english teacher study guide

8/11/2019 English Teacher Study Guide

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CEOEEnglish (07)

Comprehensive Success System

Table of ContentsEnglish Literature Study Questions ....................................................................................................................... 2Literary Analysis .................................................................................................................................................... 2Critical Theory .....................................................................................................................................................14Answers to Study Questions ................................................................................................................................ 15Quick Answers to Study Questions ..................................................................................................................... 20Textual Analysis of Poetry ..................................................................................................................................21Sample Essay-Textual Analysis of Poetry .......................................................................................................... 21Critical Reading .................................................................................................................................................... 22Composition and Rhetoric ...................................................................................................................................24Common Rhetorical Devices ............................................................................................................................... 25Effective Reading ................................................................................................................................................. 26

Narrative Point of View ....................................................................................................................................... 28Grammar in Writing ............................................................................................................................................. 29Sentence Structure ................................................................................................................................................ 34Punctuating for Emphasis ....................................................................................................................................34Common Misuses and Tricky Concepts .............................................................................................................. 40Using the Five Senses .......................................................................................................................................... 49First Person, Second Person, Third Person ......................................................................................................... 50Poetry and Prose ................................................................................................................................................... 51

Essay Writing .......................................................................................................................................................56Modern English Communication & Technology ................................................................................................ 57Language, Linguistics and Literacy .................................................................................................................... 61Language Development ....................................................................................................................................... 61Language Acquisition .......................................................................................................................................... 62

Non-Verbal and Social Aspects of Language ..................................................................................................... 62Linguistics ............................................................................................................................................................ 63Chomsky’s Grammar ........................................................................................................................................... 64Word Analysis ......................................................................................................................................................65Phonemic Awareness ........................................................................................................................................... 65Speech ................................................................................................................................................................... 67Figures of Meaning .............................................................................................................................................. 71Media .................................................................................................................................................................... 72

Cultural Diversity and Collaborative Partnerships .............................................................................................74Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................................ 76



English Literature Study Questions

Literary Analysis

Use the following passage to answer questions 1-10.

Thou, Nature, art my goddess; to thy law

My services are bound. Wherefore should I Stand in the plague of custom and permit The curiosity of nations to deprive me,

(5) For that I am some twelve or fourteen moonshines Lag of a brother? Why bastard? Wherefore base?When my dimensions are as well compact,

My mind as generous, and my shape as true, As honest madam’s issue? Why brand they us

(10) With base? With baseness? Bastardy? Base, base?Who in the lusty stealth of nature take

More composition and fierce qualityThan doth within a dull, stale, tirèd bed

Go to th’ creating a whole tribe of fops(15) Got ‘tween asleep and wake? Well then, Legitimate Edgar, I must have your land.Our father’s love is to the bastard Edmund

As to th’ legitimate. Fine word, “legitimate”!Well, my legitimate, if this letter speed

(20) And my invention thrive, Edmund the baseShall top th’ legitimate. I grow, I prosper.

Now, gods, stand up for bastards! 1

1. The above passage is written in:

A. prose.B. blank verse.

C. trochaic tetrameter.D. iambic hexameter.

2. The above passage was written by:A. Geoffrey Chaucer.B. Mary Shelley.C. John Steinbeck.D. William Shakespeare.

3. Which of the following best describes the speaker’s tone?

A.

Satisfied and happy.B. Miserable.C. Nostalgic.D. Fed up and ready for change.

4. In line 10, we see an example of:A. alliteration.B. onomatopoeia.C. anaphora.



12. Two collections of poems by William Blake were entitled Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience . Judging from the tenor of the two above poems, in which collection are each of these poems included?A. They are both included in Songs of Innocence .B. They are both included in Songs of Experience .C. “The Lamb” is included in Songs of Innocence and “The Tyger” is included in Songs of

Experience .D. “The Lamb” is included in Songs of Experience and “The Tyger” is included in Songs of

Innocence .

13. “The Tyger” is composed in which of the following verse forms?A. Trochaic hexameter.B. Quatrains.C. Terza rima.D. Villanelle.

14. Which of the following best describes the narrator’s tone in “The Lamb”?A. Passionate.B. Gentle.C. Angry.D. Contrite.

15. What is the main difference between the questions asked of the lamb and those asked of thetiger?A. The questions asked of the lamb are easier to answer than those asked of the tiger.B. The questions asked of the tiger are easier to answer than those asked of the lamb.C. The questions asked of the tiger are rhetorical, while those asked of the lamb are not.D. The questions asked of the lamb are rhetorical, while those asked of the tiger are not.

16. What image is the speaker conveying in the fourth stanza (lines 13-16) of “The Tyger”?A. Heating the Earth so that the tiger could survive.B. Forging the tiger’s brain, like a blacksmith would forge an iron tool.C. Assembling a home for the tiger.D. All of the above.

17. Which of the following best describes the theme of “The Lamb”?A. Life is random and chaotic.B. The innocent shall prosper.C. Simple, pastoral living is full of joy.D. The Lord shall return.

18. In which lines of “The Tyger” can the theme of the poem be found?A. Lines 3-4. “What immortal hand or eye/Could frame thy fearful symmetry?”B. Lines 9-10. “And what shoulder, and what art,/Could twist the sinews of thy heart?”C. Lines 15-16. “What the anvil? what dread grasp/Dare its deadly terrors clasp?”D. Lines 19-20. “Did he smile his work to see?/Did he who made the Lamb make thee?”

19. Which of the following best describes the image of God that is conveyed in each poem?A. In both poems the image of God is that of magical creator.



(30) Had such profound consequences in public life and lead to such curious notes in themargin of the private mind….

I need not hate any man; he cannot hurt me. I need not flatter any man; he has nothing to give me. So imperceptibly I found myself adopting a new attitude towards the other half of the human race. It was absurd to blame any class or any

(35) sex, as a whole. Great bodies of people are never responsible for what they do. They aredriven by instincts which are not within their control. They too, the patriarchs, the professors, had endless difficulties, terrible drawbacks to contend with. Their educationhad been in some ways as faulty as my own. It had bred in them defects as great. True,they had money and power, but only at the cost of

(40) harbouring in their breasts an eagle, a vulture, forever tearing the liver out and plucking at the lungs–the instinct for possessions, the rage for acquisition which drives them todesire other people’s fields and goods perpetually; to make frontiers and flags;battleships and poison gas; to offer up their own lives and their children’s lives….

(45) I though how much harder it is now than it must have been even a century ago to say which … employments [are] the higher, the more necessary. Is it better to be a coal-heaver or a nursemaid; is the charwoman who has brought up eight children of lessvalue to the world than the barrister who has made a hundred thousand pounds? It isuseless to ask such questions for nobody can answer them.

(50) Not only do the comparative values of charwomen and lawyers rise and fall from decadeto decade, but we have no rods with which to measure them even as they are at themoment…. Even if one could state the value of any one gift at the moment, those valueswill change; in a century’s time very possibly they will have changed completely.

Moreover, in a hundred years, I thought, reaching my own(55) doorstep, women will have ceased to be the protected sex. Logically they will take part in

all the activities and exertions that were once denied them. The nursemaid will heavecoal. The shop-woman will drive an engine. All assumptions founded on the factsobserved when women were the protected sex will have disappeared…. Anything mayhappen when womanhood has ceased to

(60) be a protected occupation, I thought, opening the door. 3

21. The word that best describes the tone of the essay is:E. hopeful.F. calm.G. angry.H. both A and B.

22. What does the narrator perceive a woman’s role in society to be?A. A mirror that reflects men as better and larger than they are in life.B. A charwoman who cares for many children.C. A civilizer that helps to propel humanity forward.D. A lawyer who earns a hundred thousand pounds.

23. The narrator says that professors and patriarchs “had money and power, but only at the costof harbouring in their breasts an eagle, a vulture, forever tearing the liver out and plucking atthe lungs….” To what is this phrase referring?A. A man’s compulsion to have a woman serve his needs, similar to a cocaine addict’s need

for cocaine.B. The drive for material objects.



C. Care for fellow human beings.D. A woman’s need to be accepted as a man’s equal.

24. Which of the following is the most likely place the narrator is physically as she is thinkingmost of these thoughts?A. A coffee shop.B. Her bedroom.C. Both A and B.D. Neither A nor B.

25. Which of the following would the author most likely say is the antagonist in this work of writing?A. Men.B. Women.C. The institutionalized oppression of women.D. Marriage.

26. In line 24 the narrator refers to the spell of an illusion that half the people are under. What isthis illusion?A. The illusion that women should be treated as men’s equals.B. The illusion that men are superior to women.C. The illusion that they are wanted at Miss Smith’s tea party.D. None of the above.

27. The description that best fits this essay is that it is a(n):A. call to action.B. exploration into why things are the way they are.C. complaint.D. stream-of-consciousness experiment.

28. Which of the following literary devices is not used in the essay?A. Metaphor.B. Simile.C. Allusion.D. Enjambment.

29. Judging from the diction and syntax used in the essay, the author is most likely :A. well educated.B. married.C. single.D. uneducated.

30. In lines 32-33, the narrator states, “I need not flatter any man; he has nothing to give me.”What can be inferred about the narrator from this statement?A. The narrator is a nun.B. The narrator is completely self-sufficient, having enough money to sustain herself on her

own.C. Both A and B.D. Neither A nor B.



Identifications and Literary AnalysisUse the following passage to answer questions 32-34.

And now for all the people of Africa, the beloved country. Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika, God save Africa. But he would not see that salvation. It lay afar off, because men were afraid of it. Because, to tell the truth, they were afraid of him, and his wife, and Msimangu, and the young demonstrator. And

what was there evil in their desires, in their hunger? That man should walk upright in the land where they were born, and be free to use the fruits of the earth, what was there evil in it? 4

31. The above passage was written by which of the following authors?A. Richard Wright.B. Thomas Hardy.C. Ernest Hemingway.D. Alan Paton.

32. Which of the following best describes the narrator’s tone in the above passage?A. Resigned.B. Belligerent.C. Reflective.D. Afraid.

33. Which of the following literary devices appears in the above passage?A. Litotes.B. Rhetorical question.C. Both A and B.D. Neither A nor B.

Use the following passage to answer question 35. I wouldn’t lay a hand on her. The bitch that cost me a job, the one chance I ever had to get ahead, that killed my father and is shortening my mother’s life every day and made my name alaughing stock in the town. I wont do anything to her. 5

34. The above passage was written by which of the following authors?A. Harper Lee.B. Mark Twain.C. William Faulkner.D. Edith Wharton.

Use the following passage to answer question 36.

“What will I say? What can I tell them about my mother? I don’t know anything….” The aunties

are looking at me as if I had become crazy right before their eyes…. And then it occurs to me.They are frightened. In me, they see their own daughters, just as ignorant…. They see daughterswho grow impatient when their mothers talk in Chinese… who will bear grandchildren bornwithout any connecting hope passed from generation to generation. 6

35. The above passage was written by which of the following authors?A. Amy Tan.B. Zora Neale Hurston.C. Willa Cather.



D. Ayn Rand.


GWENDOLEN: Mr. Worthing, what explanation can you offer to me for pretending to have abrother? Was it in order that you might have an opportunity of coming up to town to see me asoften as possible?

JACK: Can you doubt it, Miss Fairfax?

GWENDOLEN: I have the gravest doubts upon the subject. But I intend to crush them. 7

36. The above passage was written by which of the following authors?A. Ernest Hemingway.B. Jonathan Swift.C. Mark Twain.D. Oscar Wilde.

Use the following passage to answer question 38. And when memory failed and written records were falsified–when that happened, the claim of the Party to have improved the conditions of human life had got to be accepted, because there did not exist, and never again could exist, any standard against which it could be tested. 8

37. The above passage was written by which of the following authors?A. Aldous Huxley.B. George Orwell.C. Gabriel García Márquez.D. Daniel Defoe.


Of Man’s First Disobedience, and the FruitOf that Forbidden Tree, whose mortal tasteBrought Death into the World, and all our woe,With loss of Eden, till one greater ManRestore us, and regain the blissfulSeat, Sing Heav’nly Muse, that on the secret topOf Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspireThat Shepherd, who first taught the chosenSeed, In the Beginning how the Heav’ns and EarthRose out of Chaos…. 9

38. The above passage was written by which of the following authors?

A.

John Milton.B. William Shakespeare.C. Geoffrey Chaucer.D. James Joyce.

Use the following passage to answer question 40. I have of late, – but wherefore I know not, – lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises;and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a



sterile promontory; this most excellent canopy, the air, look you, this brave o’erhanging firmament, this majestical roof fretted with golden fire, – why, it appears no other thing to methan a foul and pestilent congregation of vapors. What a piece of work is man! How noble inreason! how infinite in faculties! in form and moving, how express and admirable! in action howlike an angel! in apprehension, how like a god! the beauty of the world! the paragon of animals!

And yet, to me, what is this quintessence of dust? 10

39. The above passage was written by which of the following authors?A. James Joyce.B. Christopher Marlowe.C. William Shakespeare.D. Charles Dickens.


The enormous riches which this rascal had stolen were sunk beside him in the sea, and nothing was saved but a single sheep. – You see, said Candide to Martin, crime is punished sometimes;this scoundrel of a Dutch merchant has met the fate he deserves. – Yes, said Martin; but did the

passengers aboard his ship have to perish too? God punished the scoundrel, the devil drowned the others. 11

40. The above passage was written by which of the following authors?A. Voltaire.B. Charles Dickens.C. Fyodor Dostoevsky.D. Alice Walker.

Use the following passage to answer questions 42-44.Death, be not proud, though some have called theeMighty and dreadful, for thou art not so;For those whom thou think’st thou dost overthrowDie not, poor Death, nor yet canst thou kill me.From rest and sleep, which but thy pictures be,Much pleasure, then from thee much more must flow;And soonest our best men with thee do go,Rest of their bones, and soul’s delivery.Thou art a slave to Fate, chance, kings, and desperate men,And dost with poison, war, and sickness dwell,And poppy or charms can make us sleep as wellAnd better than thy stroke; why swell’st thou then?One short sleep past, we wake eternallyAnd Death shall be no more; Death, thou shalt die. 12

41. The above poem was written by which of the following poets?A. William Wordsworth.B. John Milton.C. T.S. Eliot.D. John Donne.



42. Which of the following best describes the author’s tone in the above poem?A. Frightened.B. Anxious.C. Resigned.D. Challenging.

43. Which of the following literary or poetic devices are present in the above poem?A. Enjambment.B. Oxymoron.C. Litotes.D. Terza rima.

Use the following passage to answer question 45-46.I hear America singing, the varied carols I hear,Those of mechanics, each one singing his as it should be blithe and strong,The carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam,The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work,The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat, the deck-hand singing on the

steamboat deck,

Th Shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench, the hatter singing as he stands,The wood-cutter’s song, the ploughboy’s on his way in the morning, or at noon

intermission or at sundown,

The delicious singing of the mother, or of the young wife at work, or of the girl sewing or washing,

Each singing what belongs to him or her and to none else,The day what belongs to the day–at night the party of young fellows, robust, friendly,

Singing with open mouths their strong melodious songs.13

44. The above poem was written by which of the following poets?A. Emily Dickinson.B. Ralph Waldo Emerson.C. Stephen Crane.D. Walt Whitman.

45. In what type of verse is the above poem written?A. Blank verse.B. Free verse.C. Dactylic verse.D. None of the above.

Critical Vocabulary46. The term that refers to excessive pride that usually leads to a hero’s downfall is:

A. hyperbole.B. hubris.C. epiphany.D. epistolary.



47. The term that refers to a character or force that appears at the end of a story or play and helpsto resolve conflict is:A. meiosis.B. doppelganger.C. deus ex machina.D. conceit.

48. Another term for a coming-of-age novel is:A. asyndeton.B. bildungsroman.C. epigram.D. fabliau.

49. Which of the following best characterizes the literary and artistic movement known asExistentialism?A. Dream-like components inhabiting a realistic framework.B. New works patterned on classic works.C. Individuals contending with isolation, loneliness, and the meaninglessness of life.D. Honest portrayals of life.

50. Which of the following writers was not a part of the Existentialist movement?A. Samuel Beckett.B. Eugene Ionesco.C. Simone de Beauvoir.D. Henry David Thoreau.

Use the following passage to answer question 52.Fairest Cordelia, that art most rich being poor,Most choice, forsaken, and most loved, despised,Thee and thy virtues here I seize upon,Be it lawful I take up what’s cast away. 14

51. The above passage from Shakespeare’s King Lear contains which of the following literarydevices?A. Alliteration.B. Antithesis.C. Oblique rhyme.D. Simile.

52. The term that refers to the use of part of an object to stand for the whole object is:A. anthropomorphism.B. synecdoche.C. personification.D. dactylic.

53. The term that refers to an unstressed extra syllable at the end of a line of iambic pentameter is:A. consonance.



B. free verse.C. feminine ending.D. informal diction.

54. A story that begins in medias res begins:A. at the end and tells the story through flashback.B. when the protagonist hits middle age.C. in the middle of things.D. with the birth of a child.

Critical Theory55. Post-colonial criticism holds that:

A. a text should be analyzed without regard to the context within which it was written.B. good literature transcends time and is significant for all of humanity.C. a text should be analyzed only with the context of the author’s life.D. none of the above.

56. Which of the following critics can be considered a post-colonialist critic?A. Edward Said.B. Jacques Lacan.C. Jacques Derrida.D. Claude Lévi-Strauss.

57. Structuralism holds that:A. literary texts cannot be understood completely if they are isolated from the larger

structures within which they reside.B. only the structure of the text itself should be studied.C. both A and B.D. neither A nor B.

58. Who of the following was a structuralist critic?A. Edward Said.B. Jacques Lacan.C. Jacques Derrida.D. Claude Lévi-Strauss.

59. According to Webster’s Dictionary, which one of the following is defined as:a method of literary criticism that assumes language refers only to itself rather than to anextratextual reality, that asserts multiple conflicting interpretations of a text, and that basessuch interpretations on the philosophical, political, or social implications of the use of language in the text rather than on the author’s intention 15?

A.

Marxist criticism.B. Deconstruction.C. New historicism.D. None of the above.

60. Which of the following best describes the influence of postmodernism on literature?A. Authors were no longer concerned with getting their works published.B. Authors tended to reject traditional styles and forms (like continuous narratives from one

all-knowing narrator or chronological plots) in favor of more experimental styles.



C. More attention was given to plot structure instead of word choice.D. There was a general resurgence of classical style.

61. Which of the following authors is generally not considered a writer of the postmodern era?A. Virginia Woolf.B. James Joyce.C. T. S. Eliot.D. Rudyard Kipling.

Answers to Study QuestionsLiterary Analysis1. The above passage is written in blank verse. Blank verse is another name for unrhymed

iambic pentameter. An iamb is a metrical foot in which an unstressed syllable is followed bya stressed syllable. In iambic pentameter there are five iambs per line making 10 syllables.Prose is everyday language, or the type of language used for essay writing, no rhyme, nometer. Trochaic tetrameter refers to a line of poetry that contains four trochees. A trochee is ametrical foot in which a stressed syllable is followed by an unstressed syllable–the oppositeof an iamb. Finally, iambic hexameter is a line of poetry that contains six iambs. The correctanswer is B.

2. The above passage was written by William Shakespeare. It is a passage from King Lear spoken by Edmund, the bastard son of the Earl of Gloucester. The correct answer is D.

3. The speaker is fed up and ready for change. He is definitely not satisfied and happy becausehe is asking why he has been given the label of bastard and treated unfairly just because hismother and his father were not married when he was conceived. His legitimate half-brother gets the inheritance, while he gets nothing. He is not miserable. Miserable people do notstand up for themselves. They are usually pitiable. Finally, he is not nostalgic. There was notime that he was looking back upon in which he found himself being treated fairly and towhich he was longing to return. The correct answer is D.

4. In line number 10 we see an example of alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of the sameconsonant sound at the beginning of words that are close to each other. The line is “With

base? With baseness? Bastardy? Base, base?” The b sound is repeated. Onomatopoeia refersto the naming of something based on the sound that it makes (for example, meow , buzz ,bang ). Anaphora is the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive sentencesor clauses. The correct answer is A.

5. The word thy is referring to Nature. The speaker is saying that his services are bound tonature’s laws, not society’s. The correct answer is B.

6. The word wherefore means why. Perhaps the most famous usage if the word is in the quote“O Romeo, Romeo, / Wherefore art thou Romeo?” from Romeo and Juliet written byWilliam Shakespeare. Students often mistake this quote as Juliet asking where Romeo is.This is wrong. Wherefore means why. Juliet is asking why Romeo is Romeo Montague, theson in her family’s rival family. Just as, in this case, the speaker is asking why he shouldstand in the plague of custom and permit the curiosity of nations to deprive him. Also, in line,he is asking why society has branded him as base. The correct answer is C.

7. The words honest madam’s issue in line 9 refer to the legitimate child of a married woman.The correct answer is A.

8. In lines 7-9, the speaker is comparing himself to someone else, namely his brother Edgar. Thespeaker feels that his mind is as generous, his dimensions are as well compact, and his shapeis as true as the child (Edgar) who was born of married parents. He feels he is as good as his

brother. The correct answer is B.



9. At the end of the monologue, the speaker implies he is going to get what he feels is rightfullyhis by scheming against his brother. This question is tricky, especially if you are familiar withthe play, because Edmund (the speaker) does go on to scheme against his brother by trickinghis father into believing that the legitimate brother is plotting against the father. But at the endof the monologue, Edmund’s only comment about his father is that his father loves him asmuch as his father loves his legitimate brother. The best answer, and therefore the correctone, is B.

10. The point at which there is a shift in intent is line 15 when the speaker says, “Wellthen,/Legitimate Edgar, I must have your land.” The correct answer is D.

11. In line 3 of the passage ( Wherefore should I/Stand in the plague of custom…? ) the speaker iscomparing the customs of society to the plague and does not want to be a victim of those

plague-like customs. The correct answer is B.12. “The Lamb” is included in Songs of Innocence and “The Tyger” is included in Songs of

Experience . The correct answer is C.13. “The Tyger” is composed in quatrains. Quatrains are four-line stanzas. Trochaic hexameter

refers to a verse form in which a stressed vowel is followed by an unstressed vowel six times per line. Terza rima is a verse form which follows the rhyme scheme a b a b c b . Villanelle isa verse form that includes five tercets (three-line stanzas) and one quatrain. The correctanswer is B.

14. The tone of the narrator is best described as gentle. The reader pictures the narrator talking toa little lamb, trying not to scare it away. The correct answer is B.

15. The main difference between the questions asked of the lamb and those asked of the tiger isthat the questions asked of the lamb are easier to answer than those asked of the tiger. In factmany of the questions asked of the lamb are answered within the poem itself. Not so, with thequestions asked of the tiger. The correct answer is A.

16. In the fourth stanza of “The Tyger,” the speaker is conveying the image of a blacksmithforging the tiger’s brain much like he would forge an iron tool. The correct answer is B.

17. The choice that best describes the theme of “The Lamb” is choice C. Simple, pastoral livingis full of joy. The correct answer is C.

18. The theme of “The Tyger” can be found in lines 19-20, “Did he smile his work to see?/Did he

who made the Lamb make thee?” Blake wonders if the same creator that made the gentle andinnocent lamb could also be capable of making the gruff and predatory tiger. Also, in line 19,Blake is alluding to the creation story in Genesis in which God looked at His work at the endof each of the six days and reflected on it. The correct answer is D.

19. The image of God that is conveyed in “The Lamb” is that of magical creator. The image of God that is conveyed in “The Tyger” is that of strong, powerful, and hard-working creator. In“The Lamb” we see God as gentle, effortlessly giving the lamb “clothing of delight” and a“tender voice.” In “The Tyger” God is seen as an artisan, forging the tiger’s brain in afurnace, with powerful shoulders that can “twist the sinews” of the tiger’s heart. The correctanswer is C.

20. Alliteration is present in “The Lamb.” Alliteration is the repetition of sounds at the beginnings of words in close proximity. We see this over and over again in the phrase “little

lamb.” Metonymy is the use of a word or phrase to stand in for something else with which itis often associated. Some students may think that the word lamb is another word for Jesus inthis poem. However, although often symbolic of Jesus, the lamb in this case is not Jesus. Thelamb is a lamb to which the speaker, in line 13, explains that Jesus calls himself a lamb.Finally, antithesis is the use of opposing ideas. The correct answer is C.

21. The speaker is a child. We know this by looking at line 16, “I a child, and thou a lamb.” Thecorrect answer is B.

22. The tone of the essay is both hopeful and calm. We see the calm in lines 32-35, “I need nothate any man; he cannot hurt me. I need not flatter any man; he has nothing to give me. So



imperceptibly I found myself adopting a new attitude towards the other half of the humanrace. It was absurd to blame any class or any sex, as a whole.” We see the hope in lines 54-59, “Moreover, in a hundred years, I thought, reaching my own doorstep, women will haveceased to be the protected sex. Logically they will take part in all the activities and exertionsthat were once denied them…. All assumptions founded on the facts observed when womenwere the protected sex will have disappeared.” The correct answer is D.

23. The narrator compares women to looking-glasses that reflect men as larger than their naturalsize. The correct answer is A.

24. The narrator is referring to the drive for material objects. Even though these men have moneyand power, the speaker is saying, they also pay a price for it. That price is a lack of bothcreativity and caring. The correct answer is B.

25. The narrator is most likely in a coffee shop. We know this because in lines 20-25, she writesabout her coffee and her bread. She also writes of looking out the window at the passers-by.We know she is not in her bedroom because in lines 54-55 she arrives at her own doorstep,and in line 60 she opens the door. The best answer, and therefore the correct one, is A.

26. The author would most likely agree that the antagonist in this work of writing is theinstitutionalized oppression of women. We know that neither men nor women would beconsidered the antagonist because the author states in lines 34-35 that it is “absurd to blameany class or any sex, as a whole.” The author then goes on to state in line 36, “[t]hey aredriven by instincts which are not within their control,” and in lines 38-39 that their “educationhad been in some ways as faulty as my own. It had bred in them defects as great.” Thiseducation produced individuals who were taught to continue the institutionalized oppression.Marriage is never mentioned in the essay. The correct answer is C.

27. The illusion to which the narrator is referring is the illusion that one half of society (men) hasthat it is superior to the other half of society (women). This is why, according to the author,men are able to be so confident and self-assured. The correct answer is B.

28. The best description of the essay is that it is an exploration into why things are the way theyare. It is not a call to action. Not once does the author ask the reader to do anything to changethe state of things. She merely invites the reader on a journey of exploration. Although somemay see the essay as a complaint, it is not. A complaint does not necessarily dive into

answering the question of why a situation is the way it is. Conversely, a complaint states thatthings are unfair and expects a remedy. Finally, although the author is known for her experimentation in stream-of-consciousness, she did not compose this essay in that style. Thecorrect answer is B.

29. The only literary device that is not used in the essay is enjambment. One will not findenjambment used in an essay. Enjambment is the continuation of a sentence from one line of

poetry on to the next line. Metaphor is used in comparing women to looking-glasses. Simileis used in comparing man’s need for woman to behave like a magnifying looking-glass to acocaine addict’s need for cocaine. Finally, the author alludes to various historical events and

philosophical ideas in the essay. The correct answer is D.30. Judging from the diction and syntax used in the essay, the only thing one can confidently

conclude is that the author is most likely a well educated woman. There is no way of knowing

whether or not she is married or single. The correct answer is A.31. From the statement in lines 32-33, one can conclude that the narrator is completely self-

sufficient and has enough money to sustain herself on her own. She does not need to flatter aman because she does not need his financial support. The correct answer is B.

Identifications and Literary Analysis32. The passage appears in the book Cry, The Beloved Country written by Alan Paton. The

correct answer is D.



33. The term that best describes the narrator’s tone is reflective. The correct answer is C.34. The rhetorical question is the only one of the literary devices that is present in the passage.

Litotes is a deliberate understatement for the effect of emphasis. The correct answer is B.35. The passage appears in the book The Sound and The Fury written by William Faulkner. The

correct answer is C.36. The passage appears in the book The Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan. The correct answer

is A.37. The passage appears in the play The Importance of Being Earnest written by Oscar Wilde.

The correct answer is D.38. The passage appears in the book 1984 written by George Orwell. The correct answer is B.39. The passage appears in the book Paradise Lost written by John Milton. The correct answer is

A.40. The passage appears in the play Hamlet written by William Shakespeare. The correct answer

is C.41. The passage appears in the book Candide written by Voltaire. The correct answer is A.42. The poem is “Holy Sonnet X” written by John Donne. The correct answer is D.43. The word that best describes the author’s tone is challenging. Though the author is not

picking a fight with Death, he is putting Death in its place, telling Death that it should not be proud, because many times it fails (in fact, it had thus far failed to touch the author himself).The author is also saying that there are other things in this world that produce the same effectas Death, poppies make us sleep, and sleep is pleasurable, so Death must also be pleasurable.Finally, the author makes the point that when someone dies and wakes eternally in Heaven,then Death dies. The correct answer is D.

44. Enjambment is present in the poem. As mentioned earlier, enjambment is the continuation of a sentence from one line of verse to the next. The meaning of the poem is not clear if thereader does not realize that some sentences continue to the next line of verse. The correctanswer is A.

45. The poem is “I Hear America Singing” written by Walt Whitman. The correct answer is D.46. The poem is written in free verse. Free verse is a type of verse that contains a variety of line

lengths, is unrhymed, and lacks traditional meter. Recall that blank verse is unrhymed iambic

pentameter. Finally, dactylic verse is made up of dactyls, in which each foot contains onestressed syllable and two unstressed syllables. The correct answer is B.

Critical Vocabulary47. The term that refers to excessive pride that usually leads to a hero’s downfall is hubris.

Hubris is often a factor in the downfall of the protagonists in many Greek tragedies. Ahyperbole is an exaggeration for dramatic or comedic effect. An epiphany is a suddenenlightenment or realization. The term epistolary is usually used to describe a novel that tellsits story through letters written from one character to another. The correct answer is B.

48. The term that refers to a character or force that appears at the end of a story or play and helpsto resolve conflict is deus ex machina, which literally means a god from a machine. Meiosisis underemphasis for effect (litotes is a form of meiosis). A doppelganger is the alter ego of a

character. Conceit is a continuing comparison between dissimilar objects. The correct answer is C.

49. Another term for a coming-of-age novel is bildungsroman. Asyndeton refers to the omissionof conjunctions in a phrase or clause such as in “I came, I saw, I conquered.” An epigram is awitticism or a pithy remark. Finally, fabliau refers to a tale in verse, especially popular in the12 th and 13 th centuries, that is comic and often gross, making reference to bodily functionsand the like. The correct answer is B.

50. Existentialism was a mid-20 th century movement in which individuals are presented as havingto contend with isolation, loneliness, and the meaninglessness of life. Also characteristic of



the existentialist movement is the idea the individuals are responsible for their own actions.The movement in which dream-like components inhabit a realistic framework is calledmagical realism (20 th century). Neoclassicism (c. 1660-1798) is the movement in which newworks were patterned on classic works. Finally, honest portrayals of life are characteristic of the movement known as realism (c. 1830-1900). The correct answer is C.

51. Henry David Thoreau was not a part of the Existentialist movement. He is considered to be part of the movement called transcendentalism (c. 1835-1860) in which there was a rejectionof material culture and a return to nature. The correct answer is D.

52. The passage contains the literary device known as antithesis. Antithesis is the juxtaposition of opposing ideas. We see this in the fact that Cordelia is most rich, but poor; most choice, butforsaken; most loved, but despised. Alliteration, the repetition of beginning consonant soundsin close proximity, is not present in this passage. Nor is oblique rhyme, which is an imperfectrhyme scheme. Finally, there are no similes in this passage. The correct answer is B.

53. The term that refers to the use of part of an object to stand for the whole object is synecdoche.Anthropomorphism refers to the interpretation of non-human objects or beings in human or

personal terms. Personification is similar to anthropomorphism. Personification is theattribution of the human qualities to non-human objects or beings. Finally, dactylic is a typeof metrical pattern in which each foot consists of three syllables, one stressed and twounstressed. The correct answer is B.

54. The term that refers to an unstressed extra syllable at the end of a line of iambic pentameter isfeminine ending. An example of a feminine ending occurs in both of the following lines fromShakespeare’s King Lear :When she was dear to us we did hold her so,But now her price is fallen. Sir, there she stands.The ‘so’ and the ‘stands’ are both extra unstressed syllables at the ends of the lines of iambic

pentameter. Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in close proximity. Free verse,as we have seen before, is poetry that contains a variety of line lengths, is unrhymed, andlacks traditional meter. Finally, informal diction is the use of colloquialisms and is reflectiveof everyday speech. The correct answer is C.

55. A story that begins in medias res begins in the middle of things. The correct answer is C.

Critical Theory56. Post-colonialism holds that canonical Western literature is insufficient when it comes to

crossing cultural boundaries. A major focus for post-colonial critics is to study the effects of colonialism and imperialism and the representation, or absence of representation, of other cultures. The first two choices, that a text should be analyzed without regard to the contextwithin which it was written and that good literature transcends time and is significant for allof humanity, are tenets held by liberal humanist critics, not post-colonial critics. Choice C isalso incorrect. The correct answer is D.

57. Edward Said was a post-colonialist critic. The correct answer is A.

58. Structuralism holds that literary texts cannot be understood completely if they are isolatedfrom the larger structures within which they reside. For example, the structuralist critic willfocus on the conventions of certain literary genres, linguistic structures, and recurring motifsor patterns of thought. The correct answer is A.

59. Claude Lévi-Strauss applied structuralism to the interpretation of myth. The correct answer isD.

60. The dictionary definition given is the definition of deconstruction, through which, accordingto J. A. Cuddon’s Dictionary of Literary Terms , “a text can be read as saying something quitedifferent from what it appears to be saying.” 16 Marxist critics tend to relate a work to the



socio-political context of the author and also interpret a literary work in terms of Marxistthemes, such as class conflict and historical stages of society. Finally, new historicism is

based on a parallel interpretation of literary text and historical text. That is to say, bothliterary and historical texts are weighted equally in the interpretation and serve to inform eachother. The correct answer is B.

61. Influenced by the postmodern movement in art and music, authors tended to reject traditionalstyles and forms (like continuous narratives from one all-knowing narrator or chronological

plots) in favor of more experimental styles. The correct answer is B.62. Rudyard Kipling is generally not considered a writer of the postmodern era. The correct

answer is D.

Quick Answers to Study Questions

1. B. 32. D.2. D. 33. C.3. D. 34. B.4. A. 35. C.

5. B. 36. A.6. C. 37. D.7. A. 38. B.8. B. 39. A.9. B. 40. C.10. D. 41. A.11. B. 42. D.12. C. 43. D.13. B. 44. A.14. B. 45. D.15. A. 46. B.

16. B. 47. B.17. C. 48. C.18. D. 49. B.19. C. 50. C.20. C. 51. D.21. B. 52. B.22. D. 53. B.23. A. 54. C.24. B. 55. C.25. A. 56. D.26. C. 57. A.

27. B. 58. A.28. B. 59. D.29. D. 60. B.30. A. 61. B.31. B. 62. D.



to protect the Mother Land even if that meant dying for it, so it is likely that the metaphor represented a sense of obligation rather than desire.

The poem depicts the essence of the thoughts of an airman facing death making the poemmemorable. It is about a pilot fighting a war and awaiting death. “A waste of breath the years

behind; In balance with this life, this death” reflects that he is prepared for death and feels that his

past life has been a waste of time.Critical Reading This section of the study guide is dedicated to critical reading and is primarily directed towardnon-fictional texts. Facts and interpretation are central to critical reading. To non-critical readers, text provides facts from which they gain knowledge through the memorization of statements in the text. To the critical reader , a text contains only one view on the facts or subjectmatter. Critical readers recognize show the text portrays the featured subject matter in addition towhat the text says. Critical readers also recognize each text as an original and unique creation of the author. While a non-critical reader may read a history book to learn facts about a certain

period in time, or to develop an interpretation of the events; a critical reader reading the same book may attempt to appreciate a perspective on the events as an individual presentation of facts

that can lead to a particular understanding or interpretation.

Seeking Interpretation

Non-critical reading results in recognition of what a text says and a restatement of key remarks;however, critical reading goes much further. Once a critical reader recognizes what a text says,he reflects upon what the text does through its statements. Critical readers look for offerings suchas examples, arguments, appeals, comparisons and contrasts and clarification. Critical readerswill then infer the meaning of the text as a whole based upon analysis.

The Three Modes of Analysis in Reading and DiscussionWhat a text says RestatementWhat a text does Description

What a text means Interpretation

Restatement reiterates the same topic as discussed in the original text. Description addressesaspects of the discussion and interpretation analyzes the text formulating a meaning of the text asa whole.

Critical Reading Goals

To achieve critical reading success, you should strive to meet three particular goals:• Recognition of the author’s purpose• An understanding of the tone and persuasive elements of the text• Recognition of bias

Each of these goals requires inference from evidence in the text. In order to recognize the purpose of the text the reader must infer a basis for the author’s choice of content and language.Recognition of tone and persuasive elements requires classification of the nature of languageselections; and recognizing bias requires a classification of the nature of patterns as well as thechoice of language and content. Close and careful reading alone is not critical reading. Criticalreading entails active recognition and analysis of all text or evidence in the passage.



Analysis and InferenceIn critical reading, analysis is what you look for and inference is how you think about what youfind. Analysis involves identification of aspects that control the meaning of a discussion whileinference refers to the process of interpreting the information contained in the text. The criticalreader assumes that each author offers a different view or portrayal of the topic at hand; therefore,critical reading relies on examination of the author’s choices that are used to frame their

presentation including content, language and structure. Critical readers examine each of theseareas and consider their effect on the meaning of the text.

Reading and DiscussionOur discussion of text is directly linked to how we read and how we read is influenced by how weexpect to discuss what we read. Whether or not you have to write about texts in your school or work, you must know how to discuss them and discover their meaning.

Examples:

If a weight management consultant tells you to drink a minimum of 64 ounces of water per day, arestatement would repeat the statement:

• My weight management consultant told me to drink a minimum of 64 ounces of water per day.

A description would describe what you were told:• My weight management consultant advised me to drink more water.

An interpretation would search for the underlying meaning of what was said:• My weight management consultant told me to drink a minimum of 64 ounces of water

per day because when our bodies become dehydrated a self-defense mechanism kicks in.It slows down our metabolism and decreases the effectiveness of the weight loss

program.

Only the interpretation analyzes the advice to determine the reasoning behind it.

Hickory, Dickory, Dock,The mouse ran up the clock,The clock struck one,And down he run,Hickory, Dickory Dock.A restatement would repeat the actions of the mouse. A description would explain that the mouseran up the clock and ran back down after the clock struck one.

An interpretation would look something like this:• A mouse ran up the clock, but quickly ran back down because he was frightened by the

sound the clock made when it struck one o’clock.

Twinkle, twinkle, little star,How I wonder what you are.Up above the world so high,Like a diamond in the sky.A restatement would repeat the rhyme.A description would describe the star and the curiosity.An interpretation would be similar to this:



• The writer of this rhyme, while examining a twinkling star in the sky was curious toknow exactly what the star was made of. The writer describes the star in the distance, far above the world and compared it appearance and behavior to that of a sparkling diamond.

Reading for a PurposeThere are a variety of ways to read and the purpose of the reading determines appropriatemethods.

Reading for information- Reading sentence by sentence viewing each statement as a distinct fact

Reading for meaning- Reading text, following an argument and analyzing its logic andpersuasivenessCritical reading- Reading text, identifying unstated assumptions, recognizing biases andidentifying patterns of language and content and determining how they are interrelated.

These are the primary purposes and methods of reading; however, they are certainly not allinclusive. A number of other reading methods exist which are dictated by their purpose, for example, in research, you may scan or speed read a document to determine whether or not itcontains content that is useful or will contribute to your research data. The purpose of the readinginfluences the depth of reading.

Composition and RhetoricComposition and rhetoric are often used interchangeably because their meanings are so similar.Composition in English is the process of arranging thoughts or facts into a piece of writing or artistic expression. Rhetoric is an art of writing or speaking effectively. The word rhetoricoriginated from a Greek word which means speech or spoken; it is sometimes referred to as thecounterpart of dialect or logic.

Coordination and SubordinationIn writing, coordination is used to provide equal emphasis to two ideas in a sentence.Coordinating parts of sentence can stand alone as their own sentences or independent clauses, butthey are incorporated into a combined or coordinated sentence in order to establish equality of two thoughts.

Example of coordination:

The spicy food upset Frederick’s stomach, and he was up all night with a bad case of nausea.

Subordination incorporates elements into a sentence which are grammatically dependent upon an

independent clause. When you subordinate an idea into a sentence, it is grammatically andthematically linked to the main idea. Subordination can be employed to convey a greater amountof information in a manner that is more attractive than it would be if presented in separate, shortsentences.

Example of subordination:

Because he ate a lot of spicy food, Fredrick was up all night with an upset stomach.



Without using either coordination or subordination techniques in writing this information, itwould appear in short unrelated sentences such as this:

Frederick ate a lot of spicy food. The spicy food upset Frederick’s stomach. Frederick was up allnight with a bad case of nausea.

Coordination and subordination in composing allows the writer to portray the information in amore elegant manner which does not appear to be short and choppy.

Common Rhetorical DevicesThere are a few common rhetorical devices which affect the way information and ideas that are

presented. The use of these rhetorical devices in speech and composition enhance visualizationof the meaning of the text or speech. Some of the most common are reviewed below:

Non sequitur The word “non sequitur” is a Latin word meaning it does not follow . It is a statement that iscompletely unrelated to the preceding context.

OnomatopoeiaOnomatopoeia is the creation or invention of words that sound like their meaning or the namingof a thing or action based upon a vocal imitation of its sound. For example, a dog’s bark may me

portrayed in writing as arf-arf. The sound made by a bee may be called a “buzz”, the cat “purrs”and the snake “hisses”.

OxymoronAn oxymoron is a condensed paradox or a combination of words that are contradictory to oneanother such as cruel kindness or sarcastic sincerity.

The kind cruelty of the surgeon’s knife. Paradox A paradox is a statement which seems to contradict itself. For example: His old face wasyouthful when he heard the news.

ParataxisParataxis are clauses or phrases which are independently arranged using coordination with or without customary connectives. For example: I studied, I learned, I passed.

ParonomasiaParonomasia is a play on words based on either the sound or meaning. Following is an exampleof a paronomasia from a line in Romeo and Juliet by Shakespeare:

“The dying Mercutio: Ask for me tomorrow and you shall find me a grave man.”Personification

Personification is the method of giving an animal or inanimate object human attributes. For example: The trees sighed in relief at the sight of rain.

PolysyndetonPolysyndeton is the use of conjunctions between each clause in a sentence. For example: Thecloth was well woven and made of cotton, or twill, or wool.

Prozeugma



In prozeugma, a verb is articulated in the first clause and understood in the remaining clauses.For example: Hatred destroys family, friends; community.

Synedoche

Synedoche is the substituting a part for the whole or a whole for a part. For example: ‘I won thegame’; (Rather than ‘My team won the game’) or ‘our team made a touchdown’; (rather than ‘the

player on our team made a touchdown’).

ZeugmaZeugma is the linking of more than one word to a verb or adjective when it is apparent that theverb or adjective is only appropriate to one of them.

He took his leave and my umbrella

Try to identify the figures of speech used in the following pieces.Laughter holding both her sides. (Personification)He lay awake listening to the splish-splash of waves against the boat. (Onomatopoeia)Twilight picked up her skirts and tiptoed in. (Personification)The happy pain of childbirth. (Oxymoron)He came, he saw, he conquered. (Parataxis)

Writing Improvement Certainly writing techniques are specific to different types and forms of writing. The techniquesused in a fiction book will most likely vary greatly from those used in a business report; however,there are some terms and methods that are applicable to more than one type, style or purpose of writing. Those are overviewed in this section.

Drawing Meaning from Written WorksTraditionally, writing has been taught through the use of examples. Students are presented withwell written essays which provide sound examples of rhetorical categories including argument,explanation and description and are taught to mimic the structure of the documents although fewessays actually present only one form.

This approach is very limited. Reading a good essay does not necessarily enable a person toimprove their writing. By seeing how another writer expresses himself and appreciating his work does not instantly give the reader a comprehension that will allow them mimic, duplicate or imitate it. The reader must analyze the material and draw meaning from its presentation.Reading instruction has a dual purpose: to improve understanding of texts and to develop writingskills. Drawing meaning from other writers allows us to instill meaning into our own writing.

Effective ReadingFor the complete understanding of texts in terms of what they mean and how they are

constructed, the reader must read and discuss the text. Reading strategies comprise the readingand discussion or accountability. Aspects to be considered include:

• Restatement—what the text says• Description—what the text does• Interpretation—what the text means

Effective reading allows the reader to apply knowledge gained from the reading to writing. Amore active, reflective and problem-solving focus on reading leads to more resourceful writingapproaches.



The spoken language which people learn prior to other learning is a base throughout a person’slife. The model of spoken communication influences inferences when one reads. They are ableto imagine written language as a transcription of speech and when they imagine themselvesspeaking while writing, or discussing what an author “says”, they build on and draw from the

base of spoken language. Reading aloud sometimes enhances concentration and comprehension.

A speaker’s tone and emotions are often portrayed by authors to infer intent, motive, purpose,tone, mood, and point of view. These points, derived from spoken language, make sense of thetext. When a clear purpose and intent can be identified, understanding is enhanced.

Interpreting an author’s meaning can be simplified using a model of spoken language; however,in actuality, the author of a text is a figment of a reader’s imagination. The visual image of theauthor is constructed from prior knowledge of the author’s real-life, regardless of whether or notthat knowledge is accurate, and the words written. The only reliable means of understanding anauthor and his or her purpose and intent of a particular text is to speak with the author. An author may not be forthcoming regarding his or her purpose and the intent may not be clearly conveyedin the test. Inferring an author in an analysis of text can help to make sense of the content;however, one must be careful not to speculate about a person who is not present. While it is not

possible to know exactly what an author intended when reading their work; it is possible to derive

a meaning that makes sense using the evidence of the text, what is known about the author, thesituation and the social context.

Writing to an Audience

Writing is very similar to speaking to an audience. The intent is to communicate specificthoughts or information. The prior knowledge of the audience must be considered in order todevelop understanding. The power and prestige of the audience may determine whether or notthe readers will accept the writer’s arguments. Writing to an audience involves three vitalconsiderations:

• How to interest the readers• How to educate the readers•

How to convince the readersA reader develops an image of the author when reading text. Similarly, the writer must imaginethe audience when writing, taking care to be sensitive to their needs and social conventions just asa speaker would be in a face-to-face presentation.

Language in Writing

Many words used in writing are categorized into two levels:• Neutral—literal• Emotive—negative or positive implied value judgments

Negative connotations may include words such as ugly, hideous or revolting. A positiveconnotation of a similar state would be unattractive, homely or simple. The writer’s choice of words or language is intentional. The words are selected to shape the reader’s response.

Negative emotive language is used to create a negative picture or a feeling of dislike for acharacter.

Emotive and emotional do not mean the same thing. Emotive is deliberate use of language by awriter to instill a feeling or visual. Emotion is a reaction, generally from the heart. Neutral language is opposite from emotive language as it is literal or even objective in nature. Satire ishumor, ridicule or irony used in writing to evoke emotion.



StructureStructure is the way a piece of writing is put together. Different structures influence the reader’sresponse. Common structures include

• Chronological structure—arranged in order of events• General to focused—begins with a generalization or humorous beginning to attract

attention and interest and then moves into focused details• Flashback—begins at middle age and reverts to childhood; or begins in the present or

future and reverts to the past• Logical—well arranged to be convincing and intelligent• Examples—provide examples and then draws theories from the examples• Insertion—insertion of items such as excerpts from diaries, dialogue, etc.; this often

transforms the work from neutral to emotive

Detail SelectionDetails are provided in writing to support the point of view represented by the writer or narrator.Such details may be derived from a variety of sources dependent upon the type of writing. For example, in a fiction story, the details may be a figment of the writer’s imagination while the

writer of a business report would obtain his details through research or possibly interviews withexperts. In writing copy for advertisements, a photograph or filmed scene may be needed toexpress the message. The subject of the picture or film clip would be details supporting thewriting.

ToneTone is portrayed in written works. The tone reflects how the author feels about the subjectmatter or the feelings the author wants to instill in the reader. Tone represents an issue, character or circumstance. The author’s tone can present a character as satirical, sincere, anxious,conceited, light-hearted, neutral, etc.

Mood

Writing can portray a mood in the setting or characters. The mood should reflect if a character ishappy, comical, melancholy, sad, depressed, angry, etc.

Rhetorical QuestionsTexts often present rhetorical questions which are intended to encourage the reader to think aboutsomething. They do not require an answer, but the author can use the question as a lead in to ananswer.

Example: Are we going to idly stand by and allow “God” to be removed from our nation’sPledge of Allegiance?

This is a powerful statement made in the form of a rhetorical question that will influence thereader to think about the issue. It can be left at that, or it can lead into a discussion and argumentabout how prayer was removed from the schools and similar issues.

Narrative Point of View Narrative point of view is not associated with the ideas or beliefs of the narrator; rather it is theangle from which a story or other writing is narrated. Narrative points of view are summarized inthe following table: Nive Point of View

Narrative Person Pronouns UsedFirst Person I, me, we, our, us



Second Person you, your Third Person she, he, it, they, them, their

First person is restrictive because the reader is told only what the narrator experiences regardingobservation, senses, ideas, emotion, etc. The first person voice is authentic bringing the reader close to the narrator who is portrayed as the person who experienced the events.

Second person is often used in writings that are intended to instruct, educate or influence thereader.

Third person is impersonal, neutral or objective. Third person voice can be limited, seen throughthe point-of-view of one or more characters, or it can be omniscient like a worldly view.

Grammar in Writing

Writing begins with related ideas and words selected by the author to express those ideas. Thesyntax or arrangement of words provides relationships between ideas. Grammar rules in theEnglish language have evolved over centuries and continue to change. As the rules change, theymay be inconsistent; however, they provide a functional base which does not ensure effectivewriting, but does help to ensure proper usage of grammar, punctuation and language.

Editors ensure that correct grammar and punctuation is used consistently throughout a piece of writing. This process is often called copy editing. To improve the effectiveness of sentencestructure, grammatical sentences are sometimes edited, since perfect grammar doesn’t ensureeffective writing. Language and substantive edits concentrate on syntax as much as on grammar,spelling and punctuation. The American Century Dictionary defines grammar as the “study of rules of a language’s inflections, forms, etc.” and “observance or application of such rules”.

Possessive Case Example: ar PluralMan’s Men’sAnimal’s Animals’City’s Cities’

Ross’ The Jones’Flower’s Flowers’

At one time, the use of ‘s with inanimate objects was considered to be taboo; however, in moderngrammar it is perfectly acceptable. Previously rather than writing “the flower’s petals” onewould write the petals of the flower. In this day and age, either is acceptable.

Point out whether the ‘s has been used correctly in the followings phrases1. Keats’ Poetry.2. Women’s College.3. Children’s’ Park 4. Men’s’ Hostel5. Boy’s School

Pronouns Examples: She, her, hers

He, him, hisThey, them, theirs

Complete the following sentences using the correct pronoun.1. George gave _____ a piece of ____ mind. ( He)



2. This book is______.( They)3. Today is _____day. ( She)4. I told _____ not to come here with_____ children. (They)5. ____is in charge of _____class. (She)

Answers: him, his, theirs, her, them, their, she, her

AntecedentsA lack of clear antecedents often produces grammatical errors in regard to pronouns.

Use the correct relative pronoun to complete the following sentences.

1. ______ book is this?2. Where is the book______ I had given you?3. ______ were you talking to?4. ______-told you such stories?5. This is the dress _______I like.

Answers:-Whose, which, whom, who, that.

Demonstrative Pronouns Example: Children usually do not think twice before drinking after one another. This is ahealth problem.

The sentence would be more acceptable if written as follows:

Children usually do not think twice before drinking after one another, which presents a health problem.

Use the correct demonstrative pronoun to complete the sentences.1. Go there and fetch me _____books.2. There is no sugar in _____tea.3. _______-is a strange idea, I can not agree with it.

4. _______shoes are new, but _____are old.5. _______child in the corner doesn’t talk to anyone.Answers:- those, this, that, these, those, that.

VerbsThe underlined words in the following sentences are examples of verbs.I play baseball everyday.The children like this game very much.He passed the examination last year.

Tense• Present Example, Everyday I wake up at seven in the morning• Present perfect Example, I have finished my course• Past Example, He slept well last night.• Past perfect Example, The patient had died by the time the doctor arrived.

• Future Example, They will come next year.• Future perfect Example, They will have reached Texas by now.



VoicePassive voice is not taboo, in fact it is considered appropriate when an actor is unknown,unimportant or will not be mentioned; the receiver of an action should be emphasized; a sentenceseems abrupt in active voice; or an active voice passage needs variety.

Some examples of sentences in active voice and passive voice are given below.

Active VoiceHe killed the rat.She wrote a letter.They baked a cake.She read a book.

Passive VoiceThe rat was killed by him.A letter was written by her.A cake was baked by them.A book was read by her.Try to identify whether the following sentences are in Active voice or Passive voice.

1. I made a boat by myself.2. The ship was attacked by pirates.3. They played the game well.4. He writes horror stories.5. The wall was painted green.6. Their house was destroyed in the storm.7. The dog chased the cat up the tree.8. They counted the compartments of the train.9. He predicted the events of the day.10. Rome was not built in a day.

AnswersActive- 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9.Passive- 2, 5, 6, 10.

Try to point out in which of the following sentences, the subject and the verb do not agree innumber.

1. Many children suffers from breathing disorders.2. Physics are my favorite subject.3. Men likes ball games.4. I understands what you say.5. You listens to what I say.

6. My parents lives in the West.7. The decision were accepted.8. Man do not live by bread alone.9. You does your duty.10. He teach in a school.

All the sentences are wrong.

Collective SubjectsSome examples of collective subjects are



A bunch of roses.A school of fish.A crowd of people.A host of Angels.A bevy of school girls.

AdjectivesThe underlined words are examples of Adjectives.

1. I saw a very pretty girl today.2. There is a strange smell in this room.3. She wears very expensive dresses.4. Greenland is a cold place.5. There is deep well in the village.

ArticlesInsert ‘a’ or ‘an’ in the spaces in the following sentences.

1. My aunt is _ heiress.2. Brutus is_ honorable man.3. He was_ honest man.4. They reached_ unanimous decision.5. They have_ uniform for the students of that college.6. I met _ one eyed man yesterday.7. He waited for_ hour.8. He left here- year ago.9. There is _ University near our town.10. He is _ M.A in literature.

Answers1. an. 2 . an. 3. an. 4. a. 5. a. 6 a. 7. an. 8. a. 9. a. 10. an.

AdverbsThe underlined words are examples of adverbs.

1. She walks very slowly.2. The child writes neatly.3. He spoke very clearly to the people.4. They visit us very often.5. He does his work thoroughly.

PrepositionsComplete the following sentences using the correct preposition.

1. Many wars were fought___the past.2. Please don’t be late___the meeting.3. He usually travels___ train.4. He stays ____ Dallas, but he is ____ Mexico.5. Cut this apple____ a knife.6. This table is made____ steel.7. We get honey____ bees.8. He is always ____ a hurry.



9. Will you come ____ me to the party?10. The ball sailed in ____ the open window.

Answers:-1)in, 2)for, 3)by, 4)in, 5)from, 6)with, 7)of, 8)from, 9)in, 10)with, 11)through.

ConjunctionsExamples of each of these concepts are provided in the following table:

Coordinating Conjunctions and, but, or, nor Correlative Conjunctions either/or, both/and, not only/but alsoConjunctive Adverbs therefore, thus, however, hence, otherwiseAdverbial Conjunctions Because, after, though, where, so thatSubordinating Conjunctions as, since, while, that

Complete the following sentences using the correct conjunctions.1. He invited me_____ I couldn’t go.2. ______ his parents, _____his sisters were killed in the crash.3. Try to finish reading this book ____you wait for the bus.

4. _____ I was ill, I missed a couple of classes.5. He displayed his wares______ others could see them.6. Meet the Principal now, ______ you may have to face the entire board of directors.7. He sat there twiddling his thumbs__ there was nothing else to do.8. He was not in the class room; ____ was he in the playground.9. He couldn’t take part in the race _____ of his fracture.10. _____ his parents were attorneys.

Answers:- 1)but, 2)not only-but also, 3)while, 4)as, 5)so that, 6)otherwise, 7)as, 8)nor, 9)because,10)both.

VerbalsThe gerund, the participle and infinitives are three types of verbals. Verbals are nouns or

adjectives formed from a verb.Gerund Acts as a nounParticiple Acts as an adjectiveInfinitive Acts as a noun

The difference between verbals and other adjectives and nouns is that they can take their ownobjects even though they are not verbs.

Example: Trimming a tree is tedious work.

The example is a gerund . The noun phrase “a tree” is the direct object of the verbal “trimming”even though “trimming” is a noun rather than a verb.

An adjective formed from a verb is called a participle. A present participle is created by adding“~ing” to a verb (sometimes doubling the final consonant is required).

Examples: run ~ runningsit ~ sittingcook ~ cooking

A past participle is more difficult because the past tense of verbs is not commonly used.

Examples: sunk ~ sunkenspoil ~ spoiled



bit ~ bittenThe sunken ship was filled with jewels.The spoiled food created a pungent odor.A bitten apple sat on the table.

Notice that the past participles are used as adjectives that describe a noun.

Dangling participle phrases which are considered idiomatic are absolute participles. They areindefinite and have no antecedent as none is intended.

Example: Given the results, we did not manage our finances well.

Given, provided, depending, generally speaking, concerning, regarding, considering, judging and beginning are examples of idiomatic absolute participles. Sometimes participles that appear to beabsolute are actually dangling. Dangling participles should be avoided if they are not idiomaticeven though they are sometimes acceptable in technical writing.

Sentence Structure

Effective writing encompasses the creation of phrases, paragraphs and sentences that facilitatecommunication in addition to being grammatically correct. Creation of effective communication

is a craft. Three types of statements can be made by a sentence:Active Verb A subject does somethingPassive Verb Something is done to a subjectLinking Verb A subject is equivalent to something else

Examples: Marie goes to school.The school is accredited by an agency.

Accreditation is justification that the school’s program is approved.

Active voice is preferred over passive voice, but passive voice is appropriate if the actor is notmentioned, not known or insignificant; when emphasis should be on the receiver of an action;when the sentence seems abrupt in active voice; when an active voice passage lacks variety; andwhen a weak imperative is necessary. Passive voice is justified in technical documents.

Improving Subject-Verb RelationshipsBecause the subject and verb should be the most important elements in a sentence; excessivemodifiers, especially between the subject and the verb, overpower them.

Punctuating for EmphasisPlacing commas around rhetorical adverbs or other elements bring emphasis to the element that isenclosed. Commas placed between coordinate adjectives can emphasize the adjectivesseparately. A colon should be used to introduce a list of items.

Capitalization

Sentences: The first word of every sentence is capitalized. Example: The scenery is beautiful.

Poetry: The first word of every line of poetry is capitalized unless the poet does not use anycapital letters in the poem.

Example: The oak stood like a mountain,Bird nests high were held,Water overflowed in the fountain,



I and O: I and O when used as a word are always capitalized.

Example: Do you think I would do that?O father, please help us.

Common Nouns: Common nouns are capitalized only when they are part of a particular name.

Example: Farmington High School is a great place.Have you graduated from high school yet?We are going to have a party at Project Playground.The playground project should be completed by yearend.

A single word used as a complete sentence: The writer has a choice of whether or not tocapitalize a single word which is used as a complete sentence within a sentence. You maycapitalize it if you wish, but you do not have to. Either form is acceptable.

Example: When I asked her to marry me, her answer was Yes.When I asked her to marry me, her answer was yes.

Use capitals where necessary.

1. We don’t have to work on sundays.(The s of Sunday)2. I usually spend my holidays with my uncle george. (The g of George)

3. We go to church on easter sunday. (The e of Easter and the s of Sunday)4. I love italian food.(The I of Italian)5. I hate biology and math, but I love english and science.(the E of English)

Punctuation

The rules of punctuation are very simple; however, there are a few exceptions to the rules that can be confusing when preparing compositions. Proper punctuation makes reading easier byclarifying the message. Basically, punctuation performs four functions:

• To separate• To group or enclose• To connect• To impart meaning

PeriodA period is used after a declarative or imperative sentence.

Example: I love yellow roses.Go see if your father is home.

A period is used after an abbreviation.

Example: Mr., Mrs., lb., oz.When a sentence ends in an abbreviation, only one period is needed.

Example: The recipe calls for vanilla, I need 1 tsp.

Exclamation Mark An exclamation mark I (sometimes called an exclamation point) is used after an interjection.

Example: Run! Hello!

An exclamation mark is also used at the end of an exclamatory sentence:

Example: Watch out for that car!



Question Mark A question mark is used after an interrogative sentence.

Example: Where are you going today?If an interrogative sentence ends in an abbreviation, the question mark is still required.

Example: Does the package weight more than 1 lb.?The great exception: A request which is disguised as a question should not end in a questionmark.

Example: Why don’t you turn off the lights and go to bed.Will you please grow up.

CommaCommas and semicolons are quite possibly the most inconsistently used form of punctuation bywriters. Here are the basic punctuation rules for commas:

Commas should be used to separate main clauses in compound sentences. The comma is placed before the conjunction.

Example: My family went on vacation, but I stayed home.They walked most of the way, and I ran.Commas are used after an adverbial clause which is at the beginning of a sentence.

Example: If you are right, I may need to study a little harder before the final.When you can’t fall asleep, try drinking some hot tea.

Pairs of commas are used to offset phrases or clauses that can be omitted without losing meaning.

Example: Mr. Smith, our English teacher, insists on proper punctuation.Our town, the largest in the state, is full of tourists in the summer.Commas are used to offset nouns in a direct address:

Example: John, have you ever done this before?Go to the pantry, Allison, and get out the flour for me.

Commas are used to set off appositives which can be omitted without losing meaning.

Example: Mr. Harrell, my supervisor, was upset because I was late.

Commas are used to offset items in addresses and dates:

Example: Will you please mail the letter to 412 Main Street, Miami, Florida?I received your message on June 14, 2003.

Commas should be utilized to separate independent clauses and phrases:

Example: He will, I believe, play in the World Series when he grows up.

Commas are used to offset the tagline from a quotation.

Example: He asked, “Do you know that for sure?”

“I do not believe,” he said, “that you are 18 years old.”Commas are not used prior to quotation marks that enclose a title.

Example: John Grisham wrote “The Pelican Brief”.Commas are used to set off mild exclamations which are at the beginning of a sentence.

Example: No, I do not care for Italian food.Commas are used to separate a series of three or more things.

Example: To bake the cake I will need flour, baking powder, eggs, oil, and vanilla.



Use commas between adjectives that are not connected with conjunctions. If the word ‘and’would be appropriate between two adjectives, you use a comma. If ‘and’ would not beappropriate between two adjectives, you do not use a comma.

Example: The hot, humid, miserable weather is unusual this time of the year.The lively little puppy made her smile.

Commas are used after the salutation of a casual or friendly letter.Example: Dear Sue,

Commas are used after complimentary closings in a friendly letter.

Example: Sincerely,Forever yours,

Commas are used to separate transitional words in sentences.

Example: I don’t like seafood. However, I do enjoy fried trout.

Semicolon

Semicolons are probably the most feared and least used form of punctuation. In writing, thesemicolon serves the following functions:

To separate independent clauses rather than using conjunctions such as and, but, nor, for,so or yet

Example: I am not married; I am engaged.You don’t like clutter; you won’t pick up after yourself.

To separate items appearing in a series when any of the items contain a comma or conjunction

Example: You will enjoy Writing for the Professions; Art and Literature; and CreativeWriting.

We will visit Miami, Florida; Boston, Massachusetts; and San Diego, California over the nexttwo years.

To separate clauses of a compound sentence when they are connected by conjunctive adverbssuch as therefore, however, nevertheless, thus and moreover—notice that a comma is used after the conjunctive adverb

Example: I would love to go with you this weekend; however, I have a prior commitment.You don’t think he would steal from you; nevertheless, allevidence indicates that he did.

ColonA colon is used after the salutation in a business letter.

Example: Gentlemen:

Dear Mr. Howard:Colons are used between hours, minutes and seconds.

Example: Dinner will be at 8:15. Be on time; don’t show up at 8:15:05.A colon should be used to introduce a lists, statements, questions, or proper quotations.

Example: The course will cover: capitalization, punctuation, and grammar.

ApostropheApostrophes are used in contractions.



Example: He isn’t here yet.They aren’t coming to the meeting.

An apostrophe is used to form the possessive of nouns naming people or units of time.

Example: Susan’s parents are visiting this weekend.A minute’s delay makes a huge difference.

Apostrophes are used to form plurals of letters and signs. Example: There are two t’s in attain.

It doesn’t flow well when you use more than three and’s in one sentence.The great exception: The possessive form of ‘it’

It may come natural to place an apostrophe into the possessive form of it;

however, it’s is the contraction for ‘it is’; therefore, the possessive form of ‘it’ is simply “its”without an apostrophe.

Brackets

Example: “It [the school] will remain open for the remainder of thesemester,” promised the Head Master.

Hyphen Example: The flowers we planted require water, rich soil, and sun-

light. Example: It is a good idea to take a pretest .

The accountants said our taxes are pre-exempted using acafeteria plan.There was an antiwar protest at the White House.This is anti-aircraft space.We are waiting for her.Time-wise it is a good idea.

Hyphens are used to divide some compound words.Two nouns compounded require a hyphen.

Example: He is a singer-songwriter.In-laws are always hyphenated.

Example: Mother-in-law, sister-in-lawAll great relatives are hyphenated.

Example: Great-grandfather, great-auntAll self- compounds are hyphenated.

Example: Self-motivated, self-educatedAll nouns formed using –elect are hyphenated.

Example: The mayor-elect will be speaking at the banquet.Combinations including a prepositional phrase are hyphenated.

Example: Don’t be a stick-in-the-mud.Fractional numbers are always hyphenated between the numerator and the denominator unlessone of the words already has a hyphen.

Example: one-fourth, twenty-two hundredthsCompounds using –ache do not require a hyphen.

Example: I have had a headache for three days.

If uncertain about whether or not to use a hyphen, it is advisable to consult a dictionary.



ParenthesesParentheses are used to enclose interrupting or nonrestrictive elements. Commas and dashes arealso used for this purpose.

Example: Mr. Smith, my math teacher, is very intelligent.Mr. Smith (my math teacher) is very intelligent.

Parentheses are used to enclose numbers within sentences. Example: Ross (1978) suggests that marketing is an all-encompassing

process.The test will be divided into (1) multiple choice, (2) essay,and (3) completion questions.

Points of EllipsisPoints of ellipsis are three evenly spaced periods (. . .) which are used to indicate an omissionfrom a quote.

Example: “since oven temperatures vary . . . do a doneness test beforethe recommended baking time is up.”

Quotation Marks Example: “If your only tool is a hammer, you tend to treat everything

as if it were a nail,” observed Abraham Maslow.She said that I was “late again”.On the test, an n stands for “no” and a y for “yes”.The paper stated, “Abraham Maslow observed, ‘if your only tool is ahammer, you tend to treat everything as if it were a nail’.”

Common Misuses and Tricky Concepts

Tricky Words

Accept vs. Except

Are you going to except or accept an award? Is everyone except or accept Marie going onthe field trip?These two words are tricky because they sound a lot alike; however, they have very differentmeanings. The share –cept of which the root Latin word is capio meaning “take”. Captus, whichmeans “taken” is the part participle of capio.

To keep it straight, think of the words accept and except in the following context:

Accept means to willing receive, to welcome, or to believe; e xcept means to exclude.

Examples:

I am going to accept the award at the banquet.Just because she is different does not mean that we should not accept her.Why can’t you accept the fact that you are wrong?Everyone in the class is going on the field trip except for Marie.I like all vegetables except for spinach.All of my classes are in the morning except for French.

Compose vs. Comprise



Example: I have to go to the store, feed the dog, wash the dishes, etc.It would be improper to write:I have to got to the store, feed the dog, wash the dishes, and etc.

Me vs. IThe selection of the pronouns “I” or “me” is challenging for many writers. There is a simple ruleto help you determine which is correct. A pronoun in a comparison is nominative if it is thesubject of an understood verb.

If you wrote:

My son likes shrimp more than I.

This is correct. It means “My son likes shrimp more than I do”. “I” is a nominative pronounwhich is the subject of the understood verb “do”.

On the other hand, if you wrote:

My son likes shrimp more than me.This would mean that he likes shrimp more than he likes you.

The Dangling Gerund

A gerund is a form of a verb which ends in –ing and functions as a noun rather than functioningas a verb or adjective. A gerund phrase is a dependent clause which surrounds a gerund. The

phrase should coordinate logically with the remainder of the sentence so its subject is normallythe same as the subject of the sentence.

Example: Climbing the tree, Todd screamed as the branch snapped.

Todd is the subject of the sentence. It was he that screamed. Todd is also the subject of thegerund phrase as it was Todd that was climbing the tree.

Emphasis

Sentences can be written differently and have the exact same meaning; however, the placement of words can express emphasis differently. The most emphatic position is at the end of a sentenceand the next most emphatic is placement at the beginning of the sentence.

Example: The recent epidemic most threatening to humans is AIDS.AIDS is an epidemic that is threatening to humans.Recently, AIDS has become a threatening epidemic to humans.

Writing a Story or ScreenplayThere are a number of different writing methods to choose from. Different people use differentapproaches in composing written material and there is really no right or wrong method as thefinished product is much more important than the means of producing it. Here basic methods of writing a story or screenplay are introduced. The following section “Elements of SuccessfulStories” goes into greater detail about the individual considerations or story writing.

Suggested Writing MethodsFollowing are two suggested methods for writing a story:

Method 1—Begin writing your story allowing your ideas to flow naturally. The characters andwhat they do or what happens to them will develop as you write. Start thinking aheadanticipating what may happen, developing the story and the ending.



Method 2—Prepare an outline or summary. Develop three or more characters and make notesabout them and their past including events and people who have shaped their lives. Focus ontheir hobbies and goals, likes and dislikes. Determine what should happen to the characters in thestory, then bring them together in a setting in which they interact with one another and begin to

plot the story.

CharacterizationCharacterization is extremely important in the development of a story. Many writers fail todevelop the character of their subjects which leaves the story dry, uninteresting and unsuccessfulat holding a reader’s interest. Well developed characters have a past; they have interests, likesand dislikes; they have problems or adventures; they want something or want to overcomesomething.

Characterization sometimes includes the creation or development of conflicts. A conflictdevelops when one character’s desires or actions conflict with those of another character in thestory. An obstacle which prevents your character from obtaining a goal or complicates the life of the character also encompasses the development of conflict. Generally, if you truly like or

passionately dislike your characters, others will too. By developing interesting characters, you

will be able to write a better story building upon them.

The Plot

The plot moves your story. It is the main plan which drives the story and keeps it on course. The plot is the driving force, but also extends to include all things that make the story flow.Developing a plot to a story involves determining what the characters want and what situationthey are faced with. Obstacles can be included to complicate things and make a story moreinteresting.

In developing a plot for a story or screenplay, it can be divided into short scenes or a number of mini-stories which make up the whole. A treatment is a form of writing used by many writerswhich encompasses the writing of brief paragraphs or sketches of an entire story and thendeveloping each portion into a powerful scene.

A subplot is similar to the plot. It is not quite as important as the plot as it intertwines with the plot, helping to develop it. Romance is often a subplot of a bigger story plot. For example, in theJerry Bruckheimer film, Pearl Harbor , the plot of the story was based on the bombing of PearlHarbor which jolted America into World War II; however, the subplot was a wonderful andcomplicated romance which helped to develop the plot and make the story more interesting.

The SceneThe scene is a fundamental building block of a story which visualizes the atmosphere surroundingthe characters and happenings in the story. The scene is a dramatic action in a setting. Changingthe place, time or circumstances creates a new scene. In modern movies, a scene lasts from a fewseconds to several minutes, but usually averages about two minutes. Sometimes a scene simply

gives information, but main scenes are like short stories. Conflict and tension is at the heart of drama. These concepts make up a scene and generally a character will change emotional statesduring a scene.

DialogueDialogue is the process of writing what people say. Generally, when a dialogue is written, itneeds polishing. The first writing gets the ideas on paper and the polishing phase brings them tolife through rewording, restructuring sentences, adding descriptive words, et cetera.



Characteristics of a Short StoryA short story should begin with a striking opening that captivates the reader. It should have aninteresting plot that develops using subplots if needed. The short story should be well developedwith an appropriate structure including action, tension or drama. A clearly recognizable climaxshould be evident. A short story should have at least one or two well developed characters.Effective use of a narrative voice, language, word choice and imagery can make a short storymore interesting. The interior dialogue should be revealing and the dialogue must contribute tonarrative development, characterization and skillful exploitation of conventions of the selectedgenre. The use and development of settings can enhance the narrative and create strong themes tomove the story along and keep it interesting.

Elements of Successful StoriesWhether a novel or a short story, fiction or non-fiction, stories essentially inform readers aboutthe topic a little bit at a time. Basically, a story is a journey of discovery. Experienced writersdon’t have to put a lot of conscious thought into the development of stories, but novice writersshould take care to ensure that their story contains the components represented here.

The OpeningThe opening of a story should introduce or foreshadow the main characters in the story. Theopening should give some indication of the challenges the characters will face throughout thestory. The good guy vs. the bad guy scenario can be portrayed in the opening as well.

The setting, which is when and where a story takes place, should be established during theopening along with areas of conflict. Foreshadowing of the ending is often represented in theopening and the tone of the overall story is set.

The BodyA story should be told in scenes rather than in exposition. Each scene consists of a purpose, anobstacle or conflict and a resolution. The scenes introduce new information about characters andhappenings.

Characters can be developed through both action and dialogue. Rather than saying what ishappening, the writing should show what is happening in the story through writing that enhancesvisualization.

All elements in a conclusion should be introduced in the body of the story prior to the conclusion.The motivation for a character’s actions should be introduced and explained. In drama,characters are usually influenced by good reasons while melodramatic characters’ actions are not

based on reason or are for bad or villainous reasons. The plot should consist of increasinglyserious problems establishing suspense. Solutions should be appropriate to each character.

Nothing happens randomly in a story. The characters and occurrences have to be introduced andsometimes explained. Images, metaphors and similes should be used consciously to enhance the

text, not just because they sound good. Throughout the story a consistent tone, style and point of view should be maintained.

The ConclusionThe conclusion of an effective story wraps it up and brings finality. A crucial conflict, a climaxor an unpredictable or unobvious occurrence makes for a great conclusion. What ever theconclusion is, it should be supported and led up to through the rest of the story.



Eventually, a hero or featured character takes charge of the events in the story. The character is passive through much of the story until such time as he or she kicks into action often usingknowledge or experience gained from other aspects in the story to finalize a situation or solve a

problem.

Every event and response reveals aspects of a character’s identity, dramatizing the character

providing opportunities to display braveness or cowardice; ignorance or brilliance; generosity or meanness; weakness or strength; or other similar traits. To be believable, character traits have to be dramatized in the plot.

A SynopsisThere is no hardcore format for a synopsis or outline of a story; however, a synopsis should bedouble-spaced and legible with frequent paragraphs. A synopsis can cover an entire story, or supplement a portion of a completed manuscript. If a novel is broken into chapters, it is sensiblefor the synopsis to be divided similarly.

The narrative of a synopsis is generally written in present tense. It introduces and describes themajor characters and summarizes the major events communicated in the story. The synopsisindicates the point of view of the story, but contains little or no dialogue. If the context of thestory requires explanation, a background section sometimes precedes a synopsis.

Genre

The term genre means a type of literature which deals with a particular topic, issue or setting.Romance, history and science fiction are examples of genre. A convention is an understanding

between a reader and a writer about certain details of a story that doesn’t have to be explained.Writers should keep a story in line with the genre and conventions of the genre in order to avoidconfusing a reader.

SymbolismWhether consciously or not, writers write on a symbolic level; the author’s life experiences alongwith things they have read influence their own writing. Writing a story is a search for identitywhich depends upon a position or lack of position in society. The conscious use of symbols canchange the apparent meaning in a story.

Things in the natural cycle of life such as day and night; youth and old age; etc. create anassociation such as an association between summer and romance or tragedy and isolation.Symbols may represent good or evil and an author can develop a context to convey symbolism.Symbolically, a tree is a symbol of life; however, the author can change that symbolism making it

part of a hanging. A flower may symbolize beauty, youth or sexuality while a wildernesssymbolizes hostility. Fire can symbolize light, life, destruction, lust or hell. A fair maiden or awise old man is an example of symbolic characters commonly used in stories.

Narrative Voice

The narrative voice is the voice of the person telling a story. It can be the author’s persona or acharacter from the story. The persona selected depends upon the type of story and the emotionalatmosphere to be created.

The narrative persona is developed through the attitude and personality of the narrator which areexpressed by a choice of words dependent on the stories point of view.

A first-person point of view is generally subjective as the narrator shares thoughts, feeling and personal reactions to events. When the first-person point of view is subjective, the narrator onlytells what people said or did and does not make any comments.



First person narration can portray the narrator as an observer outside of the story or as a detachedautobiography where the narrator looks back on and relays past events. Multiple narrators can beused in a story providing first-person accounts from several different characters. In interior monologue, the narrator describes the story as a memory. Dramatic monologue features anarrator who tells the story without major interruptions. Letters or a diary portrays the narrator aswriting about events as they happen.

Stories are rarely narrated in second person. In third-person objective narration, there is no entryof thoughts or feelings. The author describes what the characters say and do withouteditorializing or emotion. The persona of the author is nearly non-existent. This type of narrationleaves the reader to provide the emotion rather than having it demonstrated by the persona.

Third-person omniscient gives the author the most freedom to develop a story. It words well withcomplex plots and large settings when multiple points of view tell a story. This approach has adisadvantage as it can confuse the reader if they don’t know who to identify with. Skipping fromone point of view to another should begin early in a story before a reader identifies with the first

presented point of view. An author’s persona influences reactions of readers making them feelclose to or distant from specific characters in the story.

Constructing a SceneThe scene is the very basic part of fiction. Each scene in a story has verbal and nonverbalcontent. Nonverbal content is displayed by the way the scene is presented. The plot willsometimes produce automatic scenes; nevertheless, verbal dialogue builds a scene, but non-verbalcontent including descriptions and explanations contributes greatly to the over perception andvisualization of the scene.

Elements of FictionThe basic elements of fiction are character, setting, plot and action; however, phrasing includesthe dialogue (what the characters say), introspection (what the characters think or feel) andexposition (what the characters do). The character, setting, plot and action of fiction is builtthrough the use of characterization, dialogue, voicing, authenticity, sensory description,illocution, introspection, exposition, point-of-view, and narrative voice selection including personand tense.

Characterization

Complex, believable characters are essential elements of fiction stories. The characters can bedeveloped through a number of methods.

They should be concrete which means that have specific lifestyles, homes, histories, social backgrounds, opinions and points of view. The nature of a character can be expressed through symbolic association using metaphors, objects or settings. Symbolic associations can link characters to other characters in literature that are similar or symbols can be used in a differentmanner. Symbolic associations of a character can be made through the character’s name.

The character’s speech through both mannerisms and content develops personality through areflection of the character’s ethnic and social background without stereotyping.

A character’s behavior should be consistent with what is known about the character, but shouldreveal new aspects of personality. Different behaviors in varying situations or levels of stress can

be very revealing in regard to character.

The character’s motivation should clearly provide good reason for the actions portrayed in astory. Actions should consist of believable skill so that the story is plausible.



Characters respond to experiences through change or attempting to avoid change. Thecharacter’s beliefs, attitudes, opinions etc. should be shown to change as the character grows anddevelops.

A character resume is a useful tool for developing a character. The following is an example of information that might be contained in a character resume, of course portions can be deleted or

added. Example: Name: Polly Hannibal

Home: Chicago, IllinoisBirth: Chicago, Illinois; April 11, 1968Physical: 5’2, 130 lbs., brown hair, green eyesParen t s: F red d y, a mech an ic ; Mar th a , a

homemaker Other family: Twin sister, HollySpouse: PaulSocial Class: PovertyEducation: High school drop outOccupation: Counter clerk at McDonald’s

Ambitions: To travel EuropePersonal: Imaginative, caring, helpfulSense of humor: Dry, easily insultedFears/Anxieties: Fears abandonment

The list can be greatly expanded to include a number of beliefs, social aspects, etc. The character resume helps a writer to develop the character as he or she writes rather than attempting todevelop a character through piecework.

DialogueFictional dialogue often contradicts what we have learned in expository writing. Correct use of grammar, formal structure, clarity, precision and the avoidance of slang are overlooked in thewriting of fictional dialogue as it is designed to create characters in the minds of your readers andthe way those characters speak is essential to the visual portrait of the characters. The dialogue infiction reflects the way that people speak which is not usually grammatically correct. It issometimes elliptic, wandering, hesitant and scattered. Perfect sentence structure and perfectgrammar in fictional dialogue is not believable, it doesn’t develop the character and it won’t sell.Dialogue that follows the rules of expository writing is grammatical, clear and correct but itmakes the characters seem robotic. It does not develop their character, reflect their personalityand it is not engaging to the reader. Fictional dialogue captures the essence of the character authentically reflecting the manner in which people actually talk to one another. It adds

personality and ‘character’ to the character.

Bad example: “Hello Mother,” I said as I opened the door to the kitchen, “I am pleased to see you today.”“Good day dear,” Mother said as she was sl icing c“Weare having the Smiths over for lunch today.”

Good example: “Hey Mom,” I said as I opened the door to the kitchen, “Sheesh!It’s great to be home,” as I flopped into the chair

I picked up a carrot and asked, “What’s up?”

“Not a lot, I’m just fixin’ a quick bite cuz the Smiths are dropping in for lunch on their way tothe airport.”



Fictional dialogue is not as formal as other dialogue; however, it may contain similar componentsin argumentative patterns. For example, the work is generally organized chronologically or spatially. General to specific; important to less important; comparison and contrast; classificationand partition; problem-method-solution; or cause and effect are argumentative patterns that areused in fictional writing as well as other forms of writing.

VoicingThe nature of a piece of writing, the scene or dialogue determines voicing technique. When usingmultiple voices, they must be distinguished from one another with expression described since thereader isn’t privy to visualizing the scene. To portray the full effect, a writer can describe voicesand behaviors. Some examples of voice description include: fretful, angry, calm, self-assured,anxious, quivering, etc. Behavior can also be described to create visual effects. Examples of

behavior could include: pacing impatiently; nervously tapping his foot; paused hesitantly;charged out of the room. Developing the ability to create an image of the characters throughvoice and action is imperative to creative writing.

Authenticity

People speak much different than they write; therefore, when producing written dialogue, proper English rules may be overlooked to maintain authenticity. Words used to portray a circumstanceshould be characteristic and real to life. Dialogues may depict formal or informal language,complete sentences or slang. They may abruptly jump from one speaker to another and back.Conversations may be chaotic including interruptions and drifting thoughts and responses may besubject to misinterpretation.

Show and TellFiction is intended to create a world that is convincing and real in a virtual reality manner. Whilea report tells the reader something, fiction must show the reader, drawing a representation of thefictional situation that breathes as if it were alive.

Example of telling:

Mary was a beautiful young woman with long, blonde hair and blue eyes.

Example of showing:

Mary gracefully entered the room flipping her long blonde hair and batting her gorgeousaqua-blue eyes. “Wow, she looks like a model!” Raymond exclaimed.

Priscilla rolled her eyes in disgust, “She prances around like she’s a goddess.”

Using the Five Senses

Sensory cues within text can assist the reader to imagine the world and atmosphere depicted in astory making it more realistic and interesting. Although the text should not be constantly sensory,good descriptive text uses all of the senses in moderation: sight, sound, smell, feel and taste.

IllocutionIllocution is language that avoids literal meaning of the words. When we speak, sometimes weconceal intentions or side step the true subject of the conversation. Writing illocution expressestwo stories, one of which is not apparent to the characters, but is apparent to the reader. For example, two characters may be discussing a storm when in reality; one of them is focusing onhow the storm relates to their relationship with the person to whom they are speaking. The storycontains an underlying meaning.



IntrospectionIntrospection allows a reader to understand what is going through the mind of a character. Just adialogue presents the way people really talk; introspection should imitate the way people reallythink. Introspection reflects the feelings, thoughts, reactions, musing, and personality of thecharacter exhibiting his or her point of view. The thoughts may present a stream of consciousness that is disjointed, fragmented, non-linear and ungrammatical.

Introspection adds to the building of the character because it reflects the thoughts which may becontradictory to the actions and dialogue of a character which provides a more accurate

presentation and portrait of the character’s personality.

Example: John hated his job and despised cranky customers, however, when theold bag Mrs. Scott stopped by the desk to complain, again, hegreeted her with a warm, forced smile, “Hello Mrs. Scott, what can I dofor you today?”

It is not necessary to set off introspection with italics or quotation marks; however, it shouldmatch the narration’s grammatical person. For example, if your story is narrated in third person,then the introspection should also be expressed in third person.

Example: Marie exclaimed, “Thank you, I love chocolate!” although she was reallythinking, if I see another piece of chocolate today I’m going to be sick.

ExpositionExposition encompasses details which bring fiction to life. They contain details that define thefictional world, but should not interfere with the story. Expositions explain to the reader what acharacter is doing or experiencing.

Example: Gazing at the sky, she wondered what would happen next.As he rolled his eyes, he accepted the offer.Fright consumed him as the door slammed shut.The clamor of the approaching train instilled anticipation.

Point of ViewA reader experiences a story from the point-of-view of a character. In most short-fiction, the

point of view of one character makes up the narration; however, it longer works of fiction such asnovels, the narration can come from more than one character, but to avoid confusion, the point-of-view should be consistent throughout a chapter.

First Person, Second Person, Third Person

Fiction is generally written in either first or third person. Occasionally, but rarely, fiction iswritten in second person. Whichever person is selected for a story, the form should remainconsistent throughout the piece; however, in a novel, different characters can narrate in different

persons.

Example of First Person:When I arrived in Chicago, the airport was packed with holiday travelers.

Example of Second Person:

When you arrived in Chicago, the airport was packed with holiday travelers.

Example of Third Person:

When he arrived in Chicago, the airport was packed with holiday travelers.



Past and Present TenseFiction can be written in either past or present tense. Whichever tense is selected, it shouldremain consistent throughout the story; however, in a novel, different characters can narrate indifferent tenses.

Past Tense Example:

The sky was dark and it was evident that the storm was drawing near.

Present Tense Example:

The sky is dark and it is evident that the storm is drawing near.

Poetry and ProseThe terms poetry and prose are often used interchangeably; though they are similar, poetry and

prose are really quite different. The definition of poetry is quite controversial as it is not aspecifically defined term. The American Century Dictionary offers the following definitions:

Poetry—“art work of a poet”, “poems collectively” and “poetic or tenderly pleasing quality”

Poem—“metrical composition” and “concerned with feeling or imaginative description”

Prose—“ordinary written or spoken language not in verse” Robert Frost, one of America’s greatest poets explained poetry as follows, “A poem begins with alump in the throat, a home-sickness or a love-sickness. It is a reaching-out toward expression; aneffort to find fulfillment. A complete poem is one where the emotion has found its thought andthe thought has found the words.”

Poetry’s purpose is to move readers with beauty of a crafted language. Both poetry and prosecommunicate ideas; however, prose is focused on meaning while poetry is focused on beauty.Prose that is written with attention to beauty is sometimes called poetic prose while poetry that iswritten with attention to meaning is called prosaic poetry.

Poems are generally made up verses, individual lines that seem to be independent; however,traditional approaches recognize writing as poetry in absence of verses if it exhibits poeticquality. The length of lines does not matter in prose which is not made up of verses.

Rhythm Rhythm is repetition of elements or groups of elements. In poetry, the rhythm is syllabic or metrical meaning that a line in a verse consists of metrical units or groups where one syllable isstressed.

The study of verse is known as prosody and a technique called scansion is used to evaluate themeter of a poem. A foot is a rhythmic group or a minimal syllabic metrical unit. If a line has aregular rhythmic pattern, a beat, or a foot it can be considered metrical.

The most common feet have two to three syllables, with one stressed.• Iamb: An iambic foot has two syllables. The first is unstressed and the second is

stressed. The iambic foot is most common in English poetry.• Trochee: A trochaic foot has two syllables. The first is stressed and the second is

unstressed.• Dactyl: A dactylic foot has three-syllables beginning with a stressed syllable; the other

two are unstressed.• Anapest: An anapestic foot has three syllables. The first two are unstressed with the

third stressed.



These are not the only feet used in poetry; however, they are the most common. The metrical length of a line is determined by the number of feet it contains.

• Monometer: one foot• Dimeter: two feet• Trimeter: three feet•

Tetrameter: four feet• Pentameter: five feet• Hexameter: six feet• Heptameter: seven feet

A poet may intentionally deviate from proper or ordinary language or pronunciation in order tocreate a regular meter. An expansion adds an unstressed syllable and a contraction or elisionremoves an unstressed syllable in order to maintain the rhythmic meter of a line. This practiceexplains some words frequently used in poetry such as th’ in place of the, o’er in place of over and ‘ tis or ‘twas in place of it is or it was.

Inversion is an intentional digression from ordinary word order which is used to maintain regular meters. For example, rather than saying ‘the rain came’ a poem may say ‘came the rain’. Meterscan be formed by the insertion or absence of a pause.

A caesura , sometimes marked by punctuation, is a pause within the body of a line. It maysubstitute for a missing syllable. The following poem by Emily Dickenson demonstrates the useof caesura. Notice when reading the poem, the punctuation represents a pause in the verse whichgives the poem rhythm.

I’M NOBODY! WHO ARE YOU?I’m nobody! Who are you?Are you nobody, too?Then there’s a pair of us—don’t tell!They’d advertise—you know!How dreary to be somebody!

How public like a frogTo tell one’s name the livelong dayTo an admiring bog!

Cadence is a final rhythmic group of a sentence or verse which usually closes with a pause.Sometimes the pause substitutes for the missing syllable. If the cadence ends on the stressedsyllable, it is called a masculine cadence; and a feminine cadence if it ends on the unstressedsyllable.

Mixed meter is common in poetry. It is a meter with a different type of foot substituted for the basic type, this is sometimes called the principle of maximization .

Free verse in poetry is written without regular metric patterns but is more rhythmic than prose.

The following poem by Walt Whitman demonstrates the cadence and rhythm of free versepoetry:A Carol of Harvest, for 1867A SONG of the good green grass!A song no more of the city streets;A song of farms—a song of the soil of fields.A song with the smell of sun-dried hay, where the nimble pitchers handle the pitch-fork; A songtasting of new wheat, and of fresh-husk’d maize.

For the lands, and for these passionate days, and for myself,



Now I awhile return to thee, O soil of Autumn fields,Reclining on thy breast, giving myself to thee,Answering the pulses of thy sane and equable heart,Tuning a verse for thee.O Earth, that hast no voice, confide to me a voice!O harvest of my lands! O boundless summer growths!O lavish, brown, parturient earth! O infinite, teeming womb!A verse to seek, to see, to narrate thee.Ever upon this stage,Is acted God’s calm, annual drama,Gorgeous processions, songs of birds,Sunrise, that fullest feeds and freshens most the soul,The heaving sea, the waves upon the shore, the musical, strong waves,The woods, the stalwart trees, the slender, tapering trees,The flowers, the grass, the lilliput, countless armies of the grass,The heat, the showers, the measureless pasturages,The scenery of the snows, the winds’ free orchestra,The stretching, light-hung roof of clouds—the clear cerulean, and the bulging, silvery fringes,

The high dilating stars, the placid, beckoning stars,The moving flocks and herds, the plains and emerald meadows,The shows of all the varied lands, and all the growths and products.Fecund America! To-day,Thou art all over set in births and joys!Thou groan’st with riches! thy wealth clothes thee as with a swathing garment!Thou laughest loud with ache of great possessions!A myriad-twining life, like interlacing vines, binds all thy vast demesne!As some huge ship, freighted to water’s edge, thou ridest into port!As rain falls from the heaven, and vapors rise from earth, so have the precious values fallen uponthee, and risen out of thee!

Thou envy of the globe! thou miracle!Thou, bathed, choked, swimming in plenty!Thou lucky Mistress of the tranquil barns!Thou Prairie Dame that sittest in the middle, and lookest out upon thy world, and lookest East,and lookest West!

Dispensatress, that by a word givest a thousand miles—that giv’st a million farms, and missestnothing! Thou All-Acceptress—thou Hospitable—(thou only art hospitable, as God ishospitable.)

When late I sang, sad was my voice;Sad were the shows around me, with deafening noises of hatred, and smoke of conflict;In the midst of the armies, the Heroes, I stood,Or pass’d with slow step through the wounded and dying.But now I sing not War,

Nor the measur’d march of soldiers, nor the tents of camps, Nor the regiments hastily coming up, deploying in line of battle. No more the dead and wounded; No more the sad, unnatural shows of War.Ask’d room those flush’d immortal ranks? the first forth-stepping armies?Ask room, alas, the ghastly ranks—the armies dread that follow’d.



(Pass—pass, ye proud brigades!So handsome, dress’d in blue—with your tramping, sinewy legs;With your shoulders young and strong—with your knapsacks and your muskets;• How elate I stood and watch’d you, where, starting off, you march’d!Pass;—then rattle, drums, again!Scream, you steamers on the river, out of whistles loud and shrill, your salutes!For an army heaves in sight—O another gathering army!Swarming, trailing on the rear—O you dread, accruing army!O you regiments so piteous, with your mortal diarrhoea! with your fever!O my land’s maimed darlings! with the plenteous bloody bandage and the crutch!Lo! your pallid army follow’d!)But on these days of brightness,On the far-stretching beauteous landscape, the roads and lanes, the high-piled farm-wagons, andthe fruits and barns,

Shall the dead intrude?Ah, the dead to me mar not—they fit well in Nature;They fit very well in the landscape, under the trees and grass,And along the edge of the sky, in the horizon’s far margin.

Nor do I forget you, departed; Nor in winter or summer, my lost ones;But most, in the open air, as now, when my soul is rapt and at peace—like pleasing phantoms,

Your dear memories, rising, glide silently by me.I saw the day, the return of the Heroes;(Yet the Heroes never surpass’d, shall never return;Them, that day, I saw not.)I saw the interminable Corps—I saw the processions of armies,I saw them approaching, defiling by, with divisions,Streaming northward, their work done, camping awhile in clusters of mighty camps.

No holiday soldiers!—youthful, yet veterans;Worn, swart, handsome, strong, of the stock of homestead and workshop,Harden’d of many a long campaign and sweaty march,Inured on many a hard-fought, bloody field.A pause—the armies wait;A million flush’d, embattled conquerors wait;The world, too, waits—then, soft as breaking night, and sure as dawn,They melt—they disappear.Exult, indeed, O lands! victorious lands!

Not there your victory, on those red, shuddering fields;But here and hence your victory.Melt, melt away, ye armies! disperse, ye blue-clad soldiers!Resolve ye back again—give up, for good, your deadly arms;Other the arms, the fields henceforth for you, or South or North, or East or West,With saner wars—sweet wars—life-giving wars.Loud, O my throat, and clear, O soul!The season of thanks, and the voice of full-yielding;The chant of joy and power for boundless fertility.All till’d and untill’d fields expand before me;I see the true arenas of my race—or first, or last,Man’s innocent and strong arenas.



I see the Heroes at other toils;I see, well-wielded in their hands, the better weapons.I see where America, Mother of All,Well-pleased, with full-spanning eye, gazes forth, dwells long,And counts the varied gathering of the products.Busy the far, the sunlit panorama;Prairie, orchard, and yellow grain of the North,Cotton and rice of the South, and Louisianian cane;Open, unseeded fallows, rich fields of clover and timothy,Kine and horses feeding, and droves of sheep and swine,And many a stately river flowing, and many a jocund brook,And healthy uplands with their herby-perfumed breezes,And the good green grass—that delicate miracle, the ever-recurring grass.Toil on, Heroes! harvest the products!

Not alone on those warlike fields, the Mother of All,With dilated form and lambent eyes, watch’d you.Toil on, Heroes! toil well! Handle the weapons well!The Mother of All—yet here, as ever, she watches you.Well-pleased, America, thou beholdest,Over the fields of the West, those crawling monsters,The human-divine inventions, the labor-saving implements:

Beholdest, moving in every direction, imbued as with life, the revolving hay-rakes,

The steam-power reaping-machines, and the horse-power machines,

The engines, thrashers of grain, and cleaners of grain, well separating the straw—the nimble work of the patent pitch-fork;

Beholdest the newer saw-mill, the southern cotton-gin, and the rice-cleanser.Beneath thy look, O Maternal,With these, and else, and with their own strong hands, the Heroes harvest.

All gather, and all harvest;(Yet but for thee, O Powerful! not a scythe might swing, as now, in security;

Not a maize-stalk dangle, as now, its silken tassels in peace.)Under Thee only they harvest—even but a wisp of hay, under thy great face, only;Harvest the wheat of Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin—every barbed spear, under thee;Harvest the maize of Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee—each ear in its light-green sheath,Gather the hay to its myriad mows, in the odorous, tranquil barns,

Oats to their bins—the white potato, the buckwheat of Michigan, to theirs;

Gather the cotton in Mississippi or Alabama—dig and hoard the golden, the sweet potato of Georgia and the Carolinas,

Clip the wool of California or Pennsylvania,Cut the flax in the Middle States, or hemp, or tobacco in the Borders,Pick the pea and the bean, or pull apples from the trees, or bunches of grapes from the vines,

Or aught that ripens in all These States, or North or South,Under the beaming sun, and under Thee.

In an alternate rhyme, every other line rhymes; while an embracing rhyme is generally four lineswith the second and third line rhyming. Of course there are variations, for example a six line



verse with every other line rhyming is a variation of the alternate rhyme pattern. Couplets areverse sequences which has two rhyming lines per verse. A tercet is a verse sequence made up of three lines where either all three rhyme, or the first and third. When all three lines rhyme it issometimes called a triplet . A quatrain consists of four lines with either the first and third/secondand fourth lines rhyming; or the first and fourth and second and third lines rhyming; or alternatinglines rhyming. Quintets, sestets, septets, octets and nonets are longer verse sequences with variedrhyming patterns.

Blank verse does not use rhymes or rhyming patterns. It is a sequence of iambic pentameters thatdo not rhyme. Stanzas are sequences of lines that are marked off as separate units. A poem ismade up of one or more stanza which consists of one or more verse sequences.

A ballad stanza is a four-line stanza that conforms to a pattern of x4a3x4a3. A sonnet is a poemwith fourteen lines. An Italian sonnet subdivides into two quatrains and two tercets; while an

English sonnet subdivides into three quatrains and one couplet. A volta is a sudden change of thought which is common in sonnets.

Meter and rhyme patterns are culturally determined. For example, a haiku is a three line Japanese poem which generally consists of seventeen syllables. It is frequently used as a reinforcement of tranquility, meditation, harmony or contemplation and is sometime ceremonial in nature.

Essay Writing When writing an essay, having a direction prior to getting started can be important. In developingan idea, a writer needs to define the purpose of the writing, brainstorm, evaluate potential topicsand organize the thoughts.

Define the PurposeDetermining the purpose of your writing is the first step to developing an idea and preparing towrite. Is your purpose to persuade, explain, educate or entertain? The topic you select for your writing has to fit the purpose.

BrainstormingOnce the purpose of writing is clearly defined, the writer must brainstorm to develop ideas or for subjects or topics of interest. When brainstorming, don’t evaluate or eliminate any ideas; writedown everything you think of. If you have trouble thinking of a subject, look around and see if anything in your presence is of interest. To trigger ideas, you may think about what you do or have done, what you would like to do, solutions to problems, things you have witnessed or experienced. If that doesn’t work, you may want to browse at a library or online to generatethoughts.

Evaluate Potential TopicsIf there are a number of ideas about a topic, it could be a good subject for the essay. If the

purpose is to educate someone about it, the writer needs to have knowledge or at least resourcesto provide accurate details. If the purpose is to persuade, it is a good idea for the writer to select atopic they are passionate about. Of course one can write about a topic they have little or nointerest in; but material that does interest the writer makes a much better essay.

The Body

Once the project is organized with an outline or diagram of the ideas, the body of the paper can bewritten. The selected topic can be explained, argued or described. The main ideas will become

body paragraphs containing elaboration of supporting information from the diagram or outline.



The Introduction and ConclusionThe introduction and conclusion should always be written last as the body of the essay maytrigger additional thoughts that should be included in the introduction and/or conclusion. It ismore logical to write them last than to continually rewrite them as the paper develops.

Introductions should attract attention and introduce the focus of the paper. To attract attention, a

writer can use an anecdote, startling information, dialogue, a quote, a brief summary or a number of other possibilities. The introduction should end with a thesis statement.

A conclusion provides an exit point or closure. It sums up the points provided in the paper or provides a final perspective on the topic. Conclusions should be three or four strong sentencesthat review the main points without simply restating them, making a point or describing feelingsconcerning the content of the paper.

Modern English Communication & Technology

Business Communication

Business writing uses all of the basic rules of writing, grammar and spelling; however it is veryformal by nature. In the modern business world, most business writing is accomplished throughthe use of computers and word processing software. Technological advancements in businessnow include e-mail which is a primary form of communication, the World Wide Web and voicerecognition software.

Word ProcessorsWord processors are possibly the greatest and most welcomed business tool ever created. Prior towide spread use of word processors, typewriters were used which often resulted in the completerecreation of documents when an error was found or a revision was needed. The introduction of memory typewriters and the original word processors were revolutionary because they allowedthe typist to review their work for accuracy prior to printing it. With the modernization of

business technology including personal computers, word processing software which allowsdocuments to be saved and changed comparatively instantaneously became widespread and is

used in nearly every business today. Although the power presented by word processing softwareis phenomenal, it has allowed users to become lazy and like other tools, they do have limitations.Spell checkers and grammar checkers are awesome features, but they are only as good as the

person using them. They do not catch all errors. When a word is misspelled, the spell checker will catch it, but if the misspelling is a word that is in the dictionary, it will go unnoticed;therefore, proofreading is still an imperative function, even when using word processing software.For example, if you intended to write the following sentence:

I would like to have an apple in my lunch.and you actually wrote:I would like to have and apple in my lunch.The sentence would pass both the spell check and grammar check without showing an error

because ‘and’ is a correctly spelled word even though it was not used properly.

Many word processing programs correct spelling for you which is great if you are somewhatclose to the correct spelling and it makes the correction in accordance to what you intended tosay; however, that is not always the case. For example, if you intend to type:

Independent phrases are common in writing.and you actually type:Inpendent frases are comin in riting.your corrected sentence will look something like this:Impendent fraises are coming in rating.



The point, use spelling and grammar checkers appropriately, don’t become solely reliant on them,and ALWAYS proof your work.

E-Mail

E-mail is another of the greatest creations ever brought into the business world. It facilitatessharing of information, speeds up communications and minimizes telephone bills; however, it toohas limitations and instills rashness and inattention in written communications. Quick responses,informal language, little thought and minimal development of ideas are encouraged by the natureof e-mail. When using e-mail in a business setting, the same attention to detail should be given toe-mail messages that is given to any other written form of business communication.

The Internet and the World Wide WebThe internet and the subsequent introduction of the World Wide Web have provided fingertipinformation on any subject you could imagine. It has enhanced the process of research whichsaves astounding amounts of time; however, as with any business tool, it has strengths andweaknesses. Anyone can publish information on the internet through a website; however, just

because the information is published, it doesn’t mean it is accurate or reliable. Intentional or unintentional deceit and misinformation is plentiful on the World Wide Web.

Internet chat groups compounds this problem. When you have a discussion with an individual ina chat group or forum, you have no idea if the person is an expert, a child or a competitor lookingto send us down a never-ending road of distraction. When using the internet as a source of information, be cautious.

There are some sites that will assist with the evaluation of web resources, internet researchsources:

http://www.science.widener.edu/~withers/webeval.htmhttp://www.sccu.edu/faculty/R_Harris/evalu8it.htmhttp://refserver.lib.vt.edu/libinst/critTHINK.HTM

Voice Recognition SoftwareWho would think that it would be possible to talk into a microphone and have a documentautomatically typed up without a Dictaphone or a secretary? Well, it is kind of like a scene froma Jetsons cartoon, but it is possible in this day and age.

Although the concept is great and the technology is improving, voice recognition software isreally not a reliable tool for business or academic writing. Using voice recognition software maysave some typing time; however, if using it, be certain to closely check the document for accuracy.

Writing a Business LetterTo write an effective letter, the reason for the letter is important. You must understand the needsand level of comprehension of your reader to clearly convey your message. There are a number of theories for business writing but they are all based on common principles. Basically, your

business letter should meet the following basic qualities. It should be:• Courteous• Clear • Concise• Concrete• Correct• Complete



Business communications should instill goodwill, a feeling of confidence and trust that comesfrom honesty and excellent service. Never be defensive or portray your company as one that cannot make a mistake

Courtesy allows you maintain goodwill with the receiver of your message even if it is not a positive message by nature. Avoid using negative words such as blame, complaint, doubt,

criticize, damaged, failed, fear, lazy, never, no, not and sorry. Every sentence in your businessletter should be as positive as possible.

Example:

Negative MessageI received your complaint and I am sorry that we failed to meet your expectations.

Positive MessageThank you for sharing your concerns. Your new document which is enclosed has beenreviewed to ensure accuracy and quality.

Courtesy is evident in letters that have a “you attitude”. Replacing I or We with You or your

displays empathy for the reader. Addressing the reader by name also helps to portray courtesy inyour business writing.

Example:

I AttitudeI need your tax return before I can complete your loan.

You AttitudeYour loan determination is almost complete; however, your tax return is needed in order tofinish it. Please provide your tax return at your earliest convenience.

The third component of courteous business writing is to respond to messages promptly. Most businesses strive to answer their phone promptly and focus on telephone etiquette, but do not takethe same care with their written communications. General business etiquette provides that lettersof congratulations should be sent within two business days and answers to requests or inquiriesshould be completed within five business days. Prompt replies establish courteous business

practices.

Clarity is an important aspect in business writing. Your message should always be clear leavingno room for interpretation. Impressive statements lack clarity while expressive statements areclear and to the point. Business writers sometimes have a tendency to use technical jargonspecific to their profession. The common customer doesn’t understand this, so businesscommunications should be written in layman terms.

Example:

Unclear message:According to your folio we preauthorized ten dollars for incidentals. It’ll

be released in ten business days.

Clear message:The record from your stay has been reviewed. Your credit card was only



charged for your actual charges; however, our hotel does hold an authorization of ten dollarsto cover telephone charges or other charges you may incur during your stay. Your bank will release the hold within ten business days.

To ensure clarity in your business messages, you should take care to select appropriate words,avoid jargon, place words in a logical sequence, position phrases and clauses logically and keep

sentences short and to the point.Concise writing says what needs to be said in as few words as possible. To produce concise

business documents, eliminate unnecessary words, use action verbs and efficient words, usenecessary modifiers and write in active voice.

Example:

Wordy Conciseat this point in time nowon behalf of for first and foremost first or foremost (not both)Could we have lunch together on Friday? Could we have lunch on Friday?It was mailed out on Monday. It was mailed Monday.

Concrete messages are achieved by establishing contact with the reader, using concrete modifiers,avoiding opinions or generalizations and providing specific details.

Example:

Vague ConcreteThe fundraiser was worthwhile. The fundraiser generated $500.Your paperwork will be ready as soon as possible. Your paperwork will be ready by 5 p.m.

on Thursday.I think you should purchase the

Dell computer instead of the Gateway. The Dell computer is the best value. It has more featuresand the warranty is longer.

Correct messages provide accurate details in both content and appearance. To ensure correctnessin business communications verify spelling; select correct words and phrases; use appropriate punctuation; check names, places, dates, times and amounts; and evaluate the appearance of thecompleted document.

Complete messages include all pertinent information and maintain good will. Who, what, when,where, why and how are answered in a complete message.

Writing a Business ProposalBusiness proposals are written for a variety of reasons. Of course the purpose of the proposal andwho it is addressed to dictates the formality, organization and style. A proposal may be addressedto a Board of Directors requesting permission to pursue a company project. A proposal can also

be used to suggest something such as a partnership, a purchase, a sell or a request to borrowmoney or equipment. The potential purposes of proposal writing are never-ending. Followingare general characteristics of a business proposal; however, they do not necessarily apply to everycircumstance; therefore, a proposal writer must employ judgment and common sense whendetermining the required components of a proposal.

Basic characteristics of a business proposal include:• A persuasive cover letter • A cover page and a table of contents



• An brief overview of the proposal; sometimes called an executive summary—this portionshould be short and to the point, one page or less if possible

• A structured body including descriptive headings and subheadings organized from mostimportant to least important

• Supportive documents may be contained in an appendix• Proposals should be written in active voice

Often proposals and other documents contain more than one claim or argument. For example, if proposing a project to the Board of Directors to upgrade the computer systems in their organization, the proposal will argue two claims:

Claim One: The project is beneficialClaim Two: The ability of carrying out the project to completion exists

The first claim would be supported by information and evidence proving that the project is beneficial. This may include the identification of a problem and solution, benefits such asimproved accuracy and efficiency, more detailed report availability, increased stability, cost-efficient solutions, etc. The method used to identify the problem and formulate the solutionsshould be disclosed along with sound criteria supporting the statements.

The second claim should be supported with details of the proposed solution including a timeline,

required resources, a budget and the process that will be pursued to implement the solution.Less formal proposals or arguments may use a different pattern or arrangement such aschronological or spatial arrangement; a problem-method-solution approach; general to specificarrangement; most important to least important; a comparison and contrast; or cause and effectmethod. Of course a proposal should also follow the basic rules of business writing beingcourteous, clear, concise, concrete, correct and complete.

Language, Linguistics and Literacy

Language Development

Reading aloud to a child is very important to their development. It fosters both receptive andexpressive language skills. Starting out, books with a couple of objects on each page are best,and then reading should progress to books that capture the imagination and interest of the child.The reader does not necessarily have to read exactly what is written but should adapt the text tothe child’s level of interest. Explaining the pictures on each page while pointing to them isappropriate for a one-year-old; later in development telling an abbreviated version of the storyhelps. While reading to a child, the reader should ask the child questions about the characters inthe book or what they think will happen next to hold their interest. As a child gets older, they can“read” the book to an adult by talking about the pictures in the book. Story time should beenjoyable holding the child’s full attention. When the child gets bored, they should not be forcedto complete the rest of the book. The development of language occurs between the ages of oneand four years. Children this age should be encouraged as they learn words and develop acomprehension of spoken words.

Phases of DevelopmentDuring the receptive phase of language development, around twelve months of age, a childunderstands a lot more than they can say. From twelve to twenty-four months of age, a child gets

better at following directions beginning with one-part directions accompanied by gestures and progressing to similar directions that don’t require gestures. Around two years of age, a child caneasily follow two-stop directions with gestures.

In the expressive phase of language development, most twelve-month-olds can utter sounds verywell and by fourteen months, most say their first word. By eighteen months, many toddlers say



ten to fifteen words and their vocabulary consists of about fifty words by two years of age. First- born children generally talk sooner than other children and girls tend to start talking sooner than boys. Children use gestures combined with words to communicate their needs and desires.

First words are generally associated with experiences, things and people important to the child.Children tend to use the word from their vocabulary that most suits what they see.

Language AcquisitionThe goals of research in language acquisition are to describe inter-language systems; examinecognitive mechanisms; examine social, affective and neurobiological factors which influence thedevelopment of a second language; and explore the effect of instruction on the process of learningthe language. The relationship between first and second language acquisition and a comparisonof native and non-native linguistics systems and how speakers use them contributes to theresearch.

First language acquisition is inevitable and uniform with most people; however second languagelearners achieve different degrees of success in language acquisition. To explain the variables,one must understand that neural underpinning of language and neural bases for perception,attention, emotion and memory. Language assessment is empirical investigation of theoreticalquestions and the use of tools for assessment in Applied Linguistics. Testing research in regardto language seeks formulation and empirical investigation of theories regarding language test

performance and demonstration of ways that performance on language tests relate tocommunicative language use.

Unconscious and Unwritten RulesRules of the spoken language are not generally learned from grammar books, but from experiencewith the language. Many rules of the language are not written and following them seems to justcome naturally.

A native speaker of the English language might say:

He gave me four little red cherry tomatoes.

A non-native speaker might mean the same thing, but reverse the order of words like this:

He gave me tomatoes four little red cherry.

Native speakers know to put the words in a certain order because they follow a rule for the placement of modifiers before a noun. Adjectives come before a noun in the English language, but in French and Spanish, they come after the noun; therefore, learning a second-language ofteninvolves learning different rules that are not customary in the primary language. Writersencounter a similar problem when they switch from one dialect of language to another such asfrom informal to formal speech. Although many people are not bi-lingual, most are bi-dialectical.

Non-Verbal and Social Aspects of Language

When spoken language is based on face-to-face encounters, communication is not limited towords. A variety of extra-verbal devices are used by speakers when communicating. Changes intone or tempo can add emphasis or drama to what is said. In addition, non-verbal clues or bodylanguage contributes to what is being said. Eyes, hand gestures and facial expressions expressideas and attitudes. Speakers respond to cues from listeners which can include nods or other acknowledgements. In face-to-face communications, a speaker can usually tell if a listener doesn’t understand, disagrees or is confused. Writers, therefore, are at a disadvantage becausethey are unable to read visual clues exhibited by the readers. Similarly, the reader can notinterpret non-verbal cues from the writer.



As people learn a language, they also learn non-verbal traditions of the language. Listenersassume that speakers are providing information that is related to what they know and want toknow so they are able to read between the lines and determine the meaning of vague or ambiguous messages filling in what is not said. Speakers and listeners are aware of one another’sknowledge, interests and biases and they are able to make interpretations in common socialsettings. The mutual understanding is often absent in written communications; therefore, theauthor must include what he or she assumes the reader knows in the writing. Because non-verbalcues don’t exist in writing, a writer must make biases explicit ensuring understanding to thecritical reader. The reader then must subject the text to scrutiny and read critically to discover underlying attitudes and biases contained in the text.

Language in a Social ContextSpeech is central to social communication. An understanding of spoken remarks within a contextof an exchange of ideas between emotional and rational persons in a social situation is socialcommunication. Awareness comes not only from what a person says, but by what the speaker does and the effects of the remarks.

Remarks are expressions of ideas and feelings. They can create a command, comfort, threats,

inquiries, dares and ideas. Remarks can be ironic or sarcastic. In a social setting, listeners infer meaning within the context of their social role. The meaning of a statement or remark can vary based on the occasion, the relationship between the speaker and listener or writer and reader, or the listener’s expectation of the speaker’s purpose.

Degrees of courtesy and social communication strategies are part of learning to speak. Peoplelearn how to appeal to vanity and to imply fact. Lord Denning, an English judge of the twentiethcentury made a statement that is certainly sexist and politically incorrect; however it demonstrateslanguage as a complex social tool for communication. Denning said, “When a diplomat says yes,he means perhaps. When he says perhaps, he means no. When he says no, he is not a diplomat.When a lady says no, she means perhaps. When she says perhaps, she means yes. But when shesays yes, she is no lady.”

This clearly demonstrates that what is said and what is meant varies based upon social status.Formality of speech and writing affects the message and the social conditioning of the reader affects the interpretation of the message. Social roles most certainly play a part incommunication be it written or verbal.

Linguistics

Rhetorical Structure Theory (RST) is a linguistic topic which raises issues about the coherence of text as well as communication and semantics. RST has been used in computer generation of text,in the development of linguistic theory as a guide to text analyzers, to teach writing skills and as a

basis for analytical processes for a various types of text.

Discourse Analysis and Functional Grammar

Discourse analysis looks at how language users produce and interpret language in variouscontexts. Discourse analysis research encompasses linguistic structures of speech acts;conversational sequences; speech activities; oral and literate registers; and stance. The analysisattempts to relate these factors to social and cultural norms, preferences and expectations. Thearticulation of how lexic-grammar and discourse varies across social situations helps to definesituations.

The development of speech including grammar comes from imitation of what we hear aschildren, rather than from formal instruction. Formal instruction can enhance speech and



grammar, but the actual learning of it comes from experience in using the language and imitatingthose who use the language. Through imitation, children pick up parts of sentences and usually

begin using them in one or two word phrases.

Research shows that mothers often respond to semantic content of a child’s statement, but theyrarely respond to the grammatical status. When grammatical errors are addressed they are

normally addressed in a positive manner, often including laughter. Parents make grammaticalerrors when they speak and children don’t know they are errors; however, they grow up knowingthe language perfectly even if they don’t always speak it perfectly.

A child may say something like, “He hitted me.” Even though they probably did not hear anadult say this, it is interesting that the verb has the right ending for past tense even though it isincorrect in its context. The child learning the language has learned the rule that derives pasttense verbs from verb stems, but lacks mastery of exceptions to the rule. Notice also, that thewords are in the correct order. By the time a child begins putting two words together they havemastered basic rules of syntax and applies them although their speech may be erroneous. Therules of morphology will take longer for the child to master.

Evidence indicates that children absorb massive amounts of sentences and phrases and theyabstract rules from them, creating their own grammar and applying it to new sayings they havenot heard previously rather than parroting what they hear. From age 2 to age 7, language ismastered and children make constant adjustments to their grammar until it corresponds with thatof adult speakers. Ages 2-7 is a critical period in first language learning which is triggered by alevel of development more so than feedback from the environment; as long as a child hearslanguage during this critical period, they will learn it perfectly. Evidence suggests that languageis an innate capacity of humans that is acquired during the critical period between age 2 and age7. After this period, learning languages becomes increasingly more difficult which explains whylearning a second language is more difficult than learning the first language.

Chomsky’s GrammarChomsky’s system of transformational grammar has attracted attention and has received the most

extensive exemplification for further development. Syntactic Structures (1957) outlines thesystem in three sections:• The phrase-structure component• The transformational component• The morphophonemic component

Each component consists of a set of rules whereby a certain input generates a certain output.Abbreviations for the system of rules:

S SentenceNP Noun PhraseVP Verb PhraseDet Determiner Aux Auxiliary (verb)N NounV Verb stemThe simple phrase-structure grammar generates and grammatically defines sentences assigning astructural description to each sentence. The structural description is a constituent structureanalysis of the sentence.

Phrase-structure grammar consists entirely of phrase-structure rules while transformationalgrammar includes phrase-structure, transformational rules and morphophonemic rules.



Transformational rules are dependent on prior application of phrase-structure rules and theyeffectively convert or transform one phrase marker into another.

Chomsky’s rule for the relation of active and passive sentences, as relayed in SyntacticStructures , is called the passive transformation. It depends upon prior application of phrase-structure rules. Each transformational rule converts an underlying phrase marker into a derived

phrase marker by assigning derived constituent structure to input strings. Rather than convertingone sentence to another, Chomsky’s system works on structures that underlie sentences rather than on actual sentences. Simple sentences, referred to as kernel sentences, require theapplication of some transformational rules.

Corresponding sentences such as active and passive; affirmative and negative; and declarativeand interrogative sentences can be formally related through deriving them from the sameunderlying string of a phrase-structure component. Kernel sentences are generated withoutoptional transformations while non-kernel sentences require both optional and obligatorytransformation application.

Word AnalysisThe instruction of word analysis is commonly referred to as phonics instruction. Beginning

phonetic instruction focuses on simple one-letter graphemes representing consonants and vowelsand moves to blending them together to make simple words. The teaching of grapheme-phonemeor letter-sound correspondences is basic phonics instruction; however, word analysis instructiontakes the teaching a step further including methods such as sight word recognition from whichstudents can use to figure out words they are not familiar with. Common words and words withirregular spellings are taught to be recognized on sight as whole words instead of being analyzedusing phonetic blending techniques. In addition, word analysis techniques teach the use of contest, knowledge of prefixes, suffixes, stems and dictionary skills.

Systematic phonics instruction consists of direct and explicit teaching of a set of grapheme- phoneme correspondences which include consonants; long and short vowels; two-letter graphemes; and common blends. The letter-sound knowledge is practiced when reading

controlled word lists and texts. These materials contain words that can be decoded using letter-sound relations which have been learned.

Incidental instruction does not emphasize phonics in the same way. Whole word programs,whole language programs and basal reader programs provide incidental instruction.

Synthetic phonics programs teach graphemes and their associated phonemes prior to teaching thestudents to blend them. Individual sounds are learned prior to putting them together to create aword. Some synthetic phonics programs teach larger letter-sound units and common blends aretaught as one unit. Instructional programs sometimes use more than one systematic approach to

phonics instruction.

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is an ability to focus on and manipulate phonemes in spoken words. TheEnglish language consists of approximately forty-one phonemes which are the smallest units of the spoken language. There are a few words that only have one phoneme; however, most wordsare made up of a blend.

Graphemes can be single letters representing a single sound, or they may consist of more than oneletter; they are written letters which represent phonemes. Different graphemes can be used torepresent the same phoneme and the same grapheme may represent different phonemesdepending upon the context.



There are different types of phonics programs; however, the use of them is essential to teaching phonemic awareness. The characteristics of different types of programs are summarized below:

Phonics Programs

Synthetic Phonics Teach children to covert letters to sounds or phonemes and then blendthe sounds to form wordsAnalytic Phonics Avoids pronunciation of sounds into isolation to figure outwords—teaches children to analyze letter-sound relations in identified wordsPhonics through Spelling Teaches children to transform sounds into letters to write wordsPhonics in Context Teaches children to use sound-letter combinations with context cues toidentify unfamiliar wordsAnalogy Phonics Teaches children to use parts of written words they know to identify newwordsMixed Phonics Programs Combine two or more of the other types of instruction

Term Definition

Morpheme The smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language

Phoneme One of the sound units that make up a word. A phoneme can berepresented by a letter or a group of letters

Grapheme The unit of writing that represents a single phoneme. A graphemecan be a letter or a group of letters.

Orthography The study of spelling and standard spelling patterns.

Morphology The study of word structure. Morphology encompasses thederivation of words, the use of inflections, and the creation of compound words.

Onset A word’s initial consonant or consonant blend.

Rime A word’s vowel and any final consonants.

Consonant cluster A group or sequence of consonants that appear together in asyllable without a vowel between them.

Consonant digraph A pair of consonants that makes a single sound that is differentfrom each individual letter sound.

Consonant blend Two or three consonants blended together. The sound that this blend makes is the sound of the consonants blended together.

Vowel digraph A pair of letters with the first letter making a long vowel soundand the second letter being silent.

Schwa The vowel sound in many lightly pronounced unaccentedsyllables in words of more than one syllable

Vowel generalization The following generalizations govern vowel pronunciation:

1. A single vowel followed by a consonant in a word or syllableusually has the short sound (such as can or cancel).

2 . A single vowel that concludes a word or syllable usually hasthe long sound (such as me, ti-ger, and lo-co-mo-tive).



Term Definition

3 . In the vowel digraphs oa,ea,ee, ai, and ay, the first vowel isusually long and the second is silent (such as coat, reap, bead,wait, and play). The digraphs oo, au, and ew form a single soundtht is not the long sound of the first vowel (such as food, good,

haul, and few).4 . In words containing two vowels, one of which is final e, thefinal e is usually silent and the preceding vowel is long.

5. Single vowels followed by r usually result in a blended sound(such as fir, car, burn, and fur). The vowel a followed by l or wusually results in a blended sound (such as yawn, tall, claw,awful).

Short vowel The short vowel sounds are /a/ as in at ; /e/ in elf; /i/ in it; /o/ inodd; /u/ in up.

Long vowel The long vowel sounds are A as in game, E as in Pete, I as in

pine, O as in home, U as in cute. Long vowels can also be spelledwith two vowels, as in the following words: “sail,” “bay,”“meet,” “seal,” “lie,” “moan.”

R-controlled vowel R-controlled vowels are neither long nor short. They are /ar/ as incar, /ur/ as in beggar, /or/ as in horn, /ur/ as in doctor, /ur/ as inher, /ur/ as in bird, and /ur/ as in burn.

Syllable patterns Syllable patterns are common consonant vowel pat terns thatappear frequently in English, such as CVC, CVVC, CVCe,CCVCC, etc.

Affixes Affixes are subordinate additions to root words with grammar-like functions. Affixes can either be added to the beginning(prefixes) or the end (suffixes) of words.

Roots Roots are the main parts of words and have more semanticcontent than affixes.

CommunicationsThe purpose of communication is to provide a message to a receiver. Communication can bewritten or verbal and the effectiveness of the communication is dependent on both the speaker or writer and the receiver (the listener or reader).

SpeechEffective communication in speech encompasses the oral communication processes of identifyingthe features of oral performance and deliverance of oral performance in forms such asimpromptu, extemporaneous, persuasive, expository, and interpretive and debate. Performanceskills encompass diction, enunciation, vocal rate, range, pitch, volume, body language, eyecontact and responsiveness.

Speaker-audience interrelationships include interpersonal communication, group dynamics and public address. Collaborative communication skills encompass supportive listening, facilitating,synthesizing and the stimulation of critical thinking through inquiry.



Forms of Speech Impromptu remarks are delivered on the spur of the moment without prior preparation. It is lessstructured and less evidence-based than other forms of speech in order to allow for spontaneity.Even though impromptu speech is spontaneous, ideas should still be supported with statementsthat show pertinence, variety and detail as appropriate.

Extemporaneous speech is defined as composed, performed or spur of the moment utterance or aspeech delivered without text or notes. Basically, it is a short, informal speech on a topic whichis provided without extensive time for preparation.

Persuasive speech can be organized in a number of different manners. They are designed to persuade the audience to believe something or to do something. The most common forms of organization for persuasive speech are problem-solution; cause-effect; comparative advantages;reason giving; and motivated sequence.

Expository speech is an informative speech. This type of speech is informative in nature and doesnot express the speaker’s opinion. The elements of this type of speech include information that isaccepted as facts.

Interpretive speech provides the meaning of a topic of interest.

Debate is an engagement of arguments which discuss opposing points. Debates often containopinion, but should also be supported by facts.

OrganizationThe organization of a speech is fairly simplistic; including a beginning, middle and an end, oftenreferred to as an introduction, body or discussion, and conclusion. As with any writing, theintroduction and conclusion should be prepared last. Following are strategies for creating the

body of a speech.

Topical OrganizationTopical organization is a parts-to-the-whole method in which the main idea is divided into

subtopics. For example, a speech about a budget plan may be divided into subtopics such as theexisting plan, excess or deficit, reasons form the excess or deficit and a plan for the future.

Chronological OrganizationChronological arrangement is used to explain step-by-step procedures, to narrate a series of events or to create a causal argument which demonstrates how a cause came from an event or events of a timeline. For example, a speech on civil rights might be divided into subtopics suchas the Civil War, the abolition of slavery, the Civil Rights Movement, etc.

Ascending or Descending OrderAscending and descending order arrangements are a variation of topical organization. Whenusing this method, a speaker begins with least important details and graduates to the mostimportant or vice versa.

Spatial ArrangementSpatial patterns in speech are used by a speaker to assist the audience in visualizing spatial points.Drawings and map presentations are complimentary to a spatial speech as they assist listeners inunderstanding geographic relationships or points in space.



Problem SolutionProblem solution speeches generally follow a certain pattern. A problem is introduced andanalyzed with the nature of the problem and its severity revealed; causes of the problem areexplained and potential solutions or a single solution with supporting information is presented.This type of speech arrangement is often used in political speeches and business speeches.

Method of ResiduesA variation of a problem solution speech is the method of residues. In this type of speech, thespeaker outlines a number of solutions to a problem and explains why the potential solutions arenot useful. The final proposed solution is then supported as the only means of solving the

problem. This strategy is also used in political and business speeches frequently.

Motivational SpeechMotivational speeches encompass gaining the attention of the audience and focusing on their unsatisfied needs or desires, proposing a satisfactory solution to the need, creating a visualizationof how the solution meets the need, and calling for action to implement the solution.

Journalistic QuestionsJournalistic questions such as who, when and why provide an excellent arrangement for informative and persuasive speeches.

Classical JudicialJudicial arguments begin with a narration that focuses on a case, controversy and facts.Principles of law and justice implicated in the controversy are then explored. The position of theadvocate is revealed, counter arguments are refuted and a conclusion is presented with a call for action.

IntroductionThe introduction of a speech should be creative and exciting. It has to grab the audience’sattention and develop rapport with them at the same time. The introduction should focus theattention of the audience on the main idea and make a clear statement of thesis. Main ideasshould be previewed and credibility established during the introduction.

Story TellingStories or folk tales are great speech openers. Often they have a moral that can lead into a thesisand they spark imagination. Dramatizing characters is a great storytelling tactic that builds thestory up to the ending; therefore, vocal delivery is of the utmost importance.

Questions

A series of questions designed to preview main topics to be developed in a speech can engage anaudience. They can be literal questions that are conversation starters or rhetorical questions thatallow listeners to answer silently.

StatisticsStatistics often compliment the points of your speech that will be argued. They gain the attentionof the audience, sometimes by startling them, and prepare them to receive the information thatwill be provided during the speech.



HumorHumor, when appropriate and effectively delivered, is an ice-breaker that will relax the speaker and capture the attention of the audience. A speaker should be cautious when using humor. Acertain skill of delivery is required in order and the audience must be receptive. Sensitivity andvarying tastes of the audience should be taken into consideration when using humor.

Personal ReferencesWhen a speaker shares personal information with an audience, it opens the door tocommunication. If the speaker is unknown to the audience, an introduction and background isappropriate; however, even if the audience is familiar with the speaker, personal references buildrapport. This approach enables the audience to view the speaker as a person rather than thedeliverer of information.

Relating to the AudienceAn effective speaker establishes rapport and relates to the audiences emotions throughout theentire speech. By describing feelings at the beginning of a speech and continually conveyingfeelings throughout the content evokes emotional responses from the audience developing

empathy. Imagery, language and non-verbal factors are equally as important in establishing a bond with the audience.

Personal emotional experiences should be shared only if the speakers comfort level is in syncwith sharing them and resulting emotions have been processed completely. If these factors are in

place, emotional experience can make a powerful opening to a speech.

Thesis and PreviewAfter rapport is developed and attention is captured, a speaker can make a thesis statement andintroduce or preview points that will be developed during the speech to support the thesis or mainidea. This approach gives the audience something to look forward to, creates anticipation and

provides a mental picture.

ConclusionA speech’s conclusion provides a recap and summary of the main ideas. Dramatic endings canmake a speech memorable and provide a sense of finality. The restatement of the thesis and recapof main ideas reinforces the points made in the speech. Providing final closure is critical. Whenending a speech, the strategies for gaining attention such as quotes, imagery, humor, sharing of emotions or personal references can be employed. The close of the speech should leave theaudience with strong feelings in regard to the material delivered.

Language StylesThere are three primary styles of language that allow for the creation and delivery of dynamic andmemorable speeches. Creative use of the English language exemplifies speeches making themstand out in the minds of the listeners. Figures of sound, figures of meaning and sensory imageryare language styles that enhance speech.

Figures of Sound

Alliteration

Alliteration is a form of repetition used in speech that can create memorable and quotable clauses;however because of its tongue-twisting nature, it should be used carefully and in moderation.Alliteration is the repeat of the same or similar consonants in a phrase.



Examples: “I plead for patriotism in peace as well as in war.” ~ Will Harris“I am not a perfect servant, I am a public servant.” ~Reverend Jesse Jackson“nattering nabobs of negativism” ~ Spiro Agnew

Antithesis

An antithesis uses two ideas together that sharply contrast or even contradict one another.Antithesis usage definitely adds flavor to a speech and creates quotable and memorable phrases.

Examples: “Ask not what your country can do for you. Ask what youcan do for your country.” ~ John F. Kennedy“Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Romemore.” ~ Cassius in Shakespeare’s play, Julius Caesar “Give me liberty or give me death.” ~ Patrick Henry“We observe today not a victory of a party, but acelebration of freedom—symbolizing an end as well as a

beginning, signifying renewal as well as change.” ~ JohnF. Kennedy

Rhythm and RhymeAlternating sentence lengths produces rhythm in a speech. By placing words with similar soundsclose to one another, a rhyme or wordplay can be developed. The use of homophones, words thatsound the same but have different meanings is another form of a word play that can liven up aspeech. Parallel sentence structure repeats the same phrase and enhances rhythm.

Example: “We preach freedom around the world, and we mean it. And we cherish our freedom here at home. But are we to say to the world - and much more importantly to eachother - that this is the land of the free, except for the Negroes; that we have no second-classcitizens, except Negroes; that we have no class or caste system, no ghettos, no master race,except with respect to Negroes.” ~ John F. Kennedy

Rhetorical questions are questions that don’t require answers or are silently answered by thelistener. A series of rhetorical questions can create rhythm within a speech.

Figures of Meaning

MetaphorsMetaphors are a comparison of two things that are not necessarily alike. The term in Greek means to carry or transfer something. Metaphors enliven language and are used to createdramatic and potentially emotional effects.

Examples: The office is a prison.The teacher is a bear.

Metaphors can be used creatively as verbs; adjectives and adverbs; prepositional phrases; and asappositives or modifiers.

Examples: When our eyes met, the blue pools could not concealthe truth.His evil pencil destroyed her life in one swift stroke.We will end up in divorce court, the garbage disposal of the rich andfamous.

An extended metaphor contains a comparison of two unlike things which is based upon a previously introduced metaphor.



HyperboleHyperbole is a choice of words which emphasize significance and intentionally overstateimportance.

Example: The man is so heavy that when he steps onto an elevator it only goesdown.

Her makeup is so thick she needs a professional sandblaster to remove it.Because the caterer was so late, the vegetable grew roots.

MinimizationMinimization intentionally understates something to de-emphasize it.

Example: I would like to thank my co-workers for nominating me for the ‘Employee of the Year’ award. I guess all those bribes

paid off after all.Really, it was nothing, I needed the exercise anyway.

PersonificationPersonification gives human attributes to non-human subjects.

Example: The following poem by William Blake portrays personification.

Sunflowers Move in the Yellow Room

“Ah, William, we’re weary of weather,”said the sunflowers, shining with dew.“Our traveling habits have tired us.Can you give us a room with a view?”They arranged themselves at the windowand counted the steps of the sun,and they both took root in the carpetwhere the topaz tortoises run.

Sensory Imagery

Sensory imagery is the use of words to describe sensory experiences. This technique is used byspeakers to instill an image and to appeal to the senses of an audience.

Example: The following poem by Langston Hughes demonstratesthe use of sensory imagery.

April Rain Song

by Langston Hughes

Let the rain kiss you.Let the rain beat upon your head with silver liquid drops.Let the rain sing you a lullaby.The rain makes still pools on the sidewalk.The rain makes running pools in the gutter.The rain plays a little sleep-song on our roof at night-And I love the rain.

MediaCommunication through media forms such as television, advertising, radio, internet and filmsimpact society. Culture influences the deliverance and interpretation of messages providedthrough the media and a number of methods and strategies are employed by the media to inform,



persuade, entertain and transmit culture to society. Aesthetics or visual aspects of media performance are created through many means including creative design, technical production andspecial effects. Innovative strategies and techniques enable the media to provide a number of communication forms and visual aids which help to transmit their message to the receiver or viewer.

Media literacy programs allow teachers to acknowledge the vast experience and information thatstudents possess regarding the media and to lead students into understanding other areas of massmedia, their implications and purposes. Elementary students can explore concepts of commercialimplications of television while learning to distinguish between programs and commercials andidentifying the purposes. They can discuss commercials aimed at children, reflect on their ownreactions and evaluate the effectiveness of the commercials while formulating their own ideas of how the commercials could be made more effective. Older children can analyze the appeal of commercials and the techniques employed in developing and producing them. They can

participate in planning and storyboarding activities and explore relationships between certain programs and commercials sponsoring them. Later education in media may touch on economicconsiderations, programming, techniques and content. Teachers should realize that students areimmersed in the media. It is the teacher’s responsibility to facilitate learning, assisting students toidentify meaning through inquire and research, identifying patterns and eventually creating media

productions.

Rather than dwelling on negative effects of media, teachers should stress positive features of themass media in media education. Inquiry, critical thinking, values and alternative points of viewas well as cultural appreciation are necessary in media education programs. Inquiry involves theuse of structured framework which assists students to recognize basic issues and to formulatestrategies for subject content development. Research, discussion and curiosity compliment thestudy of media through inquiry and topics of interest to the students should be a focus of mediaeducation.

Critical thinking in media literacy is imperative. The employment of critical thinking skillsallows a student to analyze and rationalize issues presented in the media so that they candetermine what to believe. Truth, open-mindedness, autonomy, empathy and self-criticism arevalues fostered through critical thinking strategies. Critical thinking allows students to identifyverifiable facts in contrast to claims and to determine whether or not a claim or source is reliable.Critical thinkers can distinguish between warranted and unwarranted claims, recognizeinconsistencies and determine the strength of an argument based upon identification of bias andsupporting evidence.

Media is a great source for values education because the media often presents moral dilemmas.Using dialogical reasoning and values clarification can assist in discussions concerning the prosand cons of mass media, advertising, and censorship, constitutional rights of the media andgovernment control of the media as well as moral values of media presentations. In depth study of the media provides students with an understanding and appreciation for alternative points of viewof a number of issues.

Another approach to media education programs involves the development of study throughsequential steps. Students are provided with an overall explanation of what is expected and theinstruction is arranged in sequences in which certain skills and concepts will be taught with theapplication of the skills assessed. Students complete portions of a project as the course developsand their comprehension is tested upon completion of a phase. The final project allows studentsto demonstrate their understanding and provides the teacher the opportunity to evaluate their understanding. As an added learning experience, peer reviews are often used allowing students toassess the work of other students.



Creative PerformanceThe production of creative performances entails a number of techniques to create an ensemble.Planning is an essential component of creative performance which encompasses the creation of rehearsal schedules, development of a time line, effective arrangement of priorities and theidentification of resources required to produce the performance.

Rehearsal strategies often include memorization techniques, improvisation and physical or vocalexercises. The application of theatrical conventions such as stage directions, technical productionaspects and theater architecture are paramount to a successful production.

Character analysis including approaches to acting and physical and vocal techniques influence thedevelopment of characters and their relationships with one another. Language and visualcomposition including theatrical design such as sets, costumes, lighting, sound and props arefundamental. Stage direction, conceptualization, tempo and drama bring the production together.

In preparing a creative performance, oral performance traditions must be selected. These caninclude storytelling, epic poetry or recitation. Much of the decision making regarding a

production is dependent upon the production style or form of theatre. Classical, contemporary,musical, realistic and non-realistic plays will each require a different production approach.

Cultural Diversity and Collaborative PartnershipsDiversity of cultural groups and ethnic groups in American schools has increased concern inregard to education. Research concerning cultural issues in education is underway and literaturefrom different cultures and disciplines is becoming more readily available and encouraged.Teachers report improved student interest and improved student writing as a result of introducingmulticultural literature into the classroom.

In regard to the use of multicultural literature in classrooms, Marlene Carpenter, English Teacher with East Union High School writes, “Since I began using multicultural literature in my Englishclasses, I’ve noticed that the students find the literature more personal and they love it. I don’thave any students anymore who don’t do their homework. Teaching is more fun for me becausethe students are so involved, and the quality of their papers is so much better.”

The California Legislature established the California Academic Partnership Program (CAPP) in1984. The purpose of CAPP is to develop “cooperative efforts to improve the academic qualityof public secondary schools with the objective of improving the preparation of all students for college.” To accomplish the purpose set forth for the program CAPP supports academic

partnerships whose goals are to transform relationships between educational institutions for the benefit of the students, to improve curriculum in areas required for college admission, tostrengthen teachers’ ability to teach all students, to enhance student benefits and to improveunderstanding of postsecondary and business partners regarding students’ unique needs.

One of the projects funded by CAPP is the Reading, Thinking, Writing about Culturally Diverse Literature Project . The project brought together four school districts with student bodies that aremore than 50% non-Anglo and teacher workforces that are 87% Anglo. Middle school, highschool, community college and university teachers collaborated together with a focus ondeveloping ways to reach all students; helping English teachers to introduce multiculturalliterature into English classes. The project director, Carol Booth Olsen reflected, “Ultimately,this project is about teacher change and about student growth.” The program seems to have beenvery successful, not only in the terms of introducing multi-cultural literature and improvingstudent learning experiences, but also in collaboration of partnerships to achieve goals ineducation.



Collaborative partnerships, especially between different levels of educational institutions, areimperative to the improvement of educational systems and to cultural diversity in education.Without collaboration, K-12 institutions have been accused of inadequately preparing students for higher education while community colleges have been criticized for deficient transitional effortsand institutes of higher education have been said to be elitist. These attitudes are barriers toeffective collaboration and the students in need of collaborative efforts for academic achievementare the victims.Historically, institutions have relied upon self-sufficiency rather than collaboration. Developmentof cultural diversity and cultural mainstreaming has been an ongoing challenge for K-12institutions, often prompting reform efforts in regard to academic standards and curriculum.

Although the American democracy is supposed to ensure equal rights and equal access toeducation for all, segregation still exists to some extent and educators continuously struggle tocreate a balance between homogeneity and diversity; community and autonomy; andinclusiveness and exclusiveness. According to the National Center for Education Statistics thesocial context of education continues to change:

• Family structures are shifting away from families with two biological parents• Percentage of children from minority backgrounds is increasing• Percentage of children who have difficulty speaking English is increasing• Black and Hispanic children are more likely than white children to be living in poverty• High poverty schools appear to be less conducive to learning than low poverty schools

These statistics are important to the concept of cultural diversity in education. Children whocome from two biological parent households, whose parents are educated and who do not live in

poverty are known to do better academically than socially disadvantaged students; therefore,achieving a balance of diversity can enhance educational opportunities for all students.Collaborative partnerships are a means of achieving educational success in harmony withAmerican democracy. Instructional programs that build on the strengths of a student’s homelanguage and reinforce a student’s cultural identity rather than trying to replace the homelanguage and culture lead to more successful cultural mainstreaming. Collaborative efforts

between schools and community including parental participation in education provide supportwhich reinforces academic improvement and learning.

Teachers must recognize that students who struggle with the language are less likely tocomprehend and focus on details. Using reading strategies such as identification of storyschemes, summarizing, reciprocal teaching and comprehension monitoring teachers can assiststudents in developing understanding. In order to enforce this learning, it is important to applyconcepts to the students’ lives, which requires some cultural understanding on the part of theteacher. Responsiveness to students’ home languages in the mainstream classroom encompassesallowing the students to use their home language and to build upon it developing a relationship

between the two languages rather than replacing it. Direct instruction with examples relating to astudent’s home environment is very beneficial to learning.

The use of multiethnic literature in the classroom helps all students to understand and appreciateother cultures. Students have the ability to identify similarities and differences between their culture and the culture presented in literature which enhances their knowledge.

There are a number of approaches to integrating culturally responsive strategies into theclassroom. Teachers can introduce contributions from various ethnic groups such as ethnic food,customs and holidays. Content and concepts of diverse cultures can be introduced as a unit for a

period of time such as Black History Month. Curriculum can be reconstructed in order toincorporate concepts from multiethnic groups concentrating on multiculturalism throughout the

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