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    English Syntax

    Created by :

    Name :

    NIM :

    ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

    LANGUAGE AND ART DEPARTMENT

    TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION FACULTY

    THE UNIVERSITY OF PALANGKA RAYA

    2013/2014

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    ENGLISH SYNTAX

    LANGUAGE

    Language is a social, cultural and psychological phenomenon that serves the purpose

    of communication among human beings

    LINGUISTICS

    Linguistics can be defined as the study of human language in all its manifestations.

    LINGUISTICS

    Linguistics focuses on different aspects of the language, such as:

    Word formation and inflection; (Morphology);

    Sounds (Phonology).

    Structure (Syntax).

    Meaning (Semantics), and

    The relationship between language use and society (Pragmatics ).

    UNIT ONE: BASIC SENTENCE STRUCTURES

    Lexical categories are word based: noun, verb, adjective.

    Phrasal categories are phrase-based: noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase,

    etc.

    Linguistic Phenomena These phenomena support the fact that human languages are

    category-based

    Anaphora (or anaphor) is a linguistic phenomenon referring to entities mentioned

    before in the same sentence or discourse:

    Mary likes her new job.

    Students and teachers feel tired.

    Linguistic Phenomena

    Coordination uses conjunctions to join words or phrases belonging to the same

    category:

    Teachers and students are attending a lecture

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    Recursion enables speakers to make use of a finite set of rules to generate an infinite

    number of sentences.

    Mike, who is a doctor, lives next door.

    Linguistic Phenomena

    Distribution states which words and phrases can appear in a particular position in a

    sentence.

    For example:

    NPs can appear in subject or object position.

    LINGUISTIC PHENOMENA

    Intrusin refers to the insertion of parenthetical expressions like I guess,

    certainly, usually and others.

    Usually they visit us in October They usually visit us in October

    Core Sentence Patterns

    Core sentence patterns are basic strings of words that express meaning and have anassociated structural description called Base Phrase Marker.

    Core Sentence Patterns

    A Base Phrase Marker is a tree diagram used to show the structure of phrases, clauses

    and sentences in a graphic way.

    The Five Core Patterns

    PATTERN ONE

    S = NP + VP intransitive + (Adv.P)

    Mike walks slowly

    Elizabeth runs

    PATTERN TWO

    S = NP + VP linking + NP

    George became a doctor

    S = NP + VP linking + Adj. Phrase

    Mr. Johnson looks tired

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    Pattern THREE

    THREE:

    It is built around one-place transitive verbs.

    S = NP+VP one-place trans+ NP

    Robert washed his car

    Pattern FOUR

    FOUR: This pattern has two versions:

    S = NP + VP transitive +NP + NP + (Adv.P)

    Rose gave him an interesting book

    - This structure takes two objects, a DO and an IO.

    - I bought a car for my son yesterday.

    Pattern FOUR

    2. S = NP + VP transitive + NP + NP

    He considers Bush a good person

    The first NP functions as the object and the second one as the complement.

    S = NP + VP transitive + NP + Adj.P

    Most boys consider soccer important.

    S = NP + VP + NP + Inf.P

    People consider politicians to be very bad

    OBJECTS

    DIRECT OBJECT

    Mike bought a new car

    INDIRECT OBJECT

    Mike gave me a book

    OBJECT OF PREPOSITION (also called Oblique object)

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    Mike bought a book for me

    Pattern FIVE

    This pattern is built around the verb BE.

    S = NP + VP be + NP

    Martha is a teacher

    S = NP + VP be + Adj.P

    Martha is smart

    S = NP + VP be + Adv.P

    Martha is in the classroom

    UNIT TWO: ENGLISH PHRASE STRUCTURES

    Constituents can be lexical (words) or phrasal (phrases).

    Words form phrases:

    This new house

    det. Adj. noun

    Phrases form clauses:

    This new house is beautiful

    NP PV

    The Noun Phrase

    Three different types of noun phrases can be distinguished according to their

    structure:

    1. Anaphor: reciprocal and reflexive:

    Mike and Ann love each other Linda cut herself

    The Noun Phrase

    2. Pronominal noun phrase include personal pronouns.

    Lupe believes that she is beautiful.

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    3. Lexical noun phrases include all other noun phrases.

    The students

    Marco Reyes

    PRONOUNS

    Personal Pronouns:

    - Nominative pronouns function as subjects (I, YOU ...)

    - Accusative pronouns function as objects of verbs (me, us)

    - Dative pronouns function as objects of prepositions (for me, )

    - Genitive pronouns indicate possession (mine, yours, etc.)

    Reflexive Pronouns

    Reflexive Pronouns refer back to the subject of the clause they are in. They have

    anaphoric reference.

    Reflexive pronouns can function as:

    Direct object: I cut myself.

    Indirect object: Tom bought himself a car.

    Object of preposition: May lives by herself

    Demonstratives

    They may function as both, pronouns and determiners.

    As pronouns:

    That is my book

    As determiners:

    That book is mine

    Functions of Noun Phrases

    A noun phrase is a string of words headed by a noun and which expresses meaning.

    According to its external syntax, a noun phrase may function as a subject, as an object

    and as a complement:

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    Those boys play tennis very well

    My friend sold his old car

    He is a dentist

    Types of Noun Phrases according to their structure

    Elementary noun phrases may consist of proper nouns and pronouns.

    You came yesterday (Nominative NP)

    Mike gave me a book (Accusative NP)

    Mike is in his company (Genitive NP)

    Robert likes to hunt (Proper NP )

    Types of Noun Phrases

    Noun phrases have nouns as their heads. A head noun is the word that dictates the

    internal structure of the phrase.

    Proper nouns

    Carlos is very smart

    Common noun phrases

    Cats are beautiful

    Types of Noun Phrases

    1. Elementary noun phrases introduced by determiners: This cat

    The moon

    2. Elementary noun phrases introduced by genitives: Mikes car

    Your house

    3. Noun phrases introduced by quantity words: Some workers

    Much water

    Types of Noun Phrases

    Partitive Noun Phrases can be:

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    Introduced by quantity words:

    Some of his money

    Introduced by measure words:

    One pound of sugar

    Types of Noun Phrases

    Introduced by the words ALL and BOTH:

    Rose met all her classmates.

    Rose met all of her classmates.

    Both students attended that class.

    Both of the students attended that class.

    THE VERB: Tense, aspect and Modality

    Tense communicates information about the time in which an action or event happens.

    Present tense

    Past tense

    Future tense (uses periphrastic expressions). These are extra words as WILL.

    Aspect

    Aspect indicates the way an action or event is seen or experienced. It can be ongoing

    or resultant.

    The progressive aspect is ongoing.

    Mara is washing her car.

    The Perfect aspect is resultant.

    Experts have predicted a new crisis.

    Modality

    Mood refers to the purpose of a sentence. It can be:

    - Indicative for statements

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    - Interrogative for questions

    - Imperative for commands

    - Subjunctive for wishes

    - Conditional for possibility, certainty, obligation, necessity, promise o threat

    This book might become a best seller

    Action and Belief Modalities

    The Action (or deontic) modality involves language and potential action. It is used tomake promises, to order, or to place an obligation.

    No smoking (order)

    I promise to help you (promise)

    Can you help me? (request)

    Belief Modality The Belief (or epistemic) modality involves possibility, certainty, and

    necessity. I suppose that the children are hungry. It might rain tonight

    The Internal and External Syntax of Phrases

    Internal Syntax refers to the way words are put together to form phrases or clauses.

    External syntax refers to the function constituents (as phrases) might perform in a

    sentence or clause.

    Head words dictate the internal syntax of phrases. For example, a noun is the head

    word of a noun phrase; a verb is the head word of a VP, etc.

    Subcategorization

    Subcategorization refers to the complement properties of individual words.

    Each word has a set of syntactic features h indicating the context in which it can beinserted.

    Ken broke the windowBrake: V + NP

    Subcategorization examples

    We heard the boys asking questions

    Hear: V + NP + VP (present participle)

    Catty put the pen on the desk

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    Put: V + NP + PP

    Noun Phrases as Complements

    NPs can function as subjects, objects and complements.

    In complement position, they function as arguments and as predicates.

    Arguments and Predicates

    As arguments they indicate that the subject plays certain role:

    My friend killed a tiger

    As predicates, they provide information about the subject (person or thing mentioned

    earlier in the sentence). Mike is a soldier

    Complements

    Infinitives as verb phrase complements:

    That bird seems to be sick

    Infinitives as complements of adjectives:

    We are eager to travel to Europe .

    Complements

    Infinitives as complement of nouns:

    The plan to save wild life is important.

    LIFE IS 10% OF WHAT Life is 10% of what happens to you, and 90% of how you

    respond to it. Thank you GOD BLESS YOU