enlightenment from hadden-sociological theory-the classical tradition

7/28/2019 Enlightenment From Hadden-Sociological Theory-The Classical Tradition

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ITheEnlightenment,

ConservativeReaction,ComteandSpencer

THEENLIGHTENMENT

TeEnlightenment , thecollectivenamefor thethoughtof agroupofradicalthinkers inm id-eight-eenthcenturyFrance,ismostreadily characterizableas"lib-eralindiv idualism ."TheEnlightenmentemphasizedtheindividua l'spossession ofcriticalreason,anditwasopposedtotraditionalauthorityinsocietyandtheprimacyofreli-gioninquestionsofknowledge.Theuseof"enlightenment"asanameforaperspectiveorworld-viewmayappeartoustobeanattemptto prejudiceourattentioninitsfavour.Who,afterall ,wouldprefertobeleftinthedark?Butwrittenwithacapital"e" ,thistermreferstoaspecificmovementofthoughtineighteenthcenturyFrance.Itsparticipantsbattledagainst theprejudice,super-stition ,ignorance,andtyrannytheysawmanifestedintheirworld .

Thesethinkers,most ofwhomarereferredtocollectivelyasthePhilosophes,vehementlyopposedauthorityingovern-mentandreligion,butmost of allinknowledge.Theywerenotthe firstinEuropetoproduce,promote,andrecommendchangesinthesortsofknowledgedeemedvalid.Renaissancehumanism ,the"scientificrevolut ion"of thesix teenthandseventeenthcentur ies,andtheestab lishmentofscienti fic(natural philosophical)societiesinEngland,France,Holland ,andItalyhadalreadysetthestagefortheascendencyof"reason,"thebuzz-wordoftheEnlightenment.FrancisBacon(1561-1626)hadattackedtheolderphilo-sophyofthescholastics(aphilosophyderivedprimarilyfrom

Richard W. Hadden

1997 Sociological

Theory: An

Introduction to

the Classical

Tradition.

Ontario:

Broadview Press.


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16ISociologicalTheoryAristotle[384-22b.c.e.]andamendedbyAquinas[c.1225-74]andothers);Hobbes(1588-1679)haddeclaredthatrea-sonwasfoundinequalmeasureinallmen.Baconfearedacivilwar;iteventuallycameabout (1641-43)inEnglandaf-terhisdeath.Duringthiswar,HobbesfoundsafetyinHol-landandFrance.GiordanoBruno(1548-1600)hadbeenburnedatthestakeforhishereticalviews;Galileo(1564-1642)livedoutthelastyearsofhislifeunderavirtual"housearrest" ;andDescartes(1596-1650),fearingasimilarfate,alsospentagooddealof his lifeinHolland.

Althoughnoonewantedtobe leftin thedark,toremainignorant,whatwasatissuewasprecisely thedefinitionsoflightandofdarkness.What waslight forsome,appearedasdarkness andasdangeroustoothers.Furthermore,whenpeo-plearekilledfortheirbeliefs,fleetheirhomelandsforsafety,orhavetheirideasandwritingsmonitored ,others,wemayassume,feelthreatened.BaconandBrunoarefiguresofthesixteenthcentury;Hobbes,Descartes,andGalileoofthesev-enteenth.ThePhilosophesoftheeighteenthcenturywereabletoflexabitofmuscleinthenameofreason .Reasonwasset in oppositiontotwootherterms:ontheonehandto"authority,"anypersonorbodydeemedtoholdtraditionallylegitimateswayoverthebeliefsandactionsofothers;and,ontheother,to"revelation," thespecific form,accordingtotheChurch ,inwhichknowledgewassaidtobedelivered tohumankind.(God ,accordingtothisview ,issaidtorevealknowledgetohumans throughtheChurch.)ReasonandrevelationhadalreadybeenengagedinbattlebeforetheEnlightenment .Inthecontextof eighteenthcen-turyFrance,however,the battleemergedasamajorpoliticalchallengetoauthority.Inotherwords,tounderm inetheauthorityofChurchandStateovertheeverydaylivesofordinaryfolk,Enlightenmentthinkersproposed ,nottotakeuparm sandstormthecentresofsacredandsecularpower,buttoattackandcriticizeconceptionsofknowledge.Ofutmostimportanceinthispolitical/intellectualprojectwastheconvictionthateveryonecameintotheworldinpossessionof afull-blownfacultyofreason.Ifallowedfull useandexerciseofthis faculty(i.e.ifnotyrannicalforceinterferedwiththeir


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Comte& Spencer117thinkinganddecision-makingprocesses), theycouldsuccess-fullyemploythisreasontodecideadequatelyonallcoursesof actionrequiredfor dailylife:political,social,moral,eco-nom icormaterial.

Thisinsistenceontheabilityofpeopletoactrationally,ofcourse,wasanathematoChurchandState.Aconsensusaboutideas,beliefs,andknowledgeprovidescomfort,inthesenseofareliableview of theworldandofouraction w ith init.Ifvirtuallyeveryone,at leastinagivennationorsociety,weretoviewtheworldandthenatureofeverythinginitinaparticular,coherent fashion(theview ,sayoftheChurch),theneveryonecouldrelyontheexpectationthatothers,too,wouldseethe worldinarecognizableand fam iliarway.Wecouldallgoaboutourbusinessasusual,confident thatthebehaviourof otherswouldprovideuswithfewsurprises.If,however,aparticularworld-vieworsetofideasappears tobeforceduponus,andifthiskindofworldandourpositionandactionwithinitarenottoourlikingbutbeneitthosewhoseideasarebeingforceduponus ,thenconflictaboutideasandconditionsmaywellensue.Whatcam etobeat issueineighteenthcenturyFrance,therefore,wasthequestionofexactlywhoseviewoftheworld,andofactionwithinit ,wastobeaccepted.Ifknowl-edgewereseenasdeliveredbyGodtoofficialsoftheChurchandif thisknowledgereferredtoahierarchyof"esta tes,"eachwithadifferent natureandadifferentsetofcapabilitiesandfaculties,thenwecanbegintoseewhysomeonewhofeltthateveryonepossessedthesamefaculties,andthatmanywereoppressedin thecurrentstateofaffairs,wouldobjecttothenotionofknowledgeasrevelation .According tothereceived view ,thereexistedaGreatChainofBeing(seeLovejoy1960).Everythingintheworldwasarrangedinahierarchyfromhighest(God)tolowest (rocks).Inthemiddleofthishierarchy,societyitselfwasdividedintoestatesfromhighest (nobilityandclergy)tolowest(serfsandpeasants),andeachwasseenasnaturallysuperiororinferiortotheother.

Associetyitselfchangedfrom thisfeudal,medievalcon-dition,andasthenotionoffundamental ,humanequality


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18ISociologicalTheorybecamemorepopular,italsoseemedlessabsurdorbizarretochallengebothearthly authorityandthenotionofknowl-edge(revelation)whichsupportedthisview ofsociety.Fromthefourteenththroughtheseventeenthcenturies,invariouspartsofEurope,feudalism(thearrangementofestatesinthecountryside)fell,citiesgrew ,commercedevelopedrapidly,andnationstatescametosupplant theformerproliferationoflocalprincipalities.AsitbecamemoredifficultfortheChurchtosuggestthatthehierarchicalarrangementofestateswasnatural,sotoodidtemporal,secularauthorityhaveahardertimejustifyingitstraditionalswayoverpeople(divinerightof kings).Withtheactualfallof feudalism,itbecameverydifficulttoarguethatitspreferentialarrangementofclassesorestateswasnatural.

Intheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies,however,itwasstillseenasradicaltoclaimthat thoseatthebottomoftheproverbialladderwereinpossessionofreasoninequalmeasuretothoseat thetop.Knowledge,adequatetothemakingofeverydaydecisionswithregardtobothnatureandsociety,wasseenbythePhilosophestobeobtainablebyall .How tobuildabridge,plantandnurtureacrop,relateproperlytoone'sfellowhumans,orany otherpracticalques-tionwhichm ightarisewasseenbyEnlightenmentthinkersasanswerablebymeansofthefreeemploymentofone'sreason,ratherthanbyrelianceonthewordandpowerofanyestab lishedauthority.Accordingtothisview ,know ledgeisnotdeliveredtopeoplebutobtainedby them.ForMaryWollstonecraft,authorofAVindicationofTheR ightsofWoman(1974)[1797],thiswasamaxim.Inherhands,thenotion ofuniversal equalitywaseven moreconsistentlyapplied .Sheespeciallyrecommendedtheeducationofwomen .Allnecessaryknowledgeislearnablebyall .Thiswasnot simplyanarcane,closelyarguedandspecial-izedphilosophicalinsight.Thesethinkerswerenotprofessionalacadem icsdesiringtopublishinorder toadvancetheirca-reers.Suchnewandradicalnotionswerepartofapolitica lagendadesignedtoplayaroleintheoverthrowoftradit ionalauthority.Thiswasintellectualwarfare:theunderm iningofauthoritybychallengingitsfundamentalideas,particularlyitsideaofknowledge.


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction ,Comte& Spencer119Everyindividual,itwasthought,coulddiscoverforhim/herselfifanotionweretrueorfalse,adequateoruseless.If

onlywewereallowedtheuseofourowninnate,critica lreason ,w ecouldfindoutforourselves."ThinkForYour-self!"becamethesloganoftheEnlightenment .HowwasthistobeaccomplishedsincepeoplewereaccustomedtorelyingontheauthoritativewordofStateandChurch,tobeingtoldhowandwhat tothink?

Aswellasthewritingofseveraldictionaries,thecrowningachievementof thePhilosophes,directedbyDenisDiderotandJeanLeRondd'Alembert,wasthecompilingoftheEncyclopedie,acompendiouscollectionofextanttheoreticalandpracticalknowledge.(ThefollowingdiscussionofEnlightenmentthoughtisheavilyindebtedtoLucienGoldmann'sexcellentPhilosophyofTheEnlightenment)

Thenewformsofknowledgeweretobemadeasaccessibleaspossible.Thosewhocouldread ,or havesomeoneread tothem ,wereinv itedtoavailthemselvesofanewsourceofknowledge whichtheycould ,inprincipleat least,check forthemselves.Thisknowledgewas tobeascomprehensiveaspossibleandtobepresentedinalphabeticalorder.Theyknewthatknowledgehaditsowninternalconnections,butforpurposesofaccessiblepresentation,alphabeticalorderwouldsuf fice.

ThusforthePhilosophes,knowledge, likereasonitself,wasapropertyoftheindividual .Individualscameinto theworldwith theirfacultyofreasonandactedasindividualsbymeansoftheknowledgegained from theuseofthisrea-son,hence,thecharacterizationofthephilosophyoftheEnlightenmentas"individualism."Knowledgewasseenasan independentproductionofindividualreasonandprac-ticeoractionwasseentofollowaftertheacquisitionof suchknowledge .Knowledgewas tobefreefromtheinfluenceofauthorityorprejudiceandsubsequentlyapplied to nature orsociety .Humanreasonwasseenashavinglim itsbutnotasinneedofanycorrectionbyfaith.Individualconsciousnesswasseenastheabsoluteoriginofknowledgeandaction.ThePhilosophesadvocatedthefreeemploymentofcriticalreason,theacquisitionofknowledge untaintedbyauthority


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20/SociologicalTheoryorprejudice,andtheapplicationof thisknowledge tona-tureorsociety.Thereisnoauthorityhigherthanindividualreason.Thebasic,necessaryingredientsforthisprogressofknowledgeandactionarealreadycontainedwithintheindi-vidual ;thepoliticalandintellectualprojectsofthePhilosopheswerethoughttobenecessarysimplytoallowreasontobeginfunctioning morefully .ForthePhilosophes,thepossessionofcritica lreason hadalwaysbeen thefunda-menta lcharacteristico fthehumanindividual;thePhilosophesattempted todemonstratethistruthandtoen-sureitsfreereigninpubliclife.TheEnlightenment 'sprogramofliberalindividualismisthusbasedonthenotionofa freelyreasoning,independent,autonomoushumanindividual .Theywouldarguethatthesetraitsarefundamentaltothenatureofthehumanbeing;humanssimplyhave notoftenbeenallowed, duetothepres-enceoftyrannicalauthority, to functionfreelyinthisman-ner.How ,wemightask,didthesethinkersarriveatsuchanotionsincetyrannyandprejudicereignedsupremeintheirm ilieu?Didtheyperhapsseesomethingintheirworldwhichprovidedthemwithanillustrationof thefundamenta lau-tonomyofthehumanindividual?Enlightenmentthinkersmightanswerthattheyusedtheirowncriticalreasontoderivethislasting truth.Goldmann(1973:15-18 )suggeststhattherewasarapidlygrowingsphereofcontemporarysociety(themarket )inwhichindi-vidualsactuallyinteractedinsuchawayastoindicatesomedegreeofautonomy.ForGoldmann(1973:18),theautono-mousindividual,relativelyunconstrainedbycollectivity,tradition,community, thesacred,orauthorityistheexcep-tionrather thantherule;s/heisaproduct of historyratherthanits"pointofdeparture."Duringwhatisbyfarthelargest partofour history,individualshavenotpartakenofsuchautonomy .Wehave,byandlarge,beenboundincom -munitiesbynecessity,custom,andbelief . Inmost pastsoci-eties,the notionofanindividualfreetochoosehis/herowncourseof actionwouldprobablybeseenasbizarre,if notabsurd.There is,however,asphereofhumaninteractionandactivitywhich fairlyrecentlyhasgrowntoconstitutea


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Comte& Spencer121primarysphereofmodernactivity.Theexchangeofgoods,marketactivity,hasrecently growntobecomethedom inantforminwhichwesatisfywantsandneeds. It isinthisspherethatweappear,at leasttosomeextent , toactasautono-mous,independentindividuals.ForGoldmann,itisaviewoftheindividualinthecontextofthiskindofactivitywhichpredisposedthePhilosophestoconsiderthehumanindividualas naturallyautonomousandascharacterizedbytheposses-sionofcrit icalreason .

Itisinthisrealmofactivity thatweactuallyfindpeopleengagedin negotiations,"makingdeals."Relationsbetweenpersonsinthisareatakeontheformofcontractsandarenolongergovernedsomuch byconsiderationsofstatus.Strikingagreementswithothersaboutprices,wages,workhours,forexample,isthekindofactivityinwhich we,in fact,exhibitsomethinglikeautonomousdecision-making .Atleastinthissphere,manyofourrelationsandinteractionshavethechar-acterofnegotiations.Negotiations, if theyaretobetrulynegotiations,demandtheexistenceofarelativelyautono-mous,thinking,freeandequal individual .InGoldmann'sview ,thefree,autonomous,independentindividualemergesastheproductofhistory,thehistory, inparticular,ofthedevelopmentof exchange,ofamarketsociety.Contract,afreeagreementbetween autonomousindividuals,thusemergesasone ofthefundamental concepts ofEnlightenmentthought .Manythinkers(Hobbes, LockeandRousseau,forexample)chosetoseesocietyand/orthestateasthemselves theresultofacontract ,anagreementbetweenindividuals.

Anessentialconditionofsuchafreeagreementisthefun-damentalEqualitybetweenthepartiestotheagreement .Nei-thersellersnorbuyers,forexample,couldbeseenashavingsomebasicadvantageoveroneanotherbyvirtueofahigherstatus.Therefore, thepersonalcharacterofeitherpartywastobeconsideredirrelevant tosuchinteractions.Universalitythusemergesasanotherimportant conceptofEnlightenmentthought .Tolerationwasalsoaveryimportantconcept .One'sreligiousconvictions,forexample,wereirrelevant .Putratherdifferently,religiousfanaticismwasbad forbusiness.Anyonewasfreetoengageincontracts,freedom wasalsoseenasanindispensable featureofthiskindofsocialrelation.


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22 /SociologicalTheoryLastly,ifwearetodisposeofgoodsinrelations ofexchange,wemustnecessarilyhavesomethingtodisposeof;wemust

havesomeProperty.W emusthaveprivatepropertyintheimportantsensethatwearefreetodisposeofit as wewish.Thisnotionisnotasobviousasitmayatfirstappearandhasnotalwaysbeenthecase.Property,aswith land,forexample,underRomanLawwassometimesrestrictedintermsofitsdisposal .The term"liberalindividualism ,"hasbeenusedasabrief

descriptionofEnlightenmentthought .Theindividualisseenasthelocationandsourceofalltheimportantingredientsina"liberated"society.Socialevilscouldbeelim inatedbyrecoursetocriticalreasonlocatedintheindividual;throughtheacqui-sitionofknowledgeanditsapplicationtomaterialproductionandtopublicandsocialaffairs,thegoodsocietywastobesecured.Attacks ontyranny,prejudice,authority,andreligionweretheorderoftheday forEnlightenmentthinkers.

Crit icalreason ,locatedinanautonomousind iv idual,wascentral totheEnlightenment thinkerswhoproceededtoes-tablishthesignificance ofthefollowingconcepts:thecontract,equality,universality ,toleration,freedom,andproperty.Thesewereseenasintellectualweaponsinastruggleagainstsecularandecclesiasticalauthorityandtyranny.It drewfromandhelpedsupportanemergingcommercialandindustrialsociety .Asonemightexpect,theauthorityfiguresofthedaydidnottakeallofthis"sittingdown."They,too,hadsupporterswhowrotetreatisesintheirdefense.Sincethesefigureswere,afterall,inauthority,theywerewell-placedtosupportaspiriteddefenseoftheirpositionandtheviewoftheworldwhichsupportedit .InFrance,themain figuresengagedinthisdefensewereBonaldandMaistre;inEngland,thistaskfelltoEdmundBurke.


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Comte& Spencer123THECONSERVATIVEREACTION

B ,onald,Maistre,andBurkewerepartofamovementagainsttheEnlightenmentlabelledthecon-servativereaction.WhileEnlightenmentthinkersaregener-allyconsideredtobe theintellectual forebearsoftheFrenchRevolution(1789-94),thethinkersparticipatinginthecon-servativereactionopposedthisthoughtand,aftertheRevo-lution,soughttoreverseorm inim izeitseffects.Inotherwords,whatbeganasanintellectual, ideologicalassaultonauthority didconcludeinanarmedandbloodystruggle ;theBastillewas infactstormed.DebatecontinuestothisdayabouttheproperinterpretationofthelegacyoftheFrenchRevolution.ThethoughtofBonaldandMaistreatteststotheongoingoppositiontotheEnlightenmentinFrance;acrossthechannelinEngland,EdmundBurkerespondedinnoun-certainterm swithhisRe flectionsonTheRevolutioninTrance(1955)[1797] .Thesethinkersmaintained,withvaryingemphasis,thesignificanceoftradition,authority,community,andthesacredinhuman,collectivelife.Fromthisperspective,Burkerespondedwithhorrorto theresultsoftheFrenchRevolu-tion.For him,theremust beandalwayshadbeenanauthorityhigherthantheindividual .Thenotionthatindividualreasoncould"reinvent"lifeonacontinuingbasiswasviewedbyhimasabsolutelyabsurd,andthebeliefinthisnotioncouldonlyresult indangerousconfusion.Collectiveentitieswereimportantinthemaintenanceofanyexistencewhichcouldbecalled human.Tradition,authority,andcommunitywerethusviewedasindispensableto humanlife .Burkesaw com -munityastherestingplaceofthehumansoul .Someoftheconservat ivessawtheroleofthesacredasfundamentalinallofthis;other,moresecular,thinkersdidnot .Whatismostsignificantforourpurposesisthatthetwosidesinthisdebateeachcontributedsubstantiallyto thefoun-dationofsociolog icalthought .Ontheoneside,wehaveEn-lightenmentliberalindividualism withitsemphasis onreason,individualfreedom ,contractualrelations,andareverencefor


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24/SociologicalTheoryscienceasthewaytoexam ineallspheresofexperience,includingthesocial .Ontheother,wehaveaconservativecollectivismwhich emphasizesextra-individualconceptsandentities.Socialorder,forthese thinkers,isnotreducib letothecharacteristicsofitsparts,individuals.Theindividual,reason,freedom ,contract,science,andprogressivechangemaybeseenasthoseconceptsrepresentingthecontributionofEnlightenmentthought .Thecommunity,authority,tradi-tion ,andthesacredcanbeseenasthecontributionfromtheconservat ive,collect ivistside.

From theliberalEnlightenmentview ,thereemergesapic-tureofarational,scientificapproachtoallsubjectmatter,naturalorsocial .Bylocatingallimportantcharacteristics,especiallyreasonandaction ,intheindividual,however , theEnlightenmentappears toprovidelittleappropriatesubjectmatter forthedisciplineofsociology .Fewofitsmajorcon-ceptsandfewof theentitiesidentifiedinitsargumentsaresocial orcollectivein character.Thuswhilesociologyacquiresmuchofitsrationalistapproachtosocietyfromliberalthought ,ithadtorelyontheconservativetraditionforitssubjectmatter,includingsociety,community,tradition,andauthority, inshort,collectivematters.

Sociology, ithasbeenargued(e.g.,N isbet1966:21-44),thusrepresentsacombinationofliberalandconservativetraditionsofthought .Itwasliberalinitsbasicapproachandinitsrespectforprogressivechange,butconservativeinitsemphasisonorderandstability .Infact,thisintellectualapproach hasbeeninterpretedastheoutcomeoftwodiffer-entrevolutionsoccurringinFranceandEnglandaroundtheturnofthenineteenthcentury,theFrenchandIndustrialrevo-lutions.InFrance ,thearmedstruggleagainsttyrannicalau-thorityresultedinsuchcontroversialeventsas"theTerror."Tremendousdislocationsresultedfromtheattempttode-mocratizeFrenchsociety.InEng land,aftertherevolutionsintheearly1640sandagainin1688,alessbloodybutnolessdislocatingtransformationtook placeintheformoftheIndustrialRevolution(fromroughly1780-1850) .Ineachcountry,anaristocracywasdisplaced , or atleasttransformed ,andfundamentalrelationsbetweenpersonswereforever


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction ,Comte& Spencer125changed.Eventhosewhofavouredaprogressive,industrialsociety wereil lateaseoverthechaosanddislocationscausedbyrevolutionarychange.

Thusactualchangein societyhelpedto inspire andencourageachangeintheformsofanalysisand thought about societyandsocialinstitutions.Manywerevehementlyinfavourofanindustrialsociety,buteventhesewereanxioustohelpestablishamorestablesocialorder .Aproperlysociolog icalformofthoughtbegantoemergefromthismixture.Ration-alist,scientific,andsystematicallyempirica lformsofanalysiswereemployedtoexam inethenatureof institutions,com -munities,andpolitics,inshort,society .Sociologymightbeseenasemployingaliberalapproachtoaconservativesubjectmatter.Theterms,"liberal"and"conservative,"however,mustbeusedw ithcaution .H istoriansareaccustomedtocriticiz-ingsociologists,withsomejustification ,forindiscrim inatelyusingsuchtermswithoutreferencetohistorica lcontext .Atermwhichhasconservativeconnotationsinonehistoricalcontext maywellbeliberalinanother(e.g .Marx'semphasisoncollectivenotionsasopposedtoBurke's) .Ingeneral,however,anapproachstemmingfromaninterestinindividualfreedomandreason,aswellasthepromotionofanewindustrialsocietywasappliedtoaconcernwithsocialorderandstability .Orderandstabilitycametobetheaimsofaformofanalysishavingitsoriginsinmoreindividualistconceptsandarguments.

AUGUSTECOMTE(1798-1857 )A ,ugu steComtewasborninFrance

duringtheheight ofthat periodreferredtoaboveaschaoticandunstable.Toaddtotheinstabilityin hisownimmediatemilieu ,hisparentswere devoutCatholicsandardentroyalists.Thesewerenotaffiliationsconducivetoone'spersonalsafety.TheyoungComtewasanextraordinarystudent,excellingprimarilyinmathandphysics,andwasabletodemonstrate


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261SociologicalTheoryunusual featsofmemorysuchasreadingapageoftext andimmediatelyrecitingit backwardsbyheart . Hisearlycareerwasapoorlyorganizedandratherself-destructiveaffairinwhichheproceededto"shoothimselfinthefoot"severaltimes.Alongwithfourteenothers,hewasexpelledformschoo lafterastudentuprisingoverageometryinstructor,thusdashinghopesofanotherwisepromisingacademiccareer.

Hedid, nonetheless,managetobecomesecretarytoHenriSt .Simon,anotherprominentthinkerwithwhomComtesharedmanyideas.Hemet,andlatermarried,anineteen-year-oldprostitute;hadafallingoutwithSt .Simon;organ-izedasubscriptionseriesoflectureson"ThePositivePhilosophy" ;sufferedfromaneventually unhappymarriage;attemptedsuicidebythrowinghimselfintotheSeineRiverandwasrescuedbyapasser-by ,interpretingthisgoodSamaritanactasasign thathismission inlifewas tocom -pleteanddisseminatehispositivephilosophy .

In1829,Comtecompletedtheseriesoflectures,andbe-tween1830and1842,publishedhisCoursdePhilosophicPositiveinsixvolumes.In1832,hemanagedtoachieveaminorappointmentattheEcolePolytechnique,but,in1844,hewroteascathingattackonSt .SimonandtheEcoleandwasdismissed.Duringthesameyear,twootherimportanteventsalsooccurred.ComteobtainedasmallstipendfromtheEnglishphilosopher,JohnStuartMill,whohadbeenimpressedbyhisPositivePhilosophy,andhealsobegananaffairw ithM adameClotildedeVaux .In1846 ,shed iedinhisarmsandComtewaslatertocreditherwithteachinghim abouttheaffectivetendenciesofhumannature,aconsid-erationwhichwastoinformhissuggestion fora"religionofhumanity."Infact ,Comtewastoseethisreligionofhumanityaspartofthepracticalapplicationofhis philosophyasrecom -mendedinhisTheSystemof PositivePolityorTreatiseofSociologyInstitutingTheReligionofHumanity .ThePosi-tivePhilosophywastheworkinwhichheoutlinedhispre-ferredwayofknowingtheworld,andThePositivePolitycontainedhisideasabouthowto improvesociety,howto


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Cotnte & Spencer127establishwhatwas,inhisview , thebestsocietypossiblebyapplyingthisknowledge.

AccordingtoComte,astablesocialorderrestedonacon-sistentformofthought .Hesawhisown thoughtasleadingtotheestablishmentofamorestable,industrialorder.H esawthisrelationshipbetweenthoughtandpracticeasanatu-ralratherthanacausaloneandsawthoughtasevolvingnaturallytoward thekindofphilosophywhichhewasfor-mulatingandrecommending .Waysofthinking ,ofphiloso-phizing,of knowingtheworld,were,inhisview ,primary,bothinthe historyofhumankindandinhisownpractice.Inotherwords,Comtebelievedthatpeopleactedinsuch awayastocorrespondwiththewaytheythought .Indifferentso-cietiesorperiodsofhistory,furthermore ,apeople 'swayofthinking,ofknowingtheirworld,wasresponsible,accord-ingtoComte,forproducingthekindofsociety inwhichtheylived.

THELAW O FTHREESTAGES

Gomte's firstmajorpublication wasAProspectusof theScientificOperationsRequiredfortheReorganizationofSociety,whichhereferredtoasthe"greatdiscoveryoftheyear,1822."Inthiswork,wegetagoodglimpseofhisentireprogram.Itisherethat heannouncestheplanforanempiricalscienceofsocietyandintroduceshis"lawofthreestages,"theno-tionthatthehistoryofsocietiescanbedividedratherneatlyintothreedistinctperiodsandthateachkindofsocietyisproducedandsupportedbyadifferentformof thoughtorwayofdoingphilosophy.Sincethesocietyofhisdaywasexperiencingaperiodofcrisis, ofdisorganization,heset outtodiscover thecausesorreasons forthisphenomenon,andhebased hisexplanationonthe difficulttransitionfromoneformofthought toanother.


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28ISociologicalTheoryForComte,evolutionorprogresswasamatterconcern-ingthegrowth ofthehumanmind.Thehumanmindevolved

throughaseriesofstages ,eachofwhichmarkedasignificantlydifferentwayofthinkingorphilosophizing .Themind ,notthebrainbutourwayofthinkingorknowing,developed fromatheologicalstage ,throughametaphysicalstage,and ,finally,toapositivestage.Heviewed theperiodinwhichhe lived inFranceas thedif ficulttransition tothefinalorpositivestage.Thistransitionwasdif ficult,hethought,becauseneartheendofonestageofthem ind 'sgrowth ,theformofsocietywhichisbasedonandsupportedbyaparticularformofthought,willundergoaperiodofdisorganizationas thesocietypreparestoreorganizeanew ,basedonthenewlyemerging formofthought .InComte'sview ,there isanaffinityorcorrespondencebetweenawayofthinkingandaparticular formofsociety.The firststageof them ind ,whichhecalledtheologicalorfictitious ,wasmarkedbyanunderstandingoftheworldintermsofsupernaturalbeings,andthoseexperiencingthisstagedidnotapproachphenomenawiththeaidofanyhy-pothesesorpreparatorytheory.Eventswereexplaineddur-ingthisstagebymeansoftheactionofmanygods .Theological thoughtprovidedtheintellectualandmoralbasis ,Comteargued ,foram ilitaristicsociety.Hereheevokesimagesofwarlike, tribalsocietieswithapolytheisticworld-view .OfprimaryimportanceinCom te'sscheme,remember,isthenotionoftheaffinitybetweenwayofthinking,ontheonehand ,and formofsociety,ontheother.Waysofthink-ingareprimaryandtendtosupport or provide thebasisforaparticularkindofsociety.Inotherwords,agivenwayofdoingphilosophywillsupportorfitwithoneformofsocietybetterthansomeother.

Comtereferredtothenextstageasmetaphysical.Inthisstage ,themanygodsorsupernaturalbeingswerereplacedbyoneGodandabstractentities.MedievalEuropeanphi-losophy,forexample,wasfullofabstractconcepts,suchasrealentities ,thatwereseentoliebehindphenomena.Thiswasa rationalattempttoaccount forallworldlyphenom-enabymeansofmetaphysics,thatwh ichisbeyondthe


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Comte&Spencer129physical .According tothisview ,therewasarational,rea-sonableworld ,butitwasnot observablein thephenomenathemselves.Onehadtospeculateaboutrationallyordered,abstractentities toattempt toexplainanythingin this fash-ion.Thiskindofphilosophy,accordingtoComte ,supportedalegalisticsocialorder,suchaswasfoundinfeudalEurope.Whereasthesocietybased ontheologicalthought wasmarkedbythe presenceofwarriors,thesocietybasedon metaphysi-cal thoughthadapredominanceoflawyers .Themetaphysicalstageofthemindwasrepresentedmostimportantly,forComte ,byCatholictheology,andhefeltthat,duringhislifetime ,themindwasfindingitswayout ofthisformofthoughtandenteringthepositiveorscientificstage.Althoughthepositiveformofphilosophyhadbeendevelopingforsome time, therewere,inComte'sview ,toomanyfeaturesofmetaphysical,Catholicthoughtremainingtosolidlysupportthenew industrialsocialorderwhichshouldhave,asitsmostsuitablebasis,thepositivephilosophy.

Comterejectedthesearch forcauses,whetherfirst,final,efficientormaterial,andpreferredthesearchfor laws.Inthesearchforlaws,wediscoverobservableregularitiesinphenomenaandattempt todescribetheseregularitiesintheformoflaws,mathematicallyexpressed ifpossible.Forex-ample, theinversesquarelawdescribeswhatwecanob-serve inphenomenaofgravitationandattraction.Thislawdescribeswhat isfamiliartousastheweightofbodies.Itrepresentsapositivist approachtoknowledge .If ,ontheotherhand,webegantoargueaboutwhat weightandattractionreallyare,wewouldbeengaginginmetaphysics ,inComte'sterms,andhewasatpainstohelprid themodernm indofthisformofthought(Comte1975:75).

Thus,theologicalthoughtsupportsam ilitaristicsociety,metaphysicalthought supportsalegalisticoneand,finally,apositiveorscientificphilosophyisthemostnaturalsupportforan industrialsociety.AccordingtoComte,thesewerethree,quitedistinct,stagesbecausehecouldwitness periodsofdisorganizationandreorganizationasthemindmovedfromoneformofthoughttoanotherandasthe formofsocietychangedaccordingly .Suchwas theperiodinwhich


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3o/SociologicalTheoryComtewaswriting .Ifwecan finddisorganizationinoursociety,heargued,wecanrestassuredthatthereisdisor-ganizationinourformofthoughtorphilosophy.Morespecifically,inhistime,too manymetaphysicalelements(andevensometheologicalones)characterizedthethought ofthedayto providethe properintellectualandmoralsupportforanindustrialsociety .Comteattributed thechaosandinstabilityevident inhistimetotheexistenceofanincompletelyformulated positiveorscientific philosophywhichsufferedfromtheinclusion oftoomanymetaphysicaland theologicalfeatures.Hesawitashistasktocorrectthisfaultandthereby,heassumed ,toestablishastable,durable,industrialsocia lorder.Hislawofthethree-stagedevelopmentundergirdsthewholeofhisthought .Thephilosophical/theoreticalsidewillbediscussednext .

THEPO SITIVEPHILO SOPHY

s ,incetheFrenchRevolutionhadfailedtoestablishastableorderbasedonEnlightenmentprinciples ,Comteattemptedtoshoreupthoseprincipleswhich,hethought,coulddothejob .Thereorganizationofsocietyre-quired,aboveall ,intellectua lreform.Hewanted toreplaceCatholicismwithhispositivephilosophy.Althoughmanyindividualsciences,such asphysics,chem-istry,andbiology,hadbeendevelopingquitenicely,noonehadyetsynthesizedthebasicprinciplesofthesesciencesintoacoherentsystemofideas.Thissystem,includinganewscienceofsocietyandpolitics,wouldprovidethe intellec-tualandmoralbasisoftheneworder.Comtewantedtocreateaplace forthisnewsciencewhichwastointerveneinreformingsociety.Whilethehumanmindtended toevolvenaturallytowardapositivestage,Comtewantedtocom -pletethetransitionwitharevolutioninphilosophy.Hewantedto articulatescience'sbasicprinciples ,synthesize them


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Comte& Spencer131intoasinglecoherentsystem ,and,finally,applythemtohumansociety.Comtecoinedtheterm"sociology"in1838 .Firstofall ,Comtestatedthat wearetogiveupthemeta-physicalsearchforfirst andfinalcausesandinsteadlookforinvariab lerelationsbetweenthings(regular patternsin phe-nomena).Thisscientificmethodthusinvolves:1 .theobservationoffactswithapreparatorytheory;2 .experimentation(insociology thiswouldmeancon-trolledobservation);

3 .comparison(ofdifferentsocieties);and4 .ahistorica lmethod(recallCom te'sinterest inthein-tellectualbasisof socialevolution).

ForComte,allthatwecanthinkaboutisthephenomenalworld (observableevents).Alltheeventsinthisworldaregovernedbyasetofscienti ficallydiscoverable ,invariable ,natural law s .Hewanted todiscoverthese lawsandreducethemtoasetofprinciples.Rationalknowledge,accessibletoscience isthus,forComte ,auni fiedwhole.

Asconcerns theexaminationofsociety,Com tedividedthisanalysisintosocialstaticsandsocialdynam ics .Whiledynam ics(the theoryof changeanddevelopment)was ,forComte,themostinteresting,healsoinsistedthatstatics(thefunctioningofasocietyanditspartsasanorganicwhole)shouldnotbeoverlooked.Theunitsorlevelsofanalysisintheseprojectsweretheindividual,thefam ily,thesociety,andthespecies(Comte,in typicalnineteenthcenturyEuro-peanfashionwastospecifythatthismeantprimarilythewhiterace).Theindividual,forComte,whilenotaunitofsociologi-calanalysis,hasbynatureatendencytolettheaffective(emotional )facultiespredom inateovertheintellectual .Al-thoughhumannatureconsists ,inpart,ofinherentlysocialtendencies,thedevelopmentofsocietydependsonthestimu-lation,use,andextensionofintellectualfaculties.Ascivili-zation,inturn,begins togrow , theintellectualfacultiesaremorestimulatedand,hence,developfurther.Comtesaweachmemberofthefamily,atrulysocialunit,asnaturallysubordinatedtooneanotheraccordingtosex


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32 /SociologicalTheoryandage.Marriage hadbeenmodifiedbutneveroverthrown,andComtesawtheequalityofthesexesasincompatiblewithsociety.Men,forComte ,were intellectuallysuperior,whereas womenweremorallysuperior.

Socialorganizationbeyondthefam ilyunitwasseenbyComteaspresentingsomeopposingtendencies.Thecoop-erationentailedinthe"appropriationofemployments"(whatMarxandDurkheimwerelatertocallthe divisionoflabour )runscountertothesympathycharacteristicoffamilylife.Withgrowingspecializationoffunction(occupation),itbe-comesmoredifficult to feelsympathywiththoseinoccupa-tionsotherthanone'sown.Welivesignificantlydifferentlives.Wealso,evenasanentirerace,become,at thesametime,more"boundup"withoneanother.Aswebecomemorespecializedinourmanualorintellectualwork,itisalsoexpectedthatwewillbemore indifferenttohumanaffairsingeneral .Nonetheless,arguesCom te,thesetendenciestodisinte-grationare madeupforbya"tendencyinall humansocietytospontaneousgovernment."" [intellectualand moral forcestendtoeverincreasingsocial authority"(Comte1975:277).WhereastheEnlightenmentthinkershaddespisedcollectiveauthority,Comte,liketheconservatives,sawgovernmentasanecessaryandspontaneousdevelopment .Asfarasdynam icsareconcerned,Comtebelievedthathumansoc ialdevelopmentwasfirmlyrootedinthose facul-tieswhichwerecharacteristicallyhuman ,primarilythein-tellectualfaculty .Ourmostessentialqualitiesashumanbeingswil lbemanifestedin themost highlydevelopedcivi-lization.Socialdevelopment,basedonthegrowthof intel-lect, leadstotheprimacyof the"preponderantpowersofhumanexistence" (Comte1975:279),namely tothedevel-opmentofthepositivephilosophy .

Althoughthethinkingor"figuringout"whichisdone intheinitialstagesofourdevelopmentwouldseemtohavetodowith"materialcares,"with(particularlyproductive)ac-tionontheenvironment,eventhesubsequentmaterialad-vantagetendstohavetheeffectof providinguswithmorefreetimeforthoughtandexcitesourintellectualfunctions


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Comte & Spencer133towardmoreintensethoughtaboutnature.Eventheologi-calexplanationwasseen byComteasfittingwiththisscheme.Thus,civilization,itselfrootedinournatural ,intellectualfaculties,improves thosefaculties .Asthis civilizationbeginstodevelop,populationbecomesmoreconcentrated,and thisprovidesastimulustofurtherintellectualandmoraldevelopment .Thus,reason ,althoughnaturallyahumanfaculty,becomesmoreand moreinfluentialin"thegeneralconductofmanandsociety" (Comte1975:284).ForComte,thehistoryofthem ind governsthehistoryofsociety.Evenduringthe theologicalstage,aclasshadde-velopedwhichcoulddevoteagooddealofitstimetospecu-lation.Thisindicatesthenecessityof thetheologicalstageforhumandevelopment .Theadvancetothepositivestagemeantanemphasisonobservablelawsoverasearchfor"primary"causes.Byemployingapositivephilosophyandthelawsandprinciplestherebydeduced,wecan foreseeandmodifynaturalevents(Comte1975:292).

Thedevelopment oftheintellectandsocietymakesitselffeltdifferentlyindifferentsciences.Ingeneral,the theologi-calstagesparks theunderstanding,themetaphysicalmain-tains"speculativeactivityonallsubjects"(292),andthepositive,orfinalstage,allowsfortheextractionoflawsandgeneralprincipleswhichcanbeappliedtoalternatureandsociety .W em ight,inourcurrentstate,haveapositivesci-enceinsomebasicrealms,ametaphysicalunderstandingofsomemorecomplexones,andonlyatheologicalunderstand-ingofthesocialrealm.ItwasComte'sultimateaimtomakesociologyapositivescience.Hedevelopedahierarchyofsciencesbeginningwithmathematicsasthemostfundamentalandrising inorderthroughastronomy,physics,chem istry,biology,andsociol-ogy .Inreverseorder,thesesciencesstudyphenomenafromthemost complex tothemostbasic .


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34/SociologicalTheoryTHEPOSITIVEPOLITY

lSstatedinhisinitialworkof1822,Comte'slong-rangehopewastoapplyhisthoughttothereorganizationofsociety.Itwas thisnotionof interventioninsocietywhichbroughthimdisfavour,mainlyfromthescientificcommunity.ItwasoverthisissuethatMilldecidedtowithdrawhisstipendformComte,eventhoughComte'sintentionto intervene insocialaffairswasalreadyclearinThePositivePhilosophy.Forsomeonewhobelievedthattheproblemsofnineteenthcenturysoc ietywereduetointellectualanarchy,that societywasformedfrom ideas,theuseofpositivephilosophytoreformsocietyisnotsuchafar-fetchednotion.Ifhecouldbringaboutaconsensusaboutbasicideasandridpositivethinkingofitstheologicalandmetaphysicalaspects,Comtethoughtthatsocialinstabilitycouldbeeliminated.The posi-tivephilosophy,hethought,wasrooted innatureitselfsothatuniversalprinciplesderived fromitcouldlead toasta-blesocialorder.

IntheconcludingchaptertoVolumeIofThePositivePolity,entitled"TheReligionofHumanity,"Comtesum-marizesthisproject:

Love,then,isourprinciple;orderourbasis ;andprogressourend.Such...is theessentialcharacterofthesystemoflifethatpositivism offersfor thedefiniteacceptance ofsociety,asystem thatregulatesthewholecourseofourprivateandpublicexistencebybring ingfeeling,reason,andactivityintopermanentharmony.(Comte1975:381)

Theaffectiveelementofournature(rememberMadamedeVaux),socialsympathy,isprimarilyresponsibleforthisharmonizingeffect .Them ind,affection,andcouragewillallbene fit fromtheacceptanceandapplicationof positivism.Thepositionofwomen, thefam ily,theworkingclasses,thecapitalists,andintellectual labouraretofeel therefinement


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Comte&Spencer13 jofpositivismandtheharmonizingeffectofthereligionofhumanity.Politicsandsocialinstitutionsaretoberevolutionized .

Likemostreligions,thereligionofhumanityistohavepriests.Thereare,inCom te'sscheme,onehigh priest,sevennationalchiefs,and20,000sociologist/prieststooverseeeducationalandmoralmatters.Improvementswouldbedevisedby positivistintellect,butwouldmaximizeaffectiveharmony.Hehopedthathismotto,"OrderandProgress,"wouldbespontaneouslyadopted.

HERBERTSPENCER(1820-1903 )S ,pencerwastheonlyoneoftheninechil-dren in hisfamilytosurviveinfancy .Hisfatherwasateacherofmathematicsandsciencebut,ironically,didnotholdthis

institutionalenterprise inveryhighesteemand,alongwithSpencer'suncle, taught theyoungHerbert athome.Hethusreceivedformal trainingonlyinmathematicsandphysics.G iven hisscientificinclinations,heachievedajobasengi-neerfortheLondonandBirm inghamRailroad,eventuallybecom ingits chiefeng ineerbutlaterresigning toeditamaga-zinecalledTheEconomist .HisfirstmajorpublicationwasanarticleinTheNonconform istentitled"TheProperSphereofGovernment,"a spherewhichSpencerdecidedwasextremelylim ited.Hispoliticalviewpointonsuchmatterswaswhatisreferredtoas"laissez-faire,"essentiallyoneofnon-inter-vention.Inhisview ,theadaptationofindividuals,species,orsocietiestotheenvironmentisanaturalprocessandshouldnot, therefore,be interferedwith.

Thisisapointofviewcharacteristicofthescienceofbiologyand, indeed,Spencertookfrombiologythe follow-ingclaimsorassumptions:

1 .thecrit icalattributesof individualsandcollectivitiesemergefromcompetitioneitheramongindividuals orbetweencollectivepopulations;


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361Sociological Theory2 .socialevolutioninvolvesmovement fromundifferen-tiatedstructurestodifferentiatedones,markedbyinterrelated functions;and

3 .thedifferencesamongindividualsandsocialsystemsareafunctionofhavingtoadapt tovaryingenviron-mentalconditions.Adaptation(toenvironmentalcon-ditions)anddifferentiation(growingcomplexityofpartsandspecializationof theseparts)arethus im-portantconcepts inSpencer'sviewofhumansocialdevelopment .

Infact,muchofSpencer'sthoughtisevolutionaryinchar-acter.ForSpencer,notonlybiolog icalspeciesorsocietiesevolve,butallmatter,beinginitssimplest formshighlyun-stable,tendstodifferentiateandbecomemorecomplex .Ifthisappearstobeasomewhatpuzzling notion,consider(per-hapsyouhaveseensomethinglikethisinachem istry lab)alumpof highlypuresodium.Itisnormallykeptinaclosedcontainerawayfromotherelementsorcompoundsbecauseofitsunstable,volatile nature. Whenexposed,theresult(itscombinationwithotherelements,ortendencytodifferenti-ateandbecom emorecomplex )isratherdramatic .

SpencerproposedaTheoryofGeneralEvolution,accord-ingtowhich matter passes fromarelativelyindefinite, inco-herenthomogeneitytoarelativelydefinite ,coherentheterogeneity(Spencer1972:71).Biologicalspecies tendtoevolveinsuchawayastobecomemorecomplex(i.e.todifferentiateinternally,tohaveinterrelated ,specialized parts).Asforindividualspecies,soforsuperorganicentitieslikesocieties.Societiesevolvebyadaptinginternallyandexter-nally,and,inSpencer'sscheme,thereisanevolutionarycon-tinuum from militanttoindustrialsocieties.M ilitantsocieties,nearertothebeginningoftheevolutionaryprocess,wereconcernedprimarilywithissuesof offenseanddefense.In-dustrialsocietiestendtobeprimarilyconcernedwiththeproductionof goods.Theevolutionof speciesorsocieties ,forSpencer,isulti-matelyamatterofthe"survivalofthe fittest."Darw in 'stermforthisnotionis"naturalselection",andhewaslaterto


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TheEnlightenment,Reaction,Comte&Spencer137suggestthatheactually preferredSpencer'sphrase.Accord-ingtothisnotion,evolutionaryprocessesfilteroutun fitspe-cies.Theeventualoutcomeofthisprocess,forSpencer,isabetter,evenmorallyperfect civilization.Since heviewedthisoutcomeas theresultof anaturalprocess,hewasadamantabouthislaissez-faireornon-interventionpolicy.Adapta-tioniskeyinthisprocess;individualsorspeciesshouldnot,in hisview ,behelpedinanyway,lestaweakorun fit speciescontinue toexist and thusweakenthewhole.Whilespeciesandsocietiesevolvedaccordingtolaws oftheirown ,thereisasupremelyindividualistassumptioninSpencer

'sview .Theperfectionofcivilizationdemandstheperfectionof theso-cialatom , the individualhuman .

Inthussuggestingthat thenaturalprocessofadaptationshouldnotbeinterferedwith,Spencerwasindicatingthatbymeansofthisprocesstheun fit,thepoor,ignorant,orunhealthy,wouldbe"w eededout."Competitionwouldseeto itthattheunfit ,justas inbusiness,woulddieout .Thefunctionofthestateinallofthisisprimarilytoprotect thetermsofcontracts.Everyonehadtoliveuptotheirwordinagreements.Spencerwould not evenallowtheinstitutionofapostoffice,letalonewelfareoruniversalhealthcare.

Spencer'slaissez-faireindividualismhadspecialappealtoAmericancapitalists,andhistheoriesweremorepopularintheUnitedStatesthaninhisnativeEngland.Ifonewereat"thetop,"onem ight find itcomfortingtoviewthisasanaturalresult ofone'sownsuperiorqualities.ThesocialandpoliticalviewpointtowhichSpencer'stheoret icalview sleadiscalledSocialDarwinism .Thispositionwouldbecomethejusti ficationforthedisseminationofracistandotherw iseperniciousdoctrinessuchaseugenics,theactiveweedingoutofparticularkindsofpersons(SeeHofstadter1955).Perhapsthebestwaytosummarizethischapterisby point-ingoutthesim ilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenComteandSpencer :1

. bothSpencerandComtebelieved that theuniverseisgovernedbyunderstandable,invariablenaturallaws;


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3 8ISociologicalTheory2 .thatthedifferentbranchesofknowledgeformarational whole;

3 .thatpositivemethodsshouldbeusedexclusivelywithoutanymetaphysicalspeculation;4 .thatsocialphenomenaform aninterdependentwhole ;5 .bothdevelopedtheoriesofevolutionandprogress ;

and6 .eachdevelopedtypologies(acomparativescheme

usingideal forms)oftypesofsociety.Spencerdisagreed, however,withthefollowingassertionsofComte:1 .thatsocietypassedthroughthreedistinctstages;2 .thatcausalitywaslessimportantthanrelationsofaffinity;3 .thatgovernmentcanusesociologytointervenein

society;4 .thatthesciencesdevelopedinanyparticularorder;and5 .thatpsychologywasonlyasubdisciplineofbiology.

Spencerthusemergesasmoreofan individualist ,whereasCom tepresentswhatismoreof acombinationofliberalindi-vidualistandconservative,collectivistnotionsandarguments.Allofthisnowsets thestageforourpresentationof the"big three"classical,sociolog icaltheorists:Marx,Durkheim ,andWeber.TheEnlightenment, theConservativeReaction ,Comte,andSpencer initiatedthebasicterm semployed inthesubsequentdiscussionof thenatureofhumansociety.

Liberalandconservativeviewpointsbothinformedtheseconceptsastheycontinuedtheirdevelopmentintothelatenineteenthcentury .

enlightenment from hadden-sociological theory-the classical tradition

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