Central Annals of Public Health and Research

Cite this article: Arhin E, Zango MS (2016) Impact of Trace Elements in the Natural Environment and Public Health: A Medical Geology Perspective. Ann Public Health Res 3(4): 1051.

*Corresponding authorEmmanuel Arhin, Department of Earth and Environmental Science, University for Development Studies, Faculty of Applied Sciences, P. O. Box 24, Navrongo, Ghana, Tel: 233 24 2280826; Email:

Submitted: 07 July 2016

Accepted: 17 November 2016

Published: 19 November 2016

Copyright© 2016 Arhin al.

OPEN ACCESS

Keywords•Trace elements•Datoko-Shega•Deficiency•Adverse health•Potentially toxic elements

Short Communication

Impact of Trace Elements in the Natural Environment and Public Health: A Medical Geology PerspectiveEmmanuel Arhin* and MS ZangoDepartment of Earth and Environmental Science, University for Development Studies, Ghana

Abstract

The distributions and concentrations of trace elements in the environment exposed to biological materials including humans can affect life depending on the exposure and degree of concentrations. Whilst the essential trace elements impacts on human development the potential toxic elements will have adverse health consequences on humans and in animals. As observed from the study both lives threatening and life supporting trace elements all coexist in the environment. Clinical reviews on trace elements suggest that human bodies require some amounts of them at all times and their deficiencies adversely impact on human health. Mineral supplementation had always been the recommendation for people with deficiency of some trace elements as a prescription drug. In this study X-ray fluorescence analytical technique was used to measure the trace elements in the sediment samples whereas ICP-MS was used for the soil samples. The trace elements in sediments and in soils at the study areas showed Zn, V, Mo, and Ni depletions in both areas. Enrichments of Cu, Se Co and Cr were identified in the natural environments at both areas. The depleted elements are all essential elements which some are useful in the prevention of chronic diseases. Arsenic (As) was observed to be enriched in soils in Bole area and in stream sediments at Datoko-Shega; their involuntary ingestion can cause serious adverse health impact in humans. The study anticipate some of the essential trace element deficiency and the enrichment of some of the potential toxic elements to impact on Public Health and the authors fear for possible human health problem due to the bioavailability and bioaccumulation of the elevated high concentrations of PTE’s and deficiencies of some essential elements in stream sediments and soil samples.

INTRODUCTION Living organisms including man are made up of major,

minor, and trace elements, given by nature and supplied by geology. These elements particularly the trace elements can be essential and harmful depending on exposure and dose and can be influenced by the natural geological and environmental factors in terms of their concentrations and distributions [1]. The pathways, exposures and extent of ingestion can impact on the distribution of health problems in humans and animals [2]. Addressing environmental health issues attributable to impacts of the natural environment on Public Health falls within a multi-disciplinary scientific field where geoscience has the potential to help medical and public health communities all over the world in the pursuit of solutions to a wide range of environmental and naturally induced health issues [3]. The trace elements in the natural environment constitute the source of many diseases

and their concentrations and abundances impact on health in a variety of ways.

The notion here is rock is an aggregate of minerals [2] and as they are exposed to the agents of weathering (i.e. decomposition of solid rock to unconsolidated pieces of rock materials) the contained minerals are released to the natural environment where soils form the final product of the decomposed rocks. The composition of rocks and minerals are then imprinted on the air that we breathe, the water that we drink, and the food that we eat. For many people this transformation of minerals and the trace elements from rocks to the natural environment contain beneficial elements and minerals as it is the primary source of nutrients (such as calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and about a dozen other elements) that are essential for a healthy life. Nonetheless, sometimes the local rocks can contain excess or deficient trace elements than accepted global background values

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of elements that naturally will dissolve under oxidizing/reducing conditions in groundwater. Reports had shown excess and deficient amounts of some elements to cause significant health problems because there is an insufficient amount of an essential element, or an excess of such elements (such as arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead, fluorine, etc.), or gaseous combinations, such as methane gas, an overabundance of dust-sized airborne particles of asbestos, quartz or pyrite, or certain naturally occurring organic compounds. This paper presents human health problems related to excesses and deficiency of trace elements investigated in parts of Ghana to highlight the significance of including earth science particularly medical geology to help Medical and Public Health workers to understand the emerging environmental health diseases.

Location of study area

The study areas falls in the savannah ecological zone in the north where poverty levels are high and healthcare facilities not developed like it pertains in the rainforest areas in the south. The locations are Talensi and Bole Districts (Figure 1). The trace element geochemistry soil surveys were carried out between Tinga and Dokrupe communities in the Bole District and near and around Datoko-Shega areas in the Talensi District.

Trace elements and human health

The administrations of mineral supplements in drugs to patients are indications that lack of or excess amount of some trace elements may have an adverse effect on human health. There have been many advances in understanding the role of trace elements in human health but, notwithstanding this fact, the clinical detection and evaluation of trace element deficiency remains for the most part extremely difficult. Some of the reasons for these clinical difficulties are that the ingested trace elements into the human system maybe too low and will not show in many instances of specific clinical signs and symptoms of a trace

element excesses or deficiencies, particularly in the early phases of the disease before it becomes irreversible or life-threatening if untreated. Some of the trace elements can bio-accumulate and the fact that they are bioavailable and bio-accessible can exceed the threshold that the human body needs. Managing the trace elements of which some are essential and others toxic to humans requires the understanding of the trace elements in the natural environment on the public health. As indicated in the introduction trace elements in the natural environment constitute the source of many diseases and their concentrations and abundances impact on health in a variety of ways. In addressing the public health issues of trace elements this paper classifies the trace elements in soils-the outer most layer of the earth where terrestrial life (or the critical zone) depends and groups the trace elements into Essential trace elements and Potential toxic trace elements. There is a growing list of trace elements that have been shown unequivocally to be of nutritional importance to mammals in trace amounts and others do have adverse consequence either to man or animals. The trace elements that have shown to have role in human nutrition and clearly show signs of diseases with their deficiencies are discussed using results obtained from soils in this study to highlight the importance of trace elements in Public Health. These elements are iron (Fe), iodine (I), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), molybdenum (Mo), chromium (Cr), and, probably, manganese (Mn). Deficiency of any of these trace elements can cause chronic disease. However, in most developing countries and in particular in Ghana we grow what we eat and the interaction between the cultivated food crops and trace element geochemistry in soils will determine the amount of the essential nutritional trace elements our bodies get after eating the food. Again the potential toxic trace elements such as cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), lead (Pb) and aluminium (Al) can be ingested as contaminants in food or in water and depending on the concentrations can harm the population.

The involuntary ingestion of the potentially toxic elements (PTEs) can results in the emerging diseases [1,2] such as cancers, hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. The authors concern is that the concentrations of some of the trace element concentrations may be low and weak in the local food but can bio-accumulate to exceed the threshold because of availability and bio-accessibility and there will not be early clinical detection. For example the effects of mild iron deficiency in children are without any recognizable specific clinical signs and may precede by a long period the development of iron deficiency anaemia. Similarly, diffuse abnormalities in central nervous system development and function in the new born baby can only be traced with great difficulty to mild maternal iodine deficiency. Also mild deficiency of zinc may lead to diffuse adverse effects on the immune system that may be difficult to recognize as a clinical entity because of the low and subtle concentrations of these essential trace elements. However the obvious in the clinical studies is when a neonate is seen with weight loss or perhaps more suitably when infants and children failed to achieve optimal growth potential when other nutritional factors are normally provided then the suspicion of trace element deficiency is assumed. Among the essential trace elements Zn is the most dramatic example that impact on children health and require quick primary healthcare attention though the others need similar attention. For instance, from Health Professional Fact Sheets, a severe zinc deficiency typified by acrodermatitis enteropathica can results Figure 1 Study areas and rainfall patterns.

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in a complete cessation of growth. Reviewed literature showed that subtle zinc deficiency has been associated with dwarfism, delayed sexual maturation and impaired skeletal growth The other trace element deficiencies have associated health issues. Example copper (Cu) deficiency can contributes to failures of premature infants thriving. Similarly chromium supplementation is of benefit in certain malnutrition syndromes in restoring a normal weight gain. Another feature common to some trace element deficiencies is the central nervous system dysfunction. Molybdenum deficiency can result in headache, lethargy, and coma. Other deficiencies of some trace elements cause defects in a number of other organ systems such as the gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, haematological and musculoskeletal systems.

The above reviews on trace elements emphasised on deficiencies of some specific trace elements and their contributing effects on health but there are other trace elements that are ingested as contaminants in food and water that are considered as non-essential trace elements and potentially toxic whose enrichments and bio-accumulations in human systems can cause adverse human health effects. These are cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As) and lead (Pb).The literature of trace elements and public health is voluminous but the authors concern in this paper is there is a relationship between diseases and geologic environment, which the immediate interface is the soils. Incorporating trace element geochemistry study of soils is indeed a significant factor in addressing the numerous public health problems confronting the clinical health sector. This paper assesses the trace elements in soils between Tinga and Bole in north-western Ghana to highlight potential public health problems from deficiency and enrichment of some trace elements in the surface environment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The environmental geochemical investigations conducted

to assess the variability of trace elements in the surficial environment for the identification of possible trace elements impacts on Public Health were carried out by collecting 32 soil samples between Tinga and Bole at western part of Northern Region and 54 stream sediment samples at Datoko in the Upper East Region. The soil and stream sediment samples were collected across areas suspected to be contaminated by artisan mining, cultivated lands for food crops and areas considered uncontaminated by human activities. In collecting soil samples for the trace element geochemical assessments in connection to their possible impact on health, a circular hole of 30-cm nominal diameter dimension was dug up to 20 cm depth. The top 10 cm organic influenced soils were discarded whilst the last 10 cm of the 20 cm planned depth was collected as a sample. A 1000 g of unsorted soil sample was collected from the excavated sample hole with no considerations to the regolith types. The collected field samples were sun-dried for 24 hours in the field. The dried samples were later reduced by sieving to < 2 mm fraction. Information such as the lithic and quartz fragments lithology percentages were measured and described. Other information collected in the field was the general description of the collected sample. Determinations were made to ascertain whether they are clayey, silt or sandy or a combination of any of standard soil types such as silty clay or sandy clay etc.

The sediment samples were collected specifically at 10–20 m off confluences, at bends, behind rock bars and meandering sites of streams. To obtain representative samples, 5–8 scoops of sediment across the stream channels were collected after removing the organic and plant debris forming the top layer. Dead tree twigs and oversize quartz and lithic fragments of about 4 cm were removed from the collected samples.

The <2 mm particle size fractions of the soil samples were prepared further at the laboratory to suit the calibrations of ME-MS 41 analytical technique of ALS geochemical laboratory protocol and in compliance of the authors requisition. The < 2mm sieved samples were vaporized using laser cells. The vaporized samples were introduced to ME-MS 41 instrument manufactured by ALS that uses ICP-MS method for ultra-level trace elements in samples. The introductions of vaporized samples were done through a peristaltic pump, nebulizer, and spray chamber. There is a torch in the ICP-MS instrument that generates plasma that serves as the ion source that converts the atoms to be analysed to individual ions in the samples. The sample ions were then detected after passing over the mass filter wherein the individual sample ions were detected by direct current measurements on the ion collector or the ions generate secondary electrons that are propagated in the multiplier. The concentrations of trace elements in the samples were then measured.

The stream sediment samples were also prepared at Ghana Geological Survey Department for XRF analysis of the major and trace elements. The < 125 µm field sieve samples were milled to powder. 7 g portion of the milled powder was placed into a small plastic beaker. The beaker and its content were weighed using a beam balance. 8 to 10 drops of Moviol 88 solution binding agent was added to the 7 g weighed portion of the powder to bind the mixture (powder and binding agent) together in small lumps. Pressed pellets were formed from the powdered mixture. The pellets were placed in XRF analyser which takes 20 samples at a time and connected to a computer with Spectro X-lab software recorded the major and trace elements in the samples.

RESULTS Tables (1) and (2) show results of the major and trace

elements from stream sediments at Datoko-Shegaand soils sampled between Tinga and Dokrupe. Shown in Table (1) are the crustal averages and sediment/soil guideline values for some PTE by Inter-Departmental Committee for the Redevelopment of Contaminated lands (ICRCL) and United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) plus some published concentrations of elements in stream sediments in a similar environment in West Africa. Element enrichment factors (EFs) were calculated in assessing degree of excesses and deficiencies of some of the trace elements in the samples relative to the crustal concentrations of uncontaminated soils derived from particular rocks. The average upper continental crust concentrations (Bn) of the elements were used as background values, and the enrichment factor (EF) was calculated by dividing the mean element concentrations (Cn) by the average continental crustal values. Indices of geo-accumulations (Igeo) that help in identifying the polluted hotspots relative to unpolluted areas by the trace elements were calculated using [4] method. The explanations to the calculated numbers obtained from Muller’s formula which classify the severity of pollution consist of seven classes and this is in Table (3). The last column of Table (1) labelled Igeo show the index

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of geo-accumulations in stream sediment samples. The geo-accumulation index is calculated as:

Igeo = log2 (Cn = 1.5 Bn)

Where Cn is the concentration of the element measured in a sample and Bn is the average crustal value, while 1.5 is a constant which is introduced to minimise the effect of the variation of background values.

Table (2) shows the trace element concentrations in the 32 soil samples collected. Summary statistics of the individual trace elements and the accepted worldwide averages in soils are included. The table is grouped into the following classes:

1) Essential trace elements

2) Essential elements for the prevention of chronic diseases and

3) Potentially toxic elements (PTEs).

Figures (2-4) were developed from the three classifications to present the behaviour of the trace elements in the studied environments to guide in devising an appropriate Public Health Education on emerging diseases whose identification are difficult by clinical procedures.

DISCUSSION Results of trace elements in sediment and soil samples

depicted coexistence of essential and potentially toxic elements (PTE) in the surface environments. The essential elements V, Cr, and Se had average trace element concentrations to be above the average crustal concentrations, with Ni, Cu, Zn, Mn and Mo also an essential trace element recording mean concentrations lower than the average crustal abundances in the stream sediment samples (Table 1). The potential trace elements such as As, Cr and Cd whose concentrations at a particular levels can pose detrimental effect on human health appeared relatively higher in the analysed samples than the continental averages. The dilemma and the fear that communities in the Talensi District will be confronted with is trace elements deficiencies and excesses related diseases because the population eat what they grow and their source of drinking water are from wells and boreholes will be high. Similar results were obtained for trace elements I soils at the Bole District [5-7].

The As content in Datoko-Shega stream sediments (Table 1) ranges from 0.3 to 39.5 pmand showed an enrichment of approximately an 11-fold increase in concentrations in soils compared to the continental abundance in soils/sediments. About 60% As values in the sediment samples fall above soil world-wide average of 15 ppm. Arsenic as noted by [8] is not a requirement for animals or humans but can find its way into human and animal systems via food and drinking water. Also livestock rearing is a common occupation in the savannah regions of Ghana so in the unlikely event that the animals consumed As contaminated soil will result in accumulation of arsenic in the organs of the animal and this can pose a possible health risk for humans if the organs are consumed [9]. The As concentrations in water and in food might not be very high but will bio-accumulate because of its bioaccessibility. Due to the low concentration levels of As in these media signs and symptoms of As ingestions

and uptake of the related health issues will not be recognizable by the clinical examinations until the As levels reaches chronic levels. Similarly the As in soils at the Bole District averages 73.8 ppm as against the world-wide mean of 15 ppm. This shows approximately 80% increase in soil As content in the area (Figure 4). Long-term exposures to arsenic in drinking water and in food can cause cancer in the skin, lungs, bladder and kidney. It can also cause other skin changes such as thickening and pigmentation. However the likelihood of effects is related to the level of exposure to arsenic and in areas where source of drinking water and food is from As contaminated soils, these effects can be seen in many individuals in the population. The deficiency and enrichment of the trace elements should be traced from the geogenic materials and the establishments of the pollution hotspots of these trace elements can guide the public health and medical doctors to address properly these environmental health issues. The ingestion of large amounts of As can lead to gastrointestinal symptoms such as severe vomiting, disturbances of the blood and its circulation, damage to the nervous system, and eventually death. It is unlikely to know from the current study when ingestion of large amounts will occur in the study area but their bioavailability suggests As-related diseases are imminent in the area. The other trace elements (example Hg, Cd and Pb) that can cause cancers and cardiovascular diseases however recorded mean concentration values lower than the world-wide averages (Table 2 and Figure 4) in soils at the Bole District. However, the same cannot be said of Cr and Cd in sediment samples at Datoko-Shega area. Source of drinking water in most rural communities particularly in the savannah north of Ghana get their water from shallow n deep wells and others drink from running streams where their bed-loads were sampled in this study.

In addition to the potentially harmful elements whose concentrations at certain levels create adverse health issues in humans there are other trace elements that plays healthy roles in human developments. Some of the essential trace elements are Ni, Cu, Zn, Mo, Co, V, Cr and Se. Considering their roles in plants, animals and in human development the expectations were that their concentration levels in surface environments will be greater at all times than the world-wide averages. However, on the contrary not all these essential trace elements were enriched in the two study areas, deficient concentration levels were obtained for so of them. This suggests that mineral supplementation will be necessary to support the healthy growth of plants and human growth in the two areas. Some of these essential elements are useful in preventing some chronic diseases. This is critical in the study areasbecause the population eat what they grow and drink water in the underlying aquifers and soils. Governments in developing countries healthcare budgets can be managed and controlled if the link between public health and geoscience can be developed. As presented in Figs. 2 and 3, Zn, V, Mo and Ni average contents in soils are much lower than the world-wide accepted averages. Deficiency of Zn as shown in Fig. will results in growth and development problems, hair loss, diarrhoea, impotence, eye and skin conditions, weight loss, delayed wound healing, taste changes, and mental slowness and loss of appetite among people whose main food and water are obtained from the community. Similarly vanadium deficiency is rare in humans, however considering its depletion in soils at the study area; the inability to get the right proportion of V may cause elevation of molybdenum,

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calcium and magnesium levels which have health consequences. Molybdenum depletion as presented in Figure (2) and Table (2) is of great concerns to both plant and human health. Its deficiency can result in leaf deformation due to excess NO3 [8] and terminal scorch on leaves as noted by [10]. Mo is also essential in animal nutrition [11] and can result in Cu toxicity due its deficiency [12]. Nickel also plays an important role in plant growth so its deficiency in soils will impact greatly on the vegetation in the area which has savannah climate.

However, notwithstanding the depletion of some of the essential elements in the area, Se, Co and Cu showed mineral enrichment. Seleniumis essential for some plants, but it has not been established as an essential element in general [8]. The enriched Se in the soils can contribute to the reduction of cardiomyopathy and tubular bone changes [8]. Although the Se enrichment in soils in both study areas is good but require careful monitoring as it has some adverse consequence if ruminants consume crops with Se contents greater than 0.1 ppm. The ruminants can develop acute (“blind staggers”) or chronic (alkali disease) selenium toxicosis [8]. Also the toxic levels of Se in humans can lead to malformation in children, miscarriage and dermatitis [13]. The enrichment of Cu as shown in Figure (2) and (3) is an advantage for the communities around the elevated Cu areas because Cu functions in oxidation, photosynthesis, and metabolism and consequently it is essential in plants [8]. Elevated Cu concentration in the environment is good for the livestock farmers as it is necessary in animal nutrition [12].

Therefore trace elements will be taken up by the cultivated plants and when matured will find their way through the food chain to humans and animals. In humans and animals irrespective of the low concentration levels; the trace elements can bio-accumulate because of their bioavailability. The consequence is the recurrence of many diseases that reoccur after treatment. Medical Officers and Public Health workers attempt to address the numerous environmental health issues will be effective if the impacts of the natural environment from trace elements on Public Health is looked at from an interdisciplinary perspective. From this study the essential elements that support life appear to be deficient (Tables 1 & 2), whereas the hazardous trace elements to human and animal life appear to be above the crustal concentrations in soils and sediments where the livelihood of people depend. The presentation in Tables (1) and (2) depicts the essential and toxic elements to show enrichment in samples

ranging from 1 to 14 for these trace elements: Co, V, I, W, Cd, Cr, As, Hg and Se. Among these elements, Cr, As, Se and Hg in stream sediments have greater than fivefold enrichments compared with the crustal averages and those in soils with showing values in excess of their background values are Cd and Pb. The transference of the excess fatal trace elements to fish in the streams and plants from the soils can adversely impact on our health. The natural processes that results in rock weathering to release trace elements into the natural environment is been enhanced due to the changing climate. The dynamism of trace elements mobilisation in the surface environment may also be exacerbated as a result of human activities [7] not limited only to mining and farming. But in the developing countries these two may generally influence the essential and potentially toxic elements distribution and concentration. Therefore to assist the medical scientist and public health workers to overcome the numerous environmentally-related diseases require the development of maps that define environmental risk areas from the context of environmental geochemistry. Just looking at the signs and symptoms to treat a disease or using the epidemiological data to develop disease maps untied to the geographical locations is inadequate to address environmental health issues. The existing models by medical scientists and public health workers should consider involving geoscientists’ especially medical geologists to make relevant the impacts of geological processes on the natural environment and the consequence thereof on Public Health.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONTrace elements play an important role in plant, animal and

human lives. The inability to have certain trace amounts of some Figure 2 Trace elements in soils-up and downs.

Figure 3 Trace elements for the prevention of chronic diseases.

Figure 4 Potential toxic elements in soils.

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Table 1: Trace elements at Datoko-Shega in stream sediment samples.Element Min Max Mean Median Std Cont. Crust ER Igeo

V 17.9 215.5 125.9 105.9 65.6 60 2.10 1.0Cr 104.2 938.7 354.1 213.6 296.6 35 10.12 4.7Co 6.7 53.0 26.7 19.5 17.2 25 1.07 0.5Ni 1.2 41.4 17.4 7.7 17.2 20 0.87 0.4Cu 0.8 38.3 14.7 6.1 15.1 25 0.59 0.3Zn 7.0 110.3 31.6 20.2 32.4 71 0.45 0.2Ga 3.2 12.1 7.2 6.3 3.6 19 0.38 0.2Ge 0.2 1.0 0.5 0.5 0.2 1.5 0.33 0.2As 0.3 39.5 15.8 12.7 13.0 1.5 10.56 4.9Se 0.2 4.7 0.7 0.3 1.4 0.05 14.00 6.5Br 0.4 2.2 0.9 0.7 0.6 2.4 0.39 0.2Rb 4.2 53.8 22.5 19.3 15.7 112 0.20 0.1Sr 22.7 636.9 148.7 82.6 184.2 350 0.42 0.2Y 3.8 19.2 9.0 6.3 5.9 33 0.27 0.1

Zr 9.4 347.1 171.8 161.1 101.4 190 0.90 0.4Nb 1.6 8.3 4.5 3.6 2.5 25 0.18 0.1Mo 0.7 1.2 0.9 0.9 0.1 1.5 0.59 0.3Ag 0.4 0.9 0.6 0.7 0.1 0.075 8.40 3.9Cd 0.5 3.8 0.9 0.6 1.0 0.11 8.09 3.7Sn 0.8 2.9 1.6 1.5 0.8 2.3 0.70 0.3Sb 1.2 3.1 1.8 1.4 0.6 0.2 8.95 4.1Te 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.4 0.1 0.001 1360.00 628.5I 1.3 4.8 1.7 1.4 1.1 0.45 3.80 1.8

Cs 1.1 3.2 1.5 1.4 0.6 3 0.51 0.2Ba 48.8 1029.0 312.3 215.9 294.7 550 0.57 0.3La 1.8 22.9 11.7 12.5 8.2 30 0.39 0.2Ce 2.9 76.2 31.2 22.6 22.1 64 0.49 0.2Ta 3.2 6.7 4.6 4.6 1.5 2 2.32 1.1W 1.8 26.1 4.8 2.3 7.5 1.25 3.87 1.8Hg 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.2 0.067 13.73 6.3Tl 0.4 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.2 2 0.29 0.1Pb 0.4 7.8 4.7 3.8 2.0 14 0.33 0.2Bi 0.4 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.1 0.0085 69.41 32.1Th 1.5 4.5 2.8 1.9 1.4 11 0.25 0.1U 1.7 1.9 1.8 1.9 0.1 2.8 0.66 0.3

of these elements in biological systems using humans as an example results in complex health issues. The coexistence of the essential and potential harmful elements makes trace elements impact on public health a critical area of study paying attention to the geogenic source materials and the anthropogenic processes that influence their concentrations and distributions. Clinical studies have revealed that deficiency of Cr, Co, Cu, Mg, Mn, Mo, Se, V, Zn and Ni have adverse implications on human and animal health.

Trace element deficiencies

This research found Zn, V, Mo and Ni deficiencies in the environment suggesting possible nutritional deficiencies to occur in food produced from the environment. Molybdenum is an essential trace element required for several enzymes including aldehyde oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and sulphite oxidase [14]. Diseases associated with its deficiency include gout with uric acid accumulation, cancer susceptibility as it plays a role in its prevention, and in sulphur metabolism. Although there are no

epidemiological records in the study areas to show these diseases but the emergence of these diseases are eminent and should be of concern to Public Health workers. However the Ni-deficiency is good for the population as its environmental and occupational exposure can result in diseases of the respiratory system, the nasal cavities and sinuses, the immune system, and the skin. Like Ni, vanadium toxicity can interfere with biological functions of amino acids, peptides, nucleotides, and carbohydrates so its deficiency in the study area is good for the area. On the contrary Zn deficiency is a problem that needs serious attention in the study areas because Zn is an essential trace element which influences the activity of over 300 enzymes such as lactate dehydrogenase, alkaline phosphatase, and alcohol dehydrogenase [15]. So Zn deficiencies in the study areas should be an outlook for the Public Health workers as it can result in growth retardation and delayed sexual development in children, and impaired wound healing and T-cell function at all ages.

Trace element enrichments

The two studied areas are enriched both in Cu, Se and either

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Tabl

e 2:

Tra

ce e

lem

ents

in so

ils a

t Bol

e Di

stri

ct.

Sa

mpl

e ID

ON

001

ON

002

ON

003

ON

004

ON

005

ON

006

ON

007

ON

008

ON

009

ON

010

ON

011

ON

012

ON

013

ON

014

ON

015

ON

016

ON

017

ON

018

ON

019

ON

020

ON

021

ON

022

ON

023

ON

024

ON

025

ON

026

ON

027

ON

028

ON

029

Min

M

axM

ean

valu

e (p

pm)

SDAc

epte

din

soils

(p

pm)

Essential trace elements

Mg

1.035

0.06

0.07

0.23

0.30.2

0.15

0.16

0.02

0.04

0.03

0.03

0.23

0.04

0.07

0.06

0.06

0.03

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.06

0.07

0.07

0.25

0.04

0.06

0.08

0.05

0.01.0

0.10.2

Se

0.45

0.25

0.20.3

0.50.2

0.15

0.61.2

0.45

0.50.7

0.80.7

0.70.8

0.30.4

0.70.6

0.50.8

0.70.7

0.70.3

50.2

0.10.2

0.11.2

0.50.3

0.33

Zn65

15.75

2025

.537

2821

4118

3219

3459

.543

34.5

2419

1618

1812

.526

1721

5114

.522

2610

.510

.565

.027

.213

.712

5

V58

.519

2325

28.5

2528

3450

3725

4040

.542

28.5

249.5

122

198

225

109

151

192

124

224

4821

4120

1515

.024

9.577

.474

.210

0

Mn

241

235

407

215

320

259.5

270

316

2221

917

320

251

529

154

441

247

884

443

240

221

641

435

513

0581

716

422

412

925

922

.013

05.0

368.3

255.9

437

Mo

0.21

0.32

0.35

0.30.6

0.30.5

10.4

91

0.98

0.50.7

30.6

71.1

90.4

22.6

31.0

31.8

42.0

50.9

11.4

81.3

41.1

23.1

40.6

40.2

60.6

0.53

0.30.2

3.10.9

0.72

Co

20.9

7.315

.77.7

14.2

8.110

.211

.22.2

10.8

7.217

.843

.216

.524

12.6

12.3

35.4

7.515

.14.6

9.98.7

4531

.26.4

9.79.4

56

2.245

.014

.911

.08

Cu

44.45

11.75

1620

.633

.920

.218

.325

2527

18.7

44.8

50.7

47.6

3341

.823

.727

.629

.519

.314

.146

.718

.331

.836

15.3

3425

.612

.511

.850

.728

.011

.524

Ni

64.45

14.7

20.5

25.3

36.3

22.4

2626

.66.3

37.8

18.9

35.3

56.7

48.8

3613

.313

.810

11.4

15.1

8.224

.412

.715

60.9

12.5

29.2

18.5

10.7

6.364

.525

.216

.040

Fe

4.34

1.37

1.96

2.42

3.19

2.34

2.11

2.45

2.57

2.99

2.53

3.94

4.49

4.54

3.44

10.74

5.33

9.71

8.63

4.85.7

38.1

75.0

28.8

54.4

51.8

53.9

12.3

71.6

21.4

10.7

4.32.6

B 9

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

99

9.09.0

9.00.0

prevention of chronic diseases

Cu

44.45

11.75

1620

.633

.920

.218

.325

2527

18.7

44.8

50.7

47.6

3341

.823

.727

.629

.519

.314

.146

.718

.331

.836

15.3

3425

.612

.511

.850

.728

.011

.524

Zn65

15.75

2025

.537

2821

4118

3219

3459

.543

34.5

2419

1618

1812

.526

1721

5114

.522

2610

.510

.565

.027

.213

.712

5

Cr

127

24.5

3455

7447

5451

5062

.548

5668

7165

119

113

8611

610

711

198

.510

111

512

545

103

3431

.524

.512

7.075

.632

.354

Mn

241

235

407

215

320

259.5

270

316

2221

917

320

251

529

154

441

247

884

443

240

221

641

435

513

0581

716

422

412

925

922

.013

05.0

368.3

255.9

437

Mo

0.21

0.32

0.35

0.30.6

0.30.5

10.4

91

0.98

0.50.7

30.6

71.1

90.4

22.6

31.0

31.8

42.0

50.9

11.4

81.3

41.1

23.1

40.6

40.2

60.6

0.53

0.30.2

3.10.9

0.72

Se

0.45

0.25

0.20.3

0.50.2

0.15

0.61.2

0.45

0.50.7

0.80.7

0.70.8

0.30.4

0.70.6

0.50.8

0.70.7

0.70.3

50.2

0.10.2

0.11.2

0.50.3

0.33

Fe

4.34

1.37

1.96

2.42

3.19

2.34

2.11

2.45

2.57

2.99

2.53

3.94

4.49

4.54

3.44

10.74

5.33

9.71

8.63

4.85.7

38.1

75.0

28.8

54.4

51.8

53.9

12.3

71.6

21.4

10.7

4.32.6

potential toxic elements

Al

2.63

0.66

0.89

1.18

1.41

1.13

0.96

1.10.5

31.0

20.7

40.8

41.6

0.97

0.77

1.75

0.87

1.71.5

80.8

91.7

12.1

41.4

71.5

11.3

30.5

40.7

70.7

80.5

20.5

2.61.2

0.5

As

9.65

11.4

12.55

1980

.513

17.3

64.4

402

96.8

20.8

16.1

28.1

22.2

27.9

16.2

713

.611

6.46.8

12.2

7.217

19.5

13.2

17.6

16.9

10.3

6.440

2.035

.173

.815

Pb

72.6

53.7

4.87.1

4.35.3

6.42.8

5.65.5

4.97.2

4.25.5

12.4

9.115

.414

.17.1

8.612

.38.6

15.7

7.53

64.1

36.2

2.736

.28.2

6.532

Hg

0.009

50.0

10.0

009

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.09

0.02

0.17

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00.2

0.00.0

0.00

5

Cd

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.04

0.01

0.03

0.05

0.04

0.02

0.01

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.02

0.00.1

0.00.0

0.53

Central

Arhin et al. (2016)Email:

Ann Public Health Res 3(4): 1051 (2016) 8/8

enriched in Co or Cr also. Cobalt is an essential element for health in animals in minute amounts as a component of Vitamin B12. Its deficiency though very rare, is potentially lethal and can lead to pernicious anaemia. Their enriched conditions in soils in the study area suggest root systems of plants can take up sufficient amount for their growth whilst the grazing animals and those that eat the enriched Co soils can consume enough for their development. Similarly a deficiency of chromium that can result in an increase in insulin requirement in humans can be compensated for by the enriched Cr that has indirectly been taken up by food crops and absorbed into the drinking water systems. The enriched concentrations of Cu and Se in the study areas will address the impacts of these essential trace elements on Public Health.

CONCLUSIONIn conclusion trace element-related-diseases require more

than drug prescription by medical doctors and public health workers awareness creation of disease outbreak. An atlas of disease map with respect to the geographic location can provide much information on the local trace element distributions and concentrations to help prevent some of the emergent environmental health diseases. The study concludes that humans are what we eat and drink. The sources of what we eat and drink are from the critical zones of the earth. The trace elements reside in the soils of the critical zone; their concentrations and distributions depend on the geogenic and anthropogenic processes. Alleviating the numerous environmental health diseases from trace elements on Public Health fall in the context of a multi-disciplinary scientific research and medical geology [5,6] has the potential of helping medical and public health communities all over the world in the pursuit of solutions to a wide range of environmental and naturally induced health issues.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This short communication is one of the numerous medical

geology researches being carried out by the Ghana Chapter of Medical Geology Association. It is aimed at highlighting the

impacts of the natural environment on Public Health in order to prevent many of the primary health diseases emanating from geological processes. The authors wish to thank the International Medical Geology Association (IMGA) for their moral support. Finally to those whose names are not mentioned but contributed one way or the other we say big thank you.

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Essentials of Medical Geology: impacts of the natural environment on Public Health. Elsevier academic press. 2005; 812.

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5. Selinus O, Finkelman RB, Centeno JA, Eds. Springer. Medical Geology. A Regional Synthesis. Berlin, Germany, 2010.

6. Selinus O, Finkelman RB, Centeno JA. Principles of Medical Geology. In Encyclopaedia of Environmental Health; Nriagu JO, Ed. Elsevier: New York, NY, USA. 2011; 2: 669-676.

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8. Kabata-Pendias A, Pendias H. Trace Elements in Soils and Plants, 2nd ed., Boca Raton, FL; Levis Publ., Inc. 1992; 365.

9. NRCC. Effects of Arsenic in the Canadian Environment. Associate Committee on Scientific Criteria for Environmental Quality, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa. 1978.

10. Gupta UC, Lipsett J. Molybdenum in soils, plants, and animals. Advances in agronomy. 1981; 34: 73-115.

11. McBride MB. Environmental chemistry of soils. Oxford university press; 1994.

12. Kubota J, Alloway WH. Geographic distribution of trace element problems. Pages 525-554 in Mortvedt JJ, Giordano PM, Lindsay WL editors. Micronutrients in agriculture. Soil Science Society of America, Madison Wisconsin USA. 1972.

13. Marier JR, Jaworski JF. Interactions of selenium. National Research Council Canada, Associate Committee on Scientific Criteria for Environmental Quality. 1983: 74.

14. Van der Voet GB, de Wolff FA. Human exposure to lithium, thallium, antimony, gold and platinum. Toxicology of metals. Boca Raton: CRC Lewis. 1996; 455-460.

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Table 3: Igeo classification.

lgeo value lgeo class Pollution Intensity

0 0 Unpolluted

0-1 1 Unpolluted to moderately polluted

1-2 2 Moderately polluted

2-3 3 Moderately to strongly polluted

3-4 4 Strongly polluted

4-5 5 Strongly to extremely polluted

5-6 6 Extremely polluted

Arhin E, Zango MS (2016) Impact of Trace Elements in the Natural Environment and Public Health: A Medical Geology Perspective. Ann Public Health Res 3(4): 1051.

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