AD-A 01 642 AMAF INDUSTRIES INC COLUMBIA MD F/6 17/2.1IMPACT OF LOW ALTITUDE COVERAGE REQUIREMENTS ON AIR-GROUND COMM-ETC(U)MAR 81 B MASENHEIM DOT-FA76VAI-830

UNCLASSIFIED FAA-RD-81-9 MLE~nmmmmmmmmmmIEI hE~hhh

I EllmElmllEEmlElEEllllllhlllEEIIIIIIEEEIII

REPORT NO. FAA-RD-81-9

IMPACT OF LOW ALTITUDE COVERAGE REQUIREMENTSON AIR-GROUND COMMUNICATIONS

AMAF Industries, Inc.r,' 103 Sterrett Builingot Columbia, Maryland 21044

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MARCH 31, 1981FINAL REPORT

Document is available to the U.S. public throughthe National Technical Information Service,

Springfield, Virginia 22161.

A

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATIONFEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Systems Research & Development ServiceWashington, D.C. 2059081 7 20 095

NOTICE

This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the Department ofTransportation in the interest of information exchange. The United StatesGovernment assumes no liability for the contents or the use~thereof.

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"v, recul 1:ttptr t )ocurenton ton Poge

1. Rcpo,t No. 2. G ,,, ,- c~,,, I~o. 3 0 .,. ( ,, :

4. Title od Sbtalv .t ,

)Impact of Low Altitude Covera ,u Rquireme-nts on Air- March- 31, 198 ,

Ground Communications a

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B. Magenheim9. Perfwr;ng Orgon;zoion Nome ond Add,e- W.,, U-, tin (I RAI

AMAF Industries, Inc. / , ; 0. . ........ . . . . .P.O. Box 1100 II. C .ct o G 0.,,. No.

103 Sterrett Building l)0T-FA78WAI-830 .

Columbia, Maryland 21044 T31ype o! R : n P,,;od .....12. Sponsoring Agency Nome .nd Add..ss Final Heprt

U.S. Department of Transportation /)Aug. 1980-Mar. 19814%

Federal Aviation AdministrationSystems Research and Development Service -A-.-cy ,.J .

Washington, D.C. 20590 ARD 21215. Supplementory Notes

I16. Aihstroct.

/ A representative area of Appalachia surrounding Charleston, West Virginia

analyzed in terms of existing helicopter traffic patterns and commuLricaLiius

facilities. Traffic patterns were established from telephone interviews with

pilots flying this area regularly. Communications coverage was establishedfrom computer generated coverage contours obtained from the Electromagnetic

Compatability Analysis Center (ECAC) and verified by pilot interviews and one

flight test (as reported by the FAA Technical Center). Techniques for improving

coverage are discussed. These include two new remote communication outlets locatedin the mountains west and south of Beckley, W..'a., a high gain antenna at

Charleston pointed in a southerly direction, the use of mobile radio tele-phone to permit pilots to access nearby telephone facilities when on the 9roundat a remote site, short range less than 150 mles, hf radio, and a discrete

frequency for exclusive use by low-flying aircraft.

FAA activities directed at improving communications to helicopter tiaific

flying to and from offshore oil and gas platforms in the Gulf of Mexic(, is

presented in an Appendix.

17. Key Wo',,d 1.'. Distrbui;o. Stot ....

Appalachia, Helicopters, D)ocument is available to th, 1'.s. ;,lP. ;.

Communications, Traffic through the National Tethnicjl Inter:;i-tion Service, Springfield, Va. 22101

19. '~ai ~~sf o s ,epwt 20. Setw,y Cloc,.~f. 1(al S 0 )N ,

Unclassified / Unclassified

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of ro.~pleted pogr onthorti-I i

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PREFACE

This report discusses the air ground communications problems and possiblesolutions for low flying aircraft and helicopters in Appalachia. Italso documents FAA activities directed at improving communications toheavy helicopter traffic flying to and from offshore oil and gasplatforms in the Gulf of Mexico.

The major effort on this task was concentrated on Appalachia although arelated problem exists in the Gulf of Mexico. The report describes theSouthwest Regional plan for low altitude communications over the Gulfof Mexico as documented in appendix A. Implementation has already begunand if completed as planned will result in vastly improved communicationsto the low flying aircraft in this area.

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1 1 1

TABLE 01" CONTENTS

SECTION 1.0 SUIUl4ARY

1.1 Overview of the Problem and Constraints

1.2 Summary and Conclusions I

SECTION 2.0 TRAFFIC AND COI4MNICATIONS 3

2.1 Traffic and Communications Coverage 3

2.2 Pilot Reported Conmmunications Coverage 3

SECTION 3.0 RADIO COVERAGE-EXISTING

3.1 Radio Coverage for Low Flying Aircraft 7

SECTION 4.0 I14PROVEMENTS - FUTURE 13

4.1 Communications Improvement Recommendations 13

4.2 Improved Radio Coverage 13

4.3 Communications to Aircraft Below 500 Feet AGL 1I

4.4 Additional Remote Communications Outlet I

4.5 Mobile Radio Telephones 4

4.6 HF Communications 8

APPENDICES

A FAA Activities Directed at Improving Cornmunications to A-I

Helicopters in Gulf of Mexico

B Definition of a Standard Aircraft Receiving System B-I

for Use wth ECAC Plots

C Power Deneity Plots for Appalachia C-I

D Antenna Test Data D-I

PAGEt

LIST OF FIGUIRES

Figure

2-1 Typical Helicopter Flight Paths 5Helicopters Based in Representative AreaCharleston, Rainellc, Beckley, Henderson(From Pilot Reports)

3-1 Radio Coverage Contour Produced byOmnidirectional Antennas at Charleston,Rainelle, Beckley and Henderson

(a) 90 dbm/m 2 Contours

(b) 10 ft. AGL

3-2 Radio Coverage Contour Produced by

Omnidirectional Antennas at Charleston,Rainelle, Beckley and Henderson

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contours(b) 500 ft. AGL

3-3 Radio Coverage Contour Produced by 10Omnidirectional Antennas at Charleston,Rainelle, Beckley and Henderson

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contours(b) 1000 ft. AGL

3-4 Radio Coverage Contour Produced by

Omnidirectional Antennas at Charleston,Rainelle, Beckley and Henderson

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contours(b) 1500 ft. AGL

4-I Radio Coverage Contours Produced by High

Gain Antenna at Charleston, W. Va. PointedSouth

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contours(b) 10 ft. AGL(c) Antenna - TACO YIO2B adjacent

to new ASR tower elevation 65 ft.

4-2 Radio Coverage Contours produced by High

Gain Antenna at Charleston, W. Va. PointedSouth

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contours(b) 500 ft. AGL

(c) Antenna - TACO YI02B adjacentto new ASR tower elevation 65 ft.

LIST OF FIGURES (continued)

4-3 Radio Coverage Contours Produced by High 16

Gain Antenna at Charleston, W. Va. Pointed

South

(a) 90 dbm/m 2 Contours(b) 1000 ft. AGL

(c) Antenna - TACO YIO2B adjacent to

new ASR tower elevation 65 ft.

4-4 Radio Coverage Contours Jproduced by High 17

Gain Antenna at Charleston, 1. Va. Pointed

South

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contours(b) 1500 ft. AGL

(c) Antenna - TACO Y102B adjacent

to new ASR tower elevation 65 ft.

4-5 Radio Coverage Contours Produced by Omni- 18

directional Antenna At Bolt Mountain

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contour(b) 10 ft. AGL

4-6 Radio Coverage Contours Produced by Omni- 19

directional Antenna At Bolt Mountain

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contour(b) 500 ft. AGL

4-7 Radio Coverage Contours Produced by Omni- 20directional Antenna At Bolt Mountain

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contour(b) 1000 ft. AGL

4-8 Radio Coverage Contours Produced by Omni- 21

directional Antenna At Bolt Mountain

(a) 90 dbm/m 2 Contour(b) 1500 ft. AGL

4-9 Radio Coverage Contours Produced by Omni- 22

directional Antenna At Flat Mountain

(a) 90 dbm/m2 Contour(b) 10 ft. AGL

i-i

LI ST OF FIGURES (cont inued

Figure Page

4-10 Radio Coverage Cont ,,rs I'rduc,,d by Omni- 23directional Antenna At Fl]at Top M Iuntain

(a) 90 dbm/n: Contour(b) 500 It. AGI,

4-11 Radio Coverage Contours Produced by Omni- 24directional Antenna At Flat Top Mountain

(a) 90 dbm/m: Contour(b) 1000 ft. AGL

4-12 Radio Coverage Contours Produced by Omni- 25directional Antenna At Flat Top Mountain

(a) 90 dbm/m Contour(b) 1500 ft. A(;L

4-13 Vertical Power Density Flight Path 27Profiles Before and After CommunicationsImprovements

4-14 Geometry for Vertical and Nearly Vertical 32Incidence Illustrating Virtual Height -

(Plane Ionosphere, Curvature of EarthNeglected)

4-15 Diurnal Variation of Frequency ot Optimum 35Transmission (FOT)

4-16 Loss Due to Not Operating Exact ly at FOT 38

4-17 Tranline Installed on Tail Bonm of Helicopter 40

LIST OF TABLES

Table

2-I Helicopters Based in the Sample Area 4

4-1 HF Frequency Reliability Ca)mputer Printout 36

4-2 Required Transmitter Power as a Function 3,of Signal to Noise Ratio Atmospheric Noiseand Antenna Gains

4-3 Summary of Measured Tranline Antenna Pattern 41Characteristic

4-4 Some Typical IIF Radio Equipment That Can Be 42Adapted for NVIS Communication (Not Compre-hensive)

11.j

S F TI0: 1.0

i.1 OVERVIEW OF PROBLEM AND CONSTRAINTS

A significant problem confrontin thc riortheastern reg;ion in Appalachi,is providing reliable communicat ions to the rapidly increasin? helic ptc-rtraffic flying to and from sites engaged in coal mininmg operations o. thc

rugged terrain of the western slope of the Appalachian Mountains. Thcarea of concern extends from Charleston, West Virginia to Bristol,

Tennessee. The terrain is characterized bv high steep hills surroundedby deep, narrow valleys into which helicopters must frequently fly. The

helicopter thus is often located in an airspace that is either completely

shielded from all normal ground based FAA communications facilities, orif within range of a ground facility, may find that the facility isoccupied with tratfic I.cnerated by one or more high altitude aircraftwhich have line-of-sight access to many ground facilities. Communiiciti,,-

with air traffic control, flight service stations, VOR/DME, terminal

facilities, and towers is often marginal at best. At many unimprovedsites where helicopters are required to land, the nearest telephone

outlet may be located at a distance of several miles. Large gaps exist

in low altitude communication coverage that could lead to hazardotsflying conditions. Low flying aircraft and helicopters share the same

airspace as low altitude VFR military training flights and they are often.unaware of these flights because of the lack of communications.

While the problem exists throughout Appalachia, this report is restrictedto a representative area surrounding Charleston, West Virginia which

includes Charleston, Beckley, Rainelle, and Henderson. This area is con-sidered typical of all Appalachia. Problems and solutions encounteredtherein should be directly applicable to similar problems encounteredthroughout the area of concern.

1.2 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A representative area of Appalachia surrounding Charlston, West Vireiniawas analyzed in terms of existing helicopter traffic patterns and

communications facilities. Traffic patterns were estaiblishe-d item rt lIinterviews with pilots flying this area regularly. There did not appearto be a highly regulated and consistent set of flight paths due to the

transient nature of the mining operations. Communications coverage was:'etrained from computer generated coverage contours obtained from the

Electromagnetic Compatability Analysis Center (ECAC) through the 1,AU% Spec-trum Management Branch. These data were confirmed by pilot interviews and thereport of a single flight test previously conducted by the FAA Technical

Center. Several possible methods for improving coverage in the area of

study are evaluated. The changes include:

(a) Installation of two additional Remote Communication Outlets(RCO) located in the mountains approximately 10 miles west oIBeckley, West Virginia and another 10 miles to the south at

Flat Top Mountain. This option is considered less cost clitct ivt

then option (b) following.

(b) Installation of a high iain, southward pointing, directionalantenna at Charleston, kWest Virginia. This option isconsidered more cost eflectivw th~an option (a).

An alternative to the use of conwvntional vhf radio is to utilize lowpower hf communications. The U.S. Ar:,y has considercd this option foruse with their operational helicopter furCt s which dr-, freqently requiredto operate in difficult terrain. lmplk':1e;itation of hif radio will requirethe assignment of several frequencies in the overcrowded spectrumbetween 2 to 8 MHz. A study should be made to determine the availabilityof frequency assignments in this band before implementation.

Mobile radio telephone equipment should be installed at remote mine andconstruction sites to assist pilots in reaching nearby telephone facilities.This would allow filing of flight plans and checking on weather and over-head air traffic conditions. A discrete frequency should be assignedfor exclusive use by low-flying aircraft arid helicopters.

The agreement among the theoretical covcrage contours, the Limitedflight test data, and results of pilot interviews lends confidence touse of computer-generated coverage plots as a useful communicationplanning aid.

2

0A

SECT' ON 2.u

TRAFFIC AND ('OMM4UNICAIIONS

2. I TRAFFIC AND C)! S'Nl <A\IIONS (V."..,.

This subsection provides the results ot a telephone (1u(<Stijunnairedirected to 11 pilots typical (f those flying regularly in thisarea. This number represents roughly on(- third of all helicopterpilots and helicopters based within th u s.,mple area as shown in tablLI, The purpose of the questio:naire ,jas to establish traffic patterns,helicopter concentration and areas of poor communication. The majorconcentration of helicopters is in Charleston (14) and Beckley (6);other helicopters are scattered throuphout the area as shown intable 2-1.

The base locations ot 31 helicopters and tvpicW] flight paths flown bythe eleven sampled pilots ar;. shown in figure 2-1 and the data indicatesthat there are no well defined corridors that pilots consistently fly.Their destination can be anywhere in the area find is primarily tounimproved mine or construction sites as well as major population centers.Flight altitudes range anywhere from 500 to 6000 feet above ground.

In general, there is no formal corporaite flight dispatcher assigned.Flights are made, weather permitting,, at the request of company execu-tives or other supervisory personnel. Each pilot interviewed maintainsa personal log ot all flights made. Just what constitutes a flight is,however, not as well defined as in the case of fixed wing aircraft.Some pilots indicated that they consider one flight to consist of acomplete itinerary of landings provided the engine was not shut downat each en route landing.

Only a minimum number of fli::hts carry car,?o or spare parts. Most ilightsare for the purpose of transportin passengers to remote areas that aremore easily accessed by helicopter than by road.

2.2 PILOT REPORTED COMMUNICATIONS COVERACE

Most pilots interviewed recognize that communication to FA\ facilitiesis poorest at the low altitudes south and southwest of Charleston, nearLogan, and Williamson due to shielding by the terrain. It was verydifficult, if not impossible, to obtain the exact boundaries of poorcommunications from pilot interviews, however, general 1.,cations werereadily available.

Flight test measurements made in the FAA Convair-580 (N-49) confirmedthe reported lack of communications.1 Flight measurements showed thatcommunications became unusable approximately 12 miles south of theCharleston airport at 1000 feet above th( ground. This, however,represented only one point on the overall coverage contour. Theoreticalcomputer-generated plots defining all points on the coverage contour

Coyle, James, ANA-IQOD "Appalachian Re),ion Air/Ground Communications

Investig.;ation" Trip Report, May 1980.

3

HELICOPTERS BASED) IN THE SAI'LE AREA

Hl1icopters

Charleston 14

Beckley 6

Nitro 2

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have been prepared ut il izing the fac i iiti s of the El ectromagnet icCompatability Analysis Center (ECAC), Annapolis, Maryland, and arepresented in figures 2 through 5 of the following section. The ECACdata agrees almost exactly with the single flight test at 000 feetAGL. The agreement between theoretical contours and measurementslends confidence to the theoretical techniques as a powerjul tool illcommunications planning.

0I

SECTJON 3.u

RAI)I) COVE!.. GE - EXISTING

3.1 RADIO COVERAGE F)L LOW-Fo'I N(..A! 'AF

This section provides Lh.V r,,salt:, , i 1 theoretical i westi ,ation intothe radio coverage provided by FAA tacilitis to lov.-ilying aircraftin the representative area. Thei rmdio COVLrA,,e courLtors produced by

omnidirectional antennas locared at Chirrir ston, Be,"klh v, Rainelle, andHenderson for aircraft at -lovitio ns ,l flu, 'wo, !000, and 1500 feetabove ground are shown in figures 3-1 thr,ugh 3--. 1lhe contours shown onthese plots identify the approximat,, limits of radio coverage providedby the indicated FAA facilities to low-flyink< aircraft at elevationincrements from ground level up to 1500 feet.

This sequence of plots identifies specific "hoies" of missing communica-tions coverage to the south and southwest of Charleston and verifies theflight test and pilot reports of poor, low-altitude communicationscapability in this area. Coverage gaps diminish in extent as the aircraftaltitude increases, but they persist in the oxtreme southwest regionaround Logan, Williamson, and neighboring areas of Kentucky and Virginia.This coverage gap is due primarily to relatively higii (to 3500 feet)intervening mountain ridges just west of Beckley in the Kopperston,Bolt area.

A mountain peak near Bolt, West Virginia is located on the coverage

contours, where, on the ground elevation contour, figure 3-1, a smallisolated area, on the northeasterly slope of the mountain is shownilluminated by radiowaves emanating irom Beckley. Even at higher ele-vations, however, coverage does not extend very far beyond this point.

The computerized plots are comprehensive, covering the entire representative

area. They were obtained from the ECAC's terrain database and computer

programs which they have developed. Their program computes the powerdensity in dbm/m2 that would be obtained for aircraft at any point in the

entire airspace above tho representative area. The computer is also pro-grammed to draw the contours of constant power density as has beenillustrated in figures 3-I through 3-4.

The power density contours take into account the terrain between theground transmitter and the aircraft, the elevation above ground levelof the aircraft, frequency, atmospheric and ground constants, but are

independent of aircraft antenna and radio characteristics. Coveragecontours are thus applicable approximately to those aircraft that meetFAA standards.2 Aircraft that exceed standards may experience extended

coverage, while aircraft whose receiving capability has deteriorated below

standards may find their coverage restricted to regions smaller thanthat indicated.

2 U.S. National Aviation Standard for VHF Air-Ground Communications

System - FAA Order 6510.6, 11/11/77

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Computer-generated radio coverage data in significantly more detail areprovided by the power density plots presented in appendix C for thosewho may wish to determine the power density provided at any point in thethree-dimensional space above the sample area from ground up to an ele-vation of 1500 feet AGL. These plots permit determination of powerdensity contours other than the -90 dBm/m" discussed in this report.They may be used to determine the power density profile encountered byaircraft flying any arbitrary flight path including aircraft on theground.

Coverage realized by a particular aircraft will be influenced largelyby the VHF antenna used. In most cases the VHF antenna is mounted infront of the mast on top of the cabin. Other locations include theunderside of the belly or boom. Omnidirectional patterns are desirablebut very difficult to achieve in practice. Antenna patterns will varyfrom helicopter to helicopter. Nulls deeper than 10 db may be experi-enced in the horizontal pattern while 20-db variations are possible inzenith.

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12

F; C I 1 .N 4

r-'A'WOVI.EN iS - IU [U RE

4. I COMMUNICATIONS 1111 ' ROVI4.EN I' 1-FCU[iNL)ATJONS

This section addresses vt iois chant'-s that could be incorporated withinthe area analyzed t, improv the capeil ility to c,,mmunicate with low-

flying helicopters. The suggested changcs are representative of those

which could be evolved from a similar assessment of other areas ofpoor communication coverage in mountainous terrain. The recommendations,except for those related to hf radio installations are based on the

premise that no large changes to the heli copter structure or antennasystem would be acceptable to the many small operators involved.

4.2 I ROVED RADIO COVERAGE

Computer-generated radio coverage plots of the previous section wereused to reliably identify the covera2t provided by existing facilities.

Reliability of the theoretical technique was substantiated by

comparing its predictions with results of a pilot's questionnaire and

comparison with data gathered in an FAA Tecnnical Center flight test.

In this section we use the same techniques to predict the coverage that

can be obtained from planned, hypothetical antenna facilities located

at Charleston, Bolt Mountain, and Flat Top Mountain. Theoretical

coverage contours resuIting from the addition of radio facilities atthese locations are illustrated in figures 4-I through 4-12. Power

density plots for each location are presented in appendix C.

The hypothetical improvement incorporated at Charleston consisted of

installing a high-gain antenna pointin), in a southerly direction. Results

are shown in figures 4-1 through 4-4. The plots predict that, at 500

feet AGL and above, virtually all coverage gaps with the exception of

those in the extreme west and in the area surrounding Williamson are

filled. Additionally, at ground elevations, there are a number of high

terrain areas that will permit direct communications to Charleston.

4.3 COMMUNICATIONS TO AIRCRAFT BELOW 500 FEET AGL

In spite of potential improvements in coverage for aircraft flying at 500feet or above, the problem remains of providing communications to air-craft that are flying below 500 feet or that have landed in a valley. T,; re

aircraft are effectively shielded at vhf frequencies from all communi-cations facilities. Establishing an KCU in each valley is not practical;

however, several viable technical approaches appear to offer a feasiblesolution.

4.4 ADDITIONAL RCO'S

At least two areas have been identified where an additional RCO might

prove of some benefit in improving communications to low-flyin, aircraft.

These are Bolt Mountain about 10 miles west ot Beckley (discussed pre-

viously) and Flat Top mountain, approximately the same distance to the

south of Beckley near the West Virginia turnpike. Computerized radio

coverage plots from omnidirect inal antennas placed at both o these

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locations have been prepared to assist in ina 11,k I Iv s d i s, o c s n: .appear in figures 4-5 throu ',.h 4-12. It .ippi ); ,.i tur s 3-1 h u.3-4 that both tiese miountain ridges tend 1,) liiit LoVe rage bi.voiti the.m)from FAA faci!ities at Beckley, Rairit lIL , aiid Charleston.

C)veragec contours for Flat Top ( igur, s 4-9 throwi:i 4-12) failed to sh.,any si.,rificant improvement in radi,, coveraic., to tht, area .,)utLhWest ofCharleston, whereas, %-i th the exce)t in'o the area surround i TrI

Williamson, and RCO located at Bolt Mountain (fi gores 4-5 thro)u,. 4-8)will provide significantly improved radio coverage to aircraft southwcstof Charleston. These improvements, however, are not signit icantly bf ttcthan those achieved by simply installing a high-gain o tenna atCharleston (figures 4-1 through 4-4). The cost of installing; a ri(<W RC{at Bolt as opposed to merely installing a high-gai) antenna it Chart, st,,:"appears to make this option not cost ,ffective.

4.4.1 A DISCRETE FREQUENCY FOR 10W-FLYING iHELICOPTERS

The difficulty experienced by low-a!.titude aircraft aid ht, licoptt 1in accessing the common receive-only facilities at th, tI ightService Station outlets at Rainelle and Beckley may i ct)i.siderabival l.tviated by the assignment of a discrete low-altitud(, frequt ticyfor their use.

4.4.2 VERTICAL POWER DENSITY FLIGHT PROFILES - CHARLESTON & BOLl

To further assess the radio coverage improvements provided by the hici'-iai:1antenna at Charleston and the installation of a new RCO at Bolt mountain,vertical power density flight profiles of a typical flight betwte-, Charl,,st-'Ard Logaan at en route elevations of 1000 feet AGL and 3000 feet ACIarcpreseitt-d i: figure 4-13 for conditions before improvements and afterimprovements. (Vertical power density profiles are obtained from thepower de:sity plots of appendix C; any arbitrary flight profile may beobtaited in a similar marner).

The shaded areas of figure 4-13 represent flight altitudes at which thesignal at the aircraft is too weak to be usable by a standard radioreceiver meeting FAA standards.

2

The improvement in signal strength provided merely by the installationiof a high-gain antenna at Charleston is apparent by the reduction ofshadow area. For this particular flight, improvements provided by thlieCharlest,,n high-gaii antenna are greater than those provided by an RC()at Bolt Mountain. (Note that the vertical contours of figure 4-13 arefor altitudes above ground level but do not indicate the actual profileof the ground between Charleston and Logan.

4.5 MOBILE RADIO TELEPHONE

wite sites at .'hich helicopters land may extend over a wide, are , son t tnwhen a helic(,pter lands at an unimproved site, it may be at a distance)f several miles trom the location of the mine telephone installation.At minimal expenst to the mine operators, a mobile radiotelephone systemcan ft installed with a base statiori located wher( the telephoo, cableterminatts. This would permit access to the telephone svstrr hv any

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ENROUTEA LIGHT PR OFILE S

0ASCENT OR DESCENT250020001500OA

S 10 GROUND32

LHARLETLANDIN LLoGA.

AFTER BOLT RCO INSTALLEDFLIGHT PROFILE

EN ROUTE

3000' 1000'

FLIGHT PROFILES3000 ASCENT OR DESCENT2500

J 2000' oo ASBDO C 0000

1000~*50 A C CC 0 DO 0D

" 0 GROUNO

i

I 2 3

1 INTERIMEOGIATEf

LCHARLESTON LANDING LOGAN

AFTER CHARLESTON HIGH GAIN ANTENNA INSTALLED

FLIGHT PROF&1EEN ROUTE

3000' 000'

30002500 FLIGHT PROFILES

2 2 500 J j,,80 ASCENT OR DESCENT

41000500 AAAs

10' GROUNO CCCI 2 3

POWE DENITY SCAL LIN ERMDATE-HARLECTON LOGANPOWER DENSITYf SCALE

IN Obm/o"Z NOTE--so.000 : ) -60.000 SHADED AREA REPRESENTS-0.000 ): 3 -?0.000 POWER DENSITIES LOWER-I0.000 ): 0 3 -90.000 THAN-cOb/lI-90.000 : 3 . -100.000

-100.000 I: F 3 -110.000-110.000 3:G 3 -120.000-t0.000 3= N -o110.000-110.000 >= I ) -140.000

F IGURE 4-13. VERTICAL I'OWfER DEISTTY FLIGTHT PATHPROFILES BEFORE AND AFTEIR COfMIUNT'ATI ISI1PROVEMENT S

27

L...

0, :~~ i c I i co r s wi, i 0t1 1! 'oi I(]d and w i t h i

s~'~I~:n1'i *'o ~i'tiL. l0)I' '' S ow-cost mobilk

1iit' L:1 a! p 'U t I L ll, I i 1v in i I t10 . 1 L phone11( S\'SteiT

' on. whe rever tc' wI ap I)t hi' o!n t it :I fit s The heIi copter pilIotcouild t hen reacl1

. , i ppy i, iitt t ' c1' o '''it ro IIIci Ii t y i n order toIC 1 i ghlt p I (;I Ko'C' :1 weiJth I co1dt 0joor, A'o! he I If' ted and I'Vei VO

to(t Ic i ol t Ot' L'ItI 'ilt 01' Lni~i:, ii't Ic t i 1: VtY I wti: hV low-level milI i tarN

t ri inin,, rotites . Sui 1. - 0 " I , ilC ~ I ' -,( , i - i i I ah]1 toddy, of

t he 'i lI'-, It -,o T i~ ':! C '5!, Ill, qI;:-' i -!:,!t, ct SL I' r a t 1 I Si lt / IC',c i V ,

bajSe Sta t in, I!r'AIT io o t n t' Iti poi, SV 5v - ii, j boni $5000. 1 litaipprox L'iat CO co t, I tu ;1, 1ii 1, r'anisiii t /ri'cc . L v, ii t var tos f r o -t

,tloti S 8U0 to S2ii'jo . 1 ;,' "'t :% s i'c,!:l Smal I I t'>.IIt ", t o thIIe."

l' ''n' o- tI Sa !e Iv to i I o t - ,,s':> r s, an1d hel, Ii cpit inlviStmenit

Ailn al ternat ive ri oh t 1,o t c Ic ar 1Iv -mark the it e ephon :')cat ion SO that

it is visible' irom thie air and enslir,' a c tear area a 1iacent to thetelephone facility for hl!icopt eras to ldnd. fn this way, pilotrs canmake an intermediate short flio!ht to th t tclephone prior to leavingthe site.

4 o HI- C0I--fTNCATIONS - NEARLY VERTICAL INCIDENT SKY WAVE (NVIS)

Because of the near line-of-site limitations in th- use of vhf communi-

cations, other users, including, the UT.S. Army, are looking into theuse of the ht band for communications to aircraft on the g-round or

flying below 500 feet AGL.

The Army has investigated the use (Ii short range I using single hopskywave propagation also known as N earl-y Vertical Incident SkywavePropaR'ation (NVIS). It was found that a small segment of frequenciesbeteen' 2 and 10 InHz will support reliable communications, regardlessof the terr;uin or tnme of day.

The study addressed the h~and of frequencies which, 4hen sent in'to the

ionosphere at a nearly vertical angle, will be returned to the earthat a near point not to exceed about 150 miles in distance and with noskip zone characteristics. Because propagation is by skywave mode, thepath loss for all cases is 120 db +10 dB. 'Therefore, neither high-power nor highly efficient airborne hit antennas are required. ln theabsence of high ambient noise from electrical storms or traffic onthe oand, low-efficiency antennas such as 2 to 10 percent and an averageopower of 50 to 100 watts peak 5511 is sufficient when operating over atrequeinev range of 2 to 10 M4z.

Effert ive rad iation for short-range skywave propaoation can be achievedby causing the excitation of the entire airframe. TIailI whip, open andshorted transmission line antennas were evaluated. 'The shorted trans-mission line had superior vain characteristics in an azimuthal orhorieontal aspect. The open transmission line was considered as the

second best choice,. The shorted trarismissioi line had a vain of -18.6 dlidat 2 14z to~ -5.2 dhfd at 8.8 4H7 Ior an averape gain Of -13 dId.

Dietails of t lie hi test s ate doculment t'' in repo(r( F Ci)N-4366.

Compai OwO 1 'V h T11,i it ci onic's (I'lln~idw, "w'' it

iIw tIci .

4.6.1 SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT AI)VANTA;ES OF NVIS

a. Path loss does not increase wit', round range but is essentially

constant at approximately 120 +10 dB.

b. Because propagation is ne;lrly vertical at all times, there is

no terrain shadowing that is characteristic of satellite

systems which require a low angle of incidence depending

upon the position of the satellite in geostationary orbit.

As an example, strong NVIS signals may be received in

narrow valleys where satellite signals would not be

available.

c. The coverage contour is terrain independent and will appear

circular whether over the ocean or in rugged terrain such asWest Virginia.

d. Signal-to-noise computations show that transmitter power

requirements are modest, perhaps 50 to 100 watts.

e. Low-efficiency antennas in which the airframe becomes partof the antenna can be used.

4.6.2 SUM-MARY OF DISADVANTAGES OF NVIS

a. Several frequency assignments in the band from 2 to 10 MHz

must be available.

b. Optimum transmission frequencies must be continuously

predicted or established via test circuits.

c. At present, radio equipment is very expensive -- on.theorder of $30,000 per aircraft.

d. Antenna exciters approximately 10 feet long must be installed

along the side of the aircraft.

4.6.3 THEORY OF NEARLY VERTICAL SKYWAVE PROPAGATION

It has been known since the days of Ma'coni that radio signals in the

2 to 10 MHz band, when launched vertically, are returned to earth viareflection from the ionosphere. The big economic payoff in the early

days was long distance communications via ionospheric refraction. The

use of hf radio for short-range communication via nearly vertical skywave

was largely neglected. The physics of skywaves that are vertically

incident on the ionosphere is well understood. The hf propagation theory

presented in the following paragraphs places emphasis on the physics of

short range, nearly vertical incident skywave, as )pposed to traditional

treatment which places the emphasis on extremely long range propagation.

29

I

.L

ITltraviIet lieht and a corpuscalar 'itm ot ionizin, radiation originat in,in the sun ionize the outer port u(,ns o tihe earth's atmosphere. Th isionized region, or ionosphere, consi Sts I ree e Ioct rons , posit iveions, and necat ive ions in a rareI ied ,a.. The ionosphere will bend(refract) radio waves entering,, i t as t h.u ,h t had a tower refractiveindex than air, or a refract i,%r( i:idex bet,,;etL zero) and one.

The amount of bending, experienced by a .'cave incident upon the iono-at a given angle depends upon the ect ivc retract ve index of theionized medium. The refractive index Jepends primarily on the electr

density and frequency of the incident wave.

Ii we assume that there is very I itt le chanc ut c eectron densityin the space of one wavelength, the refractive in, dex may be writtenas:

where:

: retractive index = l'dielectric constant , I

N = electron density in electrons per cubic centimeterf = frequency in klt"

Equation I shows that the refractive index is lower, the higher theelectron density and the lower the frequency.

Accordiny, to Snells law, the angle oi rL.Iraction Is gIven by:

sin 0sin -0 (2)

whe rt :

= angle of incidence of wave entering iono sphereS= angle of retraction

refractive index

4.6.5 VERTICAL INCIDENCE REFRACTION - CRITICAL FREQUENCY

It follows from equation 2 that a wave striking the ionosphere withvertical incidence (Oo = 00) will be returned to earth when the retrac-tive index is reduced to zero because 0 = 900 (the condition for totalreflection). Under this condition, the relation between electrondensity N and frequency f corresponding to i= 0 is from equation I

-v = V8 1N (3)

'Rd i o -g i ,,J cri.n - (1r ,d ic I ri-mon i' V nan -jI Me Gr aw i I 'ok C, Ip nv , 950

3,

tr~ t ',_ quire - I .i, t .u os ty s

(4)

.\s the requcncy o .i wave re u r::ed by Ihe ionosphc r at VVr t i calincidence is increas( I, thc r t- uru: I (ct ro n density increases asshown by equat ion 4, And th,.u wave p :mt r.:?tt S arther into the ion,-sphere until the maximum elIctron dc.nsilx ( , the layer is reached. Ifthe frequency is increased still furth-r, tie '.,:av passes through thelayer because the electron densi'v is rt sut! iciont to return thewave. The frequency at which the wavw ust barely penetrates th(layer at vertical incidence is calltd the critical frequencyand, in this case, is commonly used as a measure of the maximumelectron density in the laver.

= f -max = ./8IN max = critical ireqn,:ncy (5)c V

Equations I and 2 may be rewritten:

= / 8N sin 0j=-77T -(6)

when there is total reflection I rom the ionosphere at any angle ofincidence 0 = 900 and

81N1 T'- =sin 0e(7)

solving for f

= 8 IN.8 sec 0, (8)

V - sin20o

Equation 8 shows that, at vertical incidence ,4hen 0 = 0 and see 00 = I,the maximum frequency returned to earth is the critical frequencyEc = /-81', but as the angle of incidence deviates slightly from vertical,required by NVIS, 00 begins to increase slightly above zero and sec 0,3increases slightly above unity so that frequencies greater than thecritical frequency will be returned to earth.

4.6.6 VI RTUAL tie 1 .i

One of the most important quantities in skvwave transmission is theeffective or virtual height. Referring to figure 4-14. this is theheight of a hypothetical reflecting surface in free space foiwhich the travel time of the wave is equal to the travel time ofthe wave in the actual ionized medium. In the case of vertical inci-dence transmission, the virtual height is the distance obtained bymultiplying the velocity of light by one-half the time required fora pulse of radio enern'y to travel up to the ionosphere and back.

31

±'I 2T I El TI AL

1F F L F'-,T iN(

AA

B

LOWER EDGE OFIONOSPHERE h=V IRTUAL

HEIGHTN VI PAT H ACTUAL

HEIGHTPATH OFVERTICALINC IDENCE

T R

TR"'NSMI T T ER ~RCIF40 d RANGE

FIGURE 4-14. GEOMETRY FOP VERTICAL AND NEARLY VERTICAL.INCIDE-'NCE ILLUSTRATING VIRTUAL HIEJ IHT(PLANE IONOSPHERE, CURVATURE OF EARTHIN~cEG'LTD)

32

It may be shown, in the case of a planle ionosphere, that the virtualheight as defined above is the same as thu height of the triangleformed by extending the straight line portions of the NVIS wave path.

Referring to figure 4-14, this means ttat the time required for thewave to travel over the actual path IR' is the same as the timerequired for the wav to travl over thn path TAR with the velocityof light. This relationship may be used to calculate the time required

for a wave to travel from the transmitter to receiver.

For short ranges such that the curvature of the earth may be neglected,

the geometry of figure 4-14 shows that

tan 2 0o d/2 2h'

by triginometric identity

sec 00 + tan 20 \/I + d/2 (10)

therefore from equation 8

d / 2 + 2(11)

where

h' is the virtual height

d is the range between receiver and transmitter

f = the frequency

N = electron density

In the case of a plane ionosphere (e.g., range is short enough sothat the earth curvature may be neglected) the distance traveled

by the NVIS as a function of ground range and can be computedfrom figure 4-14 to be

2 h'cos(tan - I d) (12)

where

1) = distance traveled by NVIS

h' = virtual heiRht

d = ground distance between transmitter and receiver

33

Thus tor short ranpes, sav when

0 - d h', h' 300km = 18e, mi

then from equation (12)

(2h') 1) - 1.12 (2h')

Indicating that there is only a 12 p, rcte fl chni'e t isf ancc

traveled by the NVIS wave when the ,round path is irCeased I r,,n

0 to about 186 miles. This corresp,,nds t, approxi-mtt.lv I dh chanL

in path loss. Theretore, tur all p-act ical purp-s( s, the' path I,ss

via NVIS may be conside-,d constant tor short irn ,I! ranges up t-,

about 186 miles.

4.6.7 THE FREQUENCY OF OPTIY ,M TrRNSMI SSION (Flir

As described earlier for vertically incident waves, a -ritical

frequency exists above which all radiat ion pcnet ra ,s thk ionosphereand is lost in space. As the incident ray is lowcr,,. irom vertical,less bending is required to return the wave , earth; thus, frequencieshigher than the critical frequency can be used (dcm-,,n srted byequation 8). For long distance propaatin, a term ca',Ild the MJ'F"

(maximum usable frequency) is used to identity the hiohest trequencythat will be returned to earth at very long ranges, the 1,"II is

generally several times greater than the critical !requencv (0oapproaches 900 and sec 0, gets large in equation 8). In the case )INVIS, however, because propagation is always nearly \,kertical, th,, M"'

approaches the critical lrequency ani is onl slightlV larger tban it.

Loss o t energy t rom the wave as it enite rs the lins phe ce an h(

attributed to two phenomena; absorpt ion, due t 5 in' Ins i: mt ,,:,which is greater at lower frequencies, and l,,ss 111, !,, energy passingthrough the ionosphere as the I requencv increases alad approaches theMUF (a little greater than the critical frequency).

Thus, in vertical skvwave propagation there exists i compromise; thefrequency used for transmission must always be lowr than the MUiF yetnot be so Low as to be absorbed by the ionosphere. rCi req lt'nCv wind Ow :nay'be thought to exist which contains a frequency of maximum reliail&ity.This frequency is called the FOT (Frequencv o! olptimum Transmi.sston).

As described earlier, the electron densit y o thn i,,:isphere is causedby radiation from the sun, and therefore, there will be a diurnal varia-

tion of the FOT. A typical p!ot showing the daily variat ion in the FOTis illustrated in figure 4-15.

Computerized techniques exist for predict in, tI , I .,,d MI!I,. I'rintout s,a sample of which is shown in tah1 c 4-1, wef- 1ta nd by users I romthe Propagation Aency, U.S. Army, Fort Iiuachuca, Arizona. forparticular NVIS propagation paths. Tho propaation window can thusbe predicted ahead as much as 6 months with rasnhI accuracy.

-d

H-5

TABLE 4-1 i lF FRE(UEN CY kELIABILITY COMIPUTER PRINTO.II

U.!.ArmY CCfillUN IC.U A t':S-ELi CT C , - L ."Ll IN:., [STALLA|ION AU.NCI

Ff:'G"UNC f k r-L U .. ILI TY TA2LE

rwoJECT 397 RPA 7EO.3 FCA SSm ii.5 OCTOBER 1976rT HMC:MCUTlI HJ TO LKFi.HUR3T r.J AZTIUIliS MILES KM.4.'-e f - 74.0UW 4('.03N - 74. 3ZU '15.3 g 35.2C 22.9 36.8TYPE CF SERVIUE CW XMSN !4TMUM ANGLE 4 -. LJ CEGREESXMTR 2 - .1 HALF-WAVr "11 9.14\ 'L -. \ "A -C\ OFF AZ # 0tCVR Z - 31 HALF-WAVE "!: 3. 4\ "L -. :il\ "A -C\ OFF AZ g 0rOVER I .ZCCKW 3,HZ IA;;- .AJE ;J.'SE , -14'1,3W REQD.S/N I 3CO8

FRnzurCIcms ri nHZUT 2.0 3.0 4.U 5.a L. G T .2. - - -

L1.02 .9 ' .70 .1G . . . . . . . . REL.

vc C4 .91 .60 .3 . . . . . . . . REL.

OLOG .93 .57 .05 . . . . . . . . REL.

4. 0s .93 .28 - . . . . . . . REL.

4% 10 .92 .3 - - . . . . . REL.

0% 12 .9G .38 .33 .'44 .AG . . . . . . RELo

10 14 .97 .37 .97 .6G .5U .13 . . . . . REL.

Is IS .96 .38 .95 .87 .Z1 ,2C - . . . . RELo

is 18 .27 - .9 .30 TQ. .32 . . . . . REL.

11 ZG .97 o37 .98 .93 .73 .3C .05 . . . . REL.

fe 22 .93 .S5 .94 .81. .43 .GS - . . . REL.

L. 2 .96 .94 064 .3 - - -. . . . . . . REL.

UT 00 42 04 06 08 10 12 16 16 18 20 22NUF 4.3 3.4 3.2 3.1 2.8 2.3 4.9 6.C G3 6.6 6.7 5.9FOT 3.4 2.6 Z.4 26 2oZ U3 6.0 6.3 '1.9 5.1 S. 4.7

DASHES 1, RELIAU'ITY LINES SISNIFY RELIABILITIS OF 00 PERCENT

FROVIOE UPDATE IFORMATION TO THIS AGENCY ATTNO CCC-EED-PED

FOPT 14UACRUCA, ARIZONA 85613AUTOVON 879-6779

36

A practical scheme for determining the best frequency to use for a

particular communication system that has access only to a limited

number of frequencies is to scan all available frequencies periodically

and choose that frequency dis,laying the best signal-to-noise ratio.

This scheme can be implemented practically between two fixed stations

of the system that are less than aboct 150 miles apart.

4.6.8 NVIS PATH LOSS CALCULATIONS

For practical purposes, the NVIS path loss may be thought to !,2 composel!

of three component losses:

Li Ld + Lta + Lf

where

Ld - Spreading loss due to up and down path distance

L = Ionospheric absorbtion loss (turnaround loss)

La Loss incurred by not operating at the FOT(Lf = 0db at the FOT)

4.6.9 SPREADING LOSS AND TURNAROUND LOSS, Ld & Lta

With the assumption of a 300km.-higb ionosphere (e.g., h' = 300 Km),

the spreading loss Ld is calculated o vary between 108.41 db for

a perfectly vertical path (ground ri.nge d - 0) and 109.4 db when

the ground range is 186 miles, a change of only 0.99 db. Results

taken from numerous soundings reported in reference 3 indicate a

total loss including the turnaround loss L ta of

110 db < L < 130 db

indicating a variation in turnaround loss of

I db < L < 21 dbta

4.6.10 NON-OPTIMLUM FREQUENCY LOSS, LF

This loss in indicative of the penalty that must h paid for not havini

an assigned frequency corresponding exactly to the IOT. This penalty

will vary with the time of day and the number of MHz removed from

the FOT as indicated in figure 4-16.

Figure 4-16 indicates the penalty is most severt in rhe early mornin.,

(0600 to 0800) and late afternoon (1600 to 1900) and less severe

at midday (1000 to 1400). When removed approximately +2 MHz from

the FOT, the penalty may be as high as 25 db. Ai +1 M1z removed, the

penalty may only be as high as 10 db in the morninp and afternoon and

less than 4 db at midday. In order to limit Lf to no more than abuut

10 db, a sufficient number of assigned frequencies should be available

to permit operation always w4ithin about +1 MHz of the VOT. If a 25 db

penalty can be tolerated, frequencies available should fall within

+2 MHz of the FOT.

37

EXTRA EXPECTED LOSS WHEN OPERATING AT A F E ENWYCLOSE TO THE BEST CHOICE FREQUENCY T1

STATION TO STATION EXKPERl~a-YlTL DATA DERIJVED

AT FT. MONt'YDUI, N1- h I ARKA (JUNE 1976)

4T

-T I

toI

- -1± -

IfI

4-4, --

too

7- (;T~ I- "I I 4 '' ~Y A

I T-1

4.6.11 TRANSMITTER POWER REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE A GIVEN SI'-'AL TO NOISE

RATIO AT THE RECEIVER

The transmitter power required as a function of receiver signal-to-noise

ratio is given by the following equation

P T L. + S/N + N - G.r - (14)PT = 1 a - v~'

where

PT Transmitter power in db/liv

Li= NVIS loss db

S/N = Signal to noise ration in db

Na = Atmospheric noise db/.v

GT = Gain of Transmitting antenna dbi

GR = Gain of receiving antenna dbi

TABLE 4-2. REQUIRED TRANSMITTER POWER AS A FUNCIJON OF SIGNAL 1'0 NOI%,

RATIO ATMOSPHERIC NOISE AND ANTENNA GAINS

110 db < L. 130 db1

Transmitter Power

1?equired

SIN Na G GR(~ PT PT

db db/pu dbi dbi db/1iu dba,

1 20 -10 0 0 130 +23 201 ruw

2 20 -10 -10 -10 150 +43 2 wats

3 10 +10 -10 -10 1601 +53 200 waitts

The power required to achieve a useful signal-to-noisc ratio Ior tjI,,

cases was computed using equation 14 and is summarizc(l ii; iahle. 4-2.

Table 4-2 illustrates that the transmitter power requirt,munts al,(r,.'st

and not at all analogous to what is required in lon), distance h rah i

39

FIGURE 4-17. TRANLINE INSTALLED ON FT01A (11 l~P i I OlT

40

o o C) -nt Lr '0 -

-4

L4-4 U

E-4

H

C3

.n-4

C-4 0r 1

4-4j

-4 0' .) N e3)

4 -3 o. 4r ' n

00

(iIn

U l r-

4-1- -4

W O NJ If r r 0nc4r In -')"

4 14

4 .6. 12 AIRCRAFT ANTENNAS FoR N%, I S

One o r the primary problems o t vlVid ino'.1 hi C-nnunlCdi ins t o sinai Iaircraft and helicopters is the. lack ol physical space tor convent itmalh17 antennas.* The approach used by flatt \rmYv (rit orencL' 3) to solvethis problem is to make the entiree airi ame the antenna by means of

suitable excitation techniques. I t wos 1 o~nd t hat t he 1best, exc i t at i(mwas produced by antenna concepts based upon the unbalance'd shortedtransmission line principle.

A sketch of a shorted transmission line coupler (cal led a Tranli e)attached to a helicopter tail boom is shown in I it'Uri 4-I7. Tlest results

for this antenna measured at LCOI (ret1renco 3) a-t. surnmiai lzed inTable 4-3. The patterns appear close to onmnidirect lonal except, forthe higher frequencies where the airframe approlches a quarter wave'lengthiand the patterns take on a figure eight shape tvpi~aI of a dipole. The,values of gains presented in table 4-3 she's; that antennas need not hehighly efficient to provide reliable NVIS propagation.

4.6.13 IMPEDANCE OF THE TRANLINE

The impedance of the Tranline at low frequencies is highli :IudctiVc

with a very small value of resistance, anti a suitablo cotipler must h,provided to match it to the transmitter or receiver. it can be

compared to an air-cored coil, and the most efficient method ofobtaining impedance matching is to simply bridge the antenna element

with a variable capacitor as though it were a coil, and then adjustthe shunt capacitance to resonance. This method is suitable up t,, rhc

highest NNVIS frequency.

4.6.14 EQUIPMENT FOR NVIS COlaUNICATION

Several lif aireborne t ransce iv-,rs are available t odav that can be aJd41t et,to NVIS communications. Some of these, are listed in table 4-4.It should be noted that equipment listed in table 4-4 is for malita-Vservice and may perhaps be modified for commercial service, at costs

considerably less than indicated in table 4-4.

TABLE 4-4 . SOME TYPICAL HF RAIIDFO L- I'MjYFN V TiIAI (AN BE AliAI)T'Y

FOR NVI S COMM2UNICATION (NOT CO)MP REJ-1L'N;S VI:)

Approx. 1981"r rice 1r1i t t l i V:i I N

I n tended i 1t e. )owver ..v I,MYType An teiiua Use iIi',. Wal t t-, 10 d b S /_,.

Collins 718V-5 321K A irborne io 100

Racal TRA6900 I CK I~a n pick -Io f)

Hughes XN / 1'RC - 104 -Ma itpac k -I)

4.6. 19 HF SPECTRUM AVAILABILITY FORt NVIS

NVIS will require several trequency assignments in the traditionallyovercrowded 2- t" 8-MHz band. Frequency assignments may not be readilyavailable to implement NVIS unless a sutticiently strong argumentfor its use can be mounted based on low-flying aircraft densities,public service, and interference potential to other services present lyusing hf radio in conventional ways.

Before adopting NVIS for FA use, it is recommended that a study hemade into the hf frequency availability based upon:

1. Low-flying aircraft traffic densities,

2. Interference potential with other services using, hf radio, and

3. Frequency reuse.

The following questions must be answered.

How much do they interfere with normal long-range hi services wheresignals are launched horizontally and receivers are thousands of milesfrom the transmitter?

NVIS launches waves vertically, and the service area is confined towithin about 150 miles of the base station. There is a large skip ,onesurrounding the service area, and signals propagated beyond the skipzone are severely attenuated. Is it possible, therefore, to reuse NVISfrequency assignments in adjacent service areas without seriousinterference between neighboring NVTS systems or remote service areasbeyond the skip zone? Just what are the separation criteria?

43

FAA .ACTIVITIES D2XiECTED AT IMPROVINC COP2"4UNICATICI)NS TO

HELICOPTERS IN THE GULF OF I4EXIC)

1.0 GULF OF MEXICO OFFSHORE OPERATIONS - air/ground couunications

Concentrated planning efforts have been underway in the Southwest Kegion

since early 1979 on expanding helicopter tlR/VFR operations in the Gultof Mexico. Various Washington offices, oil and helicopter industries,

and all organizational levels of the region were involved.

2.0 REQUIREMENTS

a. Today, a large force of helicopters operated by the oil companiesand by transportation service companies provides air transportation for

the more than 2,000 oil and gas platforms located in the Gulf. The

helicopters are used to transport personnel, crew support supplies, well

drilling and service equipment, etc., in support of every facet of oiland gas exploration, development, and production. This presently entailsabout 580,000 aircraft movements and 3,400,000 passengers carried annually.

Nearly all the operations are presently conducted VFR.

b. One of the transportation service companies, Petroleum Helicopters,

Inc. is flying IFR offshore on a very limited basis using VLF Omega fornavigation and company operated communications and weather observation

stations. Fourteen IFR routes have been established in the Gulf predicatedon, but not actually depending on, the radials of VOR's located along the

Gulf shore. These routes are not in the common public use airway system

but are available to all users by application under FAR's.

c. With the increased costs of oil exploration/production, the emphasison increasing domestic oil production brought on by energy shortages, and

advancement in helicopter capability in recent years, there is now a definite

and immediate need for expanding the operation, especially IFR capability.

d. As a result of a November 9, 1978 letter from the Helicopter SafetyAdvisory Committee and coordination at the FAA regional director level,

planning efforts to expand the Gulf helicopter operations, which were started

in 1974 but later dropped, were renewed. A special task force made up ofoil and helicopter, FAA and National Weather Service (NWS) representatives

was established to explore problem areas, exchange ideas and identify needsfor offshore helicopter activity. A series of workine meetings have sincE

been held, and it has been determined that the most critical need for

expanding IFR/VFR operations is direct pilot to FAA facility communications.

3.0 COMMUNICATIONS PLANNING

a. A/G communications are to be provided in the Gulf area from about

180 miles east of New Orleans, Louisiana, west to Galveston, Texas, anj outto about 150 miles offshore.

The primary source of this information was Feder ml Avi'lf i,,n Adimi r t i

FY 1980 Cost Estimates, RIS BU2500-5, Federal Avi ii ion m it r'M,Washington, D.C. 20591, undated internal document.

A- 1

a total ~ 1ts

Eight t- Mesac out .ts :. y, t c bp w,

facilit z(s, . i. % !,,F V

culy I.Uf*~plIa t tmr:

circuits or- a c"

microwav- syst"-:c1

1. AA nsh 0. 1 I tI i(" 1 ! 1,i

r, hI2: pa ib I p.t cm wt r~mA/C' CI f SU1 C t i )l iic t ~il.: 0, U:)

cr"-L:l i ciL ioils Lo' the sur-ict < .

terrni:,,at facility and A \iCC C,~~

O iirr

4tr

: : i

IT 24 0 A 'If

j :-, c I

I~~~ I:tm a ' YS0ct , w1

(. 3 1 t- L,. i i

San iv le s KI S ~ S J( p" r a.' I IV ' III

Cameron He] i p',rt ( 1,1'A( (11,31r 3s 1~n n.

:i L raLcnust aI vd 'il '' i i , i n

C i f it 1 Ip !

Location Cove rage

Houma Airport (New Orleans) DO to 7,000 feet MSL within a 30aautical milt! radius oi the airport

Only VHF communications are required tor ill Of trie above for use with

civil aircraft in the area. There i s :1o r, qu i rement for Uli commun i cat ionsfor use with military aircraft.

b. Engineering studies conducted by Aeronautical Radio, inc., under

contract with the FAA Southwest Region engineers resulted in recornendations

for the following 18 A/G outlets to satisfy the coverage requirements:

Houston ARTCC Terminals ESS's

(I) Sabine Pass (I) Sabine Pass (Beaumont) (I) Morgan City

(2) Intracoastal City (2) Cameron (Lake Charles) (New Oricans)

(3) Venice (3) H:tritcast.1it City (2.a av,. 2) Venice (New(4) High Island 582 (4) Morgan City (New Orleans) Orleans)(5) West Cameron 587 (5) Houma (New Orleans) (3) Vermillion 245.(6) Vermillion 245A I.New Orleans)(7) Eugene Island 330 (4) South Timbalier

(8) South Timbalier 190 (New Arleans)

'5) High lsland 582

,Houston'

c. Plans are to establish conventional facilities onshore in (,xi;tYnV-

leased space on the airports except that nattory standby power is proposed

in lieu of engine generators. The offshore facilities ire to b, located o-

oil company platforms with plants items, including shelter ann art-.n:, support,to be provided by the owner to meet FAA requirements. Primary power wouldbe provided from the platform engine/2enerator sur)pLit d sYstem With FAAbatteries for standby.

The existing RTR facility at Houma Airport is to a)e used and colloca-

tion of outlets is planned at the followinc locatiois to reduce the number o

new sites that will have to be established: Onshore .it Sabine Pass, lntra-

coastal City, Morgan City, and Venice and offshore for High Island 582,

Vermillion 245A, and South Timbalier 190. In addition to these 7 new

collocated sites, 3 others are planned at Cameron onshore and West Cameron

587 and Eugene Island 330 offshore for a total -)f lb new sites, 5 onshor.,and 5 offshore.

d. Remoting of the onshore outlets is plan d via leased cornIc' a

telephone circuits. Remotin2 of the otfshore outlets is planned via leased

circuits on existing oil company microwave systems betwen th,' offshore

platforms and the onshore terminatin': points o1 the microwave syst:ns, aid

then leased commercial telephone circuits between those points and th.

FAA controlling facilities.

A--

e . Cu r n PlAll; av1 L e !1' fn . -1 ;lll !! U HI -it I t r l' 1 Sequipmeflnt ut i I izin~g FAA k Sf2 hiI Okn'Oi nitII Z I,!Iii/ 1

the of f shore f acilI it les w ill prt-sn !J i:ti i in~i i i tercit 1)r 1)bli sreg io nalI co ntcra ct f or Iic eo p i -I r -o Ip(,r! tit i'! ,I p( In SO! 1, I I;

requiredi basis is planned. \l p'PS K MpwceiiIa ne : pt ?

oftf s h orc fic iIi ti ts willI 1' 1, vt lop I . c ,i L!,nu i t t v I v -;ilrltc t '(I I'

spondonc- to the Air-Way vnKC i it ;i 2I'V 12 (Oti t I iL its l 1,WIII

also be Made tl) (X1 PLeiijtte i(L110 nit ~iI I t 1 (1 ) InaL 'cit I ,i ' ti kr Hi otI f.",I 0

sites from the oIngoingi, or c or R CA G

4.0 IMPLEMENTATION

a. The tollowin)g priority ord1r irmplemnt iil I h pl;1;ImIn A/G i't

was developedt jointly lby the FAA and oil /helI icoprtci i Idii ;t r Y ri-pi ;it aiv)at thme October I I, 1979 task forec meit in,,:

I I Initracoastal Cit v - .\k1CC ci Ierniinm iVe rmilFlion 24 SA - V\NT(T iid 1')S

2) Fug Iene Is land 330 - AkliCC

(3) Sabino, Pass - ARTCC amd Te-rmina IWest Cameron 587 -ARTC(;.

(4) High Island 582 -Ak-TUC and FP53

Morganl City - voiii id I S'Came ron - Te rminalI

5) South Timbal ier 190 - AKl(C and l:S.

(6 ) Veniice - Al\TC(I and FSS.

1). finns are t o i :ilp hlc ilt ttb olt l-t s i : t i! d\' ri id I >pc s si if tefr funds and e-qai lpment ar, nTido avai i labO 1

5. S talt Us

Ph a se I, In trac),is ta .i) C itry .in d %'i ri I11 i on 245 C

a . Fwo nt r a coas ta I C ityv o utI t- Is , 12 0 .35 I11-Iz Mv *iVCinud I Itor the ICat dyct to TRACON were( coinmliss iolnd on Amuust I, I 95di . P ,.T

cove rage 0! tbhis f ari I i ty is iood mni ,;iimwJ)A t me* in pr, I ic 1

b. Fol lowing sonic delays inll ill. mIntc nas ilsf 1i1 1, 1 i

245C and microwave links Irom the pLat tor to laavcttH t vo ,ur 1. t, 1i 2

M-Hz for thme Now Orlfa.ns 155 'mid 120.35 !iln jor the CA'I w, r, plit :

oprai jnal test on September 9, 19830 and eoimissmncd o'a St p1 ml,

1980.

A-4

A'PP N) I X 1K

DEFINITION O' A i'ANDAM) A I1JiAV TF I VIV: SYV]l1'FOIR USE Itti f..C(AC P1,l'

The power density :it t!:(: . t i d I li;, . " ll

Pd = 1 joi, { - / d /

where

Pd = Power dLensitv id jhi;/:

W = Power density n wits/:;;

The power delivered bN the an ('nn. L, j natchtd e i t th'. t, :Ii _11

the antenna is

W t C A t, _

Wt = Power d, I ivcr ed L :u11tClC Lbd 1) - t I

1. = Power dens i ty into i nt el i I 1dtt / s"K

Ae = Effective antenna ap( r.aitre, :n"

from Kraus,* page 50, eq. 3-35 for a sh,,rt dipo l

A = .119 N

at 120 MHz 2.5 in

* Ae = .743 m2 at 120 ..Hz

wt = 10- (lo - !) (.743) watts

*Kraus "Antennas", Mc(;raw Hi I I Book Co ., I nc. 1950

IL,- I

i " ,dbm

Pt: IcL U

* - -'3:

1t 10 1', I 4 I,

Pt = Pd + 10 lou, .743

= Pd - 1 .29 16

The power into the rcceiv'r at the ,nd ul d c bL' . 1 I ._' 1t) V,

Pr = Pt Lc = I'd - .29 - Lc tIun

Pr = Power into receiver i:i dbi 1_1 )Pt = Power delivrud Lt) matched cal)le i-n dimIT. = Cble I L' loss

-1.29 = 10 log Ae = I0 ]o4 .119 U I 120 MifAc = Antenna aperture in in-

Definition of Standard Aircraft Receivin, System for cx I I'in: airrra

A standard Receivinc, System has rhe ollowini componiltt s:

(I) Standard Receiver per U.S. Nal ional Avial To:' Standardfor VIF Air to Cround Communications System b510.6Paragraph 3.2.3.1

Available Received Percent Vii1 i:IUm

Carrier Power Pr 1V.odulation (S+N/N)

- 96 to - 70 dbm 30 b dl)- 70 to - 10 dbm 30 25 dh

(2) A cable loss ot no more than 3 db.

(3) An antenna equivalent to a short dipoleEffective aperture A = 0.119 'or <ain over isotropic of 1.76 db with VS', 1ss thani 2. .

The power into the receiver is obtained from th power dlensity, .s i,,1' 1

the ECAC plots, by means oi the iolloincin-' equatioii.

B-2

rPr = Pd - 4.29 db

Pr = Power into thl, receiver in dbinPd = Power density froim FCAC plots in dbni/m4.29 db includes th' cable loss el 3 dh and tht, ivt, i pltl,of a short dipole at 120 MHz.

The operator may determine his coverag, capability by comparing his receivrsystem with the Standard System. If it is better he will experiencegreater coverage, if it is poorer he will experience poorer coverage.

B-3

APPENDIX C

POWER DENSITY PLOTS FOR APPALACHIA

(a) Power density plots, Charleston, Rainelle, Beckley, Henderson,

(b) Power density plots, Charleston, High Gain Antenna Pointed South.

(c) Power density plots, Charleston, Rainelle, Beckley, Henderson, Bolt

(d) Power density plots, Charleston, Rainelle, Beckley, Henderson,

Flat Top

C-

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APPENDIX 1)

ANTENNA TEST DATA

Characteristics of four modern antennas, listed below, arc included , Y

possible facility improvement.

1. Decibel Products Model DB-224 VHF Gain Antenna

2. TACO Model Y-102B-130 VHF Directional Yagi Antenna

3. TACO Model D-2261A-I Omnidirectional VHF Antenna

4. TACO Model D-2276 Omnidirectional VHF Antenna

The characteristics of the high gain antennas, I and 2 above, were reasurndat NAFEC as reported in "Test and Evaluation of Air/Ground CommunicationsAntennas" by James Coyle, June 1978, Report No. FAA-NA-77-39. Appe-ldJ CsG and V of the NAFEC report, which provide the test results, are incluaddherein.

I)- I

i

APPENDIX G

DECIBEL PRODUCTS DB-224 VHF GAIN ANTENNA

The DB-224 antenna shown in figure G-1 is a vertically polarized omnidirectionalor directional gain antenna that was aesigned to operate with a center frequencyof 127 MHz. This antenna was manufactured by Decibel Products, Inc., Dallas,Texas, weighs 35 pounds, is 23 feet 9 inches long, and cost $230.00. Due to itssize, the DB-224 antenna was shipped to NAFEC in two 12-foot sections for easeof handling with each section consisting of two folded dipole elements and acable harness. An omnidirectional radiation pattern is obtained with thisantenna when all four dipole elements are evenly spaced every 90* around themast. When all four dipoles are aligned on one side of the mast this antennahas directional characteristics and is designated as a DB-224E antenna.

t

FIGURE G-I. DB-224 VHF GAIN ANTENNA

.-. 32. :

I W-0 I l.OI

118 127 136FREQUENCY MHz 77-39-G-2

FIGURE G-2. DB-224 GAIN ANTENNA

VSWR measurements for the DB-224 antenna are shown in figure G-2. The numberson the left side of the graph represent VSWR values at the antenna terminaland the numbers on the right side of the graph represent VSWR values with a50 foot length of RG-214 coaxial cable between the antenna and the slotted line.

Figure G-3 is the vertical radiation pattern for the DB-224E antenna at127 MHz. This vertical pattern shows the peak of the main beam to have aalight downward tilt and a 170 beamwidth. Figure G-4 is the horizontalradiation pattern for the DB-224E antenna which shows the offset directionalcharacteristics when the four dipole elements are aligned on one sicie of themast.

The gain of the DB-224E antenna measured 6 dB above the standard galn antenna(+6 dBd or +8 dBi) at 127 MHz on the peak of the main ,vam, as shown by thestandard gain antenna dots on the radiation patterns. In the omnidirectionalconfiguration, the antenna measured 3 dB above the standard gain dipole.

----------

FIGURE G-3. DB-224E VFRTCALf RAiUlflON PAITM

FIGURE G-4. DB-224E HORIZONTAL RADIATI1'DN PATTFRN

ATPEN !i~ V

TACO Y-102B-130 VHF EIRIC? .)NAL YAG.: ANTENNA

The Y-102B-130 antennas shown in fiuie V-L are vertically polarized 10-elementdirectional YAGI antennas that were designed to operate across the VHF A/G com-munication frequency band of 118 to 136 NUiz. These antennas were manufacturedby the Technical Appliance Corporation, Sberburne, New York, and cost $202.00each, weigh 12 pounds each and are 103-iuchas Long and 50 inches high. Theantennas are shown vertically stacked i0 feet apart and connected together witha stacking harness to permit increased gain and skewing measurements.

VI

FIGURE V-l. Y4 02B-130 YAGI ANTENNAS

- -o- - ' - ' - -• I wI

Z __

1.11lie 127 136

FREQUENCY MHz 77-39-V-Z

FIGURE V-2. TACO-Y-.O2ih- 1 3() :,11,y .A. A,(,i N' IEN NA

VSWR measurements for the 411i t:. e - WTI t"fl i ,'t .. ',t numbers onthe left side of the graph ,e ,,.t> "'-l : t.uz :-.rminal and

the numbers at the right g d,: , .i' ' -,r i with 50 toot

of RG-214 coaxial cable betwee' te date'.:lv i.. :o.i.e .,ec "i,

'he single antenna vertical radiai ;: Pxtt.err .j, ,i z, i;. I gure V-3,shows a 50* vertical beamwidth. :'he ingi,, int etia r izonmia raoiationpattern in figure V-4 shows a huriz intal t, - . Figur- - is thehorizontal radiation pattern t lw, .njL, Lia,, r- 1 1. L,1, ked irn skewed 0*

which shows the horizontal beamwidLh wa.s reJducid ru,,i t." to :,-° by verticalstacking. Figure V-6 shows the hor izoritml raci iat ii: paLter r] It , 3b MHz when

the antennas are skewed 900 and 1tgure '. -7 mnows k, i ,mtal rad lit ionpattern when the antennas were skewe,'i i,0' .

The gain of the single iagl mnt n-J uas,., . :,, thte :itamnu.rd gaindipole (+12 dBd or +14 dBi) at I-6) iz d- ,' ';.:' MITQ'laI gaL antennadots on the radiation patterrkn. he ,IntcnP.a g;i ilr, ii, r tmisei 3 dB when stackedand skewed 0* and decreased 3 ,JB when stacked arid -kewed .80'.

2'0V

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QTACO MODELOSNERAL INSTMUMISNIT COSMORATIOV

TACO ST SHERBUAN. NY ' 34W0 PVWC*E 607 5,74-12?'Y1 2 -1

Y10 Bm3p

0

____ 7 TACO ST_

MODEL D-22A U wiICu VHF AN~TENNA

GENERAL DESCRIPTI.OW

The TACO Model 1> C1 i >V~4:xzed

amnidirectional ieji -'c'- ~; :ired inphase1M0- jt i "rg.L~in i l 01 .~.ca .o4 ibiover the DOT/FAA ttequeu-a-.v bar4: C.a '- ~ - ! meats a-reenclosed in a p~. ui~efiberglass radcM&nt, 31-;vyc.,_-:ht_ lowprofile, yet ruqE t. 1 2. 2 4-Isupplied with a ~ -'. -tr i F,!j Yv- - use athis option. to wr-r, - I"-

the mast which allos xiv thfletzansmission line to tr. n~xvv i

THEORY OF OPERATIO14

C The process empluye-1, )wL %4'T2 ' ~~re hepatented .Mudipoitt f~ '~ti;iu

results .in a .i~~~- di--pole cha c t ex:. t, d.ceTe desized "fi-aux. con--~..~

a!tant throughout (-teb. ofextraneous curzrents up,. t,.-e j .- ,~adesirable'Clover Leaf" pattern x_-, '1e' 13y tWll Outer con-

ductors of botlh halve,, *zf 0-af.X ) aX(' W, i 'e San DC croundpotential. A groiA.diY~ , * iA- 0:: each an-tenna for suppieeinr~tac.'ca~q~~

ELECTRICAL CAAT~ rX T~

2. 0 AZIMUTH

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FREQUENCY IN m~si-i RADr.A'PTCN PATTFRN