem. After you haveworked through the next two steps, you canreturn to the problem state step and refine yourproblem state descriptions. During thisrefinement, you will often find that differentaspects of the problem can be grouped undercertain functional categories.

Refined descriptions of the problem state willusually include the following four groups ofcharacteristics.

DISTRIBUTION refers to availability oraccess. A problem can be described in terms ofdistribution if everyone is not receiving or doesnot have access to a particular life-supportsystem. For example, if 50% of a givenpopulation does not have adequate daily foodnutrition in spite of sufficient known foodsupplies in the given region, then it is necessaryto make a statement of the problem in terms ofdistribution.

PERFORMANCE refers to the designcharacteristics of the system itself. Thesecharacteristics are usually described in terms ofthe system’s capacity to produce life-supportgoods and services with the minimum possibleinvestment of resources and the minimumpossible amounts of wastes produced in theprocess. For example, the U.S. transportationsystem depends almost entirely on petroleum. Aproblem statement of this system could describethe performance of each of the different modesin terms of passenger or freight miles perinvested resources and the efficiency of eachprocess.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS are thenegative, disruptive effects the present systemhas on the environment. They are often stated interms of pollution levels, breakdowns inecological cycles, environmental diseases, anddepletion or damage to environmental resources(biological species, land use, soil quality,minerals, water).

MAINTENANCE AND CHANGE refers tothose aspects of the system that regulate andprovide channels to change the system. Theseproblem characteristics appear when improperregulation and inflexibility in a system limit itseffectiveness in continually providing essentiallife-support services. If the system cannot beeffectively changed by the users to better providefor needs, then this characteristic should bedescribed in the problem state. For example, if aregion depends entirely on natural gas forheating and there are no mechanisms for peopleto convert their heating systems to anothersource of energy, then when the supplies ofnatural gas are exhausted, they will be unable toheat their buildings.

The following is an example of the problem statedescribed in the 1974 World Game Workshopenergy strategy:

The main impediments to evolution in thepresent energy state have brought about asituation in which there is:

Not enough energy available for 100% ofhumanity’s life-support, e.g., forced fuelrationing, materials shortages, forced shorterworkweeks, “blackouts,” “brownouts,” etc. indeveloped countries, and little or no industrialenergy available to construct and develop toolsfor life-support in developing countries.

Inequitable distribution of energy consumption;for example, the United States, with 7% of theworld’s population, consumes 32% of theworld’s energy.Low efficiency of energy conversion, such asappliances that waste electricity, cars thatconsume too much fuel, materials that require alot of energy used in place of low-energy-costingmaterials, uninsulated structures, etc. Present-day energy converters average 4-5% over-allthermal and mechanical efficiency. For every100 barrels of oil produced, 95 go down thedrain. An overall efficiency of at least 12-20% isfeasible with present-day design and engineeringknow-how.

High negative environmental impact of energyinputs and outputs of the external metabolicsystem; e.g. resource depletion, waste, pollutionof air, water and land by unwanted chemicals,heat, artifacts, and noise; and disruption ofecological cycles through strip mining, pipelines,etc. In short, an environment whose capacity toprovide what we are demanding of it, and toabsorb what we are injecting into it, is rapidlybecoming insufficient.

High use of short supply energy resources, suchas fossil and nuclear fuels.

Low diversity/redundancy of energy sources andsystems; e.g., most of our “eggs” are in onebasket: oil.

High use of coerced human physical labor input.

Centralized and one-way energy systems; i.e.energy flows from monopolistic utilities andcorporations to individual consumers, withoutthe inverse option.

If our local gas station, the sun, ran out ofsupporting energy, the next closest refueling star

is 25 trillion miles away.

- Buckminster Fuller

The new social movements for peace, a humaneworld order, social justice and ecological sanity

are now determined to get in on defining thequestions. That’s what public participation is all

about. Citizens now understand thatprofessionals with narrow, specialist training in

the sterile, quantitative methods that women,luckily, often escaped, cannot adequately define

our problems. Not that professionals are notessential to the debate, but that they must now be

able to see where the limits of their technicalcompetence end, and where their values carry nomore weight than those of any other citizen in a

democracy.

- Hazel Henderson

GROUP METHODS

BRAINSTORMING is a group method forgenerating ideas. You can use brainstorming inthe problem state step to produce many views ofthe problem. First determine a period of time theactivity will last; usually 10 to 15 minutes issufficient.

Next, define the subject of the brainstorm andask all of the participants to offer different ideasor views of the problems. Have a member of thegroup quickly list the ideas on the blackboard asthey are suggested with modification orarranging. The important role of brainstormingis that it allows a diverse and wide-ranging set of

responses to be generated without judgment.Brainstorming is not analytic and imposes noconstraints on the listing of possible ideas.

GROUP CONSENSUS is a method of reducingthe many views generated by a group to aminimum number of agreed upon statements.First ask all of the participants to list what theythink are the most important characteristics ofthe problem state. Next, compile these lists andmake a master list of all of the responses on theboard. Then discuss the appropriateness andpriority of each statement. Next, as a group,decide on the most important and articulatestatements.

SIMULATION GAMING is another means togain an understanding of a situation. It is amethod of experimenting with new perspectivesto imagined or real circumstances which may ormay not be similar to your own. You play byimagining that you are in a new role and facedwith a particular situation. How will yourespond?

The Spaceship Captain Game is a simulationgame that has been used at World GameWorkshops. The participants imagine that theyare the captain of a spaceship that is in trouble.They do not know what is wrong. Theparticipants are asked, what do you need to knowin order to identify the problems and insure theship’s survival? The responses, in the form ofquestions are listed on the board. This game isvery useful when learning to recognize anddefine problems. It helps to determine whatkinds of information are necessary for generalproblem solving.

The following are sample responses generatedby this game:

How do we know there is a problem?What are the problems?How critical are they?Where do we find them?How many people do they affect and to whatdegree?What resources are available to solve theproblems?Have these problems happened before?How successful were past solutions?What are the alternative solutions?How would we evaluate the proposed solution?

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. What is a problem?2. What is the difference between a symptom

and a problem?3. What is a frame of reference/?4. What are your frames of reference?5. Ask the people in your group to define the

world food problem.6. What are their hidden frames of reference?

3. DEFINE THE PREFERRED STATE

What do you want?

Where do you want to go?

How should the systems work?

The preferred state is the step in which you stateyour goals. It is the translation of your valuesinto a description of an ideal situation. Thepreferred state is your definition of success andtherefore will be the inverse of the problem state.Outlined as a set of objectives, the preferred staterepresents your idea of the desired functioning ofthe system for which you are going to plan.

To describe the preferred state, suspend allconstraints except for those of technologicalfeasibility and maintaining ecological integrity,and answer the question what would an idealfuture look like?

Defining a preferred state can be a simplebrainstorming game for your group. In mostcases, this step in the planning process can beconducted entirely verbally. Extensive researchand technical analysis are unnecessary fordetermining what you want. As Russell Ackoffhas stated, “there are no experts for what shouldbe.” Everyone has an equal right to contributeand help form the goals in the planning process.

Defining the preferred state forces you to makeexplicit what you want and where you want togo. This step involves developing a workinghypothesis which you will test and document asyou develop a complete strategy. For example,if your preferred state includes providingadequate nutrition for every human on Earth, theplan you develop then becomes an experiment totest if the goal is possible and how it might bebrought about.

Another way of viewing the preferred state is tosee it as a frame of reference to the present

situation. This provides a perspective fromwhich to view the difference between what ishappening and what should be happening. Aphysician diagnoses a patient on knowledge of a“healthy” or preferred state functioning of thebody. Problems can be better understood byreferencing them against as clear as possible anotion of how the system should be working.Though humans have rarely attempted to definea preferred state for society and used this as atool for understanding and resolving ourproblems it is essential in order to plan for thefuture.

The design team often develops a preferred stateby first generating a set of general values sharedby the group and then comparing them to a set ofvalues that are known to be operative in theproblem state. From these preferred values youcan develop an outline of those preferredcharacteristics of the system you are planning.For example, if you value conservation ofmaterial resources as opposed to excessive wasteof resources, the description of your preferredstate would reflect that value: e.g. packagingshould be designed in such a way that it caneither be reused or readily recycled.

The following is an example from the 1975World Game Workshop’s Regenerative ResourceEconomy Group of a comparison betweenpreferred values and problem state values:

Harmony with nature…man vs. natureAll of humanity…part of humanityConcern for degradation of the environment…limited awareness and interest in theenvironmentHumanitarian…elitistLivingry…weaponryGlobal perspective…national perspectiveInterdependence…independenceSocietal interest…self interestCultural diversity…cultural homogeneitySystemic thinking…reductionist thinkingCooperation…competition

The groupings of characteristics used in theproblem state can also be used to describepreferred characteristics.

DISTRIBUTION . Describe the preferredavailability of any life-support service that thesystem under consideration is intended toproduce. Since providing adequate life-supportfor all humanity is the general goal of designscience, considering thee distribution of a serviceor product is very important.

PERFORMANCE. Consider the design of thesystem in terms of its capacity to produce life-support goods and services with the minimumpossible investment of resources and theminimum amounts of waste produced in theprocess.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS. Considerthe environmental impacts of the preferred state.To minimize negative or disruptive effects on theenvironment, this step must be carefullydescribed. Designing with nature is fundamentalto design science because it is the only way wecan assure our continued health.

MAINTENANCE AND CHANGE. Describeyour idea of how the system is to be managedand regulated and how future changes in thedesign can be initiated and implemented. This isvery important in relation to the popularacceptance and long-term survivability of thesystem.

The following is an example of a preferred statedescription excerpted from the 1975 WorldGame Workshop food strategy.

Given the present global food problems, apreferred state would be one in which sufficientnutritionally sound food for all of humanity’shealthful survival and evolution is available on aregenerative, non-depleting basis.

- A global food system should allow formaximum individual flexibility in food typesto permit as much cultural diversity aspossible.

- Food should be a birthright, not an economicweapon of exploitation.

- The food system, as well as the food, shouldbe safe. For example, farm workers as wellas food should not be exposed to dangerouspesticides.

- There should be little coerced human laborinvolved in the food system as possible.

- The global food system should beregenerative; that is, it should not be basedon resources which are rapidly beingdepleted such as fossil fuels and it should notbe based on short-sighted practices such aspoor soil management.

- It should have the least possible negativeenvironmental impacts and the most possibleimpact as possible, such as the build-up ofpoor soils into rich soils.

- There should be an optimum diversity offood crops and a diversity of different strainswithin each crop. There should be an overallgenetic bank increase.

- There should be a minimal dependence onadverse fluctuations in the natural cycle.

- The global food system should operate atmaximum efficiency – in terms of energy,materials, land and human time use in allstages of the food system.

- There should be a built-in flexibility in thesystem; there should be a back-up storagesystem to insure the maximum amount ofnutritionally sound forward days for all ofhumanity.

- The fear of an inadequate food supply shouldbe vanquished. Planning and management ofthe global system should be ascomprehensive and anticipatory as possibleto insure a regenerative supply of food foreveryone.

- A global food system should also have a highamount of monitoring and feedback forquality and quantity control.

- Access to all accurate food informationshould be as high as possible.

- There should be a maximum amount ofresearch and development related toimproving the food system.

Your descriptions of a preferred state willnaturally change and evolve as you explorefurther new ways of seeing problems anddeveloping possibilities. As your personalvalues change, your preferred state descriptionswill change. It is often useful to repeat this stepover again in order to clarify the commonobjectives of the planning team.

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. What are values?2. What are your values?3. What is a goal? An objective?4. Ask your group what is their preferred state

for a transportation system in the UnitedStates.

5 . Compare the different values and goalsimplicit in the responses.

4. DESCRIBE THE PRESENT STATE

How can you describe the present state?

How is the present system operating?

What do you need to know?

In describing the present state, you attempt togain a comprehensive picture – a many-facetedanalysis of the present situation. The purpose ofthis step is to clarify critical factors of theproblem that will permit you to organize dataabout the system under consideration. Thepresent state is the environment in which theproblem is defined and out of which thepreferred system will be designed.

Every present state requires a slightly differentset of descriptive tools. Sometimes it isnecessary to invent new ways of describingaspects of the system in order to understandadequately what is going on.

The following set of tools, used by previousdesign science teams, were developed out of aneed to answer the question: What types ofinformation are needed in order to make themost intelligent decisions about the system beingconsidered? A more detailed explanation ofthese tools is located at the end of this planningmethodology section.

AN INPUT/OUTPUT ANALYSIS is a chart ordiagram that shows the inputs and outputs of asystem. You can make an input/output diagramby outlining a system and listing what goes inand what comes out.

COMPONENTS AND PROCESSES arediagrams that show how the different parts andprocesses of a system are related. Your body ismade up of different organs which function indifferent processes: e.g. the lungs are part of therespiratory system; the stomach is part of thedigestive system. You can make a components

and processes diagram by graphicallyrepresenting the system and indicating thecomponents and processes involved.

KEY INDICATORS are specific measurementsthat indicate the state of the system beingexamined. Temperature and blood pressure arekey indicators of an individual’s health.Passenger miles, available edible protein, energyconsumption, population growth rate,unemployment rates, inflation rates, efficiencyratings of tools are all examples of key indicatorsof different social and technological systems.You can invent new key indicators by measuring

FoodHeating fuelElectricityWaterTelephone, radio, TV signals

INPUTS

HOUSE

Organic wastesWastewaterMetal, plastic, paper wastesDissipated heatTelephone signals

OUTPUTS

characteristics of a system that you think providean indication of its relative health orperformance.

TRENDS OF KEY INDICATORS are chartsor displays showing changes of key indicatormeasurements over periods of time. You canmake a trend by plotting key indicators or otherquantified data over a time line.

TRENDS MOST LIKELY TO CONTINUEare trends which available evidence indicates aregoing to continue to follow a specific pattern ordirection. For example, if evidence suggests thatpopulation growth will continue to increaseduring the next twenty years, list that trend andsuggest the causes and consequences.

INTERACTIONS WITH OTHER AREAS(CROSS-IMPACT ANALYSIS) is a method ofanalyzing the interactions of different sub-systems or systems. The analysis is made byconstructing a two dimensional matrix with thedifferent systems entered along both dimensions.For example, if you wanted to show theinteractions between an energy system and atransportation system, you could construct amatrix with both systems indicated along bothdimensions. You can quantify the matrix byshowing how much energy is used by thetransportation system, how much transportationis use by the energy system, how much energy isused by the energy system, and how muchtransportation is used by the transportationsystem.

If you want to know the cross-impacts of anadditional system such as communications or ifyou want to divide transportation into differentsubsystems, just list those additions along bothdimensions and fill in the new matrix. Thequantities you use are your choice and willdepend on the types of interactions you want toshow. For example, you could use dollars toshow money interactions or Kilowatt-hours toshow interactions in terms of energy

measurement. The interaction matrix can also beused to simply catalogue the interrelationships ofdifferent systems, e.g. trucks transport gasolineand gasoline is used to fuel trucks.

NET ENERGY ANALYSIS is a type ofinput/output analysis used in analyzing differentenergy sources and conversion systems. Netenergy is the energy that is left over after theenergy costs of getting and concentrating theenergy are subtracted from the original grossenergy. Gross Energy (output) minus EnergyCosts (input) equals Net Energy output. Highnet energy sources have higher economicpotential than low or no net energy sources.

AN INVENTION CHART is a chronologicalinventory of inventions related to a particulararea such as shelter or transportation. To makean inventions chart, list in order of appearance(by year) inventions or artifacts that influencedthe development of your system.

LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTIONMAPPING is a method of displaying specificdata about technology, environmental resources,and human needs on maps. The quantified datato be displayed can be subdivided into specificranges of type, quality, or rate: for example,ecosystem type (tropical rain forest, desert),number of beef cattle (1 to 5, 6 to 10, etc.) orpopulation growth rate (1% to 2%, 2% to 3%,etc.). These ranges are then graphicallyindicated and correlated to the geographic area towhich the data refers. The following is anexample of location and distribution mapping ofbiomes (bioregions) on a Dymaxion Map.

AN INFORMATION SYSTEM is a tool forfiling and storing information that is researchedand collected for use in a design science plan orstrategy. There are many different ways you canstore and file data.

The following three tools are included in theinformation system and are helpful in both theprogress of your work and in documenting yourwork when it is completed.

GLOSSARY is a listing and definition of termsimportant for understanding the system you areplanning.

RESEARCHERS, AUTHORITIES, ANDO R G A N I Z A T I O N S is a listing of 1)individuals and institutions presently engaged inresearch and development, and 2) people tocontact for feedback or advice in your work, and3) organizations which influence decisions indifferent areas related to your system.

BIBLIOGRAPHY/REFERENCE is a listing ofbooks, journals, articles, and other informationsources dealing with the system.

GROUP METHODS

DATA ACQUISITION GAME is a method oflearning where to find sources of various data.Ask a series of questions such as: How manybicycles are there in Australia? How much milkis consumed in Mexico? Where do date palmtrees grow? Then, brainstorm what informationsources you would use to find the answers. Testthe different sources and determine which oneslead to the answer most readily. After playingthis game many times, it is possible to develop alist of the best sources of data (or sources ofsources of data) for use in design scienceresearch.

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. Where will you find data for yourproblem area? How will you organize it?

2. What is an analysis?3. What is a display method?4. Make an input/output diagram of your

house and quantify it.5. Make a components and processes chart

of your house.6. Make a trend chart showing the number

of miles you have traveled per year overthe past ten years.

5. INVENTORY ALTERNATIVES

What choices do you have to select from?When you are making a plan and you have seenwhere you are and where you want to go, youneed to identify all the known alternatives forgetting to the goal. It is important that this list becomprehensive so that the range of choices madereflect the best options available.

You need to have certain information about eachalternative so that you will be able to know howand where each can be used. You should knowhow they work and the particular situation towhich each is best suited. Here is a sample formwith characteristics of what you might need toknow about each.

ALTERNATIVES CHECK LIST

1. Explanation of Process (include diagrams ifpossible): How does it work?

2. History of Prototypes: Uses, development,etc.

3. Capability of Alternative: What can itproduce? What scale can it be operable on?

4. Environmental Conditions: Conditionsnecessary for operation (i.e. wind speed,sunshine hours, running water, etc.)

5. Resources Utilized: What is it made of?What do you need to build or install it?

6. What are the best uses? Applications?

7. What kinds of personnel are needed tooperate it?

8. How is it managed, regulated, and changed?

9. Advantages (benefits): What are the positiveimpacts – social, economic, ecological?

10. Disadvantages (costs): What are the negativeimpacts – social, economic, ecological?

The availability of alternatives reflects thedegree of our freedom of choices. No freedomof choice can exist where there are noalternatives. The more alternatives a system has,the more viable that system will be.Inventorying existing alternatives anddeveloping new ones is a critical need of societyand the task of the design scientist.

In any situation, the limited availability ofalternatives threatens the survival of the system.If an electrical circuit has only one pathway forelectricity to flow and the wire is broken (thepathway interrupted), the system ceases tofunction. In an urban electrical grid, there isredundance. This means that if one cable breaks,there are other paths for electricity to flow so thatthe whole system does not shut down.

Living systems are able to grow in a changingenvironment because they are enormouslycomplex, having many alternative pathways forachieving any one goal. Humans are the mostcomplex and adaptable systems we havediscovered in nature; for example, it has beenestimated by biologists that there are 30,000pathways for information to flow between anytwo neurons in our brains. That permits manyalternative paths for a signal to move along. Weneed to employ this principle of redundancy inthe design of a preferred system. Alternativesmake possible different pathways for achievingthe same or similar goals.

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. What is an alternative? An inventory?2. What characteristics will you include in your

inventory?3 . Where will you find data to do your

inventory?4. Inventory all of the possible methods you

could use to conserve energy in your home.

6. DEVELOP EVALUATION CRITERIA

How do you choose the best alternatives?

After all alternatives are inventoried, the nextstep is to develop a set of evaluation criteria bywhich various characteristics of each alternativecan be assessed. After each is evaluated, the bestalternatives can then be selected for your plan.

Evaluation criteria are the guidelines forreaching a preferred state. They represent ourvalues and priorities and thus reflect what wethink is important in making decisions about thedesign, implementation, use and maintenance ofsystems. Evaluation criteria can be generalguidelines for decision makers or they can beperformance specifications for the designer. Thecriteria are developed by formalizing the set ofvalues articulated in the preferred state. Theycan first be described qualitatively (generalcriteria) and then they can be more specificallydefined in terms of quantitative measurements(more specific criteria). For example, a generalcriterion for the selection of a transportationsystem alternative could be that only minimumgaseous hydrocarbon or nitrous oxide pollutionbe permitted. A specific criterion, on the otherhand, could indicate the specific amounts ofthose compounds that are to be permitted.Another general criterion could be that thealternative must convert or use only renewableincome energy sources. A specific criterioncould specify the range of energy conversionefficiencies necessary for the design of analternative transportation vehicle.

Our biosphere is a set of delicately balanced,interrelated eco-systems that are inherentlyinterdependent. When one part of these systemsis disrupted, the whole system can be damaged.For example, destruction of a link in a food chainbecause of local pollution could cause extinctionof a species several steps down the food chain.

Pollution control standards are evaluation criteriadeveloped to minimize negative environmentalimpacts of human technology. Since thesestandards are criteria to measure undesirablesubstances dispersed in the eco-system, muchcare has to be taken in determining what are safelevels, in both the short and long-termperspective. Ideally, the systems you designshould have pollution outputs as close to zero aspossible.

Evaluation criteria reflect the values andpriorities of those who create them. In recentyears, for example, considerable public debatehas been focused on what our pollution standardsshould be. The mandate for the future seemsclear, accept rising levels of harmful pollutantsor redesign the technological systems. Usingpollution as criteria for system evaluation allowsus to state our values and measure how far weare from the desired goal of minimum pollution.

The following are general evaluation criteriathat were used by the World Game Workshopenergy team:

ENERGY CRITERIA

- Maximum value placed on doing the mostwith the least amount of energy

- Minimum use of energy-intensive materials- Maximum use of reusable materials and

packaging- Minimum energy use in construction,

maintenance, and recycling- Minimum dependence on one source of

energy- Maximum diversification and

interdependence of energy sources- Maximum availability and distribution of

power- Maximum value placed on user’s time and

energy- Maximum comprehensive responsibility and

responsiveness to the needs of energy usersby energy suppliers

SAFETY CRITERIA

- Maximum value placed on human life- Maximum safety in construction, operation,

maintenance, and recycling- Maximum designed-in safety for

emergencies and breakdowns- Maximum safety for future generations

ADAPTABILITY CRITERIA

- Maximum value placed on adaptive stability- Maximum responsiveness to short-term

energy demand changes- Maximum expandability/contractibility

(responsiveness to long-term energy demandchanges)

- Maximum reserves of emergency suppliesand facilities

- Maximum flexibility and adaptability to newtechnology, needs, and know-how

EFFICIENCY CRITERIA

- Maximum value placed on doing more withless

- Maximum use of minimum numbers ofenergy artifacts, systems, and services

- Maximum energy output per invested man-hours, materials, and energy input

- Maximum ease, simplicity, and clarity ofrepair, replacement, and recycling in minimaltime

- Maximum use of modularity of constructionwhere applicable

- Maximum concentration of energy-intensiveactivities

- Maximum interlinkages of energy-intensiveactivities

- Maximum use of low impact decentralizedenergy-harnessing artifacts

- Maximum energy conversion and transportefficiency use

- Minimum heat discharge into environment

ECOLOGICAL CONTEXT CRITERIA

- Maximum value placed on virgin areas ofglobe

- Minimum topographical, geological,hydrological, physiographical, limnological,meteorological, soil, vegetation, and wildlifedisturbances

- Minimum use of land, water, water space,air, and air space

- Minimum input of solid, liquid, gaseous, andheat waste into ecological context

ORGANIZATIONAL CRITERIA

- Maximum centralization of coordinationfunctions, maximum decentralization ofdecision-making functions

- Maximum compatibility between differentenergy systems, as autonomous energy unitsdesigned for use by single families, schools,health units, etc.

USER CRITERIA

- Maximum value placed on 100% ofhumanity as energy user; sufficiency –enough energy for everyone; accessibility –enough distribution to everyone

- Maximum quality control of energy artifact,system, or service

- Maximum reliability of energy artifact,system, or service; maximum use of back-upsystems

- Maximum durability of energy artifact,system, or service

- Maximum ease, simplicity, and clarity of useof energy artifact, system, or service

- Maximum stability and consistency of outputof energy artifact, system, or service

- Maximum cultural, esthetic, and individualhuman option diversity

- Maximum decentralization of informationflow

- Maximum use of feedback

- Maximum indexing and cataloguing ofenergy systems, parts, services, and outputs

- Maximum knowledge about energy systeminteractions with all other systems, especiallythe ecological context

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. What is an evaluation?2. What are criteria?3. What kinds of criteria will you include in

order to choose from your inventory ofalternatives?

4. What criteria would you use if you weregoing to design your own house?

5. What criteria do you use in selecting the foodyou eat?

7. DESIGN THE PREFERRED SYSTEM

What would your preferred system look like?

What elements would it contain?

How would it work?

Efficiently running systems often have parts thatif tested separately would perform inefficiently.

This understanding is implicit in the definition ofsynergy: the behavior of a system unpredictedby the sum of its parts. A chain is as strong as

the total interaction of its links.

Designing the preferred system is the step whereyou construct a detailed plan or blueprint of yourideal system. The plan is an organization ordescription of related elements that, ifimplemented, could resolve a given set ofproblems.

You can design the preferred system by:1. Considering the values and goals expressed

in the preferred state2. Selecting the appropriate alternatives3. Integrating the alternatives you have selected

into a coordinated system

Selecting the appropriate alternative elementsand integrating them into a preferred systeminvolves several steps. First, you determinewhich of the alternatives in your inventory meetthe requirements or specifications of yourevaluation criteria. Next, inventory the relevantenvironmental conditions of the geographic area(global, regional, local) for which you areplanning. For example, if you are designing anenergy system, you might list solar radiation,density, precipitation, ecosystem types, naturalavailable resources, average daily wind velocity,etc. Then determine which of the qualifyingalternatives are appropriate to your plan bymatching the environmental conditions requiredby each to the existing conditions of the area.For example, a wind-powered generator would

be appropriate in a mildly windy area while asolar collector would be inappropriate in an areathat receives very little solar radiation. If it isapparent that there are few if any appropriatealternatives that would contribute to theresolution of the problem, you should outline aset of preferred performance characteristics forseveral ideal alternatives. These criteria can thenbe used by a design team for development ofnew alternatives and artifacts.

The final step is integrating the appropriatealternatives into a working system where all ofthe parts are functionally interconnected andcoordinated. This step usually involvesexperimenting with different contributions ofelements until a workable solution is achieved.

When you are organizing your preferred system,consider the following factors and describe the indetail:

1. How the system would operate and function2 . How the system would be managed and

regulated3 . How the system would differ from the

present system4. How the system would be monitored so that

evaluation of its performance could be made5. How the system would increase the personal

freedoms and number of learningopportunities for people

6 . How the system could adapt to furthertechnological innovations and social change

7. How the system could be assimilated to awide range of cultural systems presentlyexisting

The preferred system can be described withmany of the same tools you used to describe thepresent state. For example, you might developan input/output diagram showing all of the flowsthrough the system. You might also diagram thearrangement of all of the different componentsand processes of the system. Trend charts couldbe developed to show how such a system would

contribute to the conservation of depletablenatural resources and/or increase the levels ofadequate distribution of essential goods andservices.

Following your original intentions, the planshould emphasize the level of aggregation(global, regional, community or single dwellingunit) that you chose to focus on, but it shouldalso describe the interrelationships of similarfunctional systems at all levels of aggregation.For example, a community food system could berelated to the regional and global food systems orvice versa.

A design science plan should not be confusedwith an outrageous vision of the future orspeculative fantasy; but neither should it beconfined to present modes of thinking, politicalconstraints or projections of what is likely tohappen.

Design science deals with what istechnologically possible but not necessarily withwhat is politically probable. The primaryconstraints on the plan are technological (is itpossible given current know-how?) andecological (is it compatible with naturalsystems?). A plan uses what is currentlyavailable in resources, technology, and know-how. For example, nuclear fusion could not beincluded in an energy plan because fusion ispresently not a technologically feasible energysource.

The unique quality of the plan is that it is basedon what you want and what is possible. Itshows how a system could be organized to fulfillyour preferred values and goals. It is real to theextent that you can organize yourselves and theenvironment to realize the plan. In some ways,this planning stage can be likened to what anarchitect does in designing and specifying theelements of a new building or system ofbuildings. Resources, wants, potentials and

constraints are all integrated into an image – ablueprint – of a preferred system.

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. What is a plan?2. What is a model?3. What levels of aggregation are you going to

include in your plan?4. What technologies are you going to use in

your plan?5 . What geographic, climatic, and ecological

conditions are you designing for?6. Design your diet for the next week:

a. What foods will you eat?b. What is their nutritional content?c. Where will you get the food?d. What tools will you need to prepare

the food?7. Make a plan of a house you would like to

live in and consider the following functions:a. Energy sources and useb. Water and waste systemsc. Food preparation and storaged. Lightinge. Space configurationf. Materialsg. Construction toolsh. Structure of enclosure

8 . D E V E L O P S T R A T E G I E S F O RIMPLEMENTATION

Once you have designed the plan of yourpreferred system, the next questions to beresolved are: How do you get from here tothere – from the present to the preferredstate? What stages and levels ofimplementation do you have to consider? Astrategy is an arrangement of all the steps thatmust be completed along a time line showing theorder in which they must be done. At the leftend of the time line is the present problem and atthe right is the proposed future. Along the timeline will be the “things which need to be done”to get to the preferred state. When you take atrip by car, you have to pass through certainpoints to get to your destination. You must stopto eat, to get gasoline, and to rest.

In developing a complex strategy, it becomesobvious that all of the steps cannot be includedon a single time line. In this situation you haveto find ways of dividing the strategy intoseparate time lines. These lines can be eitherparallel or overlapping. There are two majorways of dividing the strategy. The first is toseparate the implementation steps into differentaggregate levels such as single dwelling unit,neighborhood, community, region and global.The next breakdown is to further subdivide eachof these levels in terms of the different functionalareas. For example, you might want to dividethe implementation steps of a regional foodsystem into the following subsystems:production, transportation, processing, storage,distribution, consumption, waste recycling, etc.

The following chart is an example of a sub-strategy of a global energy development planproposed in Energy Earth and Everyone. Thedevelopment of wind power is described atdifferent aggregate levels along a ten year timeline.

An essential question to be asked in developing acomplex strategy after the total implementationperiod has been determined is – what stages ofdevelopment must occur at what point during theoverall implementation period? This kind ofscheduling is “determining first things first.”A hydrogen-powered transport vehicle, forexample, has to be prototyped, tested, andproven feasible before a transportation using thisvehicle can be designed and implemented.

A detailed strategy will also address thesequestions (not in order):Who will implement the strategy?How can they be invited to participate or bemobilized?What tools and artifacts will be needed?How and when can they be produced,distributed?How can the strategy be evaluated?

How various groups of people could support andparticipate in the implementation of a systemshould be considered at this point. You mightwant to specify how increasing the generalawareness and participation among those peoplewho will be affected by the plan could beintegrated into the entire process from beginningto end. For example, showing people that fossilfuel costs will eventually become prohibitivecould help increase the awareness of the energysituation and encourage people to participate inan alternative energy development plan.

A helpful exercise in developing a long-rangestrategy is to describe the preferred system andto work backward to the present describing thenecessary steps which lead to your goal. As youwork backward to the present, you will find it ishelpful to frame the different steps in theprevailing social context so that the plan appearsboth logical and implementable. For example,you could identify actual institutions,organizations, agencies and individuals eitherengaging in or capable of engaging in theprescribed steps of the strategy.

There is a proposal in the global energy strategy,Energy Earth and Everyone, to create aglobally coordinated system of informationclearinghouses to monitor, collect, and distributedata regarding ongoing research anddevelopment in energy systems. Theseclearinghouses could serve an educationalfunction by keeping the public informed ofpotential alternatives, as well as providingsubstantive information to assist public decision-making processes.

Again, the intention of this strategy is not toshow what will happen, but what can happenover time if scheduled steps of development areimplemented.

A design science strategy is a logical sequence ofevents that shows how, starting from presentconditions, a future preferred state can be

achieved. A strategy is the “bridge” from thepresent “problem” state to the future

“preferred” state.The more comprehensive and anticipatory is astrategy, the better its chances of effecting the

most positive change for humanity. Indeveloping a comprehensive strategy, all the

variables that affect the attainment of the globalshould be taken into account. In defining the

problem, these variables are explored for theireffect on the problem, and when the solution isdefined, the comprehensive strategy describes

the implementation of the solution.

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. What is a strategy?2 . What stages of implementation will be

necessary?3. How long will each stage take?4. What industries and commercial services are

involved in this strategy?5. Who are the users or consumers of the plan?6 . Who are the decision-makers that will be

involved? When will they become involved?

7. Make a schedule of all the things you wouldneed to do to make a 400 square footvegetable garden in four days. (Imagineturning a backyard into a garden.)

9. DOCUMENT THE PROCESS

During every step in the design science planningprocess it is important to assemble a file and torecord all research and group sessions. Thisdocumentation provides the raw material toproduce a finished report after your work iscomplete. While the objective of your groupmay not be to publish and distribute a finisheddocument, recording the progress of the work isoften the only possible way to “store” thegenerated information for future referral. Designscience teams often benefit from related workdone by others. Seeing different approaches tosimilar problems can provide insights into one’sown work as well as help to avoid duplication ofeffects. The work that you produce will likely beuseful to other groups which follow. The morethoroughly the entire process is documented themore valuable the report will be to you and toother groups.

Design science teams can document their workusing all or a combination of the followingformats:

Research reportsFiles of research articlesBibliographiesEssaysJournalistic articlesCharts/graphsDrawingsAudio and video tapesPhysical modelsPhotographyBlogging/WikipediaComputer presentations

After all of the material has been collected andthe group process has been completed, a smallerdocumentation team can then compile, edit, andotherwise put into presentable form the results ofthe process.

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. List different ways you can document yourwork. Decide which methods you will use.

2. How would you do a film simulating yourgroup’s process?

3. How would you design an exhibit of yourplan?

4. Write a research report on an alternative youhave investigated.

5 . Write a summary of the problem state ofhealthcare delivery in the community youlive in.

6. Write a report on the values and goals yourgroup generated and how you came to agreeon a shared set of goals.

10. TAKE THE INITATIVE

Initiative springsOnly from within

The individualInitiative can neither

Be created nor delegatedIt can only be vacated

Initiative can onlyBe taken by the

Individual on hisOwn self-conviction

Of the necessityTo overcome his

Conditioned reflexingWhich has accustomed

Him heretoforeAlways to yield authority

To the wisdomOf others. Initiative

Is only innateAnd highly perishable.

- Buckminster Fuller

The design scientist undertakes fundamentalinvention, self-underwriting, development and

experimental proof of inventions asdemonstrated for instance by the Wright

Brothers wherein the design science professionalwill be equipped with all the economic, legal andtechnological knowledge necessary for reducing

such inventions to going industrial practice.

- Buckminster Fuller

Up to this point we have discussed the step bystep method by which you can determine whatneeds to be done and how, but several importantquestions still need to be answered.

What do I do with the plan?How can I hope to implement it?How can I bring about a positive change in theworld?

There are three ways for your or your group tofurther develop your work and to help bringabout positive change. You can:

1. Develop tools or artifacts called for by thedesign science strategy you have formulated

2. Communicate the plan to those who wouldbe involved, affected, or interested

3. Initiate a larger planning process whichincludes seeking the participation of thosewho would be involved in implementing theplan; or all three can be undertakenconcurrently. We will consider each in turn,pointing out the relations of each to theothers along the way.

DEVELOPING THE ARTIFACT

The design science process thus far has furnishedyou with a supporting rationale and a frame ofreference which tells you what is needed. Whatis needed can often be translated into physicalartifacts. This is the first and most importantoutput of the design science process. Since theimplementation of your plan will likely requiredeveloping artifacts which have not yet beeninvented or tested, you should compile a list ofthe artifacts that need to be “invented.” Alongwith the artifact, state the preliminaryspecifications for its performance. Theseperformance specifications or design criteria, arespecific guidelines for what the artifact issupposed to do in terms of materials and energyusage, safety, performance, ecological impact,efficiency and adaptability.

Example: the global design science strategyformulated in the book Energy Earth andEveryone defines the need to harness the Earth’sincome energy sources. After studying theenergy flows and concentrations through thewhole Earth system, the winds of Antarcticawere seen as a potential source of energy.Because of the unique conditions in Antarctica, aspecial artifact is needed to harness these winds.Most windmills build to date have beenprimarily designed to harness low intensitywinds of the planet – winds blowing from 7 to 25mph. Winds below or above these limits resultin either no power or damage to the windmill.Winds in parts of Antarctica average over 28mph for 340 days per year and often exceed 100mph. To harness these winds, a wind turbinespecifically designed for high speed winds isneeded.

Now, an artifact – a high rpm wind turbinecapable of functioning in the Antarctic has beenidentified, can be built, refined, and then utilizedto meet the stated need. Design, building, andtesting the artifact involves a specific designscience process. The process, originallyformulated by Buckminster Fuller, is asystematic outline for designing an artifact. Insection 1, Development, the idea for the artifactis developed into a design and workableprototype. The first step is to get moreinformation by making a comprehensive searchof the related subjects. This search should tellyou whether your idea or a similar one hasalready been reduced to practice (or attempted)when, where, how, what went wrong or right,etc. Examples of related areas in the Antarcticwindmill example include:

Windmill design (is there already a high rpmwindmill or one which could be adapted?),helicopter rotor design and construction, towerdesign and construction, specific weather andgeographical conditions in Antarctica (where isthe best spot for a forest of windmills in theAntarctic from the point of view of the wind,

from the point of view of logistics), materialsscience (which materials are best suited to theAntarctic extremes); local and remotecompanies, agencies and authorities in the fieldwhom you can contact either personally or viaemail, materials and energy costs and economiesof scale.

The next step, after all the relevant informationhas been gathered, organized, and integrated, isto begin the actual design. A first prototype isbuilt. If parts for the artifact are available, theyare ordered and integrated into the desired unit.If apparatus is not available, then you must beginto fabricate the artifact from “scratch.” What anindividual is able to do him/herself is dependenton his/her own unique background, training,inclinations and the demands of the design. Thedesign scientist is a synthesizer, an integrator ofalready existing parts into new synergeticarrangements. Obviously, an individual cannotmine, refine and alloy the various metals neededfor a windmill, nor should he or she be expectedto have all the skills necessary to reduce acomplex idea to a physical artifact. The designscientist needs to be skilled in knowing how toget anything that needs to be done done; thisentails knowing who can do what, and where,when, and how. One very beneficial side effectof this process is that the design scientist canobtain a comprehensive education by followinghis or her idea through to completion. Manyskills and talents are brought into focus at onetime or another in the process of reducing an ideato ongoing industrial practice.

Once the first prototype is built, it is then testedand refined into a second prototype. It is usuallynecessary to repeat this cycle of prototyping,testing, and refining an average of three times towork out all the bugs in a design. The thirdprototype should fulfill the performancespecifications set out in the beginning of theArtifact Development stage, or those specifiedafter more information has been gathered.

The prototyping of an idea, and the subsequenttesting of that idea as a physical artifact to seewhether it is indeed a viable alternative can bedone by an individual or group. The next stageis the actual industrial manufacture of theworking prototype, the production design,tooling, production, and subsequent distribution,installation, maintenance, and service. Becausethese steps usually require more resources thanan individual or small group could bring to bear,the active support of a much larger group and itsresources may be needed at this point. This iswhere the other two outputs of the design scienceprocess, “communicating the plan” and“initiating a larger planning process” enter thepicture.

COMMUNICATING THE PLAN is thedocumentation and communication of the workdone in the design science planning process. Itincludes the basic information and context ofwhat the problem is, what the preferred state is,the alternatives, the strategy, etc. Thisdocumentation is put together as a report that canbe sent out to the “authorities” in the field andother related individuals, groups, corporations,organizations, and government agencies thatwere identified in the course of the planningprocess for evaluative feedback. A newdocument which incorporates this feedback iswritten and distributed to the public. Thisdocumentation stage is a very important step inthe design science process. Science is acollective effort in which current investigatorsare indebted to those who have come before. Itis very important that any design scienceexperiment or testing of a hypothesis (e.g. canhumanity feed itself on a regenerative basis?) berecorded so that others who will carry the workfurther or in different directions can profit fromthe work.

INITIATING A LARGER PLANNINGPROCESS is related to the preceding outputs ofthe design science process in two ways. As ithas already been pointed out, reducing an idea to

an industrially produced artifact may involvemore resources and skills than the individualneeds to communicate the idea for the artifact(and the supporting rationale of the whole designscience strategy) to those who have the necessaryindustrial resources and capabilities. You havelearned who these individuals, groups, andcorporations are in the initial search phase ofArtifact Development.

The second way in which initiating a largerplanning process relates to the other outputs infurthering the implementation of the largerdevelopmental strategy of which the artifact isonly one part. In all planning it is crucial toinvolve the people who will benefit by aparticular plan in its development. The purposeof a design science plan or strategy is primarilythe testing of a hypothesis and the developmentof alternatives rather than planning for others.Once a new option or alternative has beendeveloped it can then be widely disseminatedand a larger planning process instituted.

In this later process, those who the strategywould effect can become involved in the process.To a degree, this will be similar to the effort thatthe individual design scientist or small group hasalready gone through. In no way is this ameaningless exercise; for the people who will beeffected by the plan need to know, need to findout for themselves (and not be told by “experts”),just what are their collective goals and what arethe limitations and possibilities of their specificsituation. People should plan, not “be plannedfor” because one of the most beneficial aspectsof planning is the educational process whichtakes place during the actual planning. Beyondthis, for any complex development plan tosucceed, it needs the full understanding andactive participation of all the people involved inthe plan.

As stated before, the ultimate goal of the designscience process is to bring about constructivechange; to allow everyone on Earth the option of

being a “have” rather than a “have not.” Sub-goals, or steps, along the way to this overall goalinclude the generation and testing of new optionsfor humanity, the development of detailedstrategies for the realization of new artifacts thatare needed for a strategy, the initiation of a largerplanning process, and the self-education of thedesign scientist.

If 1) the artifact which is perceived to be neededfor the strategy’s realization is prototyped andtested, then mass produced and distributed,maintained, replaced, and recycled when there isan improved item available; 2) the developmentstrategy is documented, made widely availableand feedback elicited; and 3) a decentralizedlocal planning process is instituted in the specificareas where the design science developmentstrategy has furnished new alternatives, than thedesign science process has achieved its goals.But it should be clearly understood from thebeginning that goals are always being revised,clarified and restated and that what designscience seeks to do is redefine goals and createnew options. Although, the chances that thesegoals will be achieved rapidly may be slim,design science involves a long-range perspectivewhich includes the knowledge that everythinghas its own gestation rates. For a human baby, itis 9 months, for an elephant it is 21 months, foran artifact or comprehensive design strategy it isusually considerably longer. As in any longdistance voyage, period navigational fixes aretaken and subsequent course corrections aremade in order to “stay on course.” The sameapplies to the long-range goals of design science.New information will alter the existinginformation; as goals are approached, new goalsemerge.

QUESTIONS/EXERCISES

1. What is initiative?2 . What initiatives could your group take to

further the development of your plan?3. What initiative could you take?

4. How would you communicate your plan?5 . What artifacts could you or your group

develop?6. Make a list of authorities you would like to

submit your plan to for feedback.7. Who would you contact if you wanted to

initiate a larger planning process?8. What specialists would you need to assist

you in developing the artifact you havechosen?

9. Draft a letter or email to a public decision-maker explaining your work and thesignificance of your plan to yourcommunity’s future.