english syntax rangkuman.docx

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English Syntax

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ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

LANGUAGE AND ART DEPARTMENT

TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY

THE UNIVERSITY OF PALANGKA RAYA

2013/2014


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ENGLISH SYNTAX

LANGUAGE

Language is a social, cultural and psychological phenomenon that serves the purpose

of communication among human beings

LINGUISTICS

Linguistics can be defined as the study of human language in all its manifestations.

LINGUISTICS

Linguistics focuses on different aspects of the language, such as:

Word formation and inflection; (Morphology);

Sounds (Phonology).

Structure (Syntax).

Meaning (Semantics), and

The relationship between language use and society (Pragmatics ).

UNIT ONE: BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURES

Lexical categories are word based: noun, verb, adjective.

Phrasal categories are phrase-based: noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase,

etc.

Linguistic Phenomena These phenomena support the fact that human languages are

category-based

Anaphora (or anaphor) is a linguistic phenomenon referring to entities mentioned

before in the same sentence or discourse:

Mary likes her new job.

Students and teachers feel tired.

Linguistic Phenomena

Coordination uses conjunctions to join words or phrases belonging to the same

category:

Teachers and students are attending a lecture


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Recursion enables speakers to make use of a finite set of rules to generate an infinite

number of sentences.

Mike, who is a doctor, lives next door.

Linguistic Phenomena

Distribution states which words and phrases can appear in a particular position in a

sentence.

For example:

NPs can appear in subject or object position.

LINGUISTIC PHENOMENA

Intrusin refers to the insertion of parenthetical expressions like I guess,

certainly, usually and others.

Usually they visit us in October They usually visit us in October

Core Sentence Patterns

Core sentence patterns are basic strings of words that express meaning and have anassociated structural description called Base Phrase Marker.

Core Sentence Patterns

A Base Phrase Marker is a tree diagram used to show the structure of phrases, clauses

and sentences in a graphic way.

The Five Core Patterns

PATTERN ONE

S = NP + VP intransitive + (Adv.P)

Mike walks slowly

Elizabeth runs

PATTERN TWO

S = NP + VP linking + NP

George became a doctor

S = NP + VP linking + Adj. Phrase

Mr. Johnson looks tired


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Pattern THREE

THREE:

It is built around one-place transitive verbs.

S = NP+VP one-place trans+ NP

Robert washed his car

Pattern FOUR

FOUR: This pattern has two versions:

S = NP + VP transitive +NP + NP + (Adv.P)

Rose gave him an interesting book

- This structure takes two objects, a DO and an IO.

- I bought a car for my son yesterday.

Pattern FOUR

2. S = NP + VP transitive + NP + NP

He considers Bush a good person

The first NP functions as the object and the second one as the complement.

S = NP + VP transitive + NP + Adj.P

Most boys consider soccer important.

S = NP + VP + NP + Inf.P

People consider politicians to be very bad

OBJECTS

DIRECT OBJECT

Mike bought a new car

INDIRECT OBJECT

Mike gave me a book

OBJECT OF PREPOSITION (also called Oblique object)


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Mike bought a book for me

Pattern FIVE

This pattern is built around the verb BE.

S = NP + VP be + NP

Martha is a teacher

S = NP + VP be + Adj.P

Martha is smart

S = NP + VP be + Adv.P

Martha is in the classroom

UNIT TWO: ENGLISH PHRASE STRUCTURES

Constituents can be lexical (words) or phrasal (phrases).

Words form phrases:

This new house

det. Adj. noun

Phrases form clauses:

This new house is beautiful

NP PV

The Noun Phrase

Three different types of noun phrases can be distinguished according to their

structure:

1. Anaphor: reciprocal and reflexive:

Mike and Ann love each other Linda cut herself

The Noun Phrase

2. Pronominal noun phrase include personal pronouns.

Lupe believes that she is beautiful.


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3. Lexical noun phrases include all other noun phrases.

The students

Marco Reyes

PRONOUNS

Personal Pronouns:

- Nominative pronouns function as subjects (I, YOU ...)

- Accusative pronouns function as objects of verbs (me, us)

- Dative pronouns function as objects of prepositions (for me, )

- Genitive pronouns indicate possession (mine, yours, etc.)

Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns refer back to the subject of the clause they are in. They have

anaphoric reference.

Reflexive pronouns can function as:

Direct object: I cut myself.

Indirect object: Tom bought himself a car.

Object of preposition: May lives by herself

Demonstratives

They may function as both, pronouns and determiners.

As pronouns:

That is my book

As determiners:

That book is mine

Functions of Noun Phrases

A noun phrase is a string of words headed by a noun and which expresses meaning.

According to its external syntax, a noun phrase may function as a subject, as an object

and as a complement:


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Those boys play tennis very well

My friend sold his old car

He is a dentist

Types of Noun Phrases according to their structure

Elementary noun phrases may consist of proper nouns and pronouns.

You came yesterday (Nominative NP)

Mike gave me a book (Accusative NP)

Mike is in his company (Genitive NP)

Robert likes to hunt (Proper NP )

Types of Noun Phrases

Noun phrases have nouns as their heads. A head noun is the word that dictates the

internal structure of the phrase.

Proper nouns

Carlos is very smart

Common noun phrases

Cats are beautiful


1. Elementary noun phrases introduced by determiners: This cat

The moon

2. Elementary noun phrases introduced by genitives: Mikes car

Your house

3. Noun phrases introduced by quantity words: Some workers

Much water


Partitive Noun Phrases can be:


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Introduced by quantity words:

Some of his money

Introduced by measure words:

One pound of sugar


Introduced by the words ALL and BOTH:

Rose met all her classmates.

Rose met all of her classmates.

Both students attended that class.

Both of the students attended that class.

THE VERB: Tense, aspect and Modality

Tense communicates information about the time in which an action or event happens.

Present tense

Past tense

Future tense (uses periphrastic expressions). These are extra words as WILL.

Aspect

Aspect indicates the way an action or event is seen or experienced. It can be ongoing

or resultant.

The progressive aspect is ongoing.

Mara is washing her car.

The Perfect aspect is resultant.

Experts have predicted a new crisis.

Modality

Mood refers to the purpose of a sentence. It can be:

- Indicative for statements


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- Interrogative for questions

- Imperative for commands

- Subjunctive for wishes

- Conditional for possibility, certainty, obligation, necessity, promise o threat

This book might become a best seller

Action and Belief Modalities

The Action (or deontic) modality involves language and potential action. It is used tomake promises, to order, or to place an obligation.

No smoking (order)

I promise to help you (promise)

Can you help me? (request)

Belief Modality The Belief (or epistemic) modality involves possibility, certainty, and

necessity. I suppose that the children are hungry. It might rain tonight

The Internal and External Syntax of Phrases

Internal Syntax refers to the way words are put together to form phrases or clauses.

External syntax refers to the function constituents (as phrases) might perform in a

sentence or clause.

Head words dictate the internal syntax of phrases. For example, a noun is the head

word of a noun phrase; a verb is the head word of a VP, etc.

Subcategorization

Subcategorization refers to the complement properties of individual words.

Each word has a set of syntactic features h indicating the context in which it can beinserted.

Ken broke the windowBrake: V + NP

Subcategorization examples

We heard the boys asking questions

Hear: V + NP + VP (present participle)

Catty put the pen on the desk


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Put: V + NP + PP

Noun Phrases as Complements

NPs can function as subjects, objects and complements.

In complement position, they function as arguments and as predicates.

Arguments and Predicates

As arguments they indicate that the subject plays certain role:

My friend killed a tiger

As predicates, they provide information about the subject (person or thing mentioned

earlier in the sentence). Mike is a soldier

Complements

Infinitives as verb phrase complements:

That bird seems to be sick

Infinitives as complements of adjectives:

We are eager to travel to Europe .

Complements

Infinitives as complement of nouns:

The plan to save wild life is important.

LIFE IS 10% OF WHAT Life is 10% of what happens to you, and 90% of how you

respond to it. Thank you GOD BLESS YOU

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