english usage noths

8/10/2019 ENGLISH Usage noths

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Sentence correction techniques for CAT

As part of the English Usage (EU) section of CAT, Verbal Ability (VA) is tested. Sentence Correction (SC) comprises a major part of this section. The ideais to chec the st!dents" strength in English #ocab!lary and grammar.

$isted belo% are some of the short c!t techni&!es that %ill be helpf!l in sol#ing the SC &!estions in CAT.

Since these &!estions are m!ltiple choices in nat!re, the f!ndamental ey to sol#ing these &!estions is al%ays to eliminate the wrong options giveninstead of looking for the right answer.

How to Eliminate the Wrong Choice:

There are standard set of grammar r!les that are tested as part of the sentence correction &!estions. 'f yo! can identify and eliminate these errors, itbecomes easy to locate the right ans%er. So, check each answer for faulty grammar.

Eliminate answers that are verbose(%ordy). The sentence may not be grammatically %rong b!t select the ans%er that con#eys its meaning in

the most concise manner.

Eliminate answers containing improper vocabulary usage. (emember the problem #erbs and prepositions)

Eliminate answers that uses slang expressions.y Slang, %e mean those #ocab!laries that are normally not !sed in formal %ritten English.

Grammar ules that are usually tested in the entrance exams like C!"

*. S!bject+Verb agreement. -arallel Constr!ction

. /isplaced /odifiers0. Tenses1. -rono!n reference2. 3!antity %ords4. Comparisons

#ote: "his list is not exhaustive. $ome of the other topics are already covered in the Grammar exercises.


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Usage of CommaCommas are !sed to separate parts of a sentence. They often tell readers to pa!se bet%een %ords, and they help clarify the meaning of sentences. elo%are some of the most common sit!ations in %hich commas are needed.

1. %etween items in a series: Commas are !sed to separate %ords, phrases, or cla!ses in a list.

2. %etween independent clauses separated by a con&unction '"o connect ( stand)alone sentences*: An independent cla!se is a gro!p of %ords thatcan form a complete sentence %itho!t depending on another cla!se to be complete. 'f t%o independent cla!ses are joined by a coordinatingconj!nction (for, and, nor, b!t, or, yet, and so), the conj!nction m!st ha#e a comma before it. A comma is also necessary %hen t%o independentcla!ses are joined by a pair of correlating conj!nctions s!ch as either5or, neither5nor, and not only5b!t also.

3. !fter an introductory+ dependent clause: A dependent cla!se is a gro!p of %ords that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence. An introd!ctorydependent cla!se often begins %ith a s!bordinating conj!nction s!ch as altho!gh, after, beca!se, if, since, !ntil, %hen, as, %hile, etc. that maes it

dependent on a second cla!se.

4. %etween coordinating ad&ectives: A comma is !sed to separate coordinating adjecti#es, %hich are descripti#e %ords !sed to modify the same no!nand co!ld be %ritten in the opposite order in the sentence. These adjecti#es can also be separated by the %ord and instead of a comma.

5. !round nonessential words ',arenthetical -nformation*: Commas are !sed to set off nonessential %ords, phrases, or cla!ses. These appear after a

no!n and can be remo#ed from the sentence %itho!t changing its meaning.NOTE: Clauses beginning with which are always preceded by a comma whereas clauses beginning with that are never preceded by a comma.

6. With day+ date+ and address

7. !round appositives: Commas are !sed to set off appositi#es, %hich are %ords or phrases that rename a no!n.

8. %efore and after uotations '/irect speech*: Commas are !sed to separate &!otations from the sentences in %hich they are fo!nd. Closing commasand periods almost al%ays go inside the &!otation mars.

9. With place names and dates: A comma sho!ld separate the name of a city from its state, and if a city is listed %ith its state or co!ntry, a comma isalso needed after the name of the state or co!ntry. 6hen dates are %ritten, a comma is needed bet%een the date and year and bet%een the name of aday and its date. 'f a date, month, and year are listed together, a comma is needed after the year as %ell.

10. !roundnouns of direct address: Commas set off no!ns of direct address, %hich are the names of indi#id!als being spoen to.

11. With con&unctive adverbs 'moreover+ furthermore+ however+ accordingly* and transitional phrases 'as a result+ rather than+ in fact*


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77777777777777777777, in fact, 7777777777777777777777777777.

77777777777777777777777. /oreo#er, 7777777777777777777777777.

777777777777777777777778 as a res!lt, 777777777777777777777777.

Comma $plice

A comma alone cannot be !sed to connect 5 join t%o independent cla!ses or stand+alone sentences. This res!lts in a p!nct!ation error no%n as 9CommaSplice".

un)on $entences

6hen t%o or more independent cla!se or stand+alone sentences are connected 5 joined %itho!t p!nct!ations or conj!nctions then it res!lts in a p!nct!ationerror no%n as 9!n+on Sentence".

"he following options are used to correct 0Comma $plice1 or 0un)on $entences1

*. Separate the t%o independent cla!ses %ith a period, and mae t%o sentences.. Use a coordinating conj!nction (for, and, nor, b!t) after a comma and bet%een t%o independent cla!ses.. Add a s!bordinating conj!nction (after, before tho!gh, %here, %hile) to the beginning of one independent cla!se to mae it dependent.0. Connect the t%o independent cla!ses %ith a semicolon.1. Use a semicolon pl!s a conj!ncti#e ad#erb (accordingly, ho%e#er, mean%hile) and a comma to separate independent cla!ses.


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Subjunctive

'n grammar, the sub&unctive mood(sometimes referred to as the con&unctive mood) is a #erb mood that e:ists in many lang!ages. 't is typically !sed in

dependent cla!ses to e:press %ishes, commands, emotion, possibility, j!dgment, necessity, or statements that are contrary to fact at present. The details ofs!bj!ncti#e !se #ary from lang!age to lang!age.

2orm

The s!bj!ncti#e in /odern English is easily disting!ished in a great #ariety of conte:ts %here the sense is past tense, b!t the form of the s!bj!ncti#e #erbre&!ired is present;


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4$E

The S!bj!ncti#e is !sed to emphasi=e !rgency or importance. 't is !sed after certain e:pressions (see belo%).E:amples;

' s!ggest that he study.

's it essential that %e bethere> ?on recommended that yo!&ointhe committee.

#5"-CE

The S!bj!ncti#e is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses. 'n the e:amples belo%, the S!bj!ncti#e is not noticeable in the yo!+form of the #erb, b!t itis noticeable in the he+form of the #erb.E:amples;

@o! tryto st!dy often.you-form of "try"

't is important that yo! tryto st!dy often. Subjunctive form of "try" loo! te !#me.

e triesto st!dy often. e-form of "try"

't is important that he tryto st!dy often. Subjunctive form of "try" i! notice#ble ere.

A s!bj!ncti#e #erb is !sed to e:press B(*) conditional tenses, most of %hich in#ol#es %o!ld and %ere

() %ishes and demands, the constr!ction of %hich follo%s t%o strict r!les() that al%ays comes right after the #erb, and the second #erb is al%ays in the infiniti#e form and sho!ld is al%ays omitted

The second !se of a s!bj!ncti#e constr!ction*. The follo%ing #erbs are !sed +++ %ith s!ch a constr!ction to e:press importance (in s!ch moods only). Also remember that s!ch #erbs ha#e other

forms of !sage (follo%ed by to infiniti#e, for e:ample) %hen !sed in other moods.

asproposedemandrecommenddesirere&!estinsistre&!ire

prefers!ggest .


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!rge

The 'ndian go#ernment demanded that the U paycompensations for damages of the 'ndian embassy.

. Do!ns deri#ed from s!bj!ncti#e #erbs abo#e are also !sed %ith the constr!ction.

demandrecommendationinsistencere&!est

preferencere&!est

proposals!ggestion

The U is considering the proposal that it paycompensations for damages of the 'ndian embassy.

. The adjecti#es belo% are also !sed to e:press s!bj!ncti#e moods B

essentialimperati#eimportantnecessary

't is essential that the U pay compensation for the 'ndian go#ernment for the damages of the 'ndian embassy.

Verbs Followed by the Subunctive

The S!bj!ncti#e is !sed after the follo%ing #erbs;to ad#ise (that)

to as (that)to command (that)

to demand (that)to desire (that)

to insist (that)to propose (that)to recommend (that)to re&!est (that)


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to s!ggest (that)to !rge (that)

E:amples;

?r. Smith asked that/ar submithis research paper before the end of the month.

?onna reuestedran cometo the party. The teacher insists thather st!dents beon time.

E!pressions Followed by the Subunctive

The S!bj!ncti#e is !sed after the follo%ing e:pressions;'t is best (that)'t is cr!cial (that)'t is desirable (that)'t is essential (that)

't is imperati#e (that)

't is important (that)'t is recommended (that)'t is !rgent (that)

't is #ital (that)'t is a good idea (that)

't is a bad idea (that)

E:amples; -t is crucial thatyo! bethere before Tom arri#es.

-t is important she attendthe meeting.

-t is recommended thathe takea gallon of %ater %ith him if he %ants to hie to the bottom of the Frand Canyon.

Negative" Continuous and #assive Forms o$ Subunctive

The S!bj!ncti#e can be !sed in negati#e, contin!o!s and passi#e forms.

Degati#e E:amples; The boss insisted that Sam not beat the meeting.

The company ased that employees not acceptpersonal phone calls d!ring b!siness ho!rs.

' s!ggest that yo! not takethe job %itho!t renegotiating the salary.


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-assi#e E:amples; Gae recommended that S!san be hiredimmediately.

Christine demanded that ' be allowedto tae part in the negotiations.

6e s!ggested that yo! be admittedto the organi=ation.

Contin!o!s E:amples; 't is important that yo! be standingthere %hen he gets off the plane.

't is cr!cial that a car be waitingfor the boss %hen the meeting is o#er.

' propose that %e all be waitingin TimHs apartment %hen he gets home.

Should as Subunctive

After many of the abo#e e:pressions, the %ord


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Tenses$imple ,resent: 67erb8 9s3es in third person $ingular ) ' studyEnglish e#eryday

4se : 2or repeated actions

Use the Simple -resent to e:press the idea that an action is repeated or !s!al. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily e#ent, a sched!led e#ent or

something that often happens. 't can also be something a person often forgets or !s!ally does not do.Example: 'playtennis8 The train leavese#ery morning at I a.m.8e ne#er$orgetshis %allet8 #ery t%el#e months, the Earth circles the s!n

4se (: 2acts or Generali;ation:

The Simple -resent can also indicate the speaer belie#es that a fact %as tr!e before, is tr!e no%, and %ill be tr!e in the f!t!re. 't is not important if the

speaer is correct abo!t the fact. 't is also !sed to mae generali=ations abo!t people or things.Example: Cats li%emil8 ?elhi isin 'ndia8 ?oors aremade of %ood

4se


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Examples: The b!s leavestonight at 4.JJ p.m.8 6hen doyo! boardthe train>

4se =: #ow '#on)continuous verbs*

Sometimes speaers !se the Simple -resent to e:press the idea that an action is happening or is not happening no%. This can only be done %ith Non&continuous Verbsand certain'i!ed Verbs.Example: e hasa car8 e needshelp right no%

$imple ,resent in !ctive and ,assive voice:

Knce a month, Gohn cleansthe car (Acti#e)Knce a month, the car is cleanedby Gohn (-assi#e)$imple ,ast: >7erb9ed?

Kne year ago, ' studiedEnglish in U.

4se : Completed action in the past

Use the Simple -ast to e:press the idea that an action started and finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes the speaer may not act!ally mention

the specific time, b!t they do ha#e one specific time in mind.

Example: ' sawa mo#ie yesterday8 $ast year, ' traveledto A!stralia8 She didn"t %ash her car

4se (: ! series of completed actions

6e !se the Simple -ast to list a series of completed actions in the past. These actions happen *st, nd, rd, 0th...Example: '$inished%or, wal%edto the pla=a, and atedinner at a nice resta!rant8

e arrivedfrom the station at L p.m., chec%edinto the room at I p.m. and metothers at *J p.m.


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4se 4se @: 5ld 2acts or Generali;ations

The Simple -ast can also be !sed to describe old facts or generali=ations, %hich are no longer tr!e. As in USE 0 abo#e, this !se of the Simple -ast is &!ite

similar to the e:pression (used to)

Examples: She wasshy as a child, b!t no% she is #ery o!tgoing.

e didn*tlie tomatoes before.

-A,5"!#" BWhen clausesB happen first


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Cla!ses are gro!ps of %ords, %hich ha#e meaning b!t are not complete sentences. Some cla!ses begin %ith the %ord wens!ch as


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4se


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Example: ' am not goingto the %edding tonight

4se =: epetition and -rritation with !lwaysD

The -resent Contin!o!s %ith %ords s!ch as MAl%aysN and MConstantlyN e:presses the idea that something irritating or shocing al%ays happens. Doticethat the meaning is lie Simple -resent, b!t %ith negati#e emotion. emember to p!t %ords MAl%aysN or MConstantlyN bet%een MbeN and M#erbOing.NExamples: She is constantly tal%ing8 e is al%ays comingto class late.

4se of ,resent Continuous in !ctive and passive voice

ight no%, Gohn is writingthe letter (Acti#e)ight no%, the letter is being writtenby Gohn (-assi#e)

#ote: 't is important to remember that Don+Contin!o!s Verbs cannot be !sed in any contin!o!s tenses. Also, certain non+contin!o!s meanings for /i:edVerbs cannot be !sed in contin!o!s tenses. 'nstead of !sing -resent Contin!o!s %ith these #erbs, yo! m!st !se Simple -resent.

,ast Continuous: 6Was3Were8 9 ,resent ,articiple

' was studyingEnglish %hen yo! called yesterday

4se : -nterrupted !ction in the past

Use the -ast Contin!o!s to indicate that a longer action in the past %as interr!pted. The interr!ption is !s!ally a shorter action in the Simple -ast.emember this can be a real interr!ption or j!st an interr!ption in time.Example: ' was watchingmo#ie %hen she called

6hile %e were havingthe party, it started to rain

4se (: $pecific time as an interruption


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'n USE *, described abo#e, the -ast Contin!o!s is interr!pted by a shorter action in the Simple -ast. o%e#er, yo! can also !se a specific time as an

interr!ption.Example: @esterday at this time, ' was travelingby train to angalore.

$ast night at L.JJ p.m., ' was eatingdinner.

#ote:'n the Simple -ast, a specific time is !sed to sho% %hen an action began or finished. 'n the -ast Contin!o!s, a specific time only interr!pts theaction.Example: $ast night at L.JJ p.m., ' atedinner (' started eating at L.JJ p.m.)

4se


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While vs. When

Cla!ses are gro!ps of %ords %hich ha#e meaning, b!t are often not complete sentences. Some cla!ses begin %ith the %ord


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4$E -nterrupted !ction in the 2uture

Use the !t!re Contin!o!s to indicate that a longer action in the f!t!re %ill be interr!pted by a shorter action in the f!t!re. emember this can be a realinterr!ption or j!st an interr!ption in time.Examples: ' will be watchingTV %hen she #rrive!tonight.

' will be waitingfor yo! %hen yo!r b!s #rrive!.' am going to be stayingat the /adison otel, if anything #$$en!and yo! nee%to contact me.e will be studyingat the library tonight, so he %ill not see Gennifer %hen she #rrive!.

Dotice in the e:amples abo#e that the interr!ptions (m#re% in it#lic!) are in Simple -resent rather than Simple !t!re. This is beca!se the interr!ptions

are in time cla!ses, and yo! cannot !se f!t!re tenses in time cla!ses.

4$E ( $pecific "ime as an -nterruption in the 2uture

'n USE *, described abo#e, the !t!re Contin!o!s is interr!pted by a short action in the f!t!re. 'n addition to !sing short actions as interr!ptions, yo! canalso !se a specific time as an interr!ption.Examples: Tonight at 2 -/, ' am going to be eatingdinner.

& '&(()*&+,*/*SS*,&+&++*/.At midnight tonight, %e willstill be drivingthro!gh the desert.

'*'&(()*&+,*/*SS/&&+,/,**S*/,.

EAEA%E

'n the Simple !t!re, a specific time is !sed to sho% the time an action %ill begin or end. 'n the !t!re Contin!o!s, a specific time interr!pts the action.

Examples: Tonight at 2 -/, ' am going to eatdinner.&&+,S,/,*,&+,6 .

Tonight at 2 -/, ' am going to be eatingdinner.&&+,S,/,*/(&*/+& '&(()*&+,*/*SS*,&+&++*/,6 .

4$E < ,arallel !ctions in the 2uture


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6hen yo! !se the !t!re Contin!o!s %ith t%o actions in the same sentence, it e:presses the idea that both actions %ill be happening at the same time. Theactions are parallel.Examples: ' am going to be studyingand he is going to be makingdinner.

Tonight, they will be eatingdinner, discussingtheir plans, and havinga good time.6hile Ellen i! re#%in, Tim will be watchingtele#ision.

+,&*"&S/*&+")*S*,*,&*(S*+,&+&+"'&(*." :S***;(+,&+)*('


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DKTE; -assi#e forms of the !t!re Contin!o!s are not common.

,resent ,erfect' have studiedEnglish in different schools2orm

6has3have 9 past participle8

Examples: @o! have seenthat mo#ie many times.Haveyo! seenthat mo#ie many times>@o! have not seenthat mo#ie many times.

4$E 4nspecified "ime %efore #ow

6e !se the -resent -erfect to say that an action happened at an !nspecified time before no%. The e:act time is not important. @o! CADDKT !se the

-resent -erfect %ith specific time e:pressions s!ch as; yesterday, one year ago, last %ee, %hen ' %as a child, %hen ' li#ed in Gapan, at that moment, thatday, one day, etc. 6e CAD !se the -resent -erfect %ith !nspecific e:pressions s!ch as; e#er, ne#er, once, many times, se#eral times, before, so far, already,yet, etc.Examples: ' have seenthat mo#ie t%enty times.

' thin ' have methim once before.There have beenmany earth&!aes in California.

-eople have traveledto the /oon.-eople have not traveledto /ars.Haveyo! readthe boo yet>

Dobody hase#er climbedthat mo!ntain.A; Hasthere e#er beena %ar in the United States>; @es, there has beena %ar in the United States.

The concept of


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Aultiple !ctions at /ifferent "imes

6e also !se the -resent -erfect to tal abo!t se#eral different actions %hich ha#e occ!rred in the past at different times. -resent -erfect s!ggests the

process is not complete and more actions are possible.

Examples: The army has attackedthat city fi#e times.' have hadfo!r &!i==es and fi#e tests so far this semester.6e have hadmany major problems %hile %oring on this project.She has talkedto se#eral specialists abo!t her problem, b!t nobody no%s %hy she is sic.

"ime Expressions with ,resent ,erfect

6hen %e !se the -resent -erfect it means that something has happened at some point in o!r li#es before no%. emember, the e:act time the actionhappened is not important.

Sometimes, %e %ant to limit the time %e are looing in for an e:perience. 6e can do this %ith e:pressions s!ch as; in the last %ee, in the last year, this%ee, this month, so far, !p to no%, etc.

Examples: Haveyo! beento /e:ico in the last year>

' have seenthat mo#ie si: times in the last month.They have hadthree tests in the last week.

#5"-CE


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HadS!san e#er studiedThai before she mo#ed to Thailand>She only !nderstood the mo#ie beca!se she had readthe boo.

ristine hadne#er beento an opera before last night.6e %ere not able to get a hotel room beca!se %e had not bookedin ad#ance.

A; Hadyo! e#er visitedthe U.S. before yo!r trip in JJ2>

; @es, ' had beento the U.S. once before.

4$E ( /uration before $omething in the ,ast '#on)Continuous 7erbs*

6ith Don+Contin!o!s Verbs and some non+contin!o!s !ses of /i:ed Verbs, %e !se the -ast -erfect to sho% that something started in the past andcontin!ed !p !ntil another action in the past.Examples: 6e had hadthat car for ten years before it broe do%n.

y the time Ale: finished his st!dies, he had beenin $ondon for o#er eight years.They felt bad abo!t selling the ho!se beca!se they had ownedit for more than forty years.

-A,5"!#" $pecific "imes with the ,ast ,erfect

Unlie %ith the -resent -erfect, it is possible to !se specific time %ords or phrases %ith the -ast -erfect. Altho!gh this is possible, it is !s!ally notnecessary.

Example: She had visitedher Gapanese relati#es once in *II before she mo#ed in %ith them in *II2.

A5E57E

'f the -ast -erfect action did occ!r at a specific time, the Simple -ast can be !sed instead of the -ast -erfect %hen


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H5WE7E

'f the -ast -erfect is not referring to an action at a specific time, -ast -erfect is not optional. Compare the e:amples belo%. ere -ast -erfect is referring to

a lac of e:perience rather than an action at a specific time. or this reason, Simple -ast cannot be !sed.Examples: She ne#er sawa bear before she mo#ed to Alasa.Not Correct

She hadne#er seena bear before she mo#ed to Alasa. Correct

,ast ,erfect form in !ctive F ,assive voice

E:amples; Feorge had repairedmany cars before he recei#ed his mechanicHs license. ,&*/any cars had been repairedby Feorge before he recei#ed his mechanicHs license. SS&*

2uture ,erfect

!t!re -erfect has t%o different forms; M%ill ha#e doneN and

@o! will not have perfectedyo!r English by the time yo! come bac from the U.S.

25A 2uture ,erfect with B%e Going "oB

6am3is3are 9 going to have 9 past participle8

Examples: @o! are going to have perfectedyo!r English by the time yo! come bac from the U.S.!reyo! going to have perfectedyo!r English by the time yo! come bac from the U.S.>@o! are not going to have perfectedyo!r English by the time yo! come bac from the U.S.


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DKTE; 't is possible to !se either


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They will have completedthe project before the deadline.,&*The project will have been completedbefore the deadline.SS&*

They are going to have completedthe project before the deadline.,&*The project is going to have been completedbefore the deadline.SS&*


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,resent ,erfect Continuous

25A

6has3have 9 been 9 present participle8

Examples: @o! have been waitinghere for t%o ho!rs.Haveyo! been waitinghere for t%o ho!rs>@o! have not been waitinghere for t%o ho!rs.

4$E /uration from the ,ast 4ntil #ow

6e !se the -resent -erfect Contin!o!s to sho% that something started in the past and has contin!ed !p !ntil no%.


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yo! smell the smoe on the person. Using this tense in a &!estion s!ggests yo! can see, smell, hear or feel the res!lts of the action. 't is possible to ins!ltsomeone by !sing this tense incorrectly.

,resent ,erfect Continuous form in !ctive F ,assive voice

ecently, Gohn has been doingthe %or.,&*ecently, the %or has been being doneby Gohn.SS&*

DKTE; -resent -erfect Contin!o!s is less commonly !sed in its passi#e form.,ast ,erfect Continuous

25A

6had been 9 present participle8

E:amples; @o! had been waitingthere for more than t%o ho!rs %hen she finally arri#ed.

Hadyo! been waitingthere for more than t%o ho!rs %hen she finally arri#ed>@o! had not been waitingthere for more than t%o ho!rs %hen she finally arri#ed.

4$E /uration %efore $omething in the ,ast

6e !se the -ast -erfect Contin!o!s to sho% that something started in the past and contin!ed !p !ntil another time in the past. ; ' had not been studyingT!rish #ery long.

4$E ( Cause of $omething in the ,ast


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Using the -ast -erfect Contin!o!s before another action in the past is a good %ay to sho% ca!se and effect.Examples: Gason %as tired beca!se he had been &ogging.

Sam gained %eight beca!se he had been overeating.

etty failed the final test beca!se she had not been attendingclass.

,ast Continuous vs. ,ast ,erfect Continuous

'f yo! do not incl!de a d!ration s!ch as


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Willyo! have been waitingfor more than t%o ho!rs %hen her plane finally arri#es>@o! will not have been waitingfor more than t%o ho!rs %hen her plane finally arri#es.

25A 2uture ,erfect Continuous with B%e Going "oB

6am3is3are 9 going to have been 9 present participle8

Examples: @o! are going to have been waitingfor more than t%o ho!rs %hen her plane finally arri#es.!reyo! going to have been waitingfor more than t%o ho!rs %hen her plane finally arri#es>@o! are not going to have been waitingfor more than t%o ho!rs %hen her plane finally arri#es.

DKTE; 't is possible to !se either


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Using the !t!re -erfect Contin!o!s before another action in the f!t!re is a good %ay to sho% ca!se and effect.Examples: Gason %ill be tired %hen he gets home beca!se he will have been &oggingfor o#er an ho!r.

Cla!diaHs English %ill be perfect %hen she ret!rns to Fermany beca!se she is going to have been studyingEnglish in the United Statesfor o#er t%o years.

2uture Continuous vs. 2uture ,erfect Continuous

'f yo! do not incl!de a d!ration s!ch as


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Modals

Modals usage

C!#

Aodal use ,resent ,ast 2uture emarks

Feneral ability ' can spea Chinese S'TS TK


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s!pposition.)

C54/


-ossibility Gohn co!ld be the one %ho

stole the money.

Gohn co!ld ha#e been the

one %ho stole the money.

Gohn co!ld be charged %ith

the crime %hen the policefinish the in#estigation.

@o! can also !se 9might or

may"

Conditional(can, co!ld)

'f ' had more time, ' co!ldtra#el aro!nd the %orld.

'f ' had had more time, 'co!ld ha#e tra#eled aro!nd

the %orld.

'f ' had more time this %inter,' co!ld tra#el aro!nd the

%orld.

S!ggestion D.A. @o! co!ld ha#e spent yo!r

#acation in a%aii.

@o! co!ld spend yo!r

#acation in a%aii.

-ast ability D.A. ' co!ld r!n ten miles in my

t%enties.

D.A. @o! can also !se 9be able

to"

-olite re&!est D.A. D.A. Co!ld ' borro% yo!r stapler>(e&!ests !s!ally refer to the

near f!t!re.)

@o! can also !se 9can,may, might"

A!


-ossibility Gac may be !pset. ' canHtreally tell if he is annoyed or

tired.

Gac may ha#e been !pset. 'co!ldnHt really tell if he %as

annoyed or tired.

Gac may get !pset if yo!donHt tell him the tr!th.

@o! can also !se 9might"

-ermission @o! may lea#e the table no%

that yo!Hre finished %ith yo!rdinner.

S'T TK


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Conditional 'f ' entered the contest, ' mightact!ally %in.

'f ' had entered the contest,' might act!ally ha#e %on.

'f ' entered the contesttomorro%, ' might act!ally

%in. Unfort!nately, ' canHtenter it.

S!ggestion D.A. @o! might ha#e tried the

cheese cae.

@o! might try the cheesecae. @o! can also !se 9co!ld"

e&!est(Us!ally a ritish form of!sage)

D.A. D.A. /ight ' borro% the stapler>(e&!ests !s!ally refer to thenear f!t!re.)

@o! can also !se 9co!ld,may, can"

EAEA%E: BAight notB vs. BCould notB


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red shall be there by L;JJ.

Vol!nteering 5 -romising(ritish form)

D.A. D.A. ' shall tae care of e#erythingfor yo!.' shall mae the tra#elarrangements.

@o! can also !se 9%ill"

'ne#itability (ritish form) D.A. D.A. /an shall e:plore the distantregions of the !ni#erse.6e shall o#ercomeoppression.

@o! can also !se 9%ill"

$H54/


ecommendation5

Ad#isability

-eople %ith high cholesterol

sho!ld eat lo% fat foods.

ran sho!ld ha#e eaten

lo% fat foods. That mightha#e pre#ented his heart

attac.

@o! really sho!ld start eating

better.

@o! can also !se 9o!ght to"

Kbligation D.A. D.A. P ' sho!ld be at %or beforeI;JJ.6e sho!ld ret!rn the #ideo

before the #ideo rental storecloses.(P


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the De% @or office.red %ill be there by L;JJ.

Vol!nteering 5 -romising D.A. D.A. ' %ill tae care of e#erythingfor yo!.' %ill mae the tra#el

arrangements. ThereHs noneed to %orry.

@o! can also !se 9shall"

W54/


Conditional 'f ' %ere -resident, ' %o!ld c!t

the cost of ed!cation.

'f ' had been -resident, '

%o!ld ha#e c!t the cost ofed!cation.

'f ' %ere elected -resident

ne:t year, ' %o!ld c!t the costof ed!cation.

-ast form of 9%ill" D.A. ' said ' %o!ld help yo!.e told me he %o!ld be

here before L;JJ.

D.A.

epetition in the past D.A. 6hen ' %as a id, ' %o!ldal%ays go to the beach.

D.A. @o! can also !se 9!sed to"


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Conditionals

Conditionals can broadly be classified into 9three time periods B present, past, and f!t!re" and tae t%o forms 9real and !nreal conditionals"

,E$E#" E! C5#/-"-5#!

The -resent eal Conditional is !sed to tal abo!t %hat yo! normally do in real+life sit!ations.25A

Q'f 5 6hen ... Simple -resent ..., ... Simple -resent ...RQ... Simple -resent ... if 5 %hen ... Simple -resent ...RExamples: 'f ' goto a friendHs ho!se for dinner, ' !s!ally takea bottle of %ine or some flo%ers.

6hen ' havea day off from %or, ' often goto the beach.

-A,5"!#" -f 3 When

oth


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,!$" E! C5#/-"-5#!The -ast eal Conditional describes %hat yo! !sed to do in partic!lar real+life sit!ations. 't s!ggests that yo!r habits ha#e changed and yo! do not

!s!ally do these things today.25A

Q'f 5 6hen ... Simple -ast ..., ... Simple -ast ...R

Q... Simple -ast... if 5 %hen ... Simple -ast ...RExamples: 'f ' wentto a friendHs ho!se for dinner, ' !s!ally tooka bottle of %ine or some flo%ers. ' donHt do that anymore.

-A,5"!#" 4sed to

The form

-A,5"!#" -f 3 When

oth


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The !t!re eal Conditional describes %hat yo! thin yo! %ill do in a specific sit!ation in the f!t!re. 't is different from other eal Conditionalforms beca!se, !nlie the present or the past, yo! do not no% %hat %ill happen in the f!t!re. Altho!gh this form is called =+((*.

24"4E 4#E! C5#/-"-5#!

2orm The !t!re Unreal Conditional is !sed to tal abo!t imaginary sit!ations in the f!t!re. 't is not as common as the !t!re eal Conditionalbeca!se English speaers often lea#e open the possibility that anything /'FT happen in the f!t!re. 't is only !sed %hen a speaer needs to

emphasi=e that something is impossible.

25A 'Aost Common 2orm*Q'f ... Simple -ast ..., ... %o!ld O #erb ...RQ... %o!ld O #erb ... if ... Simple -ast ...R

Notice that this $orm loo%s the same as #resent nreal Conditional.

Examples: 'f ' hada day off from %or ne:t %ee, ' would goto the beach.

&+B,*=/'/A.' am b!sy ne:t %ee. 'f ' hadtime, ' would cometo yo!r party.

& +B,*.


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2orm (of the !t!re Unreal Conditional is also !sed to tal abo!t imaginary sit!ations in the near f!t!re. Dati#e speaers !se this form ratherthan orm * to emphasi=e that the conditional form is a plan in the same %ay -resent Contin!o!s can be !sed to indicate a plan in the near f!t!re.

Also notice in the e:amples belo% that this form can be !sed in the if+cla!se, the res!lt, or both parts of the sentence.25A (

Q'f ... %ere O present participle ..., ... %o!ld be O present participle ...R

Q... %o!ld be O present participle ... if ... %ere O present participle ...RExamples: 'f ' were goingto iji ne:t %ee, ' would be takingmy sc!ba di#ing gear %ith me.&n if-cl#u!e #n% re!ult&+,&+,,&@&+&+,&+,,A*=S)*/'&,*.'f ' were not visitingmy grandmother tomorro%, ' would helpyo! st!dy.&n if-cl#u!e

&&+,&S&,=/+,*/,//'.2orm


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E!pressions that will help you to decide the tone o$ the passage:

Aggrandi=e increase in po%er, ran %ealth, and importance

Aggrie#ed sho%ing or e:pressing resentment or h!rtAgnostic holding the #ie% that !ltimate reality is !nno%n and probably !nno%able

Antipathy dislie, distaste or fi:ed a#ersionAn:iety apprehensi#e, !neasiness of mind

Apathetic sho%ing little or no feelingApologetic regretf!lly acno%ledging

Appealing attract, mo#e the feelings of

Appeasement to pacify, to conciliateAppreciati#e to recogni=e or to admire highly

Apprehensi#e #ie%ing %ith an:ietyAppraising e#al!ate the %orth or merit

iased to gi#e a prej!dice o!tloo, to infl!ence !nfairly

elligerent e:hibiting, asserti#eness, hostilityemoan to e:press regret

ene#olent ind and helpf!li=arre grotes&!e, odd

raggadocio empty boasting!oyant cheerf!lly, light hearted

Candid fran, straightfor%ard

Cha!#inistic !nreasoning enth!siasm for the glory of one"s o%n co!ntry or ass!me an air ofs!periority

Complacent self+satisfied

Complaisant tending to consent to other"s %ishesCommendatory to recommend something as %orthy

Complimentary e:pressing one"s appro#al or praiseCondemnation cens!re, j!dge, blame

Conject!ral dra%ing concl!sion from inade&!ate e#idenceConscientio!s metic!lo!s, caref!l, committed, g!ided by one"s sense of d!ty, actions done caref!lly

and honestlyContemplati#e tho!ghtf!l


43/44

Contempt the act of despisingContradictory to deny the tr!th of, contrary to

Con#ersational a disc!ssion or sharing of ideas

Con#incing mae or feel certain, ca!se to reali=eCritical inclined to critici=e habit!ally

Cynical of or lie a cynic, sneering or contempt!o!s?efensi#e ser#ing to defend something

?ejected cast do%n in spirits, depressed?iffident lacing self+confidence

?isapprobation disappro#al

?isgr!ntled aggrie#ed?oc!mentary presentation based on facts

Eb!llience the &!ality of being f!ll of li#eliness and enth!siasmEcstatic e:pression, strong feeling or emotion

Eff!si#e !nd!ly, emotionally, demonstrati#e

Egocentric limited in o!tloo or concern to one"s o%n acti#ities of needs, self+centeredEgregio!s shocingly bad

Elite (elitist) a small s!perior gro!pEncomi!m e:pression of %arm or high praise

E!logy piece of %riting in praise of somebodyE!phemism !se of other mild, #ag!e, indirect %ords or phrases in place of %hat is re&!ired

by tr!th e.g., 9passing a%ay" for death

E:egetic an e:position, interpretation or a critical acco!ntE:tol to praise high

anatic one %ho is e:cessi#ely and often !ncritically enth!siastic abo!t something

antasy !nrestricted creati#e imaginationatalism the belief that all e#ents are predetermined and o!tside the control of h!man

eingseminism the ad#ocacy of f!rtherance of a %oman"s rights

er#ent, fer#id e:hibiting deep sincere emotion, ardentictitio!s not real, imagined or in#ented

ig!rati#e lang!age !sed not in the real sence b!t in an imaginati#e %aylippant lacing proper respect or serio!sness


44/44

Fa!dy tastelessly ornamentedForgeo!s splendidly bea!tif!l or magnificent

Fratifying satisfying

!moro!s characteri=ed by h!mor yperbole e:tra#antage e:aggeration

ypothetical in#ol#ing logical hypothesis, s!pposition or conject!ral'gnominio!s ca!sing disgrace

'nsentient not endo%ed %ith the capacity to sympathi=e the needs of people'rony !se of %ords to e:press a meaning other than, especially the opposite, of the literal

meaning

Gingoism belligerent patriotism, cha!#inism$ogical conforming to logic

$!cid clear to !nderstand, plain/etaphor a fig!re of speech in %hich a %ord or phrase literally denoting one ind of object or idea is applied to another to

s!ggest a lieness or analogy bet%een them

/etonymy a fig!re of speech in %hich the name of an attrib!te of a thing is !sed in place of thing itselfKppressi#e !nreasonably harsh or ser#er

Kptimism feels hopef!l abo!t a tendency to emphasis fa#o!rable aspects of a sit!ation.-essimism a tendency to stress the ad#erse aspects of a sit!ation or an e#ent or e:pect the %orst

-ossible o!tcome-henomenal a theory of being theoretical

-!ngent ha#ing a stiff and sharp point

ambling lacing a definite planes!me a s!mmary

Satire biting %it, a literary %or holding !p h!man #ices

Sarcastic scornf!l, mocing, sneering6himsical fancy, &!ality of being ornamental

english usage noths

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