english for technical students and engineers_1.pdf

ENGLISH FOR TECHNICAL STUDENTS AND ENGINEERS • Part 1 Lecturer Mihai ION, PhD

Contents

Unit 1. Metals………………………………………………………………………3 Grammar review: The English verb system……………………………….7 Unit 2. Design Example – Materials Systems…………………………………….14 Grammar review: Present tense…………………………………………..16 Unit 3. Measurement……………………………………………………………...24 Grammar review: Past tense……………………………………………...28 Unit 4. Consumption of Water……………………………………………………33 Grammar review: Future tense…………………………………………...36 Unit 5. Energy, Heat and Work…………………………………………………...44 Grammar review: Modal verbs…………………………………………...48 Appendix. Glossary……………...……………………………………………….55 Bibliography……………………………………………………………...………60

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Introduction

This course addresses primarily YOU, a technical student enrolled in an Engineering programme. No knowledge of technical concepts is assumed, but if you work through the course you will certainly learn some of the basic notions. All the reading material and part of the follow-up activities are taken from General Engineering by C.M. and D. Johnson, a book which I strongly recommend you for further, in-depth study. Apart from grasping sound knowledge of technical English, you will also revise and build up your grammar, with a focus on verb categories such as: tense, aspect and modality. The approach to grammar, however, is in a concise and easy-to-follow format, accompanied by pictures, diagrams and tables, all meant to facilitate your understanding.

Structurally, the course consists of five units and a glossary of technical terms. A unit includes several sections. Below I give you a brief description of each section, so that at any point in your study you will know exactly what you are expected to do and why you are doing it. The pattern is as follows:

• Understanding a printed text: In this section you are given a passage to read, sometimes including a picture or table. You should first read it through and then translate it using the key vocabulary in the Glossary.

• Check your understanding: In this section you are given a set of questions to help you identify the most important points in the reading passage.

• Increase your vocabulary: This section highlights certain words from the text and provides various types of activity to help you remember them.

• Understanding discourse: This section is based on a spoken text, to which you should listen and do the follow-up activities.

• Grammar review: In this section various language structures are revised and illustrated with a wealth of clear examples.

• Grammar practice: This section is designed to provide you with practice material so that you can consolidate your grammar knowledge.

• End-of-unit test: The aim of this test is to assess the extent to which you have acquired the information provided in the unit.

Course objectives

This course is intended: - to provide you with a wide range of technical vocabulary; - to give you a practical insight into the basic concepts of English grammar; - to develop the skills you will need in an English-speaking academic or working environment.

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UNIT 1. METALS

Time for individual study: 3 hours Objectives

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able: - to use vocabulary items related to metals, alloys and heat treatment; - to associate the name of a verb tense with its grammatical form and vice versa.

A. Understanding a printed text

This passage will give you some information about metals, alloys and their uses. Notice how it is divided into paragraphs and sections. Pay attention to the headings or notes in the margin. Now look at the following questions: 1. What is the main advantage of metals? 2. What alloy is much stronger than pure aluminium? 3. Which type of heat treatment makes metal softer and less brittle? 4. Why were Concorde’s engine surrounds made of titanium alloys? Read the passage to find the answers. You do not need to understand every word in order to do so. Why does man use metals still so much today when there are other materials, especially plastics, which are available? A material is generally used because it offers the required strength, and other properties, at minimum cost. Appearance is also an important factor. The main advantage of metals is their strength and toughness. Concrete may be cheaper and is often used in building, but even concrete depends on its core of steel for strength. Not all metals are strong, however. Copper and aluminium, for example, are both fairly weak – but if they are mixed together, the result is an alloy called aluminium bronze, which is much stronger than either pure copper or pure aluminium. Alloying is an important method of obtaining whatever special properties are required: strength, toughness, resistance to wear, magnetic properties, high electrical resistance or corrosion resistance.

5 10 15

Uses Alloys

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The properties of a metal can be further improved by use of heat treatment. Heat treatment is the term given to a number of different procedures in which the properties of metals and alloys are changed. It usually consists of heating the metal or alloy to a selected temperature below its melting point and then cooling it at a certain rate to obtain those properties which are required. For example, hardening is used to make metals harder. Tempering makes them softer and less brittle. Annealing is carried out to make a metal soft so that it can be machined more easily. In this way, metallic materials can be produced to meet every kind of engineering specification and requirement. When Concorde, the first supersonic passenger airliner, was built, a material was needed which could withstand extreme aerodynamic conditions and would have a life of at least 45,000 flying hours. To achieve this, a special aluminium alloy was developed which was tough and lightweight and was used in over 70% of Concorde’s structure. Another 16% was made of high-strength steel, and titanium alloys were used in the engine surrounds to withstand temperatures of 4,000 degrees centigrade. Methods of extracting, producing and treating metals are being developed all the time to meet engineering requirements. This means that there is an enormous variety of metals and metallic materials available from which to choose.

20 25 30 35 40

Heat treatment Special alloys

B. Check your understanding

Now read the text carefully, looking up anything you do not understand in the Glossary. While you read, look for the answers to these questions: 1. Put T or F in the gaps to indicate if the statements below are true or false

according to the facts in the passage.

• Concrete is a cheap building material. _____ • Aluminium bronze is an example of an alloy. _____ • Pure copper is stronger than the alloys that are made by mixing copper with

aluminium. _____ • Tempering is a kind of heat treatment. _____ • It is sometimes an advantage for a metal to be soft. _____ • Concorde was built mainly of steel. _____

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2. Answer the following questions:

• On line 3, which noun does the pronoun ‘it’ refer to? • On line 10, which nouns does the pronoun ‘they’ refer to? • On line 12, what does the word ‘which’ refer to? • On line 20, what does the pronoun ‘it’ refer to? • On line 21, which noun or nouns does the word ‘its’ refer to? • On line 33, what does the word ‘which’ refer to?

C. Increase your vocabulary

1. Properties of materials (a) These words and phrases refer to properties of materials: • strength • toughness • corrosion resistant Find other words in the passage which refer to properties of materials. List them below. • _________________ • _________________ • _________________ • _________________ • _________________ • _________________ • _________________ • _________________ • _________________ (b) Now write the meanings of these words. Use a dictionary if necessary. • loosen _______________ • tighten ______________ • stiffen ______________ • brighten _____________ • cool ________________ 2. Nouns and adjectives Fill in the spaces with the correct form of the word given. Noun Adjective strength strong resistance

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tough hardness soft brittle 3. Verbs that describe change ‘soften’ means to make something softer ‘harden’ means to make something harder What words have the following meanings? • to make something thicker _____________ • to make something weaker _____________ • to make something stronger ____________

D. Understanding discourse

You will hear instructions for conducting three simple experiments to demonstrate the effect of heat treatment on steel. Below are incomplete notes about the materials required and the steps in each experiment. As you listen, try to complete the notes. Materials two steel rods – thin and ……………….., pair of …………………., ……………… of sandpaper, water and ……………… source. Experiment 1 Bend rod to measure toughness and spring. Hold rod ……………… making sure …………………. near. Heat rod until ……………. …………………. and dip ……………… into water. Known as ‘………………’. Rod has become ……………. and will break ……………. Experiment 2 Take ………………. rod and heat until ………………. Keep rod in heat for about ………………. after it turns red. Remove from heat ………………. and allow ……………… gradually. This is ‘annealing’. Rod can bend ………………….. Experiment 3 Heat …………… rod again to bright red. Quench it and …………… with sandpaper. Hold it in heat again until ………………… Rod must not become ……………… Remove rod, allow to ……….. ‘Tempered’ rod is ……………… but less ………………

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E. Grammar review

The English verb system

1. Tense vs. Time Tense is the linguistic reference to objective time (extra-linguistic concept). In other words, tense belongs to LANGUAGE, while time belongs to reality. Tense is the grammatical expression of location in time: it expresses time relation with respect to the Speech Time (NOW). For example, Past tense refers to an action/event previous to the moment of speaking (NOW), Present tense refers to an action/event simultaneous with the moment of speaking (NOW), whereas Future tense refers to an action/event subsequent to the same moment of speaking.

2. Tense vs. Aspect

Aspect reflects the status of the action with respect to duration (continuous/non-continuous) and/or result (perfect/non-perfect). It is the subjective point of view relative to time. On the contrary, tense reflects the exact, objective position in time of an action/state expressed by the verb. As a consequence, the English verb cannot exist without tense or aspect information, the same way as a coin cannot be possibly imagined without its heads or tails.

Depending on the presence/lack of information displayed by the verb relative to duration and/or result, the English language identifies four distinct aspects:

REALITY time

tense LANGUAGE

Remember TENSE → external/objective time ASPECT → internal/subjective time

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a. simple [- duration/ - result] ● (no information about the action) Form: V/V-s, V-ed/V2, will/would V b. continuous [+ duration/ - result]

(action in progress) Form: BE + V-ing c. perfect [- duration/ + result]

(looking back at an action) Form: HAVE + V-ed/V3 d. perfect continuous [+ duration/ + result]

(looking back at an action in progress) Form: HAVE + BEEN + V-ing

3. Tenses in English

As there are three tenses (1. present, 2. past, 3. future) and four aspects (a. simple, b. continuous, c. perfect, d. perfect continuous), and a verb is a combination of these two grammatical categories (as seen above), it follows that the English verb system displays 3 x 4 = 12 distinct forms (or tenses): 1.a. Present simple V/V-s (3rd pers. singular) e.g. you write, he writes 1.b. Present continuous BE (present) + V-ing e.g. you are writing, he is writing 1.c. Present perfect HAVE (present) + V-ed/V3

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e.g. you have worked, he has written 1.d. Present perfect continuous HAVE (present) + V3/BE + Ving BEEN e.g. you have been writing, he has been writing 2.a. Past simple V-ed/V2 e.g. you worked, he wrote 2.b. Past continuous BE (past) + V-ing e.g. you were writing, he was writing 2.c. Past perfect HAVE (past) + V-ed/V3 e.g. you had worked, he had written 2.d. Past perfect continuous HAVE (past) + V3/BE + Ving BEEN e.g. you had been writing 3.a. Future simple will V e.g. you will write 3.b. Future continuous BE (future) + V-ing e.g. you will be writing 3.c. Future perfect HAVE (future) + V-ed/V3 e.g. you will have written 3.d. Future perfect continuous HAVE (future) + V3/BE + Ving BEEN e.g. you will have been writing

Remember

The English verb system observes a specific rule called The Sequence of Tenses (Corespondenţa timpurilor), which states that if the verb in the main clause (= propoziţie principală) is in the past, then the verb in the subordinate clause (= propoziţie subordonată) referring to a future event MUST be in the future-in-the-past (viitor din perspectiva trecutului - timp inexistent în limba română!).

The auxiliary for future-in-the-past is will + -ed = would

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4.a. Future-in-the-past simple would V e.g. he said/ you would write 4.b. Future-in-the-past continuous BE (future-in-the-past) + V-ing e.g. he said/ you would be writing 4.c. Future-in-the-past perfect HAVE (future-in-the-past) + V-ed/V3 e.g. he said/ you would have written 4.d. Future-in-the-past perfect continuous HAVE (future-in-the-past) + V3/BE + Ving BEEN e.g. he said/ you would have been writing Now, the English verb system has gained another four tenses for a total of 16 distinct forms. Below you can see a diagram of the English verb system, intended to serve you as a visual aid in your learning process, and to offer you an instant, overall picture of the relationships established among tenses. For didactic reasons (the diagram would be too complicated), the continuous aspect has been left out.

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You should notice that HAVE, DO and WILL are the three major auxiliaries which position the action/state in time relative to the speech moment (now). Another major auxiliary, BE, is responsible for either presenting the action in progress, or turning a statement into the passive (i.e. switching position between the subject and the object of the sentence, as in the example above: the furniture, object in the active [what?], becomes subject in the passive [who?]). Also, it is important to remember that you cannot use WILL (the auxiliary of future) in time and condition clauses (= subordonate temporale și condiționale), introduced by any of those words in parentheses. Instead, you must always use the tenses in the diagram indicated by the arrows.

F. Grammar practice

Translate the following text into English. Note that the verb write is used extensively. In fact, it should take all the forms (tenses & aspects) presented in the diagram above. Tom este scriitor. El scrie toate tipurile de literatură. El a scris deja cinci pagini din primul său roman. Destul pentru azi! El speră că va scrie încă cinci pagini mâine. Deci, conform planului său, el va fi scris zece pagini până mâine. Anul trecut a scris o piesă de teatru. Dar înainte de asta, scrisese deja câteva poezii. După ce a terminat piesa, a hotărât că va scrie un roman. Ba chiar a promis că îl va fi scris până la Crăciun. Acum e octombrie, și dacă (va) scrie cinci pagini pe zi, își va ține promisiunea.

G. End-of-unit test

1. Match the words in column A with those in column B to form collocations as they appear in the reading passage:

A B 1. __ aluminium a. specification 2. __ degrees b. resistance 3. __ engineering c. surrounds 4. __ magnetic d. steel 5. __ heat e. bronze 6. __ engine f. treatment 7. __ corrosion g. point 8. __ high-strength h. centigrade 9. __ melting i. properties

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2. Translate into English: Tom este la masa de scris. A început să scrie la ora 8 dimineața. Acum este ora 11 dimineața. Iată ce are de spus: .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Scriu un roman acum. ....................................................................................................................................... Scriu de la ora 8/ de 3 ore. ....................................................................................................................................... Mâine pe vremea asta voi scrie ca de obicei. ....................................................................................................................................... Până la ora 2 voi scrie timp de 6 ore. (La ora 2 vor fi 6 ore de când scriu.) ....................................................................................................................................... Ieri dimineață scriam de asemenea. ....................................................................................................................................... Scriam de 2 ore când prietenul meu Jim a trecut pe la mine. ....................................................................................................................................... El este poet. A zis că va scrie următoarea sa poezie peste 2 zile. ....................................................................................................................................... Eu i-am spus că până atunci voi scrie la primul meu roman timp de o săptămână. (Eu i-am spus că atunci va fi o săptămână de când scriu la primul meu roman.) .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................. Marking scheme: 1. 9 x 0.5p = 4.5p 2. 9 x 0.5p = 4.5p ex officio = 1p

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Summary In this unit you have learnt the following main issues: - The main advantage of metals over plastics is their strength and toughness; - Alloying is the method of mixing metals together in order to obtain special

properties; - Heat treatment consists of heating the metal or alloy to a selected temperature

below its melting point and then cooling it at a certain rate to obtain the required properties;

- The most common heat treatment methods are: hardening, tempering, annealing; - The English verb system contains 3 main tenses (present, past, future) plus a

derived one (future-in-the-past), and 4 aspects (simple, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous), for a total of 16 verb forms in the active;

- If you apply the formula: BE + V-ed/V3 to the above-mentioned 16 forms, you will get another 16 verb forms in the passive, for a complete number of 32.

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UNIT 2. DESIGN EXAMPLE – MATERIALS SYSTEMS

Time for individual study: 2½ hours Objectives

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able: - to use vocabulary items related to materials selection, combining materials, valve materials and valve problems that may occur in critical regions; - to use the present tense (all aspects) in a correct and effective manner.


Read the following text, then translate it into Romanian, looking up anything you do not understand in the Glossary. Engineered systems contain many components, and for each a material must be selected. The automobile is our most familiar engineering system and one that is undergoing a major change in the materials used for its construction. These trends in materials selection reflect the great effort that is being made to decrease the fuel consumption of cars by down-sizing the designs and adopting weight-saving materials. Major shifts in materials selection such as are shown in Table 6-8 can have large economic consequences.

Frequently, complex and severe service conditions can be met economically only by combining several materials into a single component. The surface hardening of gears and other automotive components by carburizing or nitriding is a good example. Here the high hardness, strength, and wear resistance of a high-carbon steel is produced in the surface layers of a ductile and tougher low-carbon steel.

An excellent example of a complex materials system used in a difficult environment is the exhaust valve in an internal-combustion engine. Valve materials must have excellent corrosion- and oxidation-resistance properties to resist “burning” in the temperature range 1350 to 1700°F. They must have 1) sufficient high-temperature fatigue strength and creep resistance to resist failure and 2) suitable hot hardness to resist wear and abrasion.

The critical failure regions in an exhaust valve are shown in Fig. 6-12. Maximum operating temperature occurs in

Materials selection Combining materials Valve materials

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areas A and C. Corrosion and oxidation resistance are especially critical there. The underhead area of the valve, area C, experiences cyclic loading, and because of the mild stress concentrations, fatigue failure may occur at that point. The valve face, area B, operates at a somewhat lower temperature because of heat conduction into the valve seat. However, if an insulating deposit builds up on the valve face, it can lead to burning. Also, the valve seat can be damaged by indentation by abrasive fuel ash deposits. The valve stem is cooler than the valve head. However, wear resistance is needed. Surface wear of the valve stem, area D, can lead to scuffing, which will cause the valve to stick open and burn. Wear at the valve tip, area E, where the valve contacts the rocker arm, will cause valve lash and cause the valve to seat with higher than normal forces. Eventually, that will cause failure.

The basic valve material for passenger car application, where Tmax = 1300°F, is an austenitic stainless steel that obtains its good high-temperature properties from a dispersion of precipitates. This alloy, 21-2N, contains 20.35 percent chro-mium for oxidation and corrosion resistance. It has good PbO corrosion resistance, and its high-temperature fatigue strength is exceeded only by that of the more expensive nickel-base super alloys.

Valve problems

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1. Answer the following questions: • What is the purpose of ‘down-sizing designs and adopting weight-saving materials’ in the automobiles? • What is a good example of combining several materials into a single component? • What properties must valve materials have to resist ‘burning’ in extremely high temperature ranges? • What property is necessary in the valve stem? • What will wear at the valve tip eventually cause? 2. (a) To what, precisely, do the following refer? • area C • area B • area D • area E (b) What can occur in the following areas, and what may be the result of it? • area C • area B • area D • area E 3. Find words in the passage which have a similar meaning and forms to those below: • chosen • withstand • important • functions • changes • lead to • extreme • touches

C. Grammar review

Present tense

1. PRESENT SIMPLE

●Form: V/V-(e)s* + I/you/we/they

he/she/it play

plays - I/you/we/they

he/she/it do not (don’t) does not (doesn’t)

play

? Do Does

I/you/we/they he/she/it

play?

* with 3rd person singular (he/she/it)

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●Use: ♦general truths and permanent situations (Generic Present) Vegetarians don’t eat meat. My cousin lives in Birmingham. ♦routines and habits (Habitual Present) She has coffee every morning. I usually visit her once a year. Frequency scale: always usually often sometimes rarely never 100%_______________50%_______________0% ♦exclamations, demonstrations, stage directions, sports commentaries (Instantaneous Present) Here comes the doctor! I now add some sugar to the chocolate powder. The doorbell rings. He jumps up with a start, reaching for the gun. Smith sends a beautiful header over the goal-keeper and scores. ♦narrative style (Historic Present) One day the boy goes to the woods and meets a fairy. ♦official programmes The plane takes off at 18.00 hours. ♦future reference (time & condition clauses) I’ll call you as soon as I arrive. They’ll go to the mountains if it doesn’t rain.

●Spelling of -s: ♦add -s to the base form of the verb want/wants, drive/drives ♦add -es to verbs that end in -s, -z, -sh, -ch, -x, -o kiss/kisses, buzz/buzzes, wash/washes, watch/watches, fix/fixes, go/goes ♦…consonant + y > …consonant + ie + s carry/carries, fly/flies but: buy/buys, say/says

2. PRESENT CONTINUOUS

●Form: BE (present) + V-ing +

I you/we/they he/she/it

am (’m) are (’re) is (’s)

playing

-


am not (’m not) are not (aren’t) is not (isn’t)

playing

?

Am Are Is


playing?

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●Use:

♦ongoing activities (+ now/at present/at the moment) I’m driving home now. ♦temporary situations (+ today/this …) I usually drink coffee, but today I’m drinking some milk. ♦immediate personal plans (+ today/tonight/tomorrow/this …) He’s coming to see us tomorrow. What are you doing tonight? ♦annoyance (+ always/continually/all the time) You are always fixing your car when I go to sleep!

●Spelling of -ing: ♦add -ing to the base form of the verb go/going, wear/wearing ♦drop final -e come/coming, make/making but: agree/agreeing, be/being, dye/dyeing, singe/singeing ♦…-ie > …-y + ing lie/lying, die/dying ♦…1 stressed vowel + consonant > …2x consonant + ing stop/stopping, hit/hitting,begin/beginning but: travel/travelling (BrE), kidnap/kidnapping, picnic/picnicking

●Non-continuous verbs:

♦verbs of the senses: see, hear, smell, taste, notice, feel, touch ♦verbs of the mind: think (=cred), know, understand,believe, remember, forget, mean, doubt, suppose, expect ♦verbs of emotion & feeling: like, dislike, love, hate, prefer, want, wish, care ♦verbs of possession: have, own, owe, belong, possess ♦verbs of relation: matter, concern, consist, contain, hold, cost, depend, resemble

3. PRESENT PERFECT

●Form: HAVE (present) + V-ed/V3* + I/you/we/they

he/she/it have (’ve) has (’s)

eaten played

- I/you/we/they he/she/it

have not (haven’t) has not (hasn’t)

eaten played

? Have Has


eaten? played?

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* V3 = past participle (the 3rd form with irregular verbs)

●Use: ♦present result He has cleaned his bike. (It is clean now) ♦experience (+ ever, never, already, yet) Have you ever been in a car crash? I haven’t read the poem yet. ♦recent past (+ just, lately, recently, till now, so far, of late) The train has just left. We haven’t seen Jack lately. ♦incomplete period of time (+ today/this …/all day/all night) I’ve seen a good film this morning. (It’s 11am) but: I saw a good film this morning. (It’s 11pm – period completed) ♦persistent situation (for a period of time/since a point in time) I’ve been a doctor for ten years. He’s driven a car since last summer. ♦future reference (time & condition clauses) When I have finished, I’ll let you know. If you have done your work by seven, I’ll take you to the pool.

●Spelling of -ed: (for regular verbs) ♦add -ed to the base form of the verb work/worked, clean/cleaned ♦drop final -e move/moved, dance/danced, recite/recited ♦…consonant + y > …consonant + i + ed try/tried, cry/cried ♦…1 stressed vowel + consonant > …2x consonant + ed stop/stopped, drop/dropped, omit/omitted, occur/occurred but: travel/travelled (BrE), kidnap/kidnapped, picnic/picnicked

4. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

●Form: HAVE (present) + V3/BE + V-ing + I/you/we/they

he/she/it have (’ve) been has (’s) been

playing

- I/you/we/they he/she/it

have not (haven’t) been has not (hasn’t) been

playing

? Have Has


been

playing?

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●Use: ♦present result of recent activity She’s exhausted. She’s been filming non-stop. What’s that smell? Has someone been cooking onions? ♦ongoing persistent situation (+ for/since) How long have you been playing football? (You’re still playing now) He’s been watering the flowers for ten minutes. (He’s still watering them) ♦annoyance She’s been asking me that silly question for a month. What’s the matter with her?

●Note:

You cannot use the continuous aspect ♦when a quantity is given I’ve been drinking tea since 5 o’clock. but: I’ve drunk two cups already. ♦with non-continuous verbs (see PRESENT CONTINUOUS) She’s known me for ages. ♦with non-duration verbs (start, begin, finish, stop, find, lose, die, cut, break) I’ve cut my finger. but: I’ve been cutting my finger. (sadistic meaning)

D. Grammar practice

1. Put the verbs in brackets in the present simple or continuous. Find verbs that fit under the headings below. 1. I __ (not intend) to spoil the experiment but I must tell you that the left switch

__ (not work). 2. What exactly you __ (mean) to say? You __ (kid), aren't you? 3. "Is the dip good?" "It __ (taste) a bit spicy." "It __ (not matter), they __ (love)

hot food." 4. You __ (hear) this noise? The wind __ (blow) in the chimney. 5. Mother __ (seem) to be so tired. I __ (hope) she'll have some rest at the

weekend. 6. I __ (hate) to tell you this but he __ (dislike) tea parties and never __ (bother)

to announce people that he __ (not come). 7. I __ (consider) this is a gross mistake.

I __ (refuse) to think it can ever happen again. 8. This __ (weigh) two kilos but if you __ (prefer) the other one, I __ (agree) to

change it for you. 9. I __ (not be) happy with this. I __ (try) hard to find another solution. 10. I __ (expect) you to behave yourself. You __ (have) your favourite toys,

please let me work for the next hour.

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STATIVE VERBS THAT DO NOT OCCUR IN THE CONTINUOUS ASPECT 1. Verbs of the senses: 2. Verbs of the mind: 3. Verbs of emotion & feeling:

4. Verbs of possession:

5. Verbs of relation:

2. Put the verbs in parentheses into the present simple/continuous, present perfect simple/continuous. 1. I __ (be) glad I __ (finish) the paper. I __ (hand) it in tomorrow. 2. Well, I __ (get used to) it: she __ (always complain) about everything. She __

(complain) about the new carpet, the one I __ (recently buy), for a month now. 3. Rod __ (learn) French this year but he __ (also take) German lessons for the

last two years. 4. Shari __ (tell) you she __ (leave) tomorrow, why you __ (not believe) her? 5. I __ (be) clumsy or what? It __ (be) the second time I __ (drop) this book. 6. Come on boys, father __ (come) and we __ (have) dinner now. 7. They __ (move) furniture around the house all through the day. No wonder

they __ (complain) of terrible backaches. 8. They __ (just meet). Don't tell me they __ (have) their wedding ceremony next

week! 9. "She __ (make) good progress, isn't she?" "Yes, she __ (work) a lot lately." 10. We __ (not ski) for ages. You __ (think) we __ (be still able to) climb down a

steep slope? 11. No, I __ (not pretend). "I __ (not feel) well lately. 12. ''You __ (still be) angry with him?" "I __ (already forgive) him. He __

(behave) stupidly sometimes but he __ (not be) a bad guy after all." 13. "What you __ (do) tonight?" "I __ (go) dancing. Mary __ (tell) me about a

new club that __ (just open) near the park." 14. I always __ (tell) Diana that a good husband __ (mean) more than good

parents. 3. Translate into English (present perfect simple/continuous): 1. Surorile mele tocmai au venit de la școală. 2. De cât timp dorm copiii? 3. A terminat Jack exercițiul? Au trecut doar zece minute de când i l-am dictat. 4. Ai încercat vreodată să-l ajuți?

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5. Arthur exersează la pian de la ora 8. 6. Ce vor face frații tăi după ce vor termina școala? 7. Noi muncim în grădină de mai bine de trei ore și nu am obosit încă. 8. Nu am auzit nimic de ei în ultima vreme. 9. Ai citit ultima poezie a colegului meu de bancă? 10. Voi jucați cărți de vreo două ore, dar nu v-ați terminat încă temele. 11. Harry nu i-a oferit flori soției de foarte mult timp. 12. De când știe David adevărul despre bunicul său? 13. Supa fierbe de la ora zece, dar nu este încă gata. 14. Prietenii mei vor pleca în străinătate de îndată ce își vor cumpăra mașină.

E. End-of-unit test

1. Fill in the gaps in the text below with the words from the box: The underhead area of the valve, area C, experiences cyclic _____, and because of the mild _____ concentrations, fatigue _____ may occur at that point. The valve face, area B, operates at a somewhat lower temperature because of heat _____ into the valve seat. However, if an insulating _____ builds up on the valve face, it can lead to burning. Also, the valve seat can be damaged by indentation by abrasive _____ ash deposits. The valve stem is cooler than the valve head. However, wear _____ is needed. Surface wear of the valve stem, area D, can lead to _____, which will cause the valve to stick open and burn. Wear at the valve _____, area E, where the valve contacts the rocker arm, will cause valve _____ and cause the valve to seat with higher than normal forces. 2. Put the verbs in parentheses into the appropriate present tense. Clara __ (1. go) to a summer school in England next month. She __ (2. deserve) it, she __ (3. be) the best in her class, even in her school, now that I __ (4. come) to think of it. She __ (5. learn) English for ten years now and she always __ (6. put) all her energy in everything she __ (7. do). She already __ (8. send) the application form but __ (9. not get) an answer yet. You __ (10. think) she may have problems in getting a scholarship? Fortunately, she __ (11. not need) a visa, that, at least, __ (12. solve). Well, she __ (13. not complain) but I __ (14. think) she __ (15. be) a bit worried. You __ (16. know) her, she can’t be still for a moment!... Marking scheme: 1. 10 x 0.5p = 5p 2. 16 x 0.25p = 4p ex officio = 1p

failure tip conduction lash stress deposit resistance loading scuffing fuel

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Summary In this unit you have learnt the following main issues: - The surface hardening of gears and other automotive components by carburizing

or nitriding is a good example of combining several materials into a single component;

- An example of a complex materials system used in a difficult environment is the exhaust valve in an internal-combustion engine;

- The critical regions of a valve are: the underhead area of the valve, valve face, valve seat, valve stem and valve tip;

- Present tense displays 4 aspects (simple, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous) and is focused on the time reference now.

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UNIT 3. MEASUREMENT

Time for individual study: 2½ hours Objectives

Upon completion of this unit, you should be able: - to use vocabulary items related to measurement, SI units and conversion factors, measuring devices; - to use the past tense (all aspects) in a correct and effective manner.


This passage will introduce you to the principle of measurement in different fields of engineering. Look at the way it is divided into sections and paragraphs. Pay attention to the headings and tables included in the text. Now look at these questions and read the passage through to find the answers. Remember, you do not have to understand every word in order to do so. 1. Are engineering projects possible without knowledge of measurement? 2. How many types of temperature measurement are given in the third paragraph? 3. Do engineers need to know about all the different forms of measurement? 4. How many basic units is SI based on? 5. What instrument is used when measuring a flywheel housing?

ne definition. A simple dictionary definition of the verb ‘to measure’ is: to find the size, quantity, volume, degree, weight, etc. of something by means of a standard or unit. In all branches of engineering, measurement plays a vital role since the design, manufacture and use of any product cannot be considered without reference to this concept.

It is for this reason that the majority of texts on engineering contain tables, charts, lists or appendixes which provide the student with accepted standards and units of measurement.

Knowledge of measurement. We are all familiar with the symbols C and F for scales of temperature, but there is also K (Kelvin), which is the fraction (1/273.16) of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple part of water. Of course it may not always be necessary to understand the precise definition itself, provided one can understand the significance of the term or figure in relation to the diagram, chart or calculation involved. Each branch of engineering, naturally, tends to be more concerned with some particular forms of measurement than with others.

O

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Conversion factors and SI equivalents. Look, for example, at Table 1 below, taken from a text for chemical engineers and which shows conversion factors. Then compare it with Table 2 which gives US customary units and their SI equivalents and comes from a text on sanitation engineering. At first glance, it may seem difficult, or even impossible, to find any connection between the two. However, if we look more closely, we will see that much of the information shown deals with the same things but from a different approach. Clearly, students in either of the engineering branches for which the texts were written would have little difficulty in using the figures and symbols relating to their own specialization.

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SI Units. SI is the abbreviation for Système International d’Unités. SI is based on seven basic units, each of which is defined with great accuracy and from which all other basic units are derived. Under the system, each physical quantity has only one particular unit for its measurement. Thus, a length is only measured in metres. If the number employed with a basic unit is very small, or very large, then a prefix can be used as in km for kilometres. Conversion tables are necessary because the USA and Britain still retain a measurement system which is different from that used by the rest of the world.

Measuring devices. Since measurement is so important, it follows that there is a wide range of devices and instruments which are designed to indicate very precisely length, pressure, time and so on. The text below, from a manual on diesel mechanics, with its instructions for aligning and measuring a flywheel housing, describes one such device and some of the language and figures associated with its use. Aligning and Measuring Flywheel Housing

When you install a new flywheel housing, you must position it to permit the axis of the crankshaft to be concentric with the flywheel-housing bore. To check the position of the flywheel housing, screw an indicator holder or place a magnetic base onto the crankshaft. Attach a dial gauge to it so that the pointer rests squarely on the surface of the bore (Fig. 16-3). Zero the dial, then turn the crankshaft one complete revolution. Record readings at 90° intervals. The reading at any point must not exceed an average concentricity (runout) tolerance of 0.005 in (0.12 mm). Tap the housing into alignment and tighten the hex bolts.

Your next check should be the flywheel-housing face runout. To make this check, relocate the dial gauge so that the pointer rests against the flywheel-housing flange. Force the crankshaft forward to remove end play, then zero the dial. Turn the crankshaft one complete revolution, and record readings at 90° intervals. (NOTE: Make sure the crankshaft is placed forward when taking the readings.) The average allowable maximum face runout is about 0.010 in (0.25mm).


1. Read the text again carefully, looking up anything you do not understand in the Glossary. Then answer the following questions: 1. What is measurement? 2. How many different symbols for measurement of length are shown in the two tables? 3. How is the US measurement of force different from the SI unit? 4. Why do you think flow, concentration and velocity are in Table 2 but not in Table 1? 5. What is the principle on which SI is based?

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6. What is the US customary unit for the SI equivalent 1.356J? 7. How many ‘ins’ are there in 1 ‘m’, according to Table 1? 8. In the instructions on flywheel alignment, does 90° refer to temperature or distance? 2. Look at Table (a) and Conversion Chart (b). Are the facts shown below true or false? Write T or F in the spaces provided. Table (a) Chart (b) • 1 J = 0.239006 cal [ ] • 1 in = 25.40 cm [ ] • l m3 = 35.3147(ft)2 [ ] • 907.2 kg = l ton [ ] • 103 W = 1 kW [ ] • 1 lb/in2 = 6.895 kPa [ ] • 14.503 psia = 2 bar [ ] • 1 acre = 4047 m3 [ ]

C. Increase your vocabulary

1. Find the symbols in Tables 1 and 2 which match the words: • Joule • kilogram • inch • miles per second • mile • pounds per square foot • Watt • cubic metre • horse power • milligrams per litre 2. Now look at the first paragraph, and say: • What words could you replace with ‘using’? • What word has the same meaning as ‘very important’? • What does ‘accepted’ mean here? 3. Fill in the following table: Noun Verb design product significance calculation connection information specialisation instructions

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4. The word ‘zero’ in Aligning and measuring flywheel housing can be a verb or a noun with the same spelling. Find 10 more verbs in the section which can also be nouns like this: Noun Verb a screw to screw

D. Grammar review

Past tense

1. PAST SIMPLE

●Form: V-ed/V2 (2nd form with irregular verbs) + I/you/he/she/it/we/they played

drank - I/you/he/she/it/we/they did not (didn’t) play

drink ? Did I/you/he/she/it/we/they play?

drink?

●Use: ♦complete action/period of time (+ yesterday/last …/…ago) I met him yesterday/last summer/two weeks ago. He worked in that bank for two years. (He no longer works there) but: He has worked in that bank for two years. (He still works there) I saw a good film this morning. (It’s 11pm) but: I’ve seen a good film this morning. (It’s 11am – incomplete period) ♦past habit She always wore black when she was young.

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♦future reference (time & condition clauses) Jack promised he would phone me when he arrived. My classmates said they would come to my place if they had time.

2. PAST CONTINUOUS

●Form: BE (past) + V-ing + I/he/she/it

we/you/they was were

playing

- I/he/she/it we/you/they

was not (wasn’t) were not (weren’t)

playing

? Was Were

I/he/she/it we/you/they

playing?

●Use:

♦ongoing activities Yesterday evening, my brother was watching TV. I was reading a book when the phone rang. (background activity) While mother was cooking, I was doing the washing-up. (parallel activities) ♦temporary situations She was living in London that week. ♦immediate personal plans We were leaving that night. ♦annoyance (+ always/continually/all the time) My little girl was always talking to strangers!

3. PAST PERFECT

●Form: HAVE (past) + V-ed/V3

+

I/you/he/she/it/we/they had (’d)

eaten played

- I/you/he/she/it/we/they

had not (hadn’t)

eaten played

? Had

I/you/he/she/it/we/they

eaten played

●Use:

♦completed action before past moment/action (+ by (the time)…) By the time we got there, they had already left. Josh had read the novel when he saw the film. ♦persistent situation up to past moment (+ for/since)

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In 1995, we’d known each other for ten years. I knew Bill hadn’t seen his sister since Christmas. ♦indirect speech (replaces present perfect & past) ‘I’ve been ill for months.’ > He said he’d been ill for months. ‘I knew her well.’ > She told me she had known her well. ♦future reference (time clauses) I promised I would lend him the book when/after I had read it.

4. PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

●Form: HAVE (past) + V3/BE + V-ing + I/you/he/she/it/we/they had (’d) been playing - I/you/he/she/it/we/they had not (hadn’t) been playing ? Had I/you/he/she/it/we/they been playing?

●Use: ♦ongoing activity up to past moment (+ for/since) When I saw the boys, they had been playing football for an hour. We’d been working on the project since May, and still had to work on it. ♦indirect speech (replaces present perfect & past continuous) ‘We’ve been learning English for two years,’ said the students. → The students said they’d been learning English for two years. ‘I was watching TV at 7 o’clock,’ said Harry. → Harry said he had been watching TV at 7 o’clock.

E. Grammar practice

1. Choose the appropriate tense underlined (present perfect simple/continuous or past tense). 1. He's been writing/wrote about Russia for several years but he never actually

was/'s never actually been there. 2. This place was/has been her home for so many years that she has probably

forgotten/probably forgot the desolate suburb where she has been/was born. 3. Remember the jacket I have bought/bought last summer. You haven't

liked/didn't like it but I've been wearing/wore it ever since. 4. Susan was/has been ill a lot last term. In January she has gone/went down with

severe flu and she's been taking/took vitamins since then. 5. Go help Mandy! She's been peeling/'s peeled those potatoes for an hour now. 6. "When have they caught/did they catch the robbers?" "It has

happened/happened just a few moments ago." 7. Although I haven't seen/didn't see a real lion up to now, the films Kevin has

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made/made in the African jungle last year taught/have taught me a lot of things about their life.

8. I have waited/waited in front of the cinema till half past six. Then I have left/left.

2. Put the verbs in parentheses into the past simple or past continuous. 1. She __ (drive) home when the police __ (stop) her and __ (check) her papers

and the car. 2. He __ (think) what he __ (do) was funny but actually nobody __ (seem) to

enjoy his tricks very much. 3. He __ (consider) the possibility of buying a new car now that he __ (expect) a

sure promotion. 4. He __ (watch) a program about inventions on the Discovery Channel when it

first __ (occur) to him that he could set up a workshop in the basement which his wife __ (use) as a laundry and lumber room at the same time.

5. The two boys __ (leave) the room when the coach __ (call) them and __ (ask) them to wait for him in the locker room.

6. He __ (play) the ball and quickly __ (advance) towards the basket when he __ (hear) the referee whistle.

7. Audrey __ (read) in the garden when her mother __ (call) her saying Diana __ (be) on the phone and __ (want) to speak to her.

8. Johnny __ (know) he __ (be) late and he __ (run) home when he __ (fall) and __ (break) his left leg.

3. Put the verbs in parentheses into the correct past tense. 1. Ted __ (just come) home from a visit to his aunt when the telegram __ (reach)

him. 2. Sonia __ (know) she __ (be) adopted but never __ (inquire) about her real

parents or the reason why they __ (abandon) her. 3. Her parents __ (encourage) her all the time to take piano lessons but she said

she __ (not like) classical music enough for giving up her career as physician. 4. The day of the accident __ (be) a painful memory for a long time and even

now after so many years she still __ (feel) her stomach twist every time she __ (remember) it.

F. End-of-unit test


A B 1. __ measuring a. mechanics 2. __ dial b. quantity

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3. __ sanitation c. device 4. __ flywheel d. holder 5. __ physical e. factors 6. __ hex f. engineering 7. __ diesel g. housing 8. __ conversion h. bolts 9. __ indicator i. gauge

2. Supply the correct past tense forms of the verbs in brackets. 1. They __ (save) dollar after dollar, they __ (give up) all the small pleasures of

everyday life and now they __ (have) nothing left, except the ruins of their marriage which once __ (start) like a beautiful love story.

2. By the time my train __ (enter) the station, the welcome committee __ (dissolve) and, half asleep on a bench, I __ (find) Nell's secretary who __ (stay) to inform me about the changes that __ (be) made in the next day's schedule.

3. Tom __ (see) her when she __ (leave) the house and he __ (say) he __ (try) to stop her to say how much he __ (regret) everything that __ (happen).

4. The dog __ (escape) into the neighbours' garden and when father __ (get) home he __ (become) very angry.

Marking scheme: 1. 9 x 0.5p = 4.5p 2. 18 x 0.25p = 4.5p ex officio = 1p Summary In this unit you have learnt the following main issues: - To measure means to find the size, quantity, volume, degree, weight, etc. of

something by means of a standard or unit; - There are three scales of temperature: Celsius (C), Fahrenheit (F) and Kelvin (K); - SI is based on seven basic units, each of which is defined with great accuracy and

from which all other basic units are derived; - There is a wide range of devices and instruments which are designed to indicate

very precisely length, pressure, time, etc.; - Past tense displays 4 aspects (simple, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous)

and is focused on the time reference then.

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UNIT 4. CONSUMPTION OF WATER


Upon completion of this unit, you should be able: - to use vocabulary items related to consumption of water for various purposes, as well as water supply and sewarage systems; - to use the future tense (all aspects) in a correct and effective manner.


Read the following text, then translate it into Romanian, looking up anything you do not understand in the Glossary. 1._________________________________________________________________ Population density, considering a whole city, rarely exceeds an average of 7500 to 10,000 per km2 (30 to 40 per acre). More important to the engineer, in solving water and sewerage problems, are the densities in particular areas, since he must design sewers and water mains so that each section of the city will be adequately served. Densities vary widely within a city, the general range being from 3800 per km2 (15 per acre) in the sparsely built-up residential sections to 8800 to 10,000 per km2 (35 to 40 per acre) in closely built-up single-family residential areas with small lots. In apartment and tenement districts the populations will be 25,000 to 250,000 per km2 (100 to 1000 per acre). In commercial districts the day population will be highly variable according to development. 2._________________________________________________________________ The water furnished to a city can be classified according to its ultimate use or end. The uses are: (a) This includes water furnished to houses, hotels, etc., for sanitary, culinary, drinking, washing, bathing, and other purposes. It varies according to living conditions of consumers, the range usually being considered as 75 to 380 l (20 to 100 gal) per capita per day, averaging 190 to 340 l (50 to 90 gal) per capita. These figures include air conditioning of residences and irrigation or sprinkling of privately owned gardens and lawns, a practice that may have a considerable effect upon total consumption in some parts of the country. The domestic consumption may be expected to be about 50 percent of the total in the average city; but where the total consumption is small, the proportion will be much greater.

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(b) Water so classified is that furnished to industrial and commercial plants. Its importance will depend upon local conditions, such as the existence of large industries, and whether or not the industries patronize the public waterworks. Self-supplied industrial water requirements are estimated to be more than 200 percent of municipal water supply demand.

The quantity of water required for commercial and industrial use has been related to the floor area of buildings served. Symons proposes an average of 12.2 m3/1000 m2 of floor area per day (0.3 gal/ft2 per day). In cities of over 25,000 population commercial consumption may be expected to amount to about 15 percent of the total consumption. (c) Public buildings, such as city halls, jails, and schools, as well as public service–flushing streets and fire protection–require much water for which, usually, the city is not paid. Such water amounts to 50 to 75 l per capita. The actual amount of water used for extinguishing fires does not figure greatly in the average consumption, but very large fires will cause the rate of use to be high for short periods. (d) This water is sometimes classified as “unaccounted for,” although some of the loss and waste may be accounted for in the sense that its cause and amount are approximately known. Unaccounted-for water is due to meter and pump slippage, unauthorized water connections and leaks in mains. It is apparent that the unaccounted-for water, and also waste by customers, can be reduced by careful maintenance of the water system and by universal metering of all water services. In a system 100 percent metered and moderately well maintained, the unaccounted-for water, exclusive of pump slippage, will be about 10 percent.

Table 2-1 Projected consumption of water for various purposes in the year 2000 Use Liters per capita/day Percentage of total Domestic Industrial Commercial Public Loss and waste Total

300 160 100 60 50 670

44 24 15 9 8 100

The total consumption will be the sum of the foregoing uses and the loss and waste. The probable division of this consumption is shown in Table 2-1. Table 2-2 shows some total consumptions as reported in cities in various parts of the country. The average daily per capita consumption may be taken to be 670 l (175 gal). This means little, however, as individual figures vary widely. Each city has to be studied, particularly with regard to industrial and commercial uses and actual or probable loss and waste. Care must also be taken in considering per capita figures since the figure may be based upon persons actually served or upon census population of the city.

35

Table 2-2 Recorded rates of water consumption in some American cities City

Average daily per capita consumption, l

Maximum one-day consumption in a 3-year period, l

Maximum in proportion to average, %

Rochester, N.Y. Syracuse, N.Y. Hartford, Conn. Albany, N.Y. El Paso, Tex. Portland, Me. Camden, N.J. Albuquerque, N.M. Winston-Salem, N.C. Waterloo, Iowa Passaic, N.J.

451 728 671 671 447 572 641 402 447 383 807

637 917 887 860 739 773 963 766 580 625 1016

141 126 132 128 165 135 150 190 130 163 126


1. Indicate the proper location in the reading passage of the headings and sub-headings below by placing the appropriate number or letter after them. • Consumption for Various Purposes • Commercial and Industrial • Domestic • Density of Population • Loss and Waste • Public Use 2. Are the statements below correct or incorrect according to the information giver in the passage? • Population density over the whole city is the most important factor for an engineer in solving water and sewerage problems. _____ • The day population in commercial districts is difficult to calculate accurately. _____ • Water for washing, drinking, cooking, etc. usually amounts to about half of the daily total used in cities. _____ • Industrial and commercial plants do not always use the public water system. _____ • The amount of commercial water consumption is related to the size of the population in a city. _____ • Cities do not receive payment for water used to fight fires or in public buildings. _____

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• It is not known how much water is lost or wasted in cities. _____ • Every person in America uses 670 litres of water per day. _____ • Albuquerque had the lowest average daily per capita consumption, according to Table 2-2. _____ • The highest recorded maximum in proportion to average consumption in percentage terms belongs to El Paso. _____ 3. Find words in the passage which have similar forms and meanings to those below: • is higher than • make use of • changeable • is equal to • made available to • illegal • homes • not including 4. To what do the following figures refer? • 8800 to 10,000 per km2 • 100 litres per capita/day • 12.2m3/1000m2 • 50 to 75 l per capita • 141 %

C. Grammar review

Future tense

1a. FUTURE SIMPLE

●Form: WILL* + V + I/we

you/he/she/it/they shall (’ll) will (’ll)

play

- I/we you/he/she/it/they

shall not (shan’t) will not (won’t)

play

? Shall Will

I/we you/he/she/it/they

play?

* SHALL with 1st person in written British English ●Use:

♦predictions There’ll be a lot of people at the party.

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2a. FUTURE CONTINUOUS

●Form: BE (future) + V-ing

+ I/we

you/he/she/it/they shall (’ll) be will (’ll) be

playing


shall not (shan’t) be will not (won’t) be

playing

? Shall Will


be

playing?

●Use:

♦ongoing activities (+ this time …) This time tomorrow we’ll be travelling to Liverpool. ♦temporary situations He’ll be wearing warm clothes for the winter. ♦natural course of events After the match they’ll be having a shower.

3a. FUTURE PERFECT

●Form: HAVE (future) + V-ed/V3

+


shall (’ll) have will (’ll) have

drunk played

-


shall not (shan’t) have will not (won’t) have

drunk played

?

Shall Will


have

drunk played

●Use:

♦completed action before future moment/action (+ by …) By the end of July she will have finished school. Mum will have fixed dinner when I get home. ♦persistent situation up to future moment (+ for/since) Tomorrow we shall have been on holiday for a week.

4a. FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

●Form: HAVE (future) + V3/BE + V-ing

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+ I/we you/he/she/it/they

shall (’ll) have been will (’ll) have been

playing


shall not (shan’t) have been will not (won’t) have been

playing

? Shall Will


have been playing?

●Use:

♦ongoing activity up to future moment (+ for/since) At 6 o’clock your sister will have been sleeping for two hours.

1b. FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST SIMPLE

●Form: WOULD* + V

+ I/we

you/he/she/it/they should (’d) would (’d)

play


should not (shouldn’t) would not (wouldn’t)

play

? Should Would


play?

* SHOULD with 1st person in written British English

●Use: ♦future simple from past viewpoint I knew they would come.

2b. FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST CONTINUOUS

●Form: BE (future-in-the-past) + V-ing

+ I/we

you/he/she/it/they should (’d) be would (’d) be

playing


should not (shouldn’t) be would not (wouldn’t) be

playing

? Should Would


be

playing?

●Use:

♦future continuous from past viewpoint She said her baby would be sleeping shortly.

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3b. FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST PERFECT

●Form: HAVE (future-in-the-past) + V-ed/V3 +


should (’d) have would (’d) have

drunk played

-


should not (shouldn’t) have would not (wouldn’t) have

drunk played

?

Should Would


have

drunk played

●Use:

♦future perfect from past viewpoint Jane hoped she would have left for Paris by Christmas.

4b. FUTURE-IN-THE-PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

●Form: HAVE (future-in-the-past) + V3/BE + V-ing + I/we

you/he/she/it/they should (’d) have been would (’d) have been

playing


should not (shouldn’t) have been would not (wouldn’t) have been

playing

? Should Would


have been playing?

●Use:

♦future perfect continuous from past viewpoint Mum said at 12.30 she’d have been cooking for half an hour.

Remember ● You cannot use WILL or WOULD in time and condition clauses. [see p. 11]

e.g. They’ll have a party when they will finish the project. They said they would have a party when they finished the project.

● Future-in-the-past is used only in subordinate clauses, when the verb in the main clause is in the past.

OTHER MEANS OF EXPRESSING FUTURITY ●PRESENT SIMPLE (official programme) The semester begins on 1st October.

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●PRESENT CONTINUOUS (immediate personal plan) We are having a pizza tomorrow. ●BE GOING TO (near future)

NOW

♦present intention I’m going to fix the tap. [That’s why I’ve got a tool-kit in my hand now.] ♦present cause Look at the clouds! It’s going to rain. [The sky is overcast now.] ●BE TO (arrangement) They are to meet us tomorrow at 10.15 am. ●BE ABOUT TO (immediate future) Look at her! She is about to cry.

D. Grammar practice

1. Use the verbs in brackets in the future simple/continuous affirmative, interrogative or negative. 1. "What you __ (have)?" "I __ (have) a Campari, please." 2. You __ (pass) the florist on your way? 3. I __ (make) myself ready in a few minutes. 4. You __ (not need) a raincoat, it's sunny. 5. The professor __ (lecture) between eight and ten tomorrow. 6. The research team __ (set off) very early. At noon they __ (visit) the tombs in

the main gallery. 7. She __ (find) the place if she follows the map? 8. I hope she __ (not wear) her high-heeled sandals on the trip. 9. ''The flight itself is very long, you __ (be) tired." "OK then, I __ (stay) in New

York longer; I __ (not travel) around." 10. No time to waste then. Mr. Nicholson's secretary __ (type) these letters for

you right away. 11. They __ (mind) if I take the car for the afternoon? I __ (be) back before it gets

dark. 12. It __ (take) me an awful lot of time to fill in all those forms. You __ (wait)

while I'm doing it? 2. Use the verbs in parentheses in the future perfect or future perfect continuous affirmative, interrogative or negative. 1. If you keep throwing your money away like that, you __ (spend) the whole

41

family fortune by the time you get married. 2. In two months' time I __ (finish) this collection of exercises but I __ (not send)

it to the editor yet. 3. By July I __ (work) on it for six months. 4. The price of petrol __ (increase) ten fold by the end of the year. 5. "It's no use calling up Martha at home." "She __ (leave) by now?" 6. By the time you realize how good he is, he __ (resign). 7. The two boys __ (correspond) for six years by next month. 8. If they keep pressing like that, by the end of the afternoon he __ (confess)

everything he is accused of and even what he is not. 9. I hope by the time the presentation starts you __ (complete) your report which

you were supposed to send in two months ago. 10. Miss Brown is one of our best teachers. By the end of this year she __ (teach)

in our school for five years. 3. Use present and future tenses with the verbs in parentheses. Underline the subordinators in each sentence. 1. I __ (know) Jack __ (ring) me up once he __ (finish). 2. I __ (wash) the car while they __ (have) breakfast. 3. Before you __ (take) your decision, you __ (have to) consider all the

possibilities. 4. After the music __ (stop), it __ (be) your turn. 5. Somebody __ (wait) at the airport till you __ (arrive). 6. Are you kidding? I __ (not leave) until you __ (give) me my racket. 7. He __ (be) better as soon as he __ (take) the pills. 8. The driver __ (take) you to the office every morning for as long as you __

(stay) in town. 9. By the time you __ (arrive), I __ (prepare) some nice dinner for you and that

__ (be) a promise. 10. She probably __ (paint) the kitchen when you __ (get) there but I'm sure she

__ (stop) for a few moments when she __ (see) you. 11. Father __ (stop) working two shifts the moment he __ (save) enough money

for the house he wants to buy. 12. She __ (leave) her parents' house immediately after she __ (get) married. 4. Put the verbs in parentheses into the future simple or going to future. 1. I don't think we should set off. Look at the sky, it __ (rain). 2. Don't bother about the broken glass, Nancy __ (take care) of that. 3. I'm really tired. I think I __ (go) to bed. 4. Hurry up! If you miss the train, you __ (be) late for work. 5. Do you think Mary __ (get) the job? 6. Just a second, I __ (put) you through in a moment. 7. You can ring me up tomorrow. I __ (be) at home. 8. I know you've told me twice so far. I __ (repair) it tomorrow.

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9. I have a bad headache. I think I __ (be) sick. 10. "I have a bad headache." "Wait, I __ (get) an aspirin for you." 11. Thank you, but Tom __ (take) me to the station tomorrow. 12. "I can't make up my mind." "All right then, we __ (buy) the diamond ring." 13. I've made up my mind: I __ (wait) until they come home. 14. Both of them are beautiful, but I guess I __ (take) this one.

E. End-of-unit test

1. Fill in the gaps in the text below with the words from the box: Population _____, considering a whole city, rarely exceeds an _____ of 7500 to 10,000 per km2 (30 to 40 per acre). More important to the engineer, in solving water and _____ problems, are the densities in particular areas, since he must design sewers and water _____ so that each section of the city will be adequately served. Densities vary widely within a city, the general _____ being from 3800 per km2 (15 per acre) in the _____ built-up residential sections to 8800 to 10,000 per km2 (35 to 40 per acre) in _____ built-up single-family residential areas with small lots. In apartment and _____ districts the populations will be 25,000 to 250,000 per km2 (100 to 1000 per acre). In _____ districts the day _____ will be highly variable according to development. 2. Translate into English: 1. Mâine pe vremea asta vom vizita Muzeul Britanic. 2. Copiii au promis că vor merge la culcare după ce le voi spune o poveste. 3. "Ce faci cu toporul?" "O să tai lemne pentru foc". 4. Lucy va călători spre Spania toată ziua. 5. Am asigurat-o pe mama că nu voi întârzia la școală. 6. Dacă Jane va găsi cartea, o va cumpăra. 7. Prietenii noștri tocmai sunt pe punctul de a pleca. 8. Orchestra va repeta de două ore când solistul va ajunge la operă. 9. Nu credeam că la ora aceea tu vei mai cânta la pian. 10. Unde mâncăm în seara asta? 11. De cât timp vei naviga pe Internet când bunica te va chema la cină? 12. Te voi anunța de hotărârea mea după ce îmi voi consulta avocatul. 13. Am promis că mă voi juca cu ei când n-am să fiu atât de ocupat. 14. I-am explicat secretarei că va putea merge acasă numai după ce va bate la

mașină toate scrisorile. 15. La 6:30 va fi o oră de când Kevin se joacă la calculator. 16. Speram că mă va suna când va afla vestea.

mains closely sewerage commercial average range density tenement population sparsely

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Marking scheme: 1. 10 x 0.5p = 5p 2. 16 x 0.25p = 4p ex officio = 1p Summary In this unit you have learnt the following main issues: - More important to the engineer, in solving water and sewerage problems, are the

densities in particular areas, since he must design sewers and water mains so that each section of the city will be adequately served;

- Consumption of water can be subdivided into: domestic, commercial and industrial, public, loss and waste;

- Future tense displays 4 aspects (simple, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous) and is focused on the time reference next;

- Future-in-the-past is used only in subordinate clauses, when the verb in the main clause is in the past.

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UNIT 5. ENERGY, HEAT AND WORK


Upon completion of this unit, you should be able: - to use vocabulary items related to types and sources of energy; - to explain how energy may be converted to work; - to use modal verbs in a correct and effective manner.


The following text will give you some information about types and sources of energy. It will also explain briefly how energy may be converted to work. Note the paragraph organisation and refer to the headings in the margin for quick reference. Now look at these questions: 1. What is the type of energy created by movement? 2. What type of energy depends upon position? 3. What type of energy comes from the sun? 4. What are the three most important sources of power? 5. Give an example of a heat engine. Read the passage and find the answers to these questions. It is not necessary to understand every word to do this.

1

2

Energy, Heat and Work Energy may be thought of as that property of something which enables it to do work. When we say that something possesses energy, we suggest that it is capable in some way of exerting a force on something else and performing work on it. When work is done on something, on the other hand, energy has been added to it. Energy is measured in the same units as those of work, the foot-pound and the joule. Energy occurs in several forms. A familiar example is the energy a moving body possesses by virtue of its motion. Every moving object has the capacity to do work. By striking another object that is free to move, the moving object can exert a force and cause the second object to shift its position. It is not necessary that the moving object actually do work; it may keep on moving, or friction

What is energy? Kinetic energy

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3

4

5

6

7

may slowly bring it to a stop. But while it is moving, it has the capacity for doing work. It is this specific property that defines energy, since energy means the ability to do work, and so all moving things have energy by virtue of their motion. This type of energy is called kinetic energy. The statement that energy is the capacity something has to do work is not restricted to kinetic energy but is perfectly general. Many objects possess energy because of their position. Consider a pile driver, a simple machine that lifts a heavy weight (‘the hammer’) and allows it to fall on the head of a pile, thereby driving the pile into the ground. When the hammer has been lifted to the top, it has only to be released to fall and do work on the pile. The capacity for doing work is present in the hammer as soon as it has been lifted, simply because of its position several feet above the ground. The actual work on the pile is done at the expense of kinetic energy gained during the hammer’s fall, but the capacity for working is present before the fall starts. Energy of this sort, depending merely on the position of an object, is called potential energy. Prior to the development of nuclear power plants, all the significant contributions to the mechanical energy used by man had the sun as their source. However, economical methods have not been developed as yet for directly converting solar radiation into work on a large scale. The amount of energy striking the earth from the sun is staggering when considered as a whole, but per unit surface the quantity is small. This introduces the serious difficulty of concentrating the heat gathered from a large surface and using it as a source for conversion to work. Significant research on this difficulty is underway, and progress has been made on the related problem of the use of solar energy directly as heat; for example, solar radiation is being used to heat homes, to produce high temperatures for metallurgical operations (solar furnaces), and to concentrate aqueous solutions by evaporation. The kinetic energy due to the mass movement of air has been used to some extent for the production of work, especially in rural areas (windmills). Variations and uncertainties in wind velocity, and the necessity for large-sized equipment to produce significant quantities of work, are problems retarding progress in this field. Conceivably, the available potential energy of tides could be concentrated and utilized. Attempts in this direction on a large scale have been made in parts of the world where tides are extreme. However, the total power production in this manner is unlikely to be highly significant in comparison with world demands for energy. By far the most important sources of power are the chemical (molecular) energy of fuels, nuclear energy, and the potential energy of waterfalls. The use of water power involves the transformation of mechanical energy from one form to another; hence, 100 percent efficiency is theoretically possible. On the other

Potential energy Energy sources Converting energy to work Energy as heat for work

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8

9

10

hand, all present-day methods for the large-scale use of molecular and nuclear energy are based on the evolution of energy as heat, and subsequent conversion of part of the heat into useful work. Accordingly, the efficiency of all such processes is destined to be low (values greater than 30 percent are uncommon), despite improvements in the design of equipment. This is, of course, a direct consequence of the second law of thermodynamics which states that heat cannot be converted into work unless some of the heat is transferred from a higher to a lower temperature. If some means could be devised to convert the energy in fuels into work without the intermediate generation of heat, conversion efficiency could be considerably improved. The usual device for the direct use of chemical energy is the electrolytic cell, in which the conversion is to electrical energy. Progress has been made in developing cells which operate on hydrogen and on carbonaceous fuels such as natural gas or coal. Such fuel cells are already in use to supply modest power requirements for special purposes. The efficiency of these cells ranges from 65 to 80 percent, about twice the value obtained by the conventional process of first converting the chemical energy into heat. In a conventional power plant the molecular energy of the fuel is released by a combustion process. The function of the work-producing device is to convert part of the heat of combustion into mechanical energy. In a nuclear power plant the fission or fusion process releases the energy of the nucleus of the atom as heat, and then this heat is partially converted into work. In one form of heat engine, the working fluid is completely enclosed and goes through a cyclical process, accomplished by vaporization and condensation. Heat is transferred to the fluid from another part of the apparatus across a physical boundary. A coal-fired power plant with steam as the working fluid is an example. Here, the combustion gases are separated from the steam by the boiler-tube walls. The internal-combustion engine is another form of heat engine, characterized by the direct evolution of heat within the work-producing device. Examples of this type are the Otto engine and the combustion gas turbine.

Fuel cells Heat engines

B. Check your understanding 1. Read the text again carefully, looking up in the Glossary any technical words you do not understand. Then answer these questions: 1. What is the relationship between energy, force and work? 2. At what point in its operation does a pile driver possess potential energy? 3. Why is it difficult to convert solar radiation into work on a large scale? 4. What device makes use of the kinetic energy in air movement? 5. Why is 100% efficiency theoretically possible with water power?

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6. What is the connection between the second law of thermodynamics and the low efficiency of systems using molecular and nuclear energy? 7. Why are fuel cells more efficient for producing power than heat engines? 8. What is the relationship between energy, heat and work? 2. Now say what the words or phrases below refer to: • this sort (paragraph 3) • this manner (6) • This (4) • This (7) • This difficulty (4) • this heat (9) • this field (5) • this type (10)

C. Increase your vocabulary 1. Say which words in the first three paragraphs have the same meaning as: • because of • to move • limited • only 2. Now do the same from paragraph 4: • before • changing • collected • in progress 3. Find alternative words with more or less the same meaning as: • retarding (paragraph 5) • utilized (6) • consequence (7) • devised (8) • conventional (9) • cyclical (10) 4. Give the NOUN forms of the following: • performing • restricted • converting • significant • devised • separated

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D. Grammar review Modal verbs

General features ● are normally followed by a short infinitive (except ought to and used to) ● cannot have to V, V-ing or V-s forms ● can only occur in initial position: may have been seen ● are made negative by adding not/n’t: He cannot/can’t be serious ● the interrogative is formed by inversion: May I borrow you book? ● don’t have forms for all tenses ● the “past” forms (could, might, should, would) may refer to past, present or future actions: She could come tomorrow. They might be at home now. You should have been more careful, but you weren’t! ● may be followed by a simple, continuous, perfect, or perfect continuous INFINITIVE: I can speak three foreign languages. He may be working on the project now. She must have missed the train.

They should have been sleeping for half an hour now.

MODAL

USED TO EXPRESS EXAMPLES CAN ♦ability in the present/future

(+be able to) ♦continuity with verbs of the senses ♦permission (informal) (+be allowed to) ♦possibility ♦request ♦typical behaviour/state ♦suggestion

I can run fast. Peter can/will be able to help us later. I can hear music from inside. Can I read your newspaper? You can take the car, if you want. We can’t wear jeans at work. Anyone can make mistakes. Can she be right? He can’t have slept through all that noise. Can you feed the cat, please? She can be very forgetful. It can be quite windy on the hills. We can eat in a restaurant, if you like.

COULD ♦general ability in the past ♦specific ability in the past (only be able to) ♦continuity with verbs of the senses

Jane could walk when she was nine months old. I was able to get a half price ticket with my Student Identity Card. but: Kevin couldn’t/wasn’t able to finish that race. I thought I could smell something burning.

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♦permission (informal) (+be allowed to) ♦possibility (less certain than can) ♦request ♦typical behaviour/state ♦suggestion

Could I borrow your dictionary? The boys could play football while the girls had to go to the library. There could be something wrong with the washing-machine. Could she have posted the letter? He couldn’t be working all day. Could you help me with this box? It could be very dangerous to draw near a dog’s kennel. You could take my car, if you like.

MAY ♦permission (formal) (+be allowed to) ♦possibility ♦wish/hope

May I come in? You may join us if you wish. Students may not use the college car park. This medicine may soothe your cough. She may not have missed her train. May all your dreams come true!

MIGHT ♦permission (formal) (in reported speech) ♦possibility (less certain than may) ♦persuasive request ♦reproach

She wondered if she might come in. We might go away for the weekend if the weather is fine. I mightn’t be home till late this evening. They might have arrived by now. You might go there at once. You might have been more careful.

MUST

♦internal/specific obligation (neg. with have to) ♦external/habitual obligation (only have to) ♦necessity (+have to) ♦prohibition ♦probability/deduction ♦strong advice ♦reproach

You must wash the car tomorrow. You don’t have to wash the car tomorrow. Nurses have to wear a uniform. I must study hard to pass the exam. She had to stay in bed to recover. We’ll have to work long hours to get a rise. Visitors must not feed the animals. You must be hungry after your long walk. Sam must be having a good time at the party. He must have known what she wanted. You must read this book – it’s brilliant! Must you make so much noise?

NEED (int. & neg.)

♦(lack of) necessity Need I buy this paper? (I hope not.) [specific] Do I need to buy it every morning? [habitual] We needn’t go to work tomorrow. We don’t need to go to work at weekends. You needn’t have waited for me. [action performed] I didn’t need to wait very long for the bus. [action NOT performed]

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SHALL ♦prediction ♦willingness/determination (formal) ♦offer/suggestion (only int.) ♦order/instruction (formal) ♦promise/threat

This time next week I shall be on holiday. You shall stay with us as long as you like. You shall obey my orders. Shall I fetch you a glass of wine? What shall we do this weekend? Candidates shall remain in their seats until all the papers have been collected. If you eat up your lunch, you shall have ice-cream for dessert. Your brother shall pay dearly for it!

SHOULD OUGHT TO

♦mild obligation/advice ♦probability/deduction (less certain than must) ♦surprise (only should) ♦offer/suggestion (only should – AmE) ♦hypothesis (only should) (after if and in case)

You should/ought to give up smoking. He should/ought to have been more careful. The children shouldn’t/oughtn’t to watch so much television. They should/ought to be home by now. Who should come in but his ex-wife! Should I make the coffee? Should we meet outside the theater? Let me know if you should change your mind. Take the umbrella in case it should rain.

WILL ♦prediction ♦willingness (weak volition) ♦intention (neutral volition) ♦insistence (strong volition) ♦request ♦offer/invitation ♦order/instruction (internal)

This will make you a fortune. How long will you be staying in Paris? Oil will float on water. [generic] Engines won’t run without lubricants. This will be your sister, I suppose. [probable] They will have reached Dublin by now. She will surf the Internet for hours. [habit] I shall be glad if you will do this. The door won’t open! [refusal] ‘I’m thirsty.’ ‘I’ll buy you a diet coke.’ I will go to the party, whatever you may say. [determination] He will comb his hair at the table, even if he knows I don’t like it. [annoyance] Will you water the plants while I’m away? Will you have another sandwich? You will do it this minute!

WOULD ♦prediction ♦willingness (weak volition) ♦intention (neutral volition) ♦insistence (strong volition)

I was sure he would receive my letter. That would be her aunt Nelly. [probable] When my parents were away, my neighbour would look after me. [past habit] I should be glad if you would do this. My car wouldn’t start this morning. [refusal] I said I would buy her a diet coke. He would keep fighting, although he was

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♦request (more polite) ♦offer/invitation

bleeding heavily. Would you open the door for me, please? Would you have dinner with me tonight?

USED TO ♦past habit I used to collect stamps when I was a child. BE TO ♦order/instruction (external)

♦arrangement ♦impossibility (only neg.)

We were to be back by Friday. They are to be married in July. The book was not to be found.

DARE (int. & neg.)

♦courage ♦indignation ♦probability (only aff.) (+say)

I daren’t ask my boss for a day off. Churchill dared not go against the Americans. How dare you call me a liar? I dare say you are British, but you still need a passport to prove it.

MODALITY CHART

ability possibility permission probability prediction obligation volition can could

can could may might

can could may (fml) might

must should/ ought to

will shall (fml) would

must shall (fml) will be to should/ ought to need

will would shall

Degrees of certainty

The key will be in your pocket. You always keep it there. [prediction, certainty] The key must/can’t be in your pocket. I know you (didn’t) put it there. [deduction, certainty] The key should/ought to be in your pocket. I would expect it to be there. [probability] The key could be in your pocket. It is possible but not probable. [strong possibility] The key may be in your pocket. Perhaps it is there. [neutral possibility] The key might be in your pocket. Perhaps it is there, but I’m reserved. [tentative possibility]

E. Grammar practice

1. Choose the most suitable underlined form. 1. He asked us if he may/is able to make a suggestion. 2. You can/must read this book, it’s really excellent. 3. She mustn't/couldn't have overslept. Three alarm clocks had been set the night

before to wake her up. 4. The fireman was able to/could introduce his hand through the narrow opening

and open the door; otherwise the child couldn't have been/weren't able to come out.

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5. In this season you mustn't/don't need to water the flowers every day; it's raining quite often.

6. She was very obstinate. She would/should never do what her parents told her. 7. I must/dare not ask her to wait anymore. She's been here for two hours. 8. You wouldn't/shouldn't open that letter. It's for father. 9. You may/can be older than her but you look twice as good. 10. This needn't/can't be the building grandpa described; he said it was big, this one

is hardly bigger than a house. 11. I did my best but the car can't/won't start. 12. I could help/could have helped you if only you had asked me to. 13. There used to/would be a supermarket at this corner. 14. I might/should go now; it's getting late. 2. Change the words in italics in the sentences below to include a modal verb. 1. It's very important that we speak to the neighbours before pulling down that

common wall. 2. Are you able to keep a secret? 3. It was essential for us to get up early because during the day it was going to be

too hot to travel. 4. It's possible that he'll try again. 5. I'm sure he is at home by now; he left a long time ago. 6. Do you want me to give you a hand? 7. Every day they did the same thing: they woke up early and went fishing. 8. Is it possible for me to borrow several books at the same time? 9. It's possible that she comes this evening but I'm not sure. 10. I guess it was a bad idea to give all your books away, after all. 11. Their intentions were good. It's a pity you didn't listen to them. 12. I've prepared so much food but nobody seems to be hungry. 13. He had eaten two turkey sandwiches; it was impossible for him to be still

hungry. 14. I told you to work more! Everybody is angry now that you've failed the exam. 15. He certainly has given you a good reason for refusing to see him. 3. Complete the sentences below with appropriate modal verbs and the correct form of the verbs in parentheses. 1. It's so typical of her: she __ (buy) two dresses because she __ (not make up)

her mind as to which one she likes best. 2. The driver was very tired. This __ (cause) the accident. 3. They __ (go) skiing together every December but they don't do it anymore. 4. It was too dark and I had a hat and sunglasses; she __ (not recognize) me. 5. You really __ (contact) them. They had been in the city for a month. 6. You __ (not eat) during the classes. It's against the regulations. 7. I __ (wear) a uniform every day if I come to this school? 8. You __ (make) all that fuss? Everybody else has accepted the situation.

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9. He __ (work) on his thesis. Usually he's in his room at this hour. 10. I __ as well (give up) now. I know I won't make it. 11. You __ (not waste) your time here. There are still so many things to finish in

the library.

F. End-of-unit test


A B 1. __ carbonaceous a. solution 2. __ solar b. energy 3. __ physical c. engine 4. __ kinetic d. cell 5. __ aqueous e. fuel 6. __ perform f. plant 7. __ heat g. boundary 8. __ power h. furnace 9. __ electrolytic i. driver

10. __ pile j. work 2. Translate the words in parentheses in the sentences below. 1. He (ar fi putut pleca) if he had wanted to. 2. They (e posibil să fi uitat); there's no other reasonable explanation. 3. He (probabil că se uita) from behind the blinds and realized what was going

on. 4. You (nu e nevoie să rezervi) a table; it's not full season. 5. She (e imposibil să te fi refuzat); you're the best match in town. 6. Father (ar fi posibil să întârzie); he told us he depended on his colleague. 7. Uncle Bill (trebuie să fi înțeles) soon that Tom will never join the soccer

team. 8. Joseph (nu se putea să fi făcut) such a mistake after all the years he spent

studying. 9. This necklace (probabil că a aparținut) to her grandmother. 10. We (se poate să fim invitați) to their 30th wedding anniversary. They dropped

a hint the last time we met. 11. You (ar fi fost obligația ta morală să întrebi) them, too. 12. Mrs. Jagger's daughter (e posibil să părăsească) this county forever. 13. You (nu ar fi trebuit să mergi) to the party with such a bad headache. 14. (E nevoie să-ți spun) that the most difficult part is still ahead of us? 15. They (nu ar fi fost necesar să accepte) all the terms. 16. You (probabil că ești) very satisfied with your achievements.

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Marking scheme: 1. 10 x 0.5p = 5p 2. 16 x 0.25p = 4p ex officio = 1p Summary In this unit you have learnt the following main issues: - Energy is the property of something which enables it to do work; - Energy occurs in many forms: kinetic, potential, solar, mechanical, chemical

(molecular), nuclear, electrical; - The most important sources of power are: the chemical (molecular) energy of

fuels, nuclear energy, and the potential energy of waterfalls; - The second law of thermodynamics: heat cannot be converted into work unless

some of the heat is transferred from a higher to a lower temperature; - The internal-combustion engine is a form of heat engine, characterized by the

direct evolution of heat within the work-producing device (e.g. Otto engine, combustion gas turbine);

- Modal verbs express ability, possibility, permission, probability, prediction, obligation, volition. They display various degrees of certainty, from logical deduction (almost certain) to tentative possibility (extremely uncertain).

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APPENDIX GLOSSARY

Unit 1. Metals strength = rezistență toughness = duritate concrete = beton core = miez, armătură steel = oțel light(weight) = ușor corrosion-resistant = rezistent la coroziune metals copper = Cu aluminium = Al titanium = Ti lead = Pb tin = cositor alloy = aliaj resistance to wear = rezistență la uzură heat treatment = tratament termic hardening = călire tempering = revenire annealing = recoacere melting/freezing point = punct de topire/solidificare to cool = a răci at a certain rate = într-un anumit ritm brittle = casant, friabil to be machined = a fi prelucrat to meet engineering specification = a satisface specificațiile tehnice to withstand = a suporta, a rezista la to achieve = a realiza, a obține to develop = a crea, a dezvolta high-strength steel = oțel de mare rezistență engine surrounds = carcasa/capsula motorului oC = degrees centigrade

Unit 2. Design Example – Materials Systems components = componente, piese to undergo a major change = a suferi o transformare majoră fuel consumption = consum de combustibil to down-size = a reduce, a micșora weight-saving = ușor shift = schimbare service conditions = condiții de utilizare

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can be met economically = pot fi satisfăcute din punct de vedere economic surface hardening = călire la suprafață gear = pinion, roată dințată, angrenaj automotive components = piese auto carburizing = carburare nitriding = nitrurare high/low-carbon steel = oțel cu conținut ridicat/scăzut de carbon surface layer = strat superficial ductile = ductil, maleabil exhaust valve = supapă de evacuare internal-combustion engine = motor cu ardere internă high-temperature fatigue strength = rezistență la oboseală la temperaturi ridicate creep resistance = rezistență la fluaj failure = rupere hot hardness = duritate la temperaturi ridicate wear = uzură abrasion = abraziune valve components valve head = talerul supapei valve face = fața supapei valve seat = scaunul supapei valve stem = tija supapei valve tip = vârful supapei the underhead area of the valve = zona de sub talerul supapei cyclic loading = solicitări oscilante stress concentrations = acumulări de tensiune fatigue failure = ruptură datorată oboselii heat conduction = conducție termică insulating deposit = strat izolant to build up = a se depune/acumula indentation = crestare, scobire abrasive fuel ash deposits = depuneri de cenușă abrazivă rezultată în urma arderii

combustibilului surface wear = uzură la suprafață scuffing = tocire (uzură prin frecare) rocker arm = culbutor valve lash = joc al supapei austenitic stainless steel = oțel inoxidabil austenitic N = nitrogen PbO = lead oxide to exceed = a depăși

Unit 3. Measurement size = mărime by means of = prin intermediul branch (of engineering) = ramură (a ingineriei)

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measurement = măsurare design = proiectare manufacture = prelucrare, execuție use = utilizare, exploatare chart = diagramă, tabel appendix = anexă scale of temperature = scară de temperatură the triple part of water = punctul triplu al apei (0,01oC) provided (conj.) = cu condiția ca figure = cifră; figură conversion factors = factori de conversie chemical engineering = inginerie chimică sanitation engineering = inginerie tehnico-sanitară SI unit = unitate de măsură în sistem internațional US customary unit = unitate de măsură uzuală în sistemul american at first glance = la prima vedere to deal with = a trata/aborda (un subiect, o temă etc.) approach = abordare, perspectivă physical quantity = mărime fizică employed = folosit, utilizat to retain = a păstra measuring device = dispozitiv de măsurat it follows that = rezultă că a wide range of = o gamă largă de diesel mechanics = mecanica motorului diesel to align = a alinia, a centra flywheel housing = carcasa volantului crankshaft = arbore cotit bore = alezaj, diametru interior to screw = a înșuruba indicator holder = stativ pentru ceasul comparator magnetic base = suport magnetic dial gauge (indicator) = ceas comparator pointer = ac indicator to rest squarely on = a fi perpendicular pe to zero the dial = a seta comparatorul la poziția „0“ revolution = rotație to record readings = a înregistra măsurătorile average concentricity (runout) tolerance = toleranță medie a concentricității

(excentricității) to tap the housing into alignment = a centra carcasa prin lovire ușoară to tighten = a strânge hex bolts = șuruburi cu cap hexagonal face runout = excentricitate frontală flange = flanșă end play = joc axial

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flow = debit velocity = viteză abbreviations in = inch ft = foot (pl. feet) dyn = dyne (1 g.cm/s2) psia = pressure per square inch absolute gal = gallon Btu = British thermal unit (≈252 cal) mi = mile ft.lb = foot-pound oz = ounce lb = pound ton (US) ≠ tonne (SI) hp = horse power yd = yard

Unit 4. Consumption of Water to exceed = a depăși average = medie sewer = canal colector sewerage = sistem de canalizare water main = magistrală de apă to vary widely = a varia considerabil sparsely/closely built-up residential sections/areas = zone rezidențiale

risipite/adunate lot = teren tenement building = bloc cu locuințe de închiriat day population = populația pe timpul zilei to furnish = a furniza per capita = pe cap de locuitor lawn = gazon, peluză domestic consumption = consum casnic industrial and commercial plants = unități industriale și comerciale to patronize = a folosi public waterworks = sistemul public de alimentare cu apă floor area = suprafața construită desfășurată to amount to = a se cifra/ridica la unaccounted for = nejustificat(ă) loss and waste = pierderi meter and pump slippage = scăpări la pompă și apometre leaks = scurgeri to maintain = a întreține maintenance = întreținere foregoing = precedent, anterior

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care must be taken = trebuie să avem grijă census = recensământ census population = populația oficială

Unit 5. Energy, Heat and Work to do/perform work = a efectua lucru mecanic to exert a force = a exercita o forță by virtue of = datorită, în virtutea motion = mișcare friction = frecare pile = pilon pile driver = sonetă hammer = berbec (de sonetă) thereby = astfel at the expense of kinetic energy = cu consum de energie cinetică nuclear power plant = centrală atomică staggering = uimitor per unit surface = pe unitate de suprafață to be underway = a fi în derulare solar furnace = cuptor solar aqueous solution = soluție apoasă to some extent = într-o oarecare măsură windmill = moară de vânt large-sized equipment = echipament de mari dimensiuni to retard progress = a încetini progresul conceivably = teoretic (adv.) tide = maree, flux, val waterfall = cascadă hence = așadar to devise = a concepe device = dispozitiv electrolytic cell = pilă electrică carbonaceous fuel = combustibil fosil fuel cell = pilă de combustie fission = fisiune fusion = fuziune heat engine = motor termic working fluid = fluid de lucru physical boundary = suprafață de separație coal-fired power plant = termocentrală steam = abur combustion gas turbine = turbină cu gaze (de ardere)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Technical section Bonamy, D. (2013) Technical English 1-4. London: Pearson. Brieger, N., A. Pohl (2006) Technical English: Vocabulary and Grammar. Andover:

Summertown Publishing. Ibbotson, M. (2008) Cambridge English for Engineering. Cambridge: CUP. (2009) Professional English in Use: Engineering. Cambridge: CUP. Johnson, C.M. & D. (1992) General Engineering (English for Academic Purposes Series).

London: Prentice Hall. *** (2003) Dictionary of Engineering. New York: McGraw-Hill. *** (2004) Dicționar tehnic englez-român. București: Editura Tehnică. B. Grammar section Barna, A., L. Radu (eds) (2005) Gramatica practică a limbii engleze (Morfologie). Curs pentru

uzul studenților de la facultățile cu profil tehnic și din domeniul științelor exacte. Brașov: Editura Universității „Transilvania“.

Chalker, S. (1984) Current English Grammar. London: Prentice Hall. Chefneux, G., M. Burada (2001) Elements of Morpho-syntax. Pitești: Editura Paralela 45. Coșer, C., R. Vulcănescu (2004) Developing Competence in English. Intensive English Practice.

Iași: Editura Polirom. Gălățeanu, G., E. Comișel (1982) Gramatica limbii engleze. București: EDP. Paidos, C. (1999) English Grammar. Theory and Practice (3 vols). București:

Editura All Educațional. Pârlog, H., P. Brânzeu (eds) (1998) Limba și literatura engleză. Timișoara: Editura Amarcord.

english for technical students and engineers_1.pdf

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