english grammar overview

English Grammar … the fun way to learn English!

Subjuntive

Compound Adjectives

English Tenses

Modals

Passive Voice

Pronouns

Conjunctions

Phrasal Verbs

Prepositions

Inversion Reported Speech

Conditional Sentenses

Parallel Structure

Relative Clauses

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive

Present Perfect Simpl

Present Perfect Progr

Past Perfect Simple

Past Perfect Progress

Future

Conditionals

English Grammar … the fun way to learn English!

Problems with the English tenses? Have a look at the time line, it might help you understand when to use which tense. As there is a similarity between past, present and future tenses, there are just a few rules to keep in mind.

If you know how to use the present progressive correctly to express present actions, you will as well be able to use the past progressive correctly to express past actions.

Graphic Comparison

action that takes place once, never or several timesactions that happen one after anotheractions that suddenly take place

action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that momentactions taking place at the same time

action taking place before a certain moment in timeputs emphasis on the result

action taking place before a certain moment in timeputs emphasis on the course or duration of the action

moment in time

period of time

Result

Course / Duration

English Tenses

Simple present is also called present simple.

The simple present expresses an action in the present taking place once, never or several times. It is also used for actions that take place one after another and for actions that are set by a timetable or schedule. The simple present also expresses facts in the present.

FormIntroduction Use Signal WordsExceptions

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

affirmative negative questionI I am. I am not. Am I?he/she/it He is. He is not. Is he?you/we/they You are. You are not. Are you?

havehave with the personal pronouns I, you, we und they (or with the plural form of nouns)has with the personal pronouns he, she, it (or with the singular form of nouns)

All other verbsthe infinite verb (play) with the personal pronouns I, you, we and they (or with the plural form of nouns)the verb + s (plays) with the personal pronouns he, she, it (or with the singular form of nouns)

Introduction Form Exceptions Use Signal Words

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

The 3rd person singular is usually formed by adding s. But there are a few exceptions to the rule:

The verbs can, may, might, must remain the same in all forms. So don't add s. example: he can, she may, it must

Verbs ending in o or a sibilant (ch, sh, s, x) add es instead of s. example: do - he does, wash - she washes

A final y after a consonant becomes ie before s. example: worry - he worries

But: A final y after a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) is not modified. example: play - he plays

FormIntroduction Exceptions Use Signal Words

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

1. facts (something is generally known to be true)

The sun never sets in the east or south or north, but always in the west.

2. action in the present taking place once, never or several times

Colin plays football regularly - every Tuesday.In English, signal words are often used, e.g.: always, never, seldom, often, regularly, every Monday.

FormIntroduction Exceptions Signal WordsUse

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

3. action set by a time table or schedule

Although the action takes place in the future, it takes place regularly and is set by a time table.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

4. verbs expressing states, possession, senses, emotions and mental activity

When you love someone, that's a state, a fact or emotion, but not an action (like running for example). Whenever you want to express a state, possession, sense or emotions, use the simple form (not the progressive). The following words all belong to this group:

•be (state)•believe (mental activity)•belong (possession)•hate (feeling and emotion)•hear (senses)•like (feeling and emotion)


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

•love (feeling and emotion)•mean (mental activity)•prefer (mental activity)•remain (state)•realize (mental activity)•see (senses)•seem (feeling and emotion)•smell (senses)•think (mental activity)•understand (mental activity)•want (feeling and emotion)•wish (feeling and emotion)


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Signal Words

alwaysevery ...oftennormallyusuallysometimesseldomnever


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

The present progressive puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action.

The present progressive is used for actions going on in the moment of speaking and for actions taking place only for a short period of time. It is also used to express development and actions that are arranged for the near future.

Present progressive is also known as present continuous.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Use a form of to be and the infinite verb plus -ing.

am with the personal pronoun Iis with the personal pronouns he, she or it (or the singular form of nouns)are with the personal pronouns you, we, they (or the plural form of nouns)

affirmative negative questionI I am playing. I am not playing. Am I playing?he, she, it He is playing. He is not playing. Is he playing?you, we, they You are playing. You are not playing. Are you playing?


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

A single, silent e at the end of the word is dropped before ing.

example: come - coming I am coming home. You are coming home. He is coming home.

But: ee at the end of the word is not changed

example: agree - agreeing The final consonant after a short, stressed vowel is doubled before ing.

example: sit - sitting


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

The letter l as final consonant after a vowel is always doubled before ing.

example: travel - travelling I am travelling around. You are travelling around. He is travelling around.

Mind: This applies only for British English; in American English there is usually only one l.An ie at the end of a word becomes y before ing.

example: lie - lying I am lying in bed. You are lying in bed. He is lying in bed.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

1.Actions taking place at the moment of speaking (now)

The action is going on now.

Signal words like now, at the moment are often used to emphasise that the action is taking place at the moment of speaking. Signal words are not really necessary, however, as this is already expressed by the tense itself.

He is playing football.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

In the example you can see that the tickets are already bought. So we are talking about an arrangement for the near future.

I'm going to the theatre tonight.

2. Arrangements for the near future

To make clear that the action is not going on now, we usually use signal words like tonight, tomorrow, next Friday, at noon.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Here we are talking about a time limit. Jim does not usually work in the firm, he is still at school and wants to earn some extra money during his holidays.

3. Actions taking place only for a limited period of time

Jim is helping in his brother's farm this week.

To make clear that there is a time limit, we usually use signal words, e.g. this week/month/year.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

This action takes place around now and only for a limited period of time, but not at the moment of speaking.

We don't have to use signal words here, but we often find signal words in such sentences, e.g. now, at the moment.

4. Actions taking place around now (but not at the moment of speaking)

I'm studying for my exams.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

The sentence describes a development from one situation to another.

Signal words are not that common here, only sometimes the change of situation is emphasised by using for example more and more.

5. Development, changing situations

The population of China is rising very fast.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simplev


Future

Conditionals


Actions taking place at the moment of speaking (now) at the momentnow / just now / right nowListen!Look!

Arrangements for the near future •in the morning / in the afternoon / in the evening•at noon / tonight•tomorrow•next ...

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Actions taking place only for a limited period of time othis week / this month / this year

Actions taking place around now (but not at the moment of speaking) at the momentnow / just now / right now

Development, changing situations more and more


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

The simple past expresses an action in the past taking place once, never, several times. It can also be used for actions taking place one after another or in the middle of another action.

For irregular verbs, use the past form (see list of irregular verbs, 2nd column). For regular verbs, just add “ed”.

Form of Simple Past

Positive Negative Question

I spoke. I did not speak. Did I speak?

Simple Past

Use Exceptions Signal words

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Exceptions in Spelling when Adding ‘ed’

Exceptions in spelling when adding ed Example

after a final e only add d love – loved

final consonant after a short, stressed vowel or i as final consonant after a vowel is doubled

admit – admittedtravel – travelled

final y after a consonant becomes i hurry – hurried


Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

action in the past taking place once, never or several times

He visited his parents every weekend.

actions in the past taking place one after the other

He came in, took off his coat and sat down.

action in the past taking place in the middle of another action

When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

if sentences type II (If I talked, …)

If I had a lot of money, I would share it with you.

Example:


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Example:

Example:

Example:

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past


yesterday,

2 minutes ago,

in 1990,

the other day,

last Friday

If-Satz Typ II (If I talked, …)

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

The past progressive puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past.

Positive Negative Question

I / he / she / it I was speaking. I was not speaking.

Was I speaking?

you / we / they

You were speaking

You were not speaking.

Were you speaking?

Use of Past Progressive

puts emphasis on the course of an action in the past Example: He was playing football.

two actions happening at the same time (in the past) Ex: While she was preparing dinner, he was washing the dishes.

action going on at a certain time in the past Example: When I was having breakfast, the phone suddenly rang.

Signal Words of Past Progressive

when, while, as long as

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

[has/have + past participle]

The present perfect simple expresses an action that is still going on or that stopped recently, but has an influence on the present. It puts emphasis on the result.

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive

You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc.

We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

Form



Form Use

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Unspecified Time Before Now

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive

We use the Present Perfect to say that an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important.

I have seen that movie twenty times.I think I have met him once before.Have you read the book yet?

Examples:

Use 1



Form Use

use1use2

use3use4

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive

Duration From the Past Until Now

We use the Present Perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now.

"For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect.

Examples:

I have had a cold for two weeks.She has been in England for six months.Mary has loved chocolate since she was a little girl.

USE 2



Form Use

use1use2

use3use4

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Action has just finished: (stopped recently, still closely connected to now)

What have they just done?Why are these little bunnies laughing?

they have just heard a funny story!

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive

USE 3



Form Use

use1use2

use3use4

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive

USE 4

Puts emphasis on the result: past action which influence or consequence is felt in the present.

He is in the hospital because he has had an accident.

I have lost my wallet, I can go nowhere.



Form Use

use1use2

use3use4

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive


[has/have + been + present participle]

FORM

Use of Present Perfect Progressive

puts emphasis on the duration or course of an action (not the result) Example: She has been writing for two hours.

action that recently stopped or is still going on Example: I have been living here since 2001.

finished action that influenced the present Example: I have been working all afternoon.

Present Perfect Simple vs Present Perfect Progressive


Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Present Perfect Simple vs Present Perfect Progressive

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Both tenses are used to express that an action began in the past and is still going on or has just finished. In many cases, both forms are correct, but there is often a difference in meaning: We use the Present Perfect Simple mainly to express that an action is completed or to emphasise the result. We use the Present Perfect Progressive to emphasise the duration or continuous course of an action.

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Result or duration?Do you want to express what has happened so far or how long an action has been going on yet?

Present Perfect Simple Present Perfect Progressive

Result (what / how much / how often) I have written 5 letters. I have been to London twice.

Duration (how long) I have been writing for an hour.

Emphasis on completion or duration?

Do you want to emphasise the completion of an action or its continuous course (how has somebody spent his time)?


Emphasis on completion I have done my homework. (Meaning: My homework is completed now.)

Emphasis on duration I have been doing my homework. (Meaning: That's how I have spent my time. It does not matter whether the homework is completed now.)

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Result or side effect?

Do you want to express that a completed action led to a desired result or that the action had an unwanted side effect?


desired result I have washed the car. (Result: The car is clean now.)

unwanted side effect Why are you so wet? - I have been washing the car. (side effect: I became wet when I was washing the car. It does not matter whether the car is clean now.)

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Time + negation: last time or beginning of an action?

In negative sentences: Do you want to express how much time has past since the last time the action took place or since the beginning of the action?


since the last time

I haven't played that game for years. (Meaning: It's years ago that I last played that game.)

since the beginningI haven't been playing that game for an hour, only for 10 minutes. (Meaning: It's not even an hour ago that I started to play that game.)

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Permanent or temporary?

If an action is still going on and we want to express that it is a permanent situation, we would usually use the Present Perfect Simple. For temporary situations, we would prefer the Present Perfect Progressive. This is not a rule, however, only a tendency.


permanent

James has lived in this town for 10 years. (Meaning: He is a permanent resident of this town.)

temporaryJames has been living here for a year. (Meaning: This situation is only temporary. Maybe he is an exchange student and only here for one or two years.)

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



[had + past participle]

FORM

You had studied English before you moved to New York. Had you studied English before you moved to New York?You had not studied English before you moved to New York.

The Past Perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past. (putting emphasis only on the fact, not the duration)

already, just, never, not yet, once, until that day (with reference to the past, not the present)If-Satz Typ III (If I had talked, …)

Signal Words

Examples:

Past Perfect Simple


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple

[had been + present participle]

FORM

You had been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.Had you been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived?You had not been waiting there for more than two hours when she finally arrived.

Examples:

We use the Past Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and continued up until another time in the past. (puts emphasis on the course or duration of an action)

for, since, the whole day, all day

signal words


Future

Conditionals

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Simple Future has two different forms in English: "will" and "be going to." Although the two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two very different meanings. These different meanings might seem too abstract at first, but with time and practice, the differences will become clear. Both "will" and "be going to" refer to a specific time in the future.

Simple Future

Will Be going to

Future

Conditionals

Signal Words: in a year, next …, tomorrow, I think, probably, perhaps

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Simple Future

Will Be going to

a spontaneous decision example: Wait, I will help you.

Use of will Future

an opinion, hope, uncertainty or assumption regarding the future example: He will probably come back tomorrow.

a promise example: I will not watch TV tonight.

an action in the future that cannot be influenced example: It will rain tomorrow.

conditional clauses type I example: If I arrive late, I will call you.Conditionals

Signal Words in one year, next week, tomorrow

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Simple Future

Will Be going to

Going to future expresses a conclusion regarding the immediate future or an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared.

Use of going to Future

an action in the near future that has already been planned or prepared example: I am going to study harder next year.

a conclusion regarding the immediate future (based on a present situation). example: The sky is absolutely dark. It is going to rain.

Conditionals

Conditional Sentences / If-Clauses

Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Type IType II

Type III

Conditionals

Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences.

If clause + main clause

If clause, main clause.

The main clause can also be at the beginning of the sentence. In this case, don't use a comma.

Main clause if clause.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Type IType II

Type III

Conditionals

if + Simple Present, will-Future

Form

Example: If I find her address, I will send her an invitation.

Conditional Sentences Type I refer to the future. An action in the future will only happen if a certain condition is fulfilled by that time. We don't know for sure whether the condition actually will be fulfilled or not, but the condition seems rather realistic – so we think it is likely to happen.

Use

Example: If John has the money, he will buy a Ferrari.

I know John very well and I know that he earns a lot of money and that he loves Ferraris. So I think it is very likely that sooner or later he will have the money to buy a Ferrari.

Present Real Conditional


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Type IType II

Type III

Conditionals

Form

if + Simple Past + would + Infinitive.

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.Were instead of Was

In Type II, we usually use ‚were‘ –even if the pronoun is I, he, she or it Example: If I were you, I would not do this.

Refers to situations in the present. An action could happen if the present situation were different. I don't really expect the situation to change, however. I just imagine „what would happen if …“

Use

Example: If John had the money, he would buy a Ferrari.I know John very well and I know that he doesn't have much money, but he loves Ferraris. He would like to own a Ferrari (in his dreams). But I think it is very unlikely that he will have the money to buy one in the near future.

Present Unreal Conditional

I knew John very well and I know that he never had much money, but he loved Ferraris. He would have loved to own a Ferrari, but he never had the money to buy one.


Graphic Comparison

Simple Present

Present Progressive

Simple Past

Past Progressive



Past Perfect Simple


Future

Type IType II

Type III

Conditionals

Past Unreal Conditional

FORM

[If ... Past Perfect ..., ... would have + past participle ... ][... would have + past participle ... if ... Past Perfect ...]

USEThe Past Unreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginary situations in the past. You can describe what you would have done differently or how something could have happened differently if circumstances had been different. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been fulfilled.

Eg: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.

Eg: If John had had the money, he would have bought a Ferrari.

Subjunctive

Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is the infinitive without the "to." The simple form of the verb "to go" is "go." The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses.

FORM

The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. It is used after certain expressions (see below).

USE

Example

Jake insisted that Susan be hired immediately.

The doctor recommended that she see a specialist about the problem.

Example

Examples:

Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month.Donna requested Frank come to the party.The teacher insists that her students be on time.

to propose (that)to recommend (that)to request (that)to suggest (that)to urge (that)

to advise (that)to ask (that)to command (that)to demand (that)to desire (that)to insist (that)

Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs:

Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive (see below)

Expressions Followed by the Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions:

It is best (that)

It is crucial (that)

It is desirable (that)

It is essential (that)

It is imperative (that)

It is important (that)

It is recommended (that)

It is urgent (that)

It is vital (that)

It is a good idea (that)

It is a bad idea (that)

It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives.

It is important she attend the meeting.

It is recommended that he take a gallon of water

with him if he wants to hike to the bottom of the

Grand Canyon.

Examples:

Negative, Continuous and Passive Forms of Subjunctive

(see below)

Negative, Continuous and Passive Forms of Subjunctive

Negative Examples:

The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting.

The company asked that employees not smoke while working.

I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.

Passive Examples:

Jake recommended that Susan be hired immediately.

Christine demanded that I be allowed to take part in the negotiations.

We suggested that you be admitted to the organization.

Continuous Examples:

It is important that you be standing there when he gets off the plane.

It is crucial that a car be waiting for the boss when the meeting is over.

I propose that we all be waiting in Tim's apartment when he gets home.

Passive voice

Forms of the passive

Forms Uses

Forms Uses

Uses of the passive

Passive voice

Inversion

Inversion is used to give emphasis or to be rhetorical in more formal situations, in political speeches, on the news, and also in literature. Some native speakers may also use them occasionally in day-to-day conversation. Look at these examples,

Rarely/Seldom/Never

These are most commonly used with the present perfect or past perfect, & with modals such as can and could. The present simple can also be used.

Seldom have I seen him looking so miserable.

Never in her life had she experienced this exhilarating emotion.Not only.....but also

"Not only has McDonalds played a huge role in pioneering low standards now equated with the word "McJobs", but it has also decided to restrict our ability to have a public discussion about the impact of the McJobs phenomenon", Naomi Klein, "No Logo: Taking Aim at Brand Bullies" (Toronto: Vintage Canada, 2000)

Modal Nature Opposite Examples

be able to possibility cannot or be unable to

I was able to prevent the theft but I was unable to arrest the thief.

can

possibility, capacity cannot Birds can fly; monkeys cannot.

permission cannot or may not Can I watch TV? No, you can't.

could

possibility, capactiy could not Could there be a virus in this file? No, there couldn't; I

ran the anti-virus.

possibility (past) could not Could dodo birds fly? No, they couldn't.

permission cannot or may not Could I open the window? No, you may not.

had better advice had better not You had better get moving, if you don't want to be late. You had better not be late.

have to, have got to

obligation (external

origin)must not I have to pay my taxes before the end of March.

External origin: laws of the nation.

must

necessity, strong

probabilitycannot A is bigger than B which is bigger than C, so A must be

bigger than C. C cannot be bigger than A.

obligation (internal origin) must not

Teacher to pupil: "You must come to school on time; you must not be late". Internal origin: the teacher who speaks decides

maypossibility cannot It may rain. It can't possibly be 8 PM, I'm only half

ready.

permission, request cannot May I speak to Mrs X, please? No, you can't, she's not

in.

mightpossibility

(weak) cannot I might come to your party if I can get off work on time.

permission may not Might I borrow your laptop?

ought toduty, advice ought not to You ought to apologize to your sister for having hurt

her feelings.

logical deduction

cannot, could not

That ought to be enough petrol to last us until we get to .

shouldadvice should not You should spend more time on your homework.

logical deduction

cannot, could not €5 should be enough to leave as a tip.

Prepositions = الجر أحرف

Prepositions are words that are usually followed by nouns or pronouns. A noun or pronoun that comes after a preposition is calles the object of the preposition. Below there are some of the most common prepositions, their meanings and examples on each one of them

Definition

A&B

D to O

P to W

1- Abouta. On the subject of (عن)

This is a story about elephants( يقارب b. Approximately (ما

He is about ten years old

2- Above( فوق - من a. Higher than; over (أعلى

The plane flew above the clouds

3- Acrossa. From one side to the other (عبر)

We walked across the field( المقابلة الجهة b. On the other (في

side ofThere is a store across the street

Definition A&B D to O P to W

4- After(} زمان } a. Later in time (بعدafter ten o'clock; after lunch(} مكان } b. In pursuit of (وراء

The dog ran after the cat

5- Againsta. In opposition to (ضد)Theft is against the law

بمحاذاة ) الشيء يسند بمعنى علىآخر b. Touching; supported (شيء

byI leaned my bicycle against the wall

6- Along

( الشارع - الطريق مثال طول .a (علىFollowing the length of

We walked along the road


7- Among

( فوق ما و ثالثة اي مجموعة a. Within a group (بينThe money was shared among three people

8- Around

a. Circling something (حول )We walked around the block

b. Surrounding (حول)There is a fence around the garden

المكان ) من مختلفة أرجاء c. In different parts(فيof

I looked around the house for the keys( يقارب d. Approximately (ما

He is around six feet tall


9- At( محدد موقع او مكان a. A specific location (في

at 23 Chestnut Street; at the park( محدد زمن b. A point in time (في

at 5 o'clock; at night( معين وضع او حالة c. A condition (في

at peace; at war; at rest( ما نشاط d. An activity (فيat work; at school; at play

( اتجاه e. Towards (فيLook at someone; wave at someone

10- Before

a. Earlier in time (قبل)before two o'clock; before Christmas

b. Earlier in a series (قبل)S comes before T in the alphabet


11- Behinda. At the back of (خلف)

The little girl hid behind her mother.b. Late (متأخر)

I am behind in my work( سبب بمعنى c. Cause; origin (خلف

Who was behind that idea

12- Belowa. Lower than; under (تحت)

below freezing; below sea level

13- BeneathLower than; below (تحت) .

beneath the earth

14- BesideNext to; at the side of (بجانب)

I sit beside her in class


15- Besides( إلى - باإلضافة ً Also; as well as (أيضا

We study other languages besides English

16- Between( مكانين او موقعين :a. An intermediate location (بين

Toronto lies between Montreal and Vancouver.( مناسبتين او زمانين b. An intermediate time (بين

between Christmas and New Year's Day( سلسلة في شيئين :c. Intermediate in a series (بين

B comes between A and C in the alphabet.( مجموعتين :d. Within a group of two (بين

The money was shared between two people


17- Beyond( من a. Farther than (أبعد

The mountains lie beyond the horizon.b. Further than; exceeding (يفوق)That was beyond my expectations.

18- But

( - ّ إال عدا ما ) Except:I have read all but the last chapter.

19- By

a. Near (قرب)a house by the sea

مروراً) ) b. PastHe waved as he drove by the house.

( معينة قياس c. In units of (بوحدةcheaper by the dozen; sold by weight( خالل - من d. Through the means (ب

oftravel by plane; written by him


1. Despite1المعنى : inspite of من بالرغم أو

We walked downtown despite :مثالthe rain.

2. Down

1المعنى : To a lower position أو ً نزوالأسفل إلى

.The ball rolled down the hill :مثال

3. Duringخالل :Throughout a period :المعنى أو

.She works during the day :مثال

4. Exceptعدا Not including :المعنى ما :أو

I have visited everyone except :مثالhim.


5لـ ( . For 1المعنى : Duration of time الزمن من لمدة أو

.We walked for two hours :مثال2المعنى : Distance: معينة لمسافة أو.I walked for five kilometers :مثال

3المعنى : Purpose: ما لغرض أو.I bought this jacket for you :مثال

4المعنى :In favor of: ( ليس و أقتراح يدعم أي مع أو ضد(

.We are for the proposal :مثال5المعنى : Considering: لـ ً نظرا

.The boy is clever for his age :مثال

6. Fromمكان: 1المعنى من Place of origin:

We left from Boston; he comes from Mexico :مثالزمنية: 2المعنى نقطة من Start of a period of time:

from now on; from yesterday until today:مثالمن: 3المعنى Cause:

.He suffers from nervousness :مثالمصدر: 4المعنى من Source:

I first heard the story from you.


7. Inفي: 1المعنى Within a location:

in the room; in London in the :أمثلةbuilding

محددة: 2المعنى زمنية مدة خالل Within a certain time:

.I will return in an hour :مثال(3المعنى بواسطة: ) بـ By means of:

write in pencil; speak in English :مثال

8. Insideداخل: في :Within المعنى

.They are inside the house :مثال

9. Intoداخل: 1المعنى إلى To the inside of:

.We stepped into the room :مثالأخرى: 2المعنى حال إلى حال من Change

of condition: .The boy changed into a man :مثال


10. Like(1المعنى كأنه: ) ً مشابها Resembling:

.That looks like him :مثال

11. Nearقرب : :Close to المعنى

near the school; near the ocean :مثال

12. Of(1المعنى الـ: )

the middle of the road ; the sound :مثالof music

مجموعة: 2المعنى من جزء Part of a group:

one of us; a member of the team :مثال(3المعنى للقياس: ) من Measurement:

a cup of milk; two meters of snow :مثال

13. Offمن: 1المعنى او عن بعيدا Not on; away

from: .Please keep off the grass :مثال


14. Onسطح: ) 1المعنى على اي على

:Touching the surface of الشيء(on the table; on the wall :مثال

محدد: 2المعنى يوم في A certain day: That happened on Sunday, on :مثال

the 6th of June.محدد: 3المعنى شارع في A certain

street: on South Street :مثال

معينة: 4المعنى حالة في A state or condition:

on strike; on fire; on holiday :مثال(5المعنى خالل: ) من أي على By

means of: shown on television :مثال

15. Ontoعلى: مكان إلى To a position المعنى

on: The child climbed onto the table.


16. Opposite

مواجه: أو مقابل :Facing المعنىThe library is opposite the fire station.

17. Out of

الـ: 1المعنى خارج To the outside of: .She went out of the room :مثال

ضمن: 2المعنى من From among: .We won two games out of three :مثال

بدافع: 3المعنى Motive: .We spoke to them out of politeness :مثال

عن: 4المعنى بعيدأ Beyond: out of control; out of danger :مثال

18. Outside

خارج: :On the outer side of المعنىoutside the house :مثال


19. Over

أعلى: :Above; higher than المعنى.There are cupboards over the sink :مثال

(2المعنى ( :ً مغطيا على Covering: .We spread an extra blanket over the bed :مثال

من: 3المعنى أكثر More than: It cost over ten dollars; it took over an hour :مثال

محددة: 4المعنى زمنية فترة خالل During: .I saw him several times over the past week :مثال


1. Perفي: أو لـ for each المعنى

600مثال: kilometers per hour; price per liter

2. Plus. زائد: With the addition of المعنى

Six plus four equals ten :مثال

3. Sinceمنذ: :From a specific time in the past المعنى

I had been waiting since two o'clock :مثال

4. Throughعبر: 1المعنى Across; from end to end of

the main road through town :مثالزمنية: 2المعنى فترة طوال For the whole of

a periodI slept through the night :مثال

3المعنى : By means ofSkill improves through practice :مثال


5. Throughoutأنحاء: : كل في In every part of المعنى

throughout the world :مثالالزمنية: 2المعنى الفترة كل خالل For the whole of a

period:throughout the winter :مثال

6. Till

حتى: Up to a certain time المعنىtill the end :مثال

7. To

باتجاه: 1المعنى In the direction ofTurn to the right :مثال

إلى: 2المعنى DestinationI am going to Rome :مثال

لغاية: 3المعنى Untilfrom Monday to Friday; five minutes to ten :مثال

كي: 4المعنى In order toWe went to the store to buy soap :مثال


8. Toward (or Towards)باتجاه: In the direction of المعنى

We walked toward the center of town :مثال

9. Underتحت: 1المعنى Beneath

under the desk; under the trees :مثالمن: 2المعنى أقل Less than

Under 100 people were present :مثال(3المعنى : اإلنشاء: ) أو التنفيذ مثال قيد في In

circumstances ofunder repair; under way; under discussion :مثال

10. Underneath

تحت: Below, under المعنىunderneath the carpet :مثال

11. Until

حتى: Up to a certain time المعنىShe will stay until Friday; until 5 p.m :مثال


12. Uponعلى: on المعنى

depend upon; rely upon :مثال

13. Upأعلى: 1المعنى In a higher place

She lives up the hill :مثال

14. Up toلغاية: 1المعنى As far as

up to now; I have read up to page 100 :مثالعلى: 2المعنى معتمدا Depending on

The decision is up to you :مثال

15. Versus) الرياضة: ) و القانون في ضد ,Against (sports المعنى

legal)The next game is England versus Australia :مثال


16, Viaطريق: عن By way of المعنى

He went to Los Angeles via San Francisco :مثال

17. Withمع: 1المعنى Accompanying

He came with her; I have my keys with me :مثالمستخدما: 2المعنى أو بـ By means of; using

I repaired the shoes with glue :مثال

18. Withinضمن: Inside of المعنى

within twenty minutes; within one kilometer :مثال

19. Withoutبدون: Not having المعنى

Do not leave without your coat; without :مثالmoney


Jane says : « I want to go to the concert. » Direct speech

Jane says that she wants to go to the concert. Indirect speech

Say, ask, tell…are reporting verbs.

If the reporting verb is in the present tense, there is no change of tense in

indirect speech.

Eg : « I want to see George Michael .» Present direct.

She says she wants to see George Michael. Present indirect

Sometimes other words change in indirect speech eg pronouns.

Eg : Jane says : « my father won’t let me go .»

Jane says (that) her father won’t let her go.

When the reporting verb is in the past, (she said, I told her…), the verb tense

in indirect speech changes when we report it.

Learn the following changes (click here)

Reported Speech

D I R E C T S P E E C H I N D I R E C T S P E E C H

Simple presentHe said: “I never eat meat.”

Simple pastHe said that he never ate meat.

Present continuous“I’m waiting for Ann.” : he said.

Past continuousHe said he was waiting for Ann.

Present perfectHe said: “I’ve found a flat.”

Past perfectHe said he had found a flat.

Present perfect continuousHe said: “I’ve been waiting for ages.”

Past perfect continuousHe said he had been waiting for ages.

Simple pastShe said: “I took it home with me.”

Past perfectShe said she’d taken it home with her.

FutureHe said: “I’ll be in tomorrow.”

ConditionalHa said that he would be in the next day.

Other changes (click here)

Can Could

Will Would

May Might

Shall Should

Must Had to

Here There

This That

These Those

Expressions of timeToday That dayYesterday The day beforeThe day before yesterday Two days beforeTomorrow The following day/the next dayThe day after tomorrow In two days timeNext week/year… The following week/year…Last week/year… The previous week/month/year…A week/month/year…ago A week/year/month…before

Reporting questions:In indirect questions the order is not the same as in direct questions. It’s the same as in statements. We do not use do/does/did to make indirect questions. We do not put “?” at the end.If there is no question word, we begin the indirect question with “if” or “whether”. Eg: “Is the weather in Hawai always wonderful?” Direct Question Jane asked if the weather in Hawai was always wonderful. Indirect QuestionThe reporting verbs for indirect questions are: ask, wonder, want to know etc…

Phrasal Verbs

Form:

There are hundreds of phrasal verbs in English and it is often impossible to guess the meaning even though you understand the separate parts that make up each verb. Indeed many phrasal verbs have more than one meaning! Below is a quick reference list of some of the most common phrasal verbs together with an example and the meaning to help you through the confusion!

Verb + adverb / preposition

Go to the list

Phrasal Verb Meaning Example

Break down Become useless The train broke down at 7 p.m

Bring up Educate at home She brought up five children.

Call back Telephone again Please call back after lunch.

Call for fetch We’ll call for you after lunch.

Call off end The strike was called off at Easte.

Carry on Continue with Are you carrying on with English.

Catch up Join quickly Go on! I’ll catch you up in a minute.

Close down Stop production The firm closed down last month.

Come from To be born in Her family originally came from .

Drop in Informal visit Drop in sometime next week.

Eat out Eat outside home Why not eat out for a change?

Fall out Have an argument Adam and Alice have fallen out again.

Fall through Come to nothing The new plans have fallen through.

Fill in Add the necessary Fill in the details below.

Find out Realize the truth He found out about his mum recently.

Get back return I get back from on Friday.

Get off leave Get off the bus at .

Get on Make progress He’s getting on well at reading.

Get on with Co-operate well She gets on with her boss very well.

Get out of Escape from I can’t get out of going to the play.

Get over Recover from She never gets over his death.

Get round to Find time He hasn’t got round to replaying yet.

Get through Contact by phone She got through to the man in charge.

Get up Rise out of bed They got up early to be here the first.

Go off Go bad This meat has definitely gone off.

Grow up Become adult He grew up fast when his dad died.

Hang up Stop speaking Liz hung up on her boyfriend.

Have on Play a trick He must be having us on!

Hold on Wait (phone) Would you mind holding on?

Keep up Carry on with Keep up the good work!

Knock down Traffic accident He was knocked down by a motorbike.

Laugh at Make fun of They laughed at his misfortune.

Let down disappoint Harry will never let you down.

Lie in Stay in bed You can lie in tomorrow.

Look after Attend to She looked after the entire class.

Look at examine Please look at the battery.

Look for Search for Are you still looking for a job?

Look forward to anticipate I’m looking forward to the holidays.

Look into examine We must look into that situation.

Look up Search for He looked up the time of the train.

Pack up Stop working They packed up work early.

Pay back Return money He’ll pay the money back next month.

Pay off Lose a job She’ll be paid off in two weeks.

Pick up Meet (by car) He was picked up from the hotel.

Put off postpone He put off his visit to the dentist.

Put on wear She put on an expensive new suit.

Put through Connect (phone) He was put through to the director.

Put up Provide lodging We’ll put you up during your visit.

Put up with Be patient She put up with his bad moods.

Ring back Telephone again Ring me back after lunch.

Run out of Come to an end We’ve run out of tea.

Save up Keep money She had to save up for the holidays.

See off Accompany to bus…

You can see us off at the ferry.

Set off Start (journey etc.) He would set off at down each day.

Settle down Become established

He never settled down to married life.

Show off Attracting attention

The toddler showed off at the wedding.

Sort out organize Those books need sorting out.

Stand up for defend Suffragettes stood up for themselves.

Take after Resemble (relative) Jan took after his uncle.

Take off remove He took off his hat and gloves.

Tell off scold Mum often told us off in public.

Think about Reflect / recall She often thought about her childhood.

Think of consider We must think of the children.

Think over Consider further You should think it over for a while.

Try on See if it fits Try it on before you buy it.

Turn down Refuse to consider He was turned down for a job.

Turn off Stop the flow of Turn off that tap please!

Turn on start He turned on the computer.

Turn up appear They turned up unexpectedly.

Wake up Stop sleeping I didn’t wake up until noon.

Walk out Leave(unexpectedly) The factory workers walked out.

Wash up Cleans dishes It’s your turn to wash up.

Wear out Become useless Kids wear clothes out so quickly.

Wrap up Enclose in paper The presents took ages to wrap up.

The order of adjectives before a noun is not always fixed. But this table shows some ordering

Compound AdjectivesOrder of adjectives

Adjectives Nouns

describing or expressing feeling

size age Colour Defining

a beautiful green Indian carpet

an old black horse

a tall medical worker

those funny little flowers

Compound adjectives

Cardinal number+nounA four-door carA five – dinar note

Cardinal adj + nounA first –class ticketA second-hand book

(noun ; adverb; adjective)+verb+ingAn insect -killing pesticideThe ant is a hard-working insect(Used when the noun described does the action)

(noun; adj ; adv)+past participleIt is a flower-covered garden Ready –made clothesA quickly-written letter

(Used when the noun described undergoes the action)

Adjective+noun+ed blue-eyed dark-haired

thin – legged thick-soled boots(It is used to describe all parts of human /animals body; clothes; shoes etc)

noun+noun +edHe is a lion-hearted personHe is a stone –hearted father.

Noun+adj She is wearing an olive-green dress.a sky-blue shirt

number –year-oldHe is eighteen-year old.

Noun-likeShe has stick-like arms.A dog -like fox.

Number-noun+edA two-legged animalA four-legged animalA one-eyed personIn the kingdom of the blind, the one-eyed man is a king.

Adj-to – verbIt is an easy-to- do test.

Pronouns Pronouns replace nouns or phrases

Personal pronouns and adjectivesPersonal pronouns substitute for specific people, things, or ideas. They agree in gender and number with the noun they replace. Eg jack smith ---- he / the actress---she / my room----it / crocodiles-----they

Subject pronouns replace nouns that perform the action of the verb. My wife and I live in Boston. We live in Boston.

Object pronouns replace nouns that receive the action of the verb. The teacher gave John a puppy. The teacher gave him a puppet.They also replace nouns in prepositional phrases. Eg This story is about us.

Reflexive pronouns refer back to th esubject of the verb. She washes her hands by herself.

Possessive adjectives come before a noun and show ownership. This is your book.

Possessive pronouns stan d alone and show ownership. That is my chair.----- That chair is mine.

Personal pronouns and adjectives chart

Indefinite Pronouns Demonstratives

Personal pronouns chart

Demonstratives Personal pronouns chart

Indefinite Pronouns Personal pronouns chart

Conjunctions

and, but and or

Parallel Structure

Conjunctions are words used to link words, phrases or clauses.Some common conjunctions are and, but and or.

Use and to link words that are similar.We buy fruit and vegetables at the grocery store.The house is warm and comfortable.There were several cars and trucks in the street.

And

Use but to link words that are different and do not normally go together.

He works quickly but neatly.The teacher is firm but fair with the children.The musicians are young but very talented.

But

Conjunctions Linking Phrases

Conjunctions That Join Sentences

Other Words for and

Other Words Used for but

Other Words for or

Use or to talk about choices.

You can have a soda or lemonade.Would you like pasta or rice?Does the sauce taste sweet or sour?Is your sister older or younger than you?

Or

The word or is often used with not and other negative words.

She does not like apple juice or orange juice.I didn’t see or hear anything strange.He can’t sing or dance.They’ve never been to Europe or Asia.

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or


Use the conjunctions and, but and or to link phrases. The phrases in these examples are printed in color.

We like going shopping and visiting museums.I tell my parents and my best friend all my secrets.Some of my toys are dirty and a bit broken.The car is very old but still very reliable.The weather was very sunny but rather cold.I’m older than Anna but younger than Jack.Is it quicker to go by train or by car?You could call it a thin book or a thick magazine.

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or


Conjunctions are also used to join two sentences to make them one.Here are some examples with and, but and or.

Mom is working in the garden. Dad is busy in the kitchen.Mom is working in the garden and Dad is busy in the kitchen.

Sam is playing football. Eric is reading a book.Sam is playing football and Eric is reading a book.

I switched on the TV. There were no interesting programs on.I switched on the TV, but there were no interesting programs on.

Meera phoned her friend Anna. She wasn’t at home.Meera phoned her friend Anna, but she wasn’t at home.

Would you like to go to the movies? Shall we go for a burger?Would you like to go to the movies or shall we go for a burger?

Hurry up! You’ll be late for school.Hurry up or you’ll be late for school!

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or

Other Words for and

There are other words for and that also join two sentences.

Dad washed the car. He polished it.Dad not only washed the car, but he also polished it.

Sally baked the cake. She decorated it.Sally not only baked the cake, but she decorated it as well.

John did his homework. He cleaned his room.John not only did his homework, but he cleaned his room, too.

They visited Sydney. They also visited Hong Kong and Tokyo.They visited Sydney, as well as Hong Kong and Tokyo.

Sam ran faster than Kim. He ran faster than David too.Sam ran faster than both Kim and David.

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or


There are other words for but that also join sentences.

Grandpa is old but very fit.Although Grandpa is old, he’s very fit.

The weather was sunny but cold.Even though the weather was sunny, it was cold.

The bus is slower than the train but it’s cheaper.While the bus is slower than the train, it’s cheaper.

This computer is very old but reliable.Though this computer is very old, it is very reliable.

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or

Other Words for or

There are other words for or that name choices or join two sentences.

•The movie wasn’t funny. It wasn’t interesting.•The movie was neither funny nor interesting.

•You can do your homework now. You can do your homework after dinner.•You can do your homework either now or after dinner.

•We could walk. We could take a taxi.•We could walk, or else take a taxi.

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or

Parallelism

When two elements of a sentence are similar in meaning, you should express them in parallel form. In other words, all linked words should match in form.

By using parallel structure, we both clarify the meaning of our writing and add symmetry to it. Parallel structure joins and emphasizes equally important ideas.

1. Co-ordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, for, so, yet).

•She likes dancing and swimming.•He wanted tobuy a new car or a small apartment.

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or

2. Correlative conjunctions (either…or, neither…nor, both…and, not only…but also, whether…or

•We can either watch a film or listen to music.•Neither my mother nor my father speaks english fluently.•My brother is not only intelligent but also hard-working.•You will need both English and German for this job.

3. Words in series

•She reads novels, short stories and plays.•They bought a laptop, a webcam, a flash disk and a mouse.

4. Comparisons and contrasts using than or as (ie. more than, as much as)

•I don’t like French as much as I like English.•We practise basketball more than we practise volleyball.

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or

5.Function words

A function word that begins one clause must begin the others.

Prepositions (to, by, for, in ): They take part in debates and in forums.

Articles (a, an, the): The documentary was about the Native Americans an the Aborigines.

The infinitive (to): She decided to be serious, to work hard, and to attend all the lectures.

Introductory words (that, who, which, because, when): I believe that she is innocent and that she deserves our apologies.

and, but and or

Parallel Structure



Other Words for and


Other Words for or

Relative Pronouns

Defining VS Non-defining Relative Clauses

WHO People (when we replace the subject). The girl who arrived yesterday is my cousin.

WHICH Things, animals, events. The cat which broke the vase is over there.

WHOSE Possession for people, animals and things. I know the boy whose mother is a singer.

THAT People, animals, things (it can replace who and which in most cases).

I bought a cell phone that plays mp3 music.She’s the doctor that cured my husband.

WHOM People (when we replace the object). The professor whom my brother visited is very famous.

DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSES NON-DEFINING ( or adding )RELATIVE CLAUSES

- The man who lives next door to Susan is quite strange- The river which flows through is the Wye.- The picture which was damaged is worth thousand of pounds

- Jake, who lives next door to Susan, is quite strange- The Wye, which flows through , is a beautiful river- This famous picture, which was damaged during the war, is worth thousand of pounds

These clauses identify which thing the speaker is talking about: the clause who lives next door to Susan tells us which man the clause which flows through tells us which riverWithout the relative clause the sentence would be incomplete. The man is quite strange makes sense only if we know the man.A DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE doesn’t have commas around itMost relative clauses are identifying. We use them both in speech and in writing.

These clauses add extra information about something which is already identified.The clause who lives next door to Susan adds information about Jake. But we can say the sentence without the relative clause. Jake is quite strange makes sense because the name Jake identifies who we are talking about.A NON-DEFINING RELATIVE CLAUSE has commas around it. If the adding clause is at the end of the sentence, we only need one comma.Adding clauses can be rather formal. We use them mainly in writing. They are common in news reports. In speech we often use two sentences

Sometimes we can leave the pronoun out of an identifying clause.Example: The woman (who) you met yesterday works in advertisement.Note: we cannot leave the pronoun out when it is the subject of the relative clause.Example: The man who spoke to Sue is Sarah’s boss.

We cannot leave the pronoun out of an adding clause.Example: Sarah, whom you met yesterday, works in advertisement.

english grammar overview

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