english for specific purposes: a study of sentence ... discipline-specific english: english for...

454 Anigbogu, English for Specific…

FUTOJNLS 2018 VOLUME- 4, ISSUE- 1. PP- 454 - 474

Futo Journal Series (FUTOJNLS)

e-ISSN : 2476-8456 p-ISSN : 2467-8325

Volume-4, Issue-1, pp- 454 - 474

www.futojnls.org

Research Paper July 2018

English for Specific Purposes: A Study of Sentence Structures in Computer Science Texts

Anigbogu, N. C.

Directorate of General Studies, Federal University of Technology, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria.

Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Abstract The study examined the sentence structures peculiar to the sub-registers of Computer Science texts in order to facilitate learners‟ academic engagements with texts for learning discipline-specific English: English for Specific Purposes. The data were collected through a purposive sample of forty Computer Science texts covering eight sub-registers of Computer Science. The research employed the Systematic Functional Linguistics as an analytical model to examine the sentence structures. The Theme/Rhyme textual analysis in the Systemic Functional theory was particularly used. The study revealed a variety of sentence structures found in the Computer Science texts. The sentence structures were simple, compound, complex and compound-complex. It was also discovered that each sub-register had its unique sentence structures but the complex sentence structure was prevalent in the texts. In addition, it was revealed that the sentence structures were crucial in representing complicated relationships and in expressing analytical ideas in Computer Science texts. Furthermore, the researcher highlighted the relevance of English for Specific Purposes by providing a rich store for discipline specific English. Therefore, the researcher recommended English for Computer Science for learners of English as a second language.

Keywords: Computer, English, language, specific, structures

1. Introduction

In the field of Computer Science, new words have been coined to express new

concepts and inventions. Sometimes, the vocabulary in Computer Science appears highly

technical and difficult to understand in the second language situation. Arya, Hiebret and

Pearson (2011) have noted that lexical complexity has a significant impact on

comprehension of science texts. In the case of Computer Science, many of the complex

conceptual words have specialised meanings. Thus, Abanihe (1992) asserts that the highly

technical formula-laden vocabulary, coupled with the introduction of many new concepts,

syntactic/text structures render the reading of science texts difficult. Syntactic structures,

sometimes, pose challenges to learners of the English language. Arya, Herbert and Pearson

(2011), state that the challenge may come when the reader needs to construct a coherent

meaning from a series of short sentences. They posit that just as complex sentences require

readers to decode propositions within the sentence, having to connect ideas across discrete

simple sentences may place other tasks and demands on the readers.



Abanihe (1992) affirms that some learners come into the science class with different

levels of prior knowledge which also affects comprehension. Similarly, Armbruster (1993)

stresses that “some science texts are inaccessible because they introduce the reader to

many unfamiliar words yet fail to explain them in ways that connect with the students

experiences”. In the same vein, Arya, Herbert & Pearson (2011) explain that “science texts

containing unfamiliar terms pose a lot of problems to learners who are still developing

literacy skills as well as academic vocabulary”.

In specialised disciplines, some learners of English face difficulty as regards the English

language course. Particularly, Beaubouef (2003) laments that “many students enter the field

of Computer Science with misconceptions about the importance of communication skills.

They do not realise the significance of reading, writing and speaking in Computer Science”.

Furthermore, the author posits that the students think they will end up with jobs, working

without communicating with people. Thus, students need skills covered in English speech

and technical writing in order to achieve success as Computer Science professionals

(Beaubouef,2003). Therefore, the learners need to grasp and understand the technical

structures needed for competence in the field.

Although, Computer Science is replete with mathematics and formulae, the English

language is of utmost importance in decoding the verbal information in the texts. Beaubouef

(2001) affirms that the English language and technical report writing are typically required for

Computer Science students and stresses that English and technical writing offer skills that

are critical for success in any profession, especially Computer Science. Corroborating this

fact, Peralta (2014) observes that English is critical in helping Computer Science students to

develop their linguistic abilities because English is the language of science. Weijen (2013)

asserts that English is generally considered to be the lingua franca of the scientific

community. McGrum, Cran and Neil (1986) state that 80% of the information stored in the

computer worldwide is in English”. Furthermore, Wood (1997) observes that “the position of

English in some fields of sciences is stark because the vast majority of articles in Computer

Science, for instance, are published in the English language”. On this note, second

language learners of the English language should be proficient in the use of English which

is critical in all professions, including Computer Science. Thus, Rahman (2012) in a study

carried out to determine the English language needs of Computer Science undergraduates,

affirms that the English course is needed to develop the reading skills of Computer Science

undergraduates for their specialised discipline. Thus, the need for English for Computer

Science appears indispensable. Therefore, Hutchison and Water (1997) assert that “English

has become a subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language

teachers”. English for Specific Purposes is centred on the language (grammar, lexis,

register) skills, discourse and genres appropriate to specific discipline. It is related or

designed for specific disciplines .Therefore it is the intention of the researcher to examine

the sentence structures in Computer science texts and to explain the relevance of English

for Specific Purposes in the study of the English language. The study will be of great

assistance to scholars as it would acquaint them with peculiar language use in the field of

Computer Science. Pedagogically, the study will provide a framework for learning and

teaching English in the specialised field of Computer Science and would help learners to use

and manipulate language effectively in specific situations. The outcome of the study would

be of interest to linguists as it would describe the syntax of Computer Science.

The study, specifically, sought to answer the following questions:

What sentence structures are unique to sub-registers of Computer Science?

What is the relevance of ESP in the study of English language?



1.1. English for Specific Purposes: The Underlying Philosophy

According to Wright (1992), English for special, specific, specifiable purposes refers to

“that type of language learning which has its focus on all aspects of language pertaining to a

particular field of human activity”. Widdowson (1983) states that “ESP is a matter of

describing a particular area of language and then using the description as a course

specification to facilitate learning, which is necessary for competence in a specialised area”.

Hence, English for Specific Purposes focuses on learning specialised varieties of English

most often for non-native speakers of English in advanced academic and professional

settings. According to Okoh (2012), “ESP means the learning and teaching of English that is

discipline-specific”. ESP deals with language related to a specific field, that is, the learning of

English based on the specific needs of the learners.

According to Hutchison and Waters (1987), “there are three reasons for the

emergence of all ESP namely, the demand for a brave new world, a revolution in linguistics

and a focus on the learner”. Hutchison and Waters (1987) believe that the end of the Second

World War brought with it a period of growth in scientific, technical and economic activities.

The demand for an international language as the language of these activities fell on the

English language. English became the international language for scientific, technical and

economic activities (Hutchison & Waters, 1987).

On another note, revolutionary pioneers of linguistics placed emphasis on the ways in

which language is used in real communication. A vital discovery by these pioneers was in

the ways spoken and written languages vary. So a variant of English changes according to

the context where it is used. (Hutchison & Waters, 1987). Since language varies in different

contexts, making language instructions meet the needs of learners in specific situations

becomes very necessary. Furthermore, learners need to be motivated by different needs

and interests. The focus on the learners becomes pivotal as one of the methods used in

facilitating linguistic knowledge (Hutchison & Waters 1987). Thus, ESP often resorts to

specific areas. These may be subject-based, theme-based or skill-based (Dudley-s Evans &

St. John, 1998). Different scholars have classified English for Specific Purposes in different

ways. Carter (1983:20) identifies three types of ESP:

i. English as a restricted language.

ii. English for academic and occupational purpose.

iii. English with specific topics.

For the first category, Carter (1983) regards the language used by air-traffic controllers,

dining-room waiters or air-hosts as instances of English as a restricted language.

Furthermore, Mackay and Mountford (1978) stress that “the language of the air-traffic control

can be regard as special because the repertoire required by the controller is limited and

could be determined situationally as the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hosts.”

In English for Academic and Occupational Purposes, participants need English to perform

their occupational duties while some need the language for their studies.

The third type of ESP identified by Carter (1983) is English with specific topics. This

type of ESP concerns the anticipated future needs of students. For example, scientists who

may require English for postgraduate studies, attending conferences or working in foreign

institution.

For Hutchison and Waters (1987), ESP is classified into English for Science and

Technology (EST), English for Business and Economic (EBE), English for Social Studies

(ESS). The source, further, divides each of these subject areas into English for Academic

Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). Hutchison and Waters

(1987:16) state that “an example of English for Occupational Purposes for the EST branch is



English for Technicians whereas an example of English for Academic Purposes for EST

branch is English for Medical Studies”. However, they posit that there is no clear- cut

distinction between EAP and EOP because it is possible that the language learnt for

immediate use in a study environment would be utilised when the learner starts working.

Furthermore, Munby (1978) classified ESP into two broad categories, namely English for

Occupational Purposes and English for Educational Purposes.

Strevens (1988) outlined three absolute and two variable characteristics of ESP:

“ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learner; it is related in content to

particular disciplines, occupations and activities; it is centred on the language appropriate to

those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics and analysis of the discourse”. For

variable characteristics, Streven (1988) stresses that “ESP may be restricted to the language

skills to be learned and it is not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology”.

Dudley-Evans (1998) asserts that ESP meets specific needs of the learner and

makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves. ESP is

centred on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills, discourse and genres

appropriate to these activities. For variable characteristics, Dudley-Evans (1998) states that:

i. ESP may be related or designed for specific disciplines.

ii. It may be used in specific learning situations with a different methodology from

that of general English.

iii. It is likely to be designed for adult learners but could be for learners at the

secondary school level.

iv. It is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students.

v. Its courses are tailored according to some basic knowledge of the language

need system.

Mackay and Mountford (1978) posit that ESP refers to the learning of English for

utilitarian purposes. These utilitarian purposes are for occupational requirements, vocational

programme, academic or professional studies. Thus, Oluikpe (1998) states that “the goal of

ESP christened Communication Skills Project in Nigeria is to solve the linguistic problems

inherent in the country by ensuring that scholars are able to speak, read, and write in the

English language”. He affirms that ESP evolved as a means of solving the immediate

survival and communication needs of learners in a given vocation. He outlines the paradigm

in the practice of ESP as:

i. The learner being an adult with identified communication need in a vocation of

his choice.

ii. The learner‟s motivation being that of survival.

iii. The teaching focusing on the speaking skill with the following bias:

Native interactional contexts

Native register types

Native speech as model

Native pragmatic setting.

Okoh (1998) notes that there is no strong tradition of ESP approach to learning

English in several Nigerian universities and states that the universities are aware of the

concept of ESP but some have not implemented it and explored its varied uses.

Corroborating this fact, Oluikpe (1998) stresses that the ESP programme has not gained a

firm root in Nigeria and believes that the project requires funds to survive. Explaining the

concept of ESP in the Nigerian situation, Okoh (2012) posits that “the kind of English taught

and learnt in some Nigerian universities is grossly outmoded and anachronistic”. He laments

that some Nigerian tertiary institutions have not adopted the ESP approach to learning



English and asserts that English has become a highly specialised and diversified discipline.

He believes that Nigerian universities should adopt a new and more productive ESP as

regards the Use of English. Okoh (2012) reiterates that the learner needs the language for a

specific purpose. So the ESP is most suitable for learners since it is discipline specific.

Furthermore, Umera-Okeke (2011) stresses that the problem that exists in Nigeria is

that “institutions and learners are yet to realise the importance of a definition and need

assessment often associated with ESP”. She attributes this as culture as the people in

Nigeria are not used to articulating what they want, if they ever know what they really want

.So, the tertiary institutions should furnish students with their English language needs in their

different fields of study. As a corollary, William, Swales and Kirkman (1988) state that

learners of ESP are predominantly either in tertiary education or undergoing professional

training and have much more limited and finely focused need. ESP is now concerned with

communicative as well as linguistic competence as seen in attention to text information,

structure in reading and writing and appropriateness of style in academic writing and study

skills (William, Swales & Kirkman, 1988).

Furthermore, Okoh (1998) contends that the concern of ESP practitioners in

universities is to focus on the kind of English learners need for effective communication in

their day-to-day professional interaction. The overall focus of ESP is to produce, not just

language learners, but language users and the ESP specialist is concerned with the specific

use to which the learner desires to put the language after learning it (Okoh, 2012).

Thus, particular attention should be given to contextual and appropriate usage since

ESP helps the learners to participate in relevant discourse community. Swales (1986)

stresses that one crucial method of realising this role is through an understanding of the

forms and functions of genres of written academic discourse. Hence, a much more

promising approach to a theory of ESP comes from the analysis of EST texts (Dudley-

Evans, 2014).

Furthermore, (Dudley-Evans, 2014) affirms that “in the same way as the teaching

procedures of ESP are linked to a view of language learning, all ESP activities have to be

linked to a view text”. It becomes imperative therefore to analyse the academic writing in

Computer Science in order to depict its forms, structure and the writer‟s purpose.

2. Theoretical Framework

This study employed the Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) as an analytical

model to examine lexico-syntactic elements in academic writing of Computer Science.

Language, according to Systemic Functional Linguistics, is a symbolic instrument used for

communicative purposes (Malmkjan & Anderson, 1991). Thus, SFL explains language from

the way it is actually used in discourse and not just on the formal relations between

linguistic units. The theory sees language as being centred on the notion of language

functions. SFL focuses on what people do with language. Hence, Chappell (1988) states

that Systemic Functional theory views language as a social semiotic, a resource people use

to accomplish their purpose by expressing meanings in context. Language is, therefore, a

systematic resource for expressing meanings in context. Furthermore, language exists and

must be studied in contexts such as professional settings, and settings in language texts

(Chappell, 1988). Norquist (2014) asserts that Systemic Functional Linguistics treats

grammar as a meaning making resource and insists on the interrelation of form and

meaning. Thus, Chappell, (1998) states that:

Systemic Functional theory is based on the view

that language is a system for making meaning.



Systemic refers to the fact that when we use

language, we make choices from sets of

available options …Functional assumes that

every time we make a choice from the available

options, we are doing so in order to fulfil a

communicative purpose.

Furthermore, Chapelle (2013) remarks that “by using Systemic Functional

Linguistics, the teacher has a powerful tool with which to mediate explanations and thus

mediate the learner‟s understanding of how to use the language”. This tool, according to

Chappell (2013) is the bridge between context and text; between the socio-cultural setting in

which the speaker is conducting his/her activity and the language that is part of that activity.

The tool is called register and it helps the teacher to note the context of language use and

identify:

The field : what is going on in the activity

The tenor: who is taking part in the activity

The mode: the part language plays in the activity(Chappell, 2013)

Bawarshi and Reiff (2015) assert that systemic functional approaches to genre have

contributed richly to how genre is understood and applied in textual analysis and language

teaching. They posit that SFL operates from the premise that the language structure is

integrally related to social function and context. They reiterate that the theory is functional

because it refers to the work that language does within particular contexts and systematic

because it refers to the structure or organisation of language so that it can be used to get

things done within those contexts.

Thus, according to Halliday (1995), “language performs meaningful actions within

“contexts of situations” and the contexts of situations reoccur as situation types. As these

situation types become conventionalised over time, they begin to specify the semantic

configurations that the speaker will typically produce”. Thus, this “clustering of semantic

features,” according to situation types, is referred to as register (Halliday, 1995).

Bwarshi and Reiff (2015:31) state that “when linguists identify a scientific register

they not only describe a style of language but also the practices, interactional patterns, and

means of communication associated with scientific contexts”. Therefore, they posit that

genre and register relate to each other. Register functions on the level of context of situation

while genre functions on the level of context of culture. Furthermore, genre connects culture

to situation and register connects situation to language (Bwarshi & Reiff, 2015). The authors

assert that this relationship shows how social purposes/motives are linked to text structures

and how these are realised as situated social and linguistic actions within register.

Therefore, Bwarshi and Reiff (2015) assert that “this relationship has been the most common

trajectory in Systemic Functional Linguistics genre analysis: moving from the identification of

social purpose as represented in generic structural elements or generic structure potential to

the analysis of text register to language meta -functions to lexico-grammatical and

graphological features” . Since Systemic Functional Linguistics lays emphasis on functions,

functions are therefore, taken to have left their mark on the structure and organisation of

language at all levels, which is said to be achieved via meta- functions.

The Meta-Functions

In SFL, language has three meta-functions which are ideational, interpersonal and

textual. The ideational function refers to the way language is used in expressing the realities



of human experience. Ajayi (2009) states that the ideational meanings relate to what is going

on in the world, that is, how people use language to articulate experiences. They relate to

how words are used to express actions, objects, places, events, people, things and ideas.

Also, Matthiessen and Halliday (1997), remark that the ideational meta-function is concerned

with „ideation‟- the grammatical resources for construing our experience of the world around

us and inside us. One of its major grammatical systems is transitivity, the resource for

construing our experience, the flux of goings-on, as structural configurations, each consisting

of a process, the participants involved in the process, and circumstances attendants on it”.

The interpersonal meta-function gives individuals the opportunity to express their

attitudes and establish personal and social relationship. The function equally deals on how

people express their judgment and how they use language to influence others. Thus,

Matthiessen and Halliday (1997) state that interpersonal meta-function is concerned with

“the interaction between the speaker and addressee … the grammatical resource for

enacting social roles in general, and speech roles in particular, in dialogic interaction, that is,

for establishing, changing and maintaining interpersonal relations”. One of its major

grammatical systems is mood, the grammaticalisation of speech function (Matthiessen &

Halliday (1997) .Furthermore, the scholars stress that ideational and interpersonal meta-

functions orient towards two „extra-linguistic‟ phenomenon, the social world and the natural

world. Thus, the source posits that we construe the natural world in the ideation mode and to

enact the social world in the interpersonal mode. The textual meta-function expresses the

structure of information or how language is organised to achieve goals and to produce a

cohesive text (Opara, 2009). Also the textual meta-function is concerned with the creation of

text with the presentation of ideational and interpersonal meaning as information that can be

shared by the speaker and listener in text unfolding in context (Matthiessen & Halliday,

1997). Matthiessen and Halliday (1997) assert that:

One of the major textual systems is Theme; a

resource for setting up a local context for a

clause by selecting a local point of departure in

the flow of information…The role of textual

meta-function is an enabling one. It serves the

presentation of ideational and interpersonal

meaning as information that can be shared: it

provides the speaker with strategies for guiding

the listener in his/her interpretation of the text.

The Theme is the element which serves as a point of departure of the message; it locates

and orients the clause within its context (Halliday & Matthiessen, 2004). The remaining part

of the message in which the Theme is developed is called the rheme. The scholars posit that

a clause consists of a theme accompanied by a Rheme; and the structure is expressed by

the order: whatever is chosen as the Theme is put first.

Halliday and Mathiessen‟s analysis of Theme and rheme shows that the Theme

always starts from the beginning of the clause. It is what sets the scene for the clause itself

and positions it in relation to the unfolding text. The authors use the term „unmarked Theme‟

to refer to the mapping of theme onto the subject. Therefore, „unmarked Theme‟ is the

logical subject of a verb while the „marked Theme‟ is any linguistic device other than the

subject in a declarative clause. Thus, a „marked Theme‟ can be „an adverbial group,

prepositional phrase, adjunct or a complement. Opara (2009) posits that a clause is marked

if it has an unusual form or unmarked if it has the usual form and anything other than the

subject in a declarative clause is marked.



Furthermore, Forey (2015) further asserts that the Theme gives a special status to a

chosen part of the clause; it helps to organise the message and plays a vital role in the

success of a text. It helps to construe the intended interpretation of the clause and the text

as a whole .The author also posits that:

It is commonly understood that Theme is important since

it extends the analysis of a text beyond the grammatical

structure of individual clauses or sentences to the unit of

text. Theme incorporates, at a higher level, the author‟s

aims in participating in discourse.

Forey (2015) equally opines that thematic choice must take generic conventions into

consideration and concerns related to genre and the intended audience will influence the

choice of Theme. Furthermore, Theme is seen to contribute to construal of a text‟s

meanings, to the organisation of the ideas, and to reader‟s interpretation of the message.

Forey (2015) asserts that Theme enhances the understanding of language at various levels:

i. Clause: Theme helps in understanding the starting point of the message.

ii. Text: Theme helps us to understand the way in which the message is organised and

it is a major device that helps us to understand a text as coherent.

iii. Genre: Theme helps us to understand some of the generic conventions which exist

in a given genre.

Halliday and Matthiessen (2004) further state that:

In the theme-rheme structure, it is Theme that is the

prominent element… by analysing the thematic

structure of a text clause by clause, we can gain an

insight into its texture and understand how the writer

made clear to us the nature of his underlying concerns.

Therefore, Theme and rheme show how messages are organised to achieve goals,

to produce cohesive units and to achieve generic conventions. The study employed the

theme and rheme structure in the textual analysis of Computer Science texts to show the

sentence/clause structures in the texts. Also, the three meta-functions in SFL are directly

relevant to the present study because the research examined the use of language in

academic writing or professional settings in the field of Computer Science.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research Population

The population comprised textbooks and journals in the field of Computer Science.

Excerpts were culled from the textbooks and journals and analysed. The result of this study

can be generalised to all other textbooks. This is because other texts have regularities of

structure in Computer Science.

3.2. Sampling Technique

The purposive sampling technique was used to select forty texts from journals and

textbooks in the field of Computer Science. These textbooks and journals covered various

sub-branches of Computer Science namely: database management system, computer

security, computer architecture, artificial intelligence, information technology, programming

languages, networking, introduction to computers and appreciation which are different sub-

registers of Computer Science. Five texts were selected from each of the eight sub-

branches of Computer Science.;



3.3. Research Design

The researcher employed the quantitative and qualitative descriptions of data for the

study. The quantitative description employed frequency count and percentages in the

presentation of data. The qualitative analysis described the peculiarities in language use.

3.4. Research Instrument

Forty texts were culled from forty standard journals and textbooks. The sentence

structures were analysed.

3.5. Method of Data Analysis

The corpus of the Computer Science was analysed. The sentence structures were

written out and categorised according to types. Simple percentages were used to categorise

them into types and in tables with the formula shown below:

1

100

b

a

where,

a refers to a sub-category,

b refers to the total number of sentences in the text.

This can also be interpreted as:

1

100

texttheinsentencestheinsentencesofnumberTotal

categorysubeachinsentencesofnumberTotal

The researcher worked on the texts, writing out different examples of sentence structures

from the texts.

4. Results

4.1. Sentence Structures in Computer Science Texts

The researcher categorised the sentence structures found in the 40 texts employed

for the study. The texts were culled from 8 sub-registers in the field of Computer Science.

Thus, the study covered 5 texts from each of the sub-registers. A total number of 1000

sentences were analysed into different structural types. The sentence structures were also

analysed using the theme and rheme structure.



Table 1: Sentence Structures in Eight Sub-registers of Computer Science

Sub Registers No of Sentences in the Sub-Text

Types of Sentence Structures

Simple Compound Complex Compound-complex

Total

No % No % No % No % % Database Management System

125 41 32.80 18 14.40 55 44.00 11 8.80 100

Computer Security 144 13 9.00 27 18.80 98 68.10 06 4.10 100 Computer Architecture

150 73 48.70 31 20.60 42 28.00 04 2.60 100

Artificial Intelligence

107 34 31.80 13 12.10 52 48.60 08 7.50 100

Introduction to Computers and Appreciation

111 22 19.80 36 32.40 42 37.80 11 10.00 100

Programming Languages

131 50 38.20 07 5.30 66 50.40 08 6.10 100

Networking 131 72 55.00 23 17.50 30 23.00 06 4.60 100 Information Technology

101 58 57.40 09 8.90 25 24.80 09 8.90 100

Table 2: Summary of Types of Sentence Structures in Eight Sub-registers

Types of Sentence

Structure

Number Percentage

Simple 363 36.30

Compound 164 16.40

Complex 410 41.00

Compound complex 63 6.30

Total 1000 100

Table 1 showed that Computer Scientists employ a variety of sentence structures in

their texts in the forms of simple, compound, complex and compound-complex. The unique

sentence structure for database management system is the complex sentence structure. Out

of 125 sentence structures studied under database management system, 32.8% was simple;

14.4% was compound; 44% was complex and 8.8% was compound-complex .For computer

security sub-register, the complex sentence structure is peculiar. Out of 144 sentence

structures, 9.0% was simple, 18.8 was compound, 68.1% was complex and 4.1% was

compound complex.

The simple sentence is distinct in the computer architecture sub-register. From 150

sentences structures, 48.7% was simple, 20.6% was compound, 28% was complex and

2.6% was compound complex. The complex sentence is remarkable for the sub-register of

artificial intelligence. From the total number of 107 sentence structures, 31.8% was simple;

12.1% was compound; 48.6% was complex, and 7.5% was compound complex.



For the sub-register of introduction to computers and appreciation, the computer

sentence structure is peculiar. From the total number of 111 sentence structures, 19.8% was

simple, 32.4% was compound, 37.8% was complex and 10% was compound complex. The

complex structure is also special to programming sub-register. Out of 131 sentence

structures, 38.2% was simple, 5.3% was compound 50.4% was complex and 6.1% was

compound complex.

For networking sub-register, the simple sentence structure is predominant. From the

131 sentence structures examined, 55% was simple, 17.5% was compound, 23% was

complex and 4.6% was compound complex. The simple sentence structure is equally distinct

for the sub-register of information technology. Out of 101 sentence structures, 37.4% was

simple; 8.9% was compound, 24.8% was complex and 8.9% was compound complex.

Table 2 shows that on the whole, the complex sentence structure is peculiar to

computer science texts. It was predominantly used in the texts analysed. The study

discovered that some of the simple sentence structures had compound subjects while some

had compound predicates. It was also discovered that the use of particular sentence

structures hinges on the writer‟s stylistic choices. Hence Crystal (1995) asserts that scientific

sentences are known for complex internal structures whose complexity is due to the frequent

use of noun phrases.

4.2. Excerpts of Some of the Simple Sentence Structures Found in the Texts

1. A collection of macro-blocks is called a slice.

2. All of these steps present opportunities to exploit data parallelism.

3. Our system takes advantage of the parallelism within a warp by evaluating multiple

sub-blocks simultaneously.

4. Collaboration is a central tenet of net-based and technology-enhanced learning.

5. Earlier approaches to collaborative writing on the web have been extended recently

through the ease of use and transparency of writing in wikis.

6. The use of telecommunications has revolutionized information dissemination

worldwide.

7. The integration or „marriage‟ between computer technology and communication

technology has reduced the whole world to a global village or kindred.

8. Concern for information privacy (CFIP) on social media platforms is increasingly

gaining the interest of researchers, policy makers, business leaders and consumers.

9. Here is a program for implementing this Euclidean algorithm with a , b ,the input

values.

10. GPU computing has many different abstractions, each with its own terminology.

11. Initially, the role of reverse engineering in the field of architecture and design

recovery was focused on recovering high level architectures from procedural code.

12. The growth of various software architectural frameworks and models provides a

standard governing structure for different types of organizations.

13. The preliminary investigation of the client‟s needs is called concept exploration.

14. There are two transmission modes namely synchronous and asynchronous modes.

15. Organizations may approach attacks proactively or reactively.

4.3. Compound Sentence Structures

1. Workers compute scores for all the prediction modes and choose the best one; they

also compute scores for all 4x4 sub-blocks.



2. Two tier applications are also very expensive to scale in terms of hardware; generally

someone has to acquire a more powerful database and host server to support an

increased client load.

3. C-AMAT is formulated like AMAT, but takes into consideration concurrent hit and

concurrent miss accesses.

4. This machine was developed by J. Prosper Eckert and John Mauchly at

Pennsylvania University and was completed in 1946.

5. Dynamic analysis is necessary in many situations and is widely used despite being

expensive and incomplete.

6. The internet workforce and the industry have pulled resources together to provide

some mitigation or palliative strategies, but these efforts have been inadequate to

prevent continuing massive attacks by hackers.

7. In this arrangement, one computer sends a message and all other participants can

receive the message simultaneously.

8. The software code is parsed and semantic analysis is performed on the parsed code.

9. This gives the hardware scheduler freedom to effectively route work onto cores, but it

also eliminates a broad class of workloads from consideration.

10. Tiling and privatization are obviously familiar terms, but they have been around long

enough to become slightly ambiguous.

11. Indeed, this may well be the method you learnt at school, and for relatively small

numbers is quite acceptable.

12. A query can also update or delete multiple records at the same time and perform

predefined or custom calculations on your data.

13. It retrieves data from one or more tables and displays the results in a data shut.

14. The interface cards sends and receives data and information to and from LAN.

15. Data capture and data collection may be used interchangeably but data capture

emphasizes the capturing of data in a machine sensible form

4.4. Complex Sentence Structures

1. Unless otherwise noted, we collected the performance results on an Nvidia GeForce

480 GTX.

2. Since we are focusing on GPU scalability, we only compare kernel execution times.

3. The monitor is the TV-like device that enables the computer to display the data or

information it has in its memory.

4. When you depress a key on the keyboard, it is shown on the monitor screen.

5. When we look at few statistics on cyber warfare, one would ponder if the ascendance

of information technology application is a blessing or a curse.

6. Workflow of a distributed application is the order in which the application is

developed.

7. In contrast, a large software product is partitioned into smaller subsystems which are

implemented in parallel by coding teams.

8. Worms are programs that are capable of independently propagating throughout a

computer network.

9. Multi-Protocol label switching is useful in managing multimedia traffic when some

links are too congested.

10. Information privacy on social media platforms needs to be considered differently

since it requires self-disclosure of personal information.



11. The use of electronic switching circuits in computers is largely due to the fact that

such circuits can be employed to perform logic and arithmetic.

12. The more widespread use of computers means the need for systems that are easy

for almost anyone to use.

13. This is a virus which is embedded inside word document templates or excels spread

sheets.

14. Tiling offers optimization that improves locality and on-chip memory usage.

15. While innovation might still surprise us, we expect these optimization patterns to be

relevant for good performances.

4.5. Compound-Complex Sentence Structures

1. Over the decade, a lot of research work had been carried out and many computer

programmes had been written in order to assist the police with information on

criminals and crimes.

2. We also describe a custom queuing system and a custom scheduler that ensures

that the model evenly distributes irregular work to all cores.

3. A user writes a kernel and specifies the amount of work that the kernel will process

on the GPU.

4. Educationally, wikis may be seen as communicative tools that have the potential to

support group interaction, but their uptake depends on the context of their use.

5. This is especially true where group writing is itself the educational goal and where

discussion and critical inquiry are the focus.

6. Binary codes should be used for the representation of data and instructions in a way

that would make no distinction between them, and allow them to be stored together

and share the same storage space within the computer.

7. They are known to have been used for a time in 1941 and to have used stored

programmes to perform calculations, but they were later destroyed by allied boming.

8. The computer can store the messages received in its memory and the recipient gets

access to the message whenever he/she logs on.

9. Cryptanalysis is absolutely essential to cryptography: it is the process of intercepting

an encryption and using brute force, decrypts it and thereafter, breaks the protocol

that exists between the two parties.

10. Programmes solve problems and the solution of any problem begins with identifying

and understanding the problem and how to tackle it.

11. This is the act of arranging or ordering and evaluating a set of data so as to bring

about a meaningful result or information.

The compound-complex sentence structure consists of two or more main clauses and one or

more subordinate clauses.It was discovered that this sentence structure was crucial in

representing complicated relationships and the computer scientists employed them to

express analytical ideas which were found in the academic writing.

4.6. Syntactic Analysis of Clauses Using the Theme and Rheme Structure

The researcher employed the Theme –Rheme structure by Halliday and Matthiessen

(2004:65-97).



4.6.1. Unmarked Theme

In a declarative case, when Theme conflates with the subject, it is unmarked. So it is the

mapping of theme on to the subject.

Table 3: Analysis of Sentences with Unmarked Theme

S/N Theme Rheme

1 A collection of macro-blocks is called a slice. 2 Collaboration is a central tenet of net-based and

technology advanced learning. 3 Organizations may approach attacks proactively or

reactively. 4 Earlier approaches to collaborative

writing in the web have been extended recently through the ease of use and transparency of writing in wiki.

5 The growth of various software architectural frameworks and models

provides a standard governing structure for different types of organization.

6 Tilling offers optimization that improves locality and on-chip memory usage.

7 This is a virus that is embedded inside word document templates or excel spreadsheet.

8 The monitor is the TV device which enables the computer to display the data or information it has on its memory.

9 10

These Hackers

are a group of attackers who are responsible for the creation of malicious software. are predominantly male folks who see computing as a means of becoming important and powerful in society.

4.6.2. Marked Themes

A Theme that is something other than the subject in a declarative clause is referred to as

marked theme.( Halliday & Maltheieseen ,2004).

Table 4: Analysis of Sentences with Marked Theme

S/NO Theme Rheme

1 Here is a programme for implementing this Euclidean algorithm or with a,b, the input values.

2 By 1980 Arpanet networks divided into networks namely: Arpanet and milnet.

3 With e-mail, one can contribute quickly to an issue or debate without being physically present.

4 In this chapter, we shall certainly spend some of our time on computer programme.

5 Compared to other online technologies,

information privacy on social media platforms need to be considered differently.

6 Unless otherwise noted, we collected the performance results on an NvidiaGeforce 480GTX.

7 While innovation might still we expect these optimization patterns to be



surprise us, relevant for good performance 8 When you depress a key on the

keyboard, it is shown on the monitor screen.

9 When we look at few statistics on cyber warfare,

one would ponder if the ascendance of information technology is a blessing or a curse.

10 Since we are focusing on GPU scalability,

we only compare kernel execution times.

From the analysis, the theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of

the message. Halliday & Mathiessen (2004) posit that “it is that which locates and orients the

clause within its context and the remainder of the message, the part which the theme is

developed is called the Rheme. Thus, the message structure shows that a clause consists of

a Theme and a Rheme and whatever is selected as the Theme is put first. Through the

Theme and Rheme structure, one comprehends how the writer clarifies to readers the nature

of his underlying concerns (Halliday & Mathehiessen, 2004).

4.7. Excerpts from Some Sub-registers of Computer Science

4.7.1. The Sub-register of Database Management System

In simple terms, a data warehouse (DW) is a pool of data produced to support

decision making. It is also a repository of current and historical data of potential interest to

managers throughout the organization. Data are usually structured to be available in a form

ready for analytical processing activities. A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated,

time-variant, non-volatile collection of data in support of management‟s decision making

process.The day-to-day-operations of an organization are done by using the OLTP system.

Table 5: Analysis of Sentences into Theme/Rheme Structure

S/NO Theme Rheme

1 In simple terms,

a data warehouse (DW) is a pool of data

produced to support decision making.

2

It

is also a repository of current and historical

data of potential interest to managers

throughout the organization.

3 Data are usually structured to be available in a

form ready for analytical activities.

4 A data warehouse is a subject oriented, integrated, time-

variant, non-volatile collection of data in

support of management‟s decision-making

process

5 The day-to-day operations of an organization

are done by using the OLTP system.



The Sub-register of Programming Language

Final points on Machine-Language programming

a) All the machine codes have to be memorized.

b) All memory addressed have to be assigned and a track kept of them

c) Instructions have to be written in the sequence in which they are to be executed.

Thus, insertions or deletions entail the movement of all succeeding instructions.

d) The whole process is very time consuming and inefficient in terms of human effort.


S/NO Theme Rheme

1 All the machines codes have to be memorized . 2 All memory codes have to be assigned. 3 Instructions have to be written in the sequence in

which they are to be executed. 4 Insertions or deletions entail the movement of all succeeding

instructions. 5 The whole process is very time consuming and inefficient in

terms of human efforts. (Source: Computer Science by C. S. French)

The Sub-register of Introduction to Computers and ComputersEnter

This is the key with the down left-pointing arrow. Enter key is located at the character

keypad near the command keys. It has several uses depending on the active window.

Pressing Enter might cause the cursor to move to the beginning of the next line in word

processing packages. In that case, pressing Enter indicates the end of a line, or the key

has a cursor-movement function. Pressing Enter might indicate the end of a command

(or instruction). Enter signals the computer to accept the instructions provided by the

user. Until you press Enter, the computer does not recognize the command.


S/NO Theme Rheme

1 This is the key with the down left-pointing arrow.

2 Enter key is located at the character keypad near the

command keys.

3 It has several uses depending on the active

window.

4 Pressing enter might cause the cursor to move to the

beginning of the next line-in word

processing packages.

5 In that case, pressing enter indicates the end of a line.

6 Pressing Enter might indicate the end of a command.

7 Enter signals the computer to accept the

instructions provided by the user.

8 Until you press Enter, the computer does not recognize the

command.

(Source: A practical Guide to MS-Excel, MS Access and Ms-Power Point by A.C. Akukwe and J.I. Njoku).



From the analysis, the theme/rheme structures revealed the organisation of the

message in the three sub-registers of Computer Science. The structures also showed the

positioning of the elements within the clauses in the sub-registers. The computer scientists

organized their message and made their ideas coherent using the marked/unmarked theme

and rheme structures. Hence, Opara (2018) state that the Theme/Rheme structures give a

sense of continuity in discourse and they help to make texts coherent. Furthermore, she

asserts that the theme/rheme structure is important in the construction of a cohesive and

coherent text.

So the Theme/Rheme structures go beyond the clause since the structures are connected to

purposes and functions of texts.

The computer scientists employ a variety of sentence structures in their texts. The

sentence structures in the texts are simple, compound, complex and compound complex.

Each sub-register analysed has a unique sentence structure. The simple sentence

structures contain a significant number of compound subjects and predicates. The simple

sentence structures are unique to the sub-registers of computer architecture, networking and

information technology while the complex sentence structures are peculiar to the sub-

registers of database management system, computer security, artificial intelligence,

programming languages, and introduction to computers and appreciation. The sentence

structures also depend on individual writer‟s style of presentation, writing and choice.

4.8. Discussion of Findings

From the results, it is apparent that the complex sentences predominantly used in the

Computer Science texts are achieved through the use hypo-taxis or subordination, that is,

the embedding of one clause within another. These sentences are replete with complex

assertions. Therefore, Klimova (2013) suggests that the complex sentence structures are

mostly bound by relative clauses which make information presented in scientific texts more

dense and cumulative. Similarly, Koulaidis, Dimopoulous and Sklaveniti (2009) argue that

syntactic complexities are important markers in all scientific texts and assert that complex

meanings are expressed through the use of subordination while simple information in all

scientific texts are expressed through co-ordination in sentences. The co-ordination is shown

in the compound sentences presented in the results.

Another factor by Klimova (2013) is that a sentence consisting of four clauses is

connected with the development of ideas, arguments and explanation in scientific texts. This

is evident in the compound complex sentences and the complex sentences. In addition to

this, Persson, Geijerstam and Liberg (2011) stress that subordination is another linguistic

feature which is often viewed as a complex way of presenting formation since it often puts

one clause within another in a hierarchical relationship. The analysis of the sentence

structures in Computer Science texts also reveals that the sentences serve the major

function of providing accurate, factual and objective information. Thus, all the sentences are

declarative as they give information and statements on salient ideas in Computer Science

texts. In the same vein, the ideas presented in Computer Science texts are statements of

facts which are empirical. In this regard Klimova (2013) asserts that there is no space for

ambiguous, inexplicit, redundant, repetitive and unimportant information in all scientific texts.

What is also significant about the results too is that they give the structural patterns in

Computer Science genre. The genre or discourse patterns are crucial for the study of the

discipline – specific English called the ESP. Hyland (2004) states that ESP-based framework

offers learners an explicit understanding of how target texts are structured. So, the sentence



structures provide a framework for the study of English for Computer Science. Also Cheng

(2008) asserts that genre analysis supports learners through facilitating their scholarly

engagement with texts and the author sees the exposition of texts as one unique effective

approach to the learning of discipline specific writing.

Furthermore, Shanahan and Shanahan (2008) reiterate the pivotal need of having

reading and writing instructions that are increasingly disciplinary. The authors stress the

need to make students understand how and why language is used in a specific way in a

subject. This will make students understand and use subject specific language in appropriate

ways. In this regard, all ESP activities are linked to a view text (Dudley-Evans, 2014).Hence,

the analysis of the sentence structures is significant in the study of discipline specific English

called English for Specific Purposes.

5. The relevance of ESP in the Study of English Language

English for Specific Purposes evolved in response to awareness that certain types of

learners had specialised needs that were not being sufficiently and efficiently met by wide-

spectrum English courses (Williams, Swales & Kirkam, 1984). Furthermore, the authors posit

that ESP is now concerned with communicative as well as linguistic competence as

evidenced in attention to text-information structure in reading and writing, appropriacy of

style in academic writing and study skills (Williams, Swales & Kirkman, 1984). Two points

are clear from these assertions: learners have specialised needs and they need specialised

English. Therefore, Computer Science students need English for Computer Science for

effective communication in their daily professional interaction, (Anigbogu, 2017).

Wright (1999) also points out the fact that ESP is that type of language learning

which has its focus on all aspects of language pertaining to a particular field of human

activity. Also, Aborishade (1998) states that certain key theoretical insights underpin the

ESP approach; the emphasis on language as instances of communicative use, directing

language teaching approaches to actual (real-life) samples of instances of language use. So,

it is exigent that Computer Science students learn Computer Science English since ESP

courses focus more on specific and immediate needs of the learner. As a corollary, Fiorito

(2005) asserts that the ESP focal point is that English is not taught as a subject separated

from the students‟ real world (or wishes) instead it is integrated into a subject matter area

important to the learners. The author posits that ESP combines the subject matter and

English language teaching because being able to use the vocabulary and structures that

they learn in a meaningful context reinforces what is taught and increases their motivation

(Fiorito 2005). So, it is crucial to adopt ESP approach in the tertiary institutions as it would

contribute to utmost success in the contexts of vocabulary and language use, using real life

samples. For instance, in adopting English for Computer Science, students would have

ample opportunity to learn the lexis, word formation processes and syntactic structures in

real life texts which is necessary for their course (Anigbogu, 2017). This is crucial as Streven

(1988) states that ESP is designed to meet the specific needs of the learner and it is centred

on the language appropriate to particular disciplines in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics

and analysis of the discourse. These are the absolute characteristics of ESP. Furthermore,

Anigbogu (2017) asserts that the challenge that arises here and for ESP approach in general

is employing the services of content specialists in Computer Science who would assist the

students in the collaborative learning and teaching. This is of utmost importance.

Aborishade (1998) posits that another challenge that would make the approach relevant and

useful is a thorough analysis of the needs of the learner, the learning situation and the

course context being based on the processed results of the analysis.



However, these challenges have been surmounted in some Nigerian universities

where ESP programmes have been adopted. So, in the words of Fioroto (2005):

The ESP approach enhances the relevance of what the

students are learning and enables them to use the

English they know to learn even more English since

their interest in their field will motivate them to interact

with speakers and texts.

So, the ESP approach to language learning is crucial for learners of English as a second

language in advanced scientific setting.

6. Conclusion and Recommendations

Based on the research findings, the following conclusions have been reached:

There are linguistic peculiarities in Computer Science writing. Students studying

Computer Science should be familiar with the distinctiveness. The knowledge of Computer

Science register and sentence structures helps a second language learner to streamline his

language in order to adapt to his academic skills and professional communication. This calls

for the adoption of English for Computer Science in tertiary institutions.

Second, language learners of Computer Science at the tertiary level need to

understand and decode the language of Computer Science for proficiency in their studies

and skills in professional communication. The use of ESP approach to learning English is of

utmost importance for all students.

Against the foregoing conclusion, it is ,therefore, recommended that further research

be carried out in ESP and genre analysis of texts especially in other fields of study. Also,

through the analysis of EST texts, scholars will understand the forms and functions of written

academic discourse. This will equally provide a rich store for discipline specific English.

Attention should be given to ESP and tertiary institutions should give ESP the rightful

place it deserves in various institutions. All authorities concerned should provide adequate

funds for establishing ESP programmes in universities. Universities and allied institutions

should place more emphasis on the need to map out programmes to accommodate ESP

programmes.

To achieve the crucial objective of communicative competence in the field of

language learning, university authorities should take practical steps to reposition the Use of

English programmes by adopting ESP approach to learning/teaching. This is crucial because

ESP approach is a new trend in language learning/teaching. The new trend considers not

just the structure of the language but also the way language is actually used in real

communication in different fields of study.

Again, since the ESP approach is a learner centred approach, it is more productive.

Research has proved that the learner‟s needs and interest have a tremendous bearing on

their motivation (Okoh, 2012; Fioroto, 2005; Umera-Okeke,2011). The researcher further

recommends workshops and seminars on ESP programmes for lecturers and instructors.

Computer Science writing is rooted in words, mathematics, engineering and natural science.

So, students require drills both in verbal and non-verbal materials found in Computer

Science texts. This study has, therefore, provided data for the English language instructors

and Computer Science scholars, especially in learning and teaching the English language

and in manipulating language. Thus, the findings have implications for the English language

pedagogy and have also provided a rich store for discipline specific English.



References

Aborishade, P.A. (1998). EAP- ESP course designs: Issues and models. In: E. Otagburuagu

(Ed.). Common frontiers in communication skills: Focus on the Nigerian university

system. Abuja: National Universities Commission, 217-224.

Ajayi A. (2009). English as a second language learners‟ exploration of multi -modal texts in a

Junior High School. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 52(7), 587-588.

Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Anigbogu N. C. (2017). A lexico-syntactic study of academic writing in Computer Science.

Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Imo State University, Owerri.

Armbruster, B. (1993). Science and reading. The Reading Teacher, 46(4), 346-347.

Arya, D. J., Hiebert, E.H. & Pearson, P.D (2011).The effects of syntactic and lexical

complexity on the comprehension of science texts. International Electric Journal of

Elementary Education, 4(1), 107-125.

Beaubouef, I. (2003). Why computer science students need language. In road The SIGCSE

Bulletin, 35 (4), 20-25.

Carter D. (1983). Some propositions about ESP. English for Specific Purposes 2, 13-137.

Chapell, P. (2013). An Introduction to systemic functional grammar. Retrieved 6th June

2014 from http: //www. Princeton.edu /achaney/docs/systemic-functional grammar.

Chapelle C. (1988).Some notes on systemic functional Linguistics .Retrieved 6th June 2014

retrieved from www. Public.iastate. edu/carolc/sfl.html.

Cheng, A. (2008).Analyzing genre example in preparation for writing. The case of an L2

graduate students in the ESP genre-based instructional framework of academic

literacy. AppliedLinguistics, 29 (1), 50-71.

Crystal, D. (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge : Cambridge

University press.

Dudley-Evans, T & St. John, M. (1998).Development in English for specific purposes: A

multi disciplinary approach. Cambridge: CUP.

Dudley-Evans, T. (2014). Genre analysis: a Key to a theory of ESP. Iberica. Retrieved 7th

May, 2014 from http://www.ae/fe.org/documents /text 2

Fiorito, L. (2005). Teaching English for Specific Purposes, Retrieved 20th September 2015

from http: //www. usingenglish.com/articles/teaching-english-for-specific-purposes-

esp.html.

Forey, O. M. (2017). Systemics. Retrieved September 11, 2015 from www.isfia.ng/systemics/print/Thesis/Forey

Halliday, M. & Matthiesen, M. (2004). An introduction to functional grammar. London:

Hodder Education.

Halliday, M. & Matthiesen , M. (1997). Systemic functional grammar: A first step into the

theory. Retrieved 6th June, 2014 from www.Alvinle org. info/sfg.

Hutchison, T. &Waters A. (1987). English for Specific Purpose: A learning centered

approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hyland, K. (2004) Genre and second language writing. Ann Arbor MI: The MI Press.

Klimova, B. F. (2013). Scientific prose style and its specific. Procedia – Social and

Behavioural Sciences, 83, 53-55.

Kpoudailis V., Dimopoulous K & Sklarensti S. (2001). Analyzing the texts of science and

technology: school science textbooks and daily press articles in public domain. In B.

Cope and M. Kalantzis (Eds.) Learning for the Future: Proceedings of the Learning

Conference.



Mac Arthur, T. (1996).The Oxford companion of the English language. New York: Oxford

University Press.

Mackay, R. & Mountford, A. (1978). English for Specific Purposes. London: Longman.

Munby, J. (1978). Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Norquist, R.(2014). Systemic functional linguistics. Retrieved 6th June, 2014 from

grammar.about.com/od/rs/g/Systemic functional Linguistics-sfl. htm.

Okoh, N. (1998). Managing and marketing ESP in Nigeria. In: E.J. Otagburagu (Ed.).

Common Frontiers in communication skill: Focus on the Nigerian university system.

Abuja, National Universities Commission.

Okoh, N. (2012).Inaugural lecture.Retrieved 6th June, 2014 from www.uniport.edu..ng/- 97th

Inaugural lecture.

Opara, S. (2009).Aspects of functional grammar. A systemic approach. Enugu: Victojo

Production Services.

Peralta, F. (2014).Towards a methodology to deliver English Language lessons that foster

different competencies in computer science students. Retrieved 17th May, 2014 from

CSC.dev.edu. tl/not/ ar/bili 1003/hafta 9.

Rahman, .M. (2012). The English language needs of computer science undergraduate

students at Putra University, Malaysia: A focus in reading skills. English For Specific

Purposes, 34(12), 5-6.

Shanahan, T. & Shanahan C. (2008). Teaching disciplinary literacy to adolescents:

Rethinking content – area literacy. Havard Educational Review, 78(1), 40-59.

Strevens, P. (1977). Special purpose language learning: A perspective. Language Teaching

and Abstracts, 10 (3), 145-163.

Swales, J.M. (1997).Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.

Swales, J.M. (1998).Others floor other voices: A textography of a small university building:

London: Lawrence Erlbaum. Associates Publishers.

Weijen, D. (2013). The language of (future) scientific communication. Retrieved 17the May,

2014 from http//www.edu.the language of science/2013/scientific communication.

Widdowson, H.G. (1983).Learning purpose and language use. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Williams, R. Swales .J, & Kirkman, J. (1988). Two halves of a single profession: Current

concerns of shared interest in communication studies and ESP. In: R. Williams, J.

Swales and J. Kirkman. (Eds.), Common grounds shared Interest in ESP and

communication studies. ELT Documents. 17. Oxford : Pergomon Press.

Wood A., A. (1997) International scientific english: Some thoughts in science language and

ownership. Retrieved 6th June, 2014 from http: www. tribunes. com/ tribute /art

97/woods htm.

Wright, C. (1992). The benefits of ESP. Cambridge language consultants.Retrieved 17th

May, 2014 from www. cama lang. com/art 001.