environmental awareness training for aspect champion (2)

8/8/2019 Environmental Awareness Training for Aspect Champion (2)

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Environmental Aspects, Impact and Effects

What is an Environmental Aspect?

It is any activity, product or service of an organization that has the potential to interact with the

environment thus causing a noticeable or measurable change to it.

Types of Environmental Aspects.

Environmental Aspects are Direct or Indirect

Direct Environmental Aspects: These are activities, products or services resulting from facilities

under direct control of an organization.

Indirect Environmental Aspects: Activities, products or services resulting from facilities under the

influence, but not direct control, of an organization.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS E & P ORGANIZATIONS

Oil Exploration and Production activities life cycle includes:

Geophysical Seismic Exploration Development Production Decommissioning

Aspects can be considered as a consequence of:

Normal operating conditions Abnormal operating conditions Incidents, accidents and potential emergencies Past, current and planned activities

For oil and gas operations they include the following:

Air emissions- Flaring. Venting and Hydrocarbon Gas leakage Discharges to water-Aqueous Effluent/Oily Water Discharge Solid and other wastes-Drilling mud and Chemicals/Hazardous Wastes Land and groundwater contamination Oil Spillage Use of natural resources-Land Use and Degradation Water management Noise and vibration Effects on ecosystems Social impacts

Evaluation of Environmental Aspects

The determination of significant environmental aspects is a three step process whereby we;

1. Identify the aspect.

2. Assess the data available on the environmental impact of the aspect.

3. Evaluate the significance of the impact from the aspect.


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Identification of Environmental Aspects

We can identify an aspect through many sources of documentation including:

Environmental Impact Assessment; Internal and external audit reports; External communications, such as complaints or inquiries; Internal incident reports and corrective action reports; Environmental baseline reports; Environmental Evaluation Report; Environmental studies associated with Field Development Plans;Environmental Impacts

Everything we do impact on the environment. From the highly energy intensive industrial activities

like dredging and drilling to the individual and natural impact. The extent of impact or prolong

impact that leads to effect is dependent on the level of energy exerted.

The impact of E & P activities on the environment can be:

Temporary or permanent Acute or Chronic Short term or Long term Positive or Negative Beneficial or Adverse

Significant Aspects

A significant Environmental Aspect is an environmental aspect that has or can have a significant

environmental impact.

When does it become significant?

When it poses a risk to the environment There is a law concerning it Communities are worried about it Affects reputation Theres a better technology to do it There is insufficient information on it

Aspects vs. ImpactsforE & P organizations

Aspects Impacts

Geological survey

Seismic - loss of biodiversityExploration

Well drilling - air pollution

Chemicals - water/ groundwater pollution

Production

Pipe laying - land pollution

Flaring - thermal pollution

Transportation

Refining - socio-economic/health

Decommissioning


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ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS AND LEGISLATIONS

In a bid to curb environmental damage, responsible governments around the globe have enacted

laws to restrict or restrain, as applicable, industrial activities from impacting negatively on the

environment.

In Nigeria, there have been various attempts by the federal government to enact legislations for

the protection of the environment. There have been increasing regulations and legislation on the

environment. This upsurge was accentuated by the worsening of the environment brought about

by the oil boom of the 70s and rapid industrial development which accompanied it.

List of Environmental Regulatory Agencies

1. Federal Ministry of Environment2. The Department of Petroleum Resources3. State Environmental Protection Agencies4. Local Government Environmental Protection Agencies5. International Conventions

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES OF REGULATORY AGENCIES

Federal Ministry of Environment

Specification and enforcement of environmental standards Regulation of industrial effluent discharges Review and approval of EIAs submitted

Department of Petroleum Resources

Licensing authority with regards to E & P operations Responsible for the enforcement of environmental legislation for E & P operations

In pursuance of success in executing their roles and responsibilities, DPR has enacted specific

standards and guidelines for the petroleum industry. These requirements are documented in DPRs

Environmental Guidelines and Standards for the Petroleum Industry (EGASPIN)

DPRs Specific Standards

Production

-No discharge to Environment without permission

-Set Limits for all Effluent Discharges

-Set Limit for Noise, Heat, Radiation and Smoke for Flare gas.-Noise- 80Db

-Heat-6.31kw/m2

- Smoke- 60% light transmission

- Monitoring Oily waste

- Gaseous emissions

- Monitoring of PH, THC & Metal concentration

-Monitoring of all recipient environment when waste is discharged.


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Considerations for Regulatory Compliance

The benefits from complying are the driving force for regulatory compliance. They include:

- Assets integrity- Risk and liabilities reduction- Cost reduction- Improved environmental condition

Other regulatory compliance drivers, mainly internal are:

- Company Policy- Company Reputation- Good Performance- Industry Benchmark

International Policies and Practices

The international community has many Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) that work with

national governments and industry to help establish policies, standards, and practices that help

protect people and the environment. The World Bank (WB) and its related International Finance

Corporation (IFC) are important NGOs that play a major role in many large industrial projects

around the world. The WB and IFC have established environmental guidelines and standards for

projects that they participate in. The WB Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook includes

elements for General Environmental Guidelines as well as onshore Oil and Gas Development

The World Bank guidelines cover the following environmentally related issues for the petroleum

industry:

Air Emissions Liquid Effluents Hazardous Materials and Wastes Solid Wastes Ambient Noise Monitoring Recordkeeping and Reporting Environmental Control - energy efficiency, environmentally sound processes, proper

maintenance and operation of facilities

The WB has specific recommendations for onshore oil and gas

development project. For drilling, the WB recommends that

gel-based based muds be used and that diesel based muds be

eliminated. If chemicals are to be used in drilling and other

operations, then the less toxic chemical should be selected.Flaring should be minimized and low NOx burners should be

used. Sulfur should be removed from gas before burning and

knockout drums should be used to capture condensates. Spill

prevention should be in place and control measures taken,

including leak detection and prevention, repair programs, and

tank and vessel monitoring and corrosion prevention

programs. Oil should be recovered from wastewaters. Finally,

good housekeeping should be practiced and appropriate

operating and maintenance programs should be in place.

Air EmissionsVOCs, including benzene 20 mg/m3 max.

Hydrogen sulfide 30 mg/m3 max.

Sulfur oxides 1000 mg/m3 max.

Gas fired nitrogen oxides 320 mg/m3 max.

Oil fired nitrogen oxides 460 mg/m3 max.

Odor Not offensive

Liquid EffluentsOdor Not offensive

pH 6-9

Biochemical Oxygen Demand 50 ppm, max.

Total Suspended Solids 50 ppm, max.

Oil and Grease 20 ppm, max.

Phenol 1 ppm, max.

Sulfide 1 ppm, max.

Total Toxic Metals 5 ppm, max.

Temperature Increase


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The IFC offshore guideline addresses the EHS

management system, environmental guidelines

for air, water, wastes, and NORM, environmental

best practices, emergency response, health,

safety, monitoring, reporting, and supervision.

The recommended IFC standards for offshore

discharges are listed in the adjacent figure.

Other policies and practices have been proposed by other NGOs. In 2001, the Government of

Norway and the World Bank Group proposed the Global Initiative on Natural Gas Flaring Reduction.

The initiatives goal is to support national governments and the petroleum industry to reduce

flaring and venting of gas associated with the extraction of crude oil by:

Commercialization of associated gas Development of regulations for associated gas Establishing a voluntary flaring and venting reduction standard Capacity building related to carbon credits for flaring and venting reduction projects

Guidance to achieve the voluntary standard includes recommendations to eliminate routine

sources of venting gas that could be captured, conserved, or routed to a flare. An additional

recommendation is to reduce large sources of associated gas flaring, primarily those sources

associated with production, except for those related to emergencies, safety, and operational

upsets.

Other international organizations also have programs and guidance related to environmental

protection. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources has

issued guidelines for environmental protection during oil and gas exploration in the tropics,

mangrove areas, and artic offshore regions (www.iucn.org). Conservation International haspublished a policy paper on oil development in the tropics called Reinventing the Well:

Approaches to Minimizing the Environmental and Social Impact of Oil Development in the Tropics

The Equator Principles are followed by more than two dozen financial institutions in 14 countries

that have pledged not to provide loans for projects unless certain environmental conditions are

met as listed below (www.equator-principles.com):

Risk categorized according to environmental/social screening Environmental assessment completed Environmental and social conditions addressed Environmental management plan prepared Consulted with stakeholders and NGOs Environmental expert to monitor and report In compliance with environmental and social covenants

The International Association of Oil and Gas Producers (OGP) is a key industry group that provides

standards, practices, and guidance in the environmental aspects of O&G operations. Among the

documents and guidance from the OGP are the following:

Environmental management in oil & gas exploration and production; Guidelines for produced water injection;

Oil and Grease 42 ppm daily avg., 29 ppm mo. avg.

Deck Drainage No sheen

Non WB mud/cutting No discharge w/o LC50 compliance

WB mud/cutting No discharge w/o LC50 compliance

Diesel mud/cutting No discharge

Chemicals Toxicity testing for hazard/impact

Produced Sand Re-inject or dispose onshore

Produced Water Meet guidelines if disposed offsite

Sanitary 1 ppm ChlorineCooling Water < 3 C increase


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can be used to work with regulators improve and establish the regulations under which the

industry operates.

Environmental Management System

An Environmental Management System is define as an organizations structure of responsibilities

and policies, Practices, procedures, processes and resources for the protection of environmental

management issues.

An EMS is a way of working which enables the organisation to control the environmental effects of

operations and improve its environmental performance

The EMS is structured around the continual improvement cycle of Plan, Do, Check and Review.

PLAN - Decide what needs to be done

DO - Put in place an action program for achieving it

CHECK - Confirm that implementation is achieving the plan

IMPROVE- Re-examine progress and change the plan if needed

Essential Elements of an EMS1. Demonstrable Management Leadership2. Policy and Strategic Objectives3. Organisation and Responsibilities4. Hazards and Effects Management Process5. Standards, Procedures and Document Control6. Implementation, Monitoring and Corrective Action.7. Training8. Audit

EMS and ISO 14000ISO stands for Internationale Standard de Organisation

The ISO sets standard for management system in various business disciplines such as quality and

environment. ISO 14001 establishes the required standard of a management system to ensure

continuous improvement in environmental performance

ISO 14001 is a system to controland reduce environmental impacts. Organizations with an existing

EMS may seek ISO certification from any of these accredited external agencies

KPMG Lloyd

The certification process itself entails the following

- Initial assessment- Final assessment- Issue of certificate- Surveillance contract

It is important to note that ISO certification is not a regulatory requirement, at least not at the

moment. So why bother about ISO, why external certification?


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1. It serves as a reassurance to stakeholders that you are dedicated to upholding yourenvironmental policy

2. It helps in risk reductionOther benefits include

1. Improvement in environmental performance2. There is enhanced competence development3. Excellence in operations4. Energy consumption reduction5. Stakeholders relationship improvement6. Cost savings

Summarily, ISO means------

- Be aware of environmental aspects of your work- Be in control of your environmental aspects- Be responsible and act wisely- Manage your work to reduce impacts- Improve your performance

Remember, ISO is a means to an end not an end in itself. Organizations must be seen to produce

real performance improvements in aspects that their stakeholders regard as important

Environmental Impacts of Petroleum Operations

There are many sensitive environments in the Niger Delta and most petroleum operations will have

the potential to produce environmental impacts if not properly managed. Mangroves and salt and

freshwater habitats have particular environmental importance in areas such as the Niger delta.

Impacts of petroleum operations vary depending on the location, type of operation, and otherfactors. On a gross scale, offshore facilities create different impacts than those on land. Those in

pristine habitats are likely to generate greater environmental concerns than operations planned in

areas already modified by human activity. Tropical forests are more diverse and generally less

disturbed by Man than are biological communities in Nigerias savanna grasslands.

Evaluation of and sensitivity to the facility location during the planning process can help to

minimize adverse impacts even when the operation is located in an area rich in biodiversity.

Whether facilities are concentrated or spread out affects dispersal patterns for migratory animals

like caribou. The need for roads, pipelines, electrical power generated offsite, etc. can affect the

habitat disturbance pattern. If new facilities are remote from human settlement and activity, they

can allow for influx of development that isnt necessarily related to the operation (secondaryimpacts). For example, new communities are settling on dredge spoils deposited on river banks in

swamp operational area.

Petroleum operations can have both primary impacts, those closely tied to the operation in time

and space, and secondary impacts, those occurring later as a consequence. Vegetation removal

and grading for roads and drill pads, gravel mining, and dredge/fill activities lead to primary

impacts such as direct habitat loss or excess erosion or interference with natural drainage. When


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land is left bare, fast colonizing, weedy species usually have the advantage, resulting in secondary

impacts of changes to community composition.

Harm to individual organisms may occur through impaired behavior or mortality from noise,

vehicles, and accidents such as fires. Animals can become trapped in well cellars, open pipeline

trenches or open sections of pipeline in staging areas. Harm can also result from exposure to toxic

substances or creation of attractive nuisances such as wetlands overlying contaminated areas or

reserve pits.

Harmful exposures may also be posed by waste discharges such as flares, produced water, drill

cuttings discharge, and oil spills. Biologically available materials and nutrients from such discharges

into water bodies can change their character from clear, nutrient poor waters to those clogged

with algae and starved for oxygen as algae and vegetation grows, accumulates, and decomposes.

Impacts such as those above can be avoided or minimized by proper evaluation and planning.

Understanding how to mesh petroleum extraction with biodiversity conservation starts with

effective planning on a regional scale. Individual companies are usually only able to influence

practices carried out in the concession areas they are responsible for. But understanding how topromote resource development so it minimizes conflicts with biodiversity values starts at an early

stage and should involve the appropriate government ministries.

The location of facilities should take into account the local distribution of sensitive plants and

animals. These can be evaluated through appropriate surveys and by accessing existing

information. Mapping efforts utilizing GIS can be very helpful tool.

A source of information and guidance on preventing impacts is the Energy and Biodiversity

Initiative (EBI), convened by CELB (www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xml). The

EBI brings together energy companies and conservation organizations to develop and promote aframework of best practices for integrating biodiversity conservation into upstream oil and gas

development. EBI has created a set of practical guidelines and tools to minimize impacts to

biodiversity and maximize contributions to conservation wherever oil and gas resources are

developed. The guidelines address all stages of the project lifecyclefrom pre-bid to

decommissioningand are designed to be integrated into existing company management systems.

It is also important to understand the relationships and needs for biodiversity conservation and

integrate this with community development activities. Oil companies may have greater resources

than local governments to devote to conservation that can be brought to bear on mitigation and

extend efforts to promote biodiversity through education, land set asides, acquisitions, training,

and management of conservation areas.

Oil and gas operations occur in several ecosystems in Nigeria. Onshore acreage and operations are

located predominantly in the wetland forest, marshes and shorelines, except for some blocks

located in the Derived Savanna vegetation zone. The wetland ecosystem of Nigeria has some very

distinctive characteristics that make it very sensitive to construction activities. The rest of the

blocks are located in the Atlantic Ocean
http://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xmlhttp://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xmlhttp://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xmlhttp://www.celb.org/xp/CELB/programs/energy-mining/ebi.xml


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Petroleum operations can impact the environment through three main processes. The first of

these is habitat loss which is one of the major impacts of human activities on ecosystems. Oil and

gas development contribute to the overall cumulative impacts of habitat loss, but other activities

like logging, tourism and urban development exert far greater pressure. In Nigeria, the major

pressures on mangrove resources are clearing for timber and charcoal production, shrimp farming

and tourism development. In Nigeria, it is estimated that mangrove forests are lost at a rate of 500

Ha/year to these pressures (out of an estimated 10,000 Km2). Rapid population growth in the last

50 years has exacerbated this problem.

The second major process impacting environments is habitat fragmentation, the breaking up of

large pieces of habitat into smaller, less functional pieces. Fragmentation can lead to reduction in

plant and animal species numbers and diversity and to population losses of common species.

Plants and animals need continuous space to feed and reproduce. When space is broken into

pieces this can impact the area available for shelter, food, and behavioral activity which can

adversely affect plants and animals.

The third major process that impacts environments is habitat degradation. Human presence or

disturbance can lead to subtle changes in the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics ofhabitats. Disturbance can lead to edge effects that erode habitat quality of adjacent ecosystems.

Small alterations in elevation in wetland systems can introduce saltwater into freshwater habitats

and destroy or degrade the freshwater systems. Excessive nutrients or toxic materials can have

biological impacts.

The following are likely impacts that may occur due to petroleum operation activities:

Loss of Species and Habitat Loss and Fragmentation -The breaking up of large pieces ofhabitats into smaller less functional pieces can lead to loss of habitat and a reduction in

plant and animal species numbers and diversity.

Wetland Loss Leading to Increased Erosion and Siltation: Vegetation provides protectionagainst erosion of coastlines, rivers, streams and creeks. Mangroves act as filters in the

swamp, trapping sediment and stabilizing banks preventing erosion. If mangroves and

other vegetation are removed this can result in increased sediments washed into the river.

This may result in numerous impacts such as degradation of water quality, a need to

increase dredging of channel, and additional loss of land. The removal of mangroves and

other vegetation must be carefully considered and, when necessary, re-establishment of

the vegetation and/or erosion controls should be carefully considered to reduce impacts.

The natural control of coastal erosion is often not appreciated until an engineering solution

is sought to combat erosion following the clearing of coastal vegetation.

Hydrology Changes: Intrusion of saltwater into freshwater systems can adversely affectthem. Hypersalinity (e.g., saltwater from the ocean or from produced water) will affecteven brackish systems. So too small alterations in elevation can influence hydrology and

mangrove wet and dry fluctuations. Changes in the flows and salinities of water will cause

changes in the aquatic community and vegetation. This may cause adverse impacts to

fisheries and cause vegetation to die.

Oil Spills: Wetland and terrestrial vegetation can be affected by oil in different ways.Mangroves rely on their pneumatophores (prop root systems) for respiration. If coated

with oil, pneumatophores become sealed and the mangroves may suffocate. Furthermore,


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oil can cause damage to root membranes, leading to the failure of salt control in saltwater

systems leading to death by loss of water through a process called osmosis.

Spoil Areas and Drained Wetlands: Many marine, coastal, and wetland sediments have thepotential to generate acid runoff when they are dried and exposed to oxygen. These

sediments contain sulfides that react with oxygen to form sulphuric acid when exposed to

air when the wetland is drained or when spoils are deposited on dry land. Runoff from such

areas may be acidic and can have detrimental impacts in rivers and canals, and may also be

corrosive to pipelines and other equipment.

Secondary Impacts: Opening new areas with roads and canals invites people to relocateand settle in the new areas. This will lead to secondary impacts from the communities that

arise, even though they are not directly related to petroleum operations.

Experience has shown that it is both easier and cheaper to avoid environmental impacts than to try

to reverse them. Later chapters will cover some ways to minimize and avoid impacts. As a best

practice, the following are Prevention and Avoidance Principles that work well under most

circumstances

1. Upfront planning2. Limit access to undisturbed or highly sensitive areas3. Minimize footprint4. Maintain natural conditions5. Manage construction wastes

Air Emissions

Air Pollutants are gaseous emissions that can cause undesirable modification of atmospheric

constituent, which may have harmful effects on Flora, Fauna or Materials.

Pollutants from E & P Activities

Hydrocarbons Methane Non-methane hydrocarbons Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) Nitrogen Oxides Carbon Oxides (Carbon dioxide and Carbon monoxide) ParticulateImpacts of Air Pollutants

Carbon dioxide traps radiation rays in the atmosphere, this heat up the Environment resultinginto Global warming. Other gases like Sulphur dioxide which also have this effect are termedGreen house gases.

Air pollutants can cause negative impacts on Human health. Carbon monoxide reduces theoxygen carrying capacity of blood, impairs mental function and aggravates cardiovascular

disease. A large number of Volatile Organic Carbon compunds are carcinogenic.

Sulphur oxides and Nitrogen oxides when oxidized and hydrolyzed results into acid rain. Sulphur dioxide is known to reduce atmospheric visibility and damages plants.


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Climate Change and Global Warming

Greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun that is normally reflected back into space from theEarth's surface, thus acting like glass panels, which let light in and keep heat inside.

Without greenhouse gases the World would be a lot colder, but recently levels of somegreenhouse gases have begun to increase. The increase of greenhouse gases and global climate

change are partly associated with each other, which could have detrimental effects such as

rising sea levels and extinction of species that cannot cope with the change.

Sources of Air Pollution

Drilling Emission Sources Flaring, well tests, flowbacks Pits Controlled Combustion Sources Pits and Ditches Equipment Leaks Floating Roof Tanks (Rim seals and other Fittings) Fugitive Emissions Tank cleaning Vapor displaced from Oil tanker vessels

Regulatory Requirements on Air Emissions

Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR)

Prescribe Emission Limits that represents the maximum allowable levels of pollutants fromgaseous emission sources.

Part 3, section 3.8.8.1 of the DPR Guidelines and Standards stipulates that Waiver and permitbe obtained for gas flaring and also the payment of fine for flaring Gas. The section further

mandates that only pretreated and clean gas can be flared.

Part3, section 4.4.2, stipulates the development of emission inventory, sampling and laboratoryanalysis of ambient air around Flare sites and Production facilities for the following- Particulate,

Hydrogen Sulphide, Ozone and Volatile Organic Compounds

Best Practices to Manage Air Pollution

Gas Flaring/Venting Emission

Gas Recovery Preferable if high value products are obtainable Liquefied Petroleum Gas obtained by refrigeration is the most common Gas Recovery Product.Emissions from Pits and Ditches

Eliminate pits and ditches and replace with tanks and pipes. Cover pits and ditches.Combustion Sources

Optimize Equipment Performance Reduce excess oxygen Install Retrofit Controls Particulate collection from flue gas using: Electrostatic Precipitator


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Environmental Impacts of Air Emissions

E&P facilities produce various types of air emissions. An evaluation of the potential environmental

impacts from air emissions requires an identification of the equipment and facilities that emit air

emissions and an understanding of type and quantity of air pollutants emitted by the operations.

Flaresact as control devices burning waste. Flares also convert greenhouse gases (GHGs) like

methane to CO2, which on a volume basis have much lower global warming factor. However,

burning gas produces excessive amounts of CO2, which is usually the largest greenhouse gas

contributor from petroleum operations.

Offshore platforms tend to contain both oil processing equipment and gas processing equipment

such as dehydrators and compressors. Due to limited space and the need to carefully manage

weight, gas turbines may replace engines as compressor and generator drivers. Depending on the

quality of the gas being burned, gas turbines will emit air pollutants such as oxides of sulfur (SOx),

oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulates.

Gas plants are typically much larger facilities than compressor stations or tank batteries. In thesefacilities, most emission point sources like vents are hard piped to a flare. This means that most

emissions are burned in the flare and reduced approximately 98%. The flare does produce CO2 and

SO2 (if H2S is present in the gas sent to the flare). CO2 is a greenhouse gas and SO2 can contribute

to acid rain. The other large source of emissions at gas plants can be fugitive emissions.

Tank batteries may have flash gas, the gas that comes out of the production stream when pressure

is reduced in equipment or tanks *like CO2 coming out of a Coke can when its opened+. Emissions

can be controlled by capturing the vapors in a small compressor called a vapor recovery unit or

by routing them to a flare. Flaring of this gas can reduces hydrocarbon emissions by 98% but

produces CO2.

Compressor station enginesare the typical large source at compressor stations. Engines emit

mostly NOx, CO, and CO2 as combustion products or byproducts.

Glycol dehydratorsremove moisture (water) from natural gas using a glycol compound and these

can emit BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylenes). Benzene is a toxic air pollutant that

can cause cancer and other health effects. Properly installed and operating controls can reduce

BTEX and most other emissions from these units by 90-98%.

As noted above, most oil and gas

operations emit pollutants, whichcan enter the environmental and

may have negative impacts

depending on concentration,

toxicity and volumes over time.

Pollutants can be grouped

according to their type and source.

The adjacent figure lists some of the

important pollutants for the

Hydrocarbons Methane (CH4) (a greenhouse gas)

Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC)Volatile organic compounds (VOC)

Combustion Byproducts SOx, NOx, CO, Particulates

Products of incomplete

combustion (PIC)

Hydrogen Sulfide H2S

Carbon Dioxide CO2 (a greenhouse gas)


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petroleum industry. Oil and gas are made of hydrocarbons and some of these are important

pollutants. Pollutants called combustion byproducts form when fuel is burned and are a natural

byproduct of combustion. Hydrogen sulfide is one such byproduct and can be fatal at certain

concentrations. Carbon dioxide is another and it is the major greenhouse gas. It sometimes occurs

naturally in our produced gas and is one of the principal products of combusting fuels containing

carbon (e.g. wood, coal, oil, natural gas).

Combustion byproducts include products of incomplete combustion (partially oxygenated),

hydrocarbons, particulates, and large, complex aromatic hydrocarbons. NOx means molecules with

one nitrogen atom and any number of oxygen atoms (e.g., NO and NO2 and N2O). SOx means

molecules with one sulfur atom and any number of oxygen atoms (e.g., SO2 and SO3).

CO2 is the primary emissionof ALL hydrocarbon combustion processes. The amount of CO2

emitted depends only on the amount of carbon burned. The main negative impact of CO2 is that

it is the major man-made contributor to global warming. Control of CO2 is very difficult and

expensive. The best control is not to make it in the first place (e.g., to conserve energy).

Air pollutants dont stay in the atmosphere forever. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), such asBTEX, are usually oxidized to form CO2 and water. SOx, NOx, and particulates wash out in the rain,

or deposit onto the ground or water bodies. Acid rain from SO2 dissolved in rainwater to form

sulfuric acid is an example of this. CO2 is taken up by plants and dissolves in the oceans. The

problem is that, before they can be removed, pollutants have time to interact with and affect

people and the environment.

Air emissions can produce health effects that range from immediate effects associated with

exposure to high levels of H2S to chronic or long term effects such as cancer from long term

exposure to pollutants like benzene. For example:

500 ppm of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) can kill in a few minutes. H2S can be emitted from gasand oil production. Flaring gas and fugitive emissions from oil and gas operations convert

H2S to SOx, a significantly less toxic form.

SOx forms sulfuric acid when in contact with water and moisture, and can irritate lungs andeyes.

High ozone levels cause eye and lung irritation. Ozone if formed from an atmosphericreaction from NOx emissions.

Exposure to particulates can cause irritation to the lungs and over time can cause lungdamage.

For both acute and chronic effects, there are pollutant concentration levels below whichthere are no adverse health effects.

Carcinogenic pollutants promote cancer. This could be considered a chronic effect, but it isusually shown as a separate category. A major difference is that for carcinogenic pollutants

there may be no safe level - ANY exposure increases the chance of developing cancer, at

least slightly. Medical experts are not in complete agreement about this.

Pollutants can fall into one, two, or all three of these categories. (Or none, if they dontdirectly impact human health. CO2 is an example.)

.

Beyond health effects, there are also issues related to destruction of the ozone layer in the

atmosphere, acid rain, and odors. The ozone layer acts to shield UV and cancer causing rays.


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Emission of halons from fire fighting equipment, Freon from refrigerators and air conditioners, and

Arklone solvent used in oil in water testing react with ozone and can contribute to loss of the ozone

layer. Acid rain pollutants, like SOx and NOx, form acids in the atmosphere that are deposited in

rain. This can cause changes in acidity of soil and natural waters that may lead to loss of forest and

aquatic animals. Many pollutants, such as CO2, CO, and NOx, will not produce any odors, but VOCs

and substances such as H2S can produce objectionable odors even at small concentrations in air.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has set an objectionable odor threshold for H2S at 5 ppb.

The impacts of pollutants are not only a function of their

concentration but also their lifetime in the atmosphere.

As you can see from the adjacent figure, the lifetimes of

different pollutants vary considerably. The shorter-lived

pollutants can be local or regional problems. Since CO2

and methane are relatively inert, they have time to spread

across the globe and, as GHGs, they will have an effect on

the temperature of the whole earth. This is an example of

Starting Local Looking Global. Emissions of CO2 and

methane occur locally but have global impact.

As previously noted, some air emissions such as CO2, NOx and methane are greenhouse gases, so

named because they act much the same was as glass panes do on a greenhouse to trap the heat

from solar radiation and thereby warm the interior of the greenhouse. Without these gases, heat

would escape back into space and Earths average temperature would be about 60F colder.

Greenhouse gases help regulate the temperature of the earth and their effect can be greater as

their atmospheric concentrations increase.

To illustrate this, the adjacent figure is a graphical

look at the greenhouse effect. Energy comes fromthe Sun in the form of incoming solar radiation.

Some of the radiation is absorbed by water vapor

and gases in the atmosphere, some by the earth,

and some is reflected back into space. The

radiation absorbed by the earth is radiated back as

longwave radiation. Some of this energy is

absorbed by GHG molecules in the atmosphere.

This causes the atmosphere to heat up.

The greenhouse effect is not bad. Without it, we

could not live on earth. However, there isconcern about the enhanced greenhouse

effect that is caused by increased concentrations

of GHGs, particularly CO2, that cause the

atmosphere to be warmer than it would be

without the addition of extra CO2 from burning

fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas.

How Long Do Pollutants Stay In the Atmosphere

CO2 120 years

Methane 12 years

CO 2 months

Benzene 2 weeks

H2S 1 week

Formaldehyde 1 day or less

Man-madegases that trap radiation from the earths surface:

Relative importance*

Carbon Dioxide 60%

Methane 20%

CFCs 10%

Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 6%

Other 4%

*Relative importance to the enhanced greenhouse effect


16/48

The major GHG gases and their relative importance to the enhanced greenhouse gas effect are

shown in the adjacent figure. Carbon dioxide is the major source of the enhanced GHG effect.

Almost all of this carbon dioxide is created by burning fuels that contain carbon. In the combustion

process, the carbon in the fuel is converted to CO2.

Methane is the next largest contributor to the enhanced GHG effect. Methane comes from natural

sources such as organic decomposition in swamps and from some human activities. Oil and gas

exploration and production activities contribute about 10% of the methane that is in the

atmosphere.

Nitrous oxide is the only other GHG gas that is routinely produced in oil and gas operations. NOx is

a combustion byproduct produced in small amounts from flaring and fuel fired compressors,

turbines, and engines. However, it is relatively small compared to CO2. CFCs are chlorinated

fluorocarbons released from fire fighting and refrigeration equipment.

An enhanced greenhouse effect can effect changes in global temperatures, rain fall rates, and sea

levels. Changes in climate may have the following impacts:

Health impacts More rain may create a wetter climate that results in more mosquitoes andmore cases of malaria.

Vegetation and species impacts Nigeria could develop a drier climate which could convert theNiger River Delta to a vast grassland or even a forest over a century or so. Animal species that

inhabit grasslands could move into the area. Valuable fish species could be lost if spawning and

nursery grounds are lost in the Niger Delta. Local crops could be impacted or even fail due to

changes in temperature and rainfall.

Coastal impacts Rising sea levels from melting ice caps could flood large areas of the coastmaking these inhabitable and changing the marine and terrestrial habitats along the shore.

In summary, air emissions from oil and gas operations not only represent a loss of potentiallyvaluable product, but they can also have environmental and health impacts.

Produced Water

For as long as oil is produced, water must be produced along with it. The associated water that

comes with produced crude is referred to as produced water.

Oil and gas reservoirs may contain significant quantities of water, which is separated from the well

stream fluids following extraction volumes tend to increase with reservoir life

The separated produced water is typically discharged overboard following treatment or it is re-

injected into the reservoir. Re-injection may reduce environmental impact (depending on where

the water is re-injected.

Since oil production is a daily event, discharged of produced water into natural water bodies must

also be a daily occurrence thus making produced water the main source of oily water.

Regulatory Standards for discharge

In a bid to eliminate the negative impact produced water poses to the marine/aquatic ecosystem,

DPR requires that produced water must be treated before disposal


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The DPR standards

In the past

Oil in water< 10ppm for inland disposal Oil in water< 0ppm for offshore disposal

Current

Oil in water- zero discharge inland Oil in water- 10ppm to zero

Potential Effects of Produced water

The effects from produced water are usually localized ( within 200m of discharge ) but can include:

- Bioaccumulation and tainting of fish due to BTEX and PAH compounds - Persistence and accumulation in sediments and seabed communities

Treatment Techniques

The techniques employed in the treatment of produced water before discharge overboard includes

but not limited to

Gravity separation Gas separation Gas flotation Hydocyclones Advanced treatment technologies

Environmental Impacts of Produced Water

The oil and gas industry not only produces oil and gas, but also significant quantities of water. In

many cases, the amount of water produced can equal or exceed the amount of oil that is produced.

When the water is in contact with oil, chemicals will be transferred from oil into the water. Even if

the solubility is greater in the oil, the chemicals will still partition into the water. For many organicchemicals we can expect that about 1 % of their weight will enter the water.

In addition the mixing of the oil and water causes minute droplets of oil to be suspended in the

water. Other chemicals in the water include salts and metals. The dissolved and dispersed oil and

chemicals can have an impact on the receiving water and habitats in contact with the water. This

includes people who live and work nearby and who may use the water. To prevent and reduce

impacts from produced water, it is critical to have an understanding of the chemicals in the water

and how they can have impacts.

Produced water presents a biological risk. In order for biological risk to be a factor we have to have

a chemical of concern present at a concentration that will cause an impact and we also needexposure, that is, a way that the chemical will reach either aquatic or human life. Chemicals of

concern include those that occur naturally in oil such as BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene,

xylene), PAHs (polyaromatic hydrocarbons such as naphthalene) and H2S (hydrogen sulfide).

Treatment chemicals are also potentially toxic. When mixed in the water, people can be exposed

to these chemicals through eating contaminated fish, by drinking or cooking with contaminated

water and by bathing or swimming in contaminated water.


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Even though a chemical of concern may be present in water, its toxicity will depend on its

concentration, or dose. Generally, the higher the dose, the more toxic the chemical will be.

Produced water toxicity is important because it is usually the largest production waste stream and

the quantity tends to increase with time as a field matures. Hence the dose may also increase as

the field matures.

The chemical composition of the produced water will vary by field and it will contain various

amounts of chemicals that are potentially toxic.In Nigeria, produced water typically contains 75 to

100 ppm O&G and


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Ecological impacts from toxicity of produced water can include elimination of a key food source or

death of mangroves and freshwater species due to higher salinities. Fish tainting can occur when

fish can take up chemicals into their bodies from water, sediment, or food. This causes the fish to

taste oddly when eaten. Many hydrocarbons in produced water can cause tainting.

Although produced water may have very low

concentrations of chemicals when discharged and

dispersed, these chemicals may bioaccumulate within

plants and animals that are exposed to them. The

adjacent figure illustrates bioaccumulation, whereby

small animals and plants take up chemicals by ingesting

contaminated particles or adsorption through physical

contact, and are then eaten by larger animals that

accumulate the chemicals. Bioaccumulation is a

concern that chemicals will accumulate in fish resulting

in exposure to consumers of fish, which might be people, birds and other aquatic life.

Bioaccumulation increases the dose component of biological risk because the amount of the

chemical becomes higher at each food level. A chemical that bioaccumulates reaches higherconcentrations in animal tissues as it moves up the food chain. Good examples are DDT and PCB,

which are highly stable, fat soluble chemicals. Produced water constituents rarely bioaccumulate,

but PAHs, mercury, and biocides containing tin are constituents of concern.

In summary, it is important to remember that produced water can be a major emission from

production that tends to increase as the field grows older. Produced water contains constituents

from oil and production treatment chemicals that can have environmental and health impacts, and

impacts on mangroves and fish have been noted for some production fields due to the discharge of

produced water. Whether or not produced water will have an impact depends on the type and

amount of constituents in the produced water, the amount of water discharged, and how well it isdispersed in the receiving water body.

Environmental Impacts of Drilling

In order to understand environmental

impacts, we must understand the

drilling process. The adjacent diagram

illustrates the drilling process and the

generation of the main waste stream

from drilling, the drill cuttings. The drill

string, which connects to the drill bit, isin the riser. Drilling muds or fluids are

pumped down through the riser to

improve drilling lubrication, maintain

pressure on the well to prevent

blowouts and to return drill cuttings

back to the rig.

On the offshore rig, the drilling mud is separated from the drill cuttings and the drill cuttings are

then discharged overboard or taken onshore for disposal. For onshore drilling operations, if water

Understanding the Drilling Process

Riser used for later sections ofhole drilled to return drillingmud and cuttings to rig

Drill string is inside riser

Drill cuttings must be disposedof after they are separated fromdrilling fluid

Cuttingsdischarge

Riser

BlowoutPreventer


20/48

based drilling muds were used, muds are often disposed in a landfill. If oil based muds are used,

cuttings are either landfilled, landfarmed or, more recently, are being injected back into a

subsurface formation. If land filled, cuttings may also go through a thermal desorption unit to

remove oil prior to final disposal.

While regulations often drive the decisions on

environmental technologies to be employed

for drilling wastes, the potential

environmental impacts must also be

considered. The adjacent figure illustrates the

fate of drill cuttings in the ocean environment.

Perhaps the most important point is that

environmental impacts from drill cuttings

generally occur in only a small area around the

well head. This is where a small pile of drill

cuttings will occur, particularly in shallow

waters.

Drill cuttings disperse as they descend through the water column. Once reaching the sea floor, they

biodegrade, disperse due to seafloor currents and mix with clean sediment by means of

bioturbation, the movement of sediment by sediment-dwelling animals. The ester based drilling

fluid used offshore in Nigeria is the most biodegradable and least toxic non-water based drilling

fluid on the market. These features ensure environmental impacts will be minimal and short in

duration.

Benthos refers to living grasses and organisms on the floor of the water body, whether it be canal,

near-shore or offshore. The presence of flora or grasses in this area creates a habitat and breeding

ground for small organisms up to larger fish. Not only are they a vital part of aquatic ecosystem,they also act to stabilize the seabed floor and prevent turbidity which can in turn affect aquatic life,

such as clogging of fish gills or covering of benthos communities.

Drilling rig movements and operations can affect these seabed communities. First, rig movement

can clear flora, however in most instances this is reversible and it will re-grow and marine life will

re-establish. Then, discharge of cuttings leads to a build up of piles around the rig and smothering

of the sea grasses and marine life. It depends on the distribution and toxicity of the cuttings

whether the marine life will reestablish.

The adjacent figure of a bulls-eye

diagram further illustrates the potentialimpacts of drill cuttings containing non-

water based drilling fluids on the sea floor.

However, note that beyond 200m of the

discharge there is little or no

environmental effects are observed. TPH is

total petroleum hydrocarbon. It is a means

of analyzing for non-aqueous drilling fluids.

Sediment toxicity is evaluated by exposing

5

Spotty Benthic ImpactsLittle or No ToxicityLow TPH3 Mo.-2 Yr RecoveryNo Benthic Impacts

No ToxicitySpotty TPH

Benthic ImpactsSediment ToxicityHigh TPH6 Mo.-3 Yr Recovery

2,000 500 200 50 50 200 500 2,000 Meters

Environmental Impact of Drill Cuttings

w/ Non-Water Based Fluids


21/48

sediment dwelling organisms to sea floor sediments. The number of organisms that die during the

test indicates the level of toxicity, in that higher toxicity results in more dead organisms. Benthic

impacts are evaluated by measuring the number and diversity of benthic (seafloor) organisms on

the seafloor. Reduced populations of organisms indicate significant ecological impact.

While drill cuttings can cause significant impacts under some conditions, using drilling fluids with

low toxicity and high biodegradability and applying state of the art treatment technologies to the

drilling wastes can certainly reduce environmental impacts.

Drilling in onshore and coastal areas presents different problems than offshore and requires

considerations for minimizing footprint and managing wastes. Roadways, canals, pits, and disposal

areas can increase the area directly affected by the drilling operation and leave a lasting impact.

Chemicals, materials, and wastes need to be carefully transported to and from the site to avoid

contamination of offsite areas. On site, these need to be securely stored and safely handled.

Waste disposal needs to be carefully managed to prevent environmental impacts.

In addition, there will be local requirements and regulations regarding the environmental aspects

of drilling that must be met. In Nigeria for example, drill cuttings are not allowed to be dischargedto swamps and the near shore environment. This means that drill cuttings must either be re-

injected into the subsurface or treated and disposed onshore. Discharge is allowed in areas greater

than 3 km offshore. In these offshore areas, water based drilling fluids and synthetic ester-based

drilling fluids are allowed, and drill cuttings discharged containing ester based fluids must contain

no more than 5% drilling fluid.

While drilling performance traditionally focuses on improving drilling efficiency and reducing

drilling time, the environmental impacts of drilling must also be considered. The environmental

goal should be that once drilling is complete, what is left is smallest environmental footprint

possible and little or no environmental impact.

Oil Spill

An oil spill is simply the loss of oil from its primarycontainment and the subsequent polluting of the

environment by the escaped oil. The primary containment for oil includes pipelines, flowlines,

tanks and separators while the secondary containment include saverpits and bundwall.

Contaminated environment

The release of oil from its containment leads to environmental pollution. The contaminated

environmental media include air, surface water, groundwater and land. The contaminated

resources as a result of the spill will include soil, inland water, farmlands, swamps, mangroves,fishing grounds, tourist sites, archeological sites and the open seas.

REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS

The release of oil into the environment is regulated by governmental agencies. These governmental

agencies include the Directorate of Petroleum Resources (DPR) and the FME.

The regulatory requirements by the agencies include the followings:

1. Prevention of oil spill through pipeline corrosion prevention and intelligent pigging.2. Development and documentation of an oil spill response plan and procedures.


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3. Statutory reporting of oil spill to the DPR and the Federal Ministry of Environmentwithin 48 hours of incidents.

4. Activation of oil spill response planning through trainings and drills.5. Stockpiling of a minimum quantity of oil spill response equipment and materials.6. Restoration of polluted sites, clean-up and remediation.

The Tiered Spill Response and the National Oil Spill Response Plan

The oil industry in Nigeria has developed an industry wide oil spill response plan depending on thesize of the spill and the proximity (location).

Tier 1: Referred to as a minor spill, this is a spill that is less than 100bbls and occurring within

the operators premises. The operator using in-house spill responders and resources

contains this spill

Tier 2: Referred to as a medium spill, this is a spill that is greater than 100bbls but less than

500bbls and occurring within the operators premises but flowing beyond the operators

field. This spill is contained by using industry-wide spill response initiative. The other

operators pool resources, human and material to contain the spill.

Tier 3: This is a major spill with the releases of more than 1,000bbls of oil into the environment.

The spill response requires the activation of the National Oil Spill Contingency Plan. The

operator alerts the relevant regulatory agency and the National Commander of the

NOSDRA invite international companies like Oil Spill Responders Limited UK who

mobilizes for response immediately.

SOURCES AND CAUSES OF OIL SPILL

Sources of Oil Spill

There are several sources of oil spill pollution. Oil can be spilled during exploration and production

activities. The sources of oil spill are namely:

Equipment failure Pipeline rupture, Damage to hull, Tank failure, Blow out Tanker accident Fire Leakages

Human errors Failure of operators to follow standard operating procedures (SOP) and

violation, Wrong attitude Carelessness Ignorance

Intentional discharges- This is often carried out for the purpose of Pressure relief Safety of equipment Safety of people

Operational upset - Start up and shut down procedures


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Sabotage- This is a deliberate action that is human induced with the intention of Theft of equipment Theft of product Compensation claim

Cost of Oil Spill

The cost of an oil spill can be divided into two main headings: Financial cost to the company and

economic loss to the environment

Financial Cost- Cost of oil lost- Cost of equipment loss or damaged- Cost of oil deferred- Cost of clean-up- Cost of compensation- Legal cost- Medical cost- Cost of remediation and replacement of damaged resources

Economic cost

- Loss of Revenue to Government- Loss of income - fishermen, farmer, tourism- Loss of sensitive biodiversity ecosystem- Loss of life and productivity- Impact on socio-economics- Loss of aesthetic and impact on resource value

FATE AND EFFECT OF OIL SPILL

Key Considerations

The considerations for oil spill are based on the properties of oil as a chemical which includes:a. Toxicityb. Biodegrabilility/Persistencec. Bioaccumulation and tainting

Fate of Oil

The fate of oil in the environment is the pathway of pollution. It is a factor of both pollutants, the

environment and other physical factors such as climate and hydrology. When oil is released into

the environment the following process occur

1. Evaporation of light fractions2. Dissolution3. Dispersion on seas4. Spreading on land5. Emulsification of oil6. Sedimentation7. Absorption and adsorption8. Bio-uptake, biodegradation and bioaccumulation


24/48

Environmental Impact

The environmental impact of oil includes:

1. Introduces toxic substance into soil and water environment

2. Smothering of bird and mammals.

3. Long term effect such as bio-accumulation in the food chain may result

4. Water/Groundwater Contamination.

5. Contaminates the plumage of bird.

Socio-economic Impact

1. Loss of revenue/income for fishermen, tourism worker e.t.c.

2. Loss of value due to poor aesthetic community.

3. Contamination of water bodies renders water non-usable to meet needs.

OIL SPILL PREVENTION

The management of oil spill can be categorized into four main headings:

Elimination of contamination

Use of tight shut off valves Where practical weld rather than use flanges connections

Prevention of contamination

o Install ESDVo Install Leak detection systemo Carry out surveillance exercises

Minimisation of contamination

Use liquid seals Minimise number of pipework connections Contain at source Carry out regular drill and trainings

Minimization of impact

Clean Up spill Provide surrogate materials for affected community

Environmental Impacts of Spills

Oil spills can occur during many industry activities for many reasons, including equipment failure,

human error, emergencies, or sabotage. Action should always be taken to prevent spills and be

prepared to respond to spills if they occur.

Oil spills can have many serious impacts depending on the amount and type of oil spilled and

actions affecting it in the environment. There are many different types of actions that affect oil

spills which can make it more complicated to respond to them and/or act to dilute the oil and help

reduce toxicity within the environment. Some actions that can with oil spills are:

Spreading - gravity driven Advection - movement from wind & currents Evaporation - determined by composition Emulsification droplet phase is water Dispersion - wave and wind energy break into small droplets Dissolution some oil components dissolve in water Biodegradation (long-term) Photo-oxidation


25/48

The impacts of oil spills are not just confined to surface waters. They can impact the air through

evaporation and fires, the land by contact and oil-soaked soils, and even groundwater as oil moves

through the soil. This could produce impacts to wildlife and vegetation, even people, far removed

from the spill site. Key considerations for environmental impacts of oil spills include:

Toxicity Determined by characteristics of the material as well as the eventualconcentration and means of exposure in the environment.

Biodegradability/persistence Materials which do not degrade quickly will tend to bepersistent in the environment.

Bioaccumulation - Concentrations of contaminants increase up the food chain, for examplestarting with microorganisms and phytoplankton, and moving up to crabs and fish, then to

humans

Smothering - Smothering of bird and mammals impairs their mobility, is an irritant to theirskin and eyes, and exposes them to a higher toxic dose. Oil coatings on vegetation and the

roots of mangroves will impede the flow of oxygen and water and can lead to death.

Scale of the effect - The volume of the spill is a large determinant of the aerial extent towhich it will spread and significance of the impact.

Duration - Is the spill leaking small amounts over a long period of time, or massive amountin one release?

The toxicity, biodegradability, and persistence are determined by the properties of the oil and the

nature of the environment where it impacts. Some oil properties that determine toxicity or degree

of impact include density, viscosity, interfacial tensions, and the type of components in the oil, such

as BTEX or sulfur. Ambient conditions may also affect the eventual impact of a spill on the

environmental such as proximity to shoreline and sensitive habitats, the prevailing wind and

current conditions, and water and ambient air temperatures.

As example, in March 1989 the tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground on Blight Reef in Prince WilliamSound, Alaska, spilling approximately 11 million gallons of North Slope crude oil. This was a very

cold, frigid environment. The forces of nature (waves, currents that break up the oil, evaporation)

were at work but very slow. The conditions meant that breakdown of the oil by naturally occurring

bacteria was slow. Oil can still be found in areas today and may be impacting the environment.

This adjacent slide illustrates the relative toxicity of

crude by volume compared with the components of

gasoline, BTEX and other components. For example

crude is a million times less toxic than DDT, or a

thousand times less toxic than ammonia or BTEX

(benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene or xylene).

The primary defense any facility has against spills is

the action taken by the operator before a spill occurs.

Spill prevention should be a priority. By making it a

part of the everyday job routine, the behavior becomes integrated in to the job. New facilities

should have equipment tested before being placed into operation and prior to commissioning spill

prevention equipment should be in place and process monitoring and testing implemented. Check

valves, piping and tanks for drips or seeps. Notice whether the rainwater drains on the

Crude Oil

Gasoline/Kerosene

BTEX

Low MW PAHs

Ammonia

NaCl

Copper

mg/Lppm

ug/Lppb

g/LPp

thous


26/48

containment areas are closed, and if necessary, locked. When equipment is taken out of service,

check it for both corrosion (pitting, etc) and for accumulation of corrosion by-products from other

areas. And, finally, make sure that a plan is in place should a spill occur so that response is rapid

and effective.

Tools for Environmental Protection and Impact Mitigation

Oil and gas companies have many sources that provide guidance and information for

environmental protection and mitigation of impacts.

An important tool for assessing and mitigating environmental impacts is the Environmental Impact

Assessment (EIA). The EIA is the key environmental document that the project team will produce

and its submission and approval is usually a regulatory requirement. It is also serves as the baseline

for developing the environmental management plan and frequently contains an evaluation and

assessment of socio-economic issues.

The EIA determines how environmental and socio-economic considerations are managed in capital

projects. The EIA will is more fully discussed in a later section.

Environmental Impact Assessment ProcessAn Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of identifying, predicting, evaluating, and

mitigating the biophysical, social, and other relevant effects of proposed projects and physical

activities prior to major decisions and commitments being made. EIAs should be completed on all

projects and can be conducted on various levels ranging from a desk top study to a detailed field

study. EIAs should be considered a process that begins early in the life of a project and continues

through the life of the project. Its a living document.

The purpose of an EIA is primarily as a planning and management tool that supports strategic

business objectives. Its aim is to identify positive and adverse environmental impacts of the projectand to determine how environmental standards can be met and adverse impacts minimized. The

EIA will help determine what levels of environmental change will be acceptable and will define

what the environmental management objectives will be for the project. Because of this, the EIA is

part of:

Industry Standards of Performance Ethical Obligations Regulatory Requirements

An EIA should be used as a policy and

management tool to mitigate environmental and

other impacts and improve performance. To be

an effective as a planning and management tool,

EIAs are recommended from beginning to end of

a project. Exploration projects often provide the

first opportunity to understand the risks,

liabilities and benefits of a project and to

establish relationships with governments,

communities and other stakeholders.

The EIA also provides the first understanding of5

The EIA Process

Screening

What types of projectsrequire an EIA?

Scoping

What must be considered?

Determining Baseline

Establish current conditions

Assessing

Determine the significance ofany project impacts, includingsocio-economic impacts

Mitigating

Plan for mitigatingunavoidable impacts

Monitoring & managing

Proponent develops plan formonitoring impacts

Reporting

Summarize findings andconclusions

Decision-making

Management and regulatorsevaluate the project

Public involvement

Public stakeholders mayparticipate in the process


27/48

what the decommissioning plan will be and what monitoring and mitigation will be required during

operations. The adjacent figure shows the major steps in the EIA process.

The EIA is a policy and management tool for both planning & decision-making. It assists to identify,

predict & evaluate the foreseeable environmental consequences of proposed development

projects, plans, and policies. It also specifies the necessary environmental protection measures that

include mitigation measures and monitoring programs. The outcome of an EIA study assists

decision makers and the general public in determining whether a project should be implemented

and in what manner.

As previously stated, the EIA is a living

document, a process that grows with the

project. As such, environmental assessments

will be conducted at several stages during the

life of a project, each building upon the

previous, as shown on the adjacent figure.

The EIA can begin as a desktop study, and

then become a full EIA followed by fieldmonitoring for a period of time after the

environmental license is issued for the work

being done. The EIA is used to develop the

environmental management plan.

One of the studies usually required in an EIA is an Oil Spill Trajectory Model to assist with the

planning process to avoid or reduce environmental impacts. By doing an oil spill trajectory model,

the project representative can understand what the probability of impacting the coastline and if it

does what type of environment is likely to be impacted, such as a resort or sensitive environmental

area. This helps in deciding on redundancy systems such as double hull tanks for floating andonshore facilities or other preventative measures that need to be decided early in the project.

Another study usually required is a trajectory model for the dispersion of drill cuttings in the

offshore and coastal environments. This helps determine the impact of the type of drilling fluid

being planned for use and whether there is a sensitive environment in the area that will be

impacted by the cuttings. Another critical consideration is whether there be accumulation of the

cuttings since cuttings mounds can have adverse impacts from physical smothering and from

toxicity of the oil and fluids on the cuttings. In some areas, a project may need to change the type

of drilling fluid planned for use to avoid accumulation or other adverse environmental conditions,

or the project may even be prohibited from discharging any cuttings. In these cases it may be

necessary to bring the cuttings to shore for appropriate treatment and disposal or to re-inject thecuttings offshore.

Another discharge that should be considered by the EIA is produced water. The quantity and

quality of the produced water must be determined and a decision made on the type of treatment

and whether the produced water can be directly discharged or used for a beneficial purpose

onshore. If the desirable quality can not be achieved for discharge or beneficial use, then the

produced water will need to be re-injected into the producing formation or another non-potable

water formation, or handled by some other means to avoid adverse impact.


28/48

The EIA will also evaluate air emissions and air quality issues. For greenhouse gas emissions there

is a growing interest and real possibility of savings from GHG credits or at a minimum reducing the

impact on the environment by understanding the emissions associated with a project and utilizing

energy efficient and low emission emitting equipment such as low NOx burners or highly efficient

flares. As a result of completing a greenhouse emission inventory for a project the decision may be

made to avoid flaring and instead capturing gas to be used elsewhere or sold. In addition, worker

health issues are addressed through modeling by understanding what concentrations of various

pollutants are emitted, where the primary dispersion will occur, and whether it is near a populated

or sensitive area. The information from the assessment will be used to determine equipment

specifications to control NOX, SOX, H2S, and other emissions.

Major projects represent 20-30 year investments that may impact not only the environment but

also the social and economic aspects of the region. Undertaking a development is also a

commitment to evaluate and take into consideration socioeconomic needs of the people and

communities living near project facilities and the potential impacts that may be posed by the

project. To address the socioeconomic aspects of that commitment, the EIA should include a socio

economic baseline setting of any villages and community activities within or near project facilitiesand operations. This study will consider the impacts of the projects on the potentially affected

communities as a whole and:

Describe the initial state of the communities near the proposed support facilities thatmight be affected by the construction or operations of these facilities (data acquired here

can be used in follow-up monitoring studies);

Identify key stakeholders with interest in the projects activities; Identify the presence of indigenous peoples or other groups that might warrant additional

consideration;

Perform an impact assessment and develop recommendations for the project (and the EIA)relating to project development and operations so that the project can minimize oreliminate adverse impacts (and/or enhance benefits on local populations; and

Provide data that will aid in designing public consultation programs.A project with many different phases may have more than one EIA completed prior to each phase,

such as for seismic exploration, exploratory drilling, field development and project

decommissioning activities. Whenever possible each phase should build on previous work.

Whether the project is basic or detailed will depend upon the sensitivity of the area and the

expected significance of project impacts, so the project may start with an initial assessment of

potential environmental issues or identification of environmental liabilities.

Environmental Baseline Studies are completed to help assess the current status of the property anddocument it for future comparisons. This provides the state of the environment before the project

begins. As the project progresses a measurement can be made and compared to the baseline to

determine any impact the operation may be having on the specific environment and how well

these are being mitigated. The same approach is applied for Sea Bed Surveys which are conducted

to understand potential risks and how to mitigate them for sea bed structures such as pipelines and

other. These will identify and categorize the status of marine life on the sea bed to determine

upfront potential impact and how it can be mitigated.


29/48

Environmental Evaluation Studies and Environmental Audits will take place through the life of the

project to monitor the environment and as a check to ensure findings and mitigation measures

from the earlier EIAs. Monitoring is frequently required by regulations, but the EIA will also

determine the appropriate monitoring that must be conducted under the environmental

management plan to assure that environmental controls are working and that no impacts are

occurring. This is important because the environmental licenses are issued based on commitments

made in the EIA to mitigate various impacts.

The EIA Process can run anywhere from 6 months to 2 years for a major project, so a strong

planning process is needed. It requires identifying a contractor, going out to bid, and awarding a

contract. Additional items include understanding the regulations and what is required for the

specific project such as discharge modeling, oil spill response modeling, or other studies that need

to be included in the EIA. There are various approval stages that may include public participation in

the form of a hearing.

In Nigeria, EIAs are regulated by two government bodies, the Federal Ministry of Environment

(FMEnv) and the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR). The DPR requires that a preliminary

assessment of impacts (PAIR) be completed prior to submittal of the actual EIA for projectapproval. This has the benefit of identifying any impacts to the environment that will require

mitigation if not already planned by the project. This is a good planning tool that is done up front

instead of having an EIA submitted later in the project with a major issue showing up that needs to

be addressed. However, the requirements for the two bodies can sometimes be in conflict of each

other so it requires a thorough understanding, planning and working closely with both groups. The

major steps in the process are:

1. Project Proposal/Initiation -This is the first step in the EIA Process. The FMEnv will benotified in writing by the submission of a project proposal and a dully completed EIA

Registration/Notification Form, which is made available upon payment of N10, 000.

2.

Screening - On receipt of the project proposal, the FMEnv will carry out InitialEnvironmental Examination (IEE) and assign the project to Category I, II or III. Criteria for

categorization include magnitude, extent or scope, duration and frequency, risks,

significance, and mitigation measures available for associated/potential environmental

impacts. Various categories require different levels of effort and content in the report.

3. Scoping - On receipt of the screening report from FMEnv, the company/responsible partywill carry out a scoping exercise to ensure that all significant impacts and reasonable

alternatives are addressed in the intended EIA.

4. Draft EIA Report - Project proponent will submit at least 20 copies of a Draft EIA Report toFMEnv for review. Evidence of public participation (proceedings of communication with

adjoining communities and stakeholders) are to be included.

5. Review Process: The Draft EIA Report will be reviewed by FMEnv. The form of review canbe either of the following:

In-house (i.e. FMEnv only) Panel Review (sitting may be public) Public Review, which involves public, displays and reviews of the document for a

period of 21 working days

6. Final EIA Report: A final EIA Report will be submitted to the FMEnv within 6 months ofreceipt of the Technical comments from the review process


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7. Technical Committee/Decision Making and Issuance of EIS: The Technical Committeeconsiders and approves the issuance of an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) if the

comments from the review process are satisfactory and the Final EIA Report submitted

acceptable.

8. Certification: The Minister of Environment will issue a Certificate upon receipt of an EIS.9. Project Implementation: Implementation of the project will commence after Certification,

in accordance within the stipulated mitigation measures and specification presented in the

Final EIA Report.

The specific steps for DPR Process include the following:

1. An operator or licensee initiates the project2. An initial assessment/environmental screening and scoping of significant issues are carried

out by the initiator and the DPR.

3. A preliminary assessment of impacts (PAIR), focused on the selected project option iscarried out.

4. The Department of Petroleum Resources and the project initiator, screen the project forpotential significant and adverse environmental effects. The screening and the decision on

significant impact of the project shall commence and be made within thirty (30) days ofreceipt of project preliminary assessment. If no significant impacts, the project may proceed

with appropriate mitigating measures and monitoring programme. If the PAIR identifies

potentially significant impacts then other requirements are triggered.

Mitigation and Management of Construction Impacts

Experience has shown that it is both easier and cheaper to avoid environmental impacts than to try

to reverse them. Basic prevention and avoidance principles work well for the construction phase of

projects and include:

Upfront planning

Limiting access to undisturbed or highly sensitive areas Minimizing physical and environmental footprint Maintaining natural conditions Managing construction wastes

The first principle, upfront planning, involves incorporating long-term environmental protection,

remediation and restoration plans during the front end load (FEL). This should include a structured

process and cross functional team with appropriate experts in the environmental issues of concern.

In many cases it may be appropriate to include creative solutions such the temporary road through

the jungle made from interlocking mats instead of a permanent asphalt road. All issues should be

screened issues upfront with a plan for resolution.

An inventory of habitat resources and an initial site assessment are likely upfront actions that will

provide a good baseline for project analyses and decisions on operations and mitigation. For this

purpose, remote sensing technologies can be very valuable for providing regional views and can

reveal spatial patterns and relationships not visible otherwise.

The second prevention principle is to limit access to undisturbed areas. Access is required in order

to move either oil exploration or oil and gas production equipment into an undeveloped site, and

to provide operational access. Such access should be located to minimize potential damage to


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sensitive areas, and limited in size to minimize the footprint of the operations. The baseline and

remote sensing results will be valuable in making a determination of where these should be located

to minimize impacts.

In addition, local communities may take advantage of the new access to increase harvests of local

plants and animals. Such issues should be considered prior to access construction. Consider the

network of roads that can fragment a tropical rainforest and canals that can do the same thing in a

wetland environment and discuss. In these cases, there may be secondary impacts that will need to

be taken into consideration.

When possible, it is preferable to use existing roads than to build new ones. If new roads are likely

to contribute to poaching or encroachment, then physical roadblocks or removal of bridges should

be considered if feasible. New tracks may be stopped short of junctions with existing roads in

order to camouflage their presence. In wildlife or forest conservation areas, further support to

staff may be necessary, such as the establishment of new ranger posts on new access points into

conservation areas.

Other types of activities can also open up remote areas. For example, seismic survey lines createaccess routes that may be exploited by others to harvest local forest resources. Access routes

should be as narrow as is practical, and should be disguised after use.

Helicopters can be used to transport equipment, material and people into remote areas and so

avoid the creation of permanent accesses like roads or canals. It also avoids altering existing

watershed drainage patterns when canals are dredged. In some situations, heli-rigs can be

transported by helicopters and assembled on site.

Aerial roadways or roads on piles can also be used in some circumstances to avoid cutting through

vegetation and reduce other impacts. Dredged spoils, placed by the banks of the dredgedchannels, create high solid grounds that are attractive to local settlers and encourage settlements.

These new settlements exert pressures on the local forests resources, and can very quickly degrade

a large area of previously undisturbed forests. Consideration should be given to alternate disposal

of dredge spoils, for example, at a centralized low habitat value or previously degraded land area.

Placing dredge spoils far away from drill sites and facilities also keeps settlements far away, thereby

not exposing them to hazards from the operations.

To prevent potential impacts, new access areas should be considered for removal if they are no

longer needed for oil and gas operations. Encroachment is an insidious process, which will occur

unless actively designed against and controlled. It is also important that the location and

construction of any new roads is integrated with any future development plans.

The third prevention principle is to minimize the footprint. A final site should be selected with

careful consideration of existing and adjacent land use, drainage and subsequent restoration in

mind. Whether a terrestrial, wetland or aquatic site, there may be some flexibility in location

choice to allow the selection of a sensible site that maximizes the ultimate restoration of the site

and minimizes both the final footprint and the ultimate costs. The site should be located to

minimize impact to landscape, conservation areas, important fish and wildlife habitats, human

settlements, cultivated areas and tourist destinations.


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For any site, use only the minimum amount of land necessary. This usually calls for some creativity.

Where feasible, multiple wells drilled from one site by directional drilling can reduce the amount of

land and reduce clearance and dredging or road access. The use of satellite production facilities

such as remot

environmental awareness training for aspect champion (2)

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